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147163 (2007)
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of aeronautical and aerospace
projects requires hours of wind tunnel testing. It is
necessary to minimize such wind tunnel type of test
because of the growing cost of such tests. In Brazil,
there is a lack of wind tunnels of great capacity for
generating supersonic flows or even high subsonic
flows. Therefore, Computational Fluid Dynamics,
(CFD), techniques are receiving much attention in
the aeronautical industry. Analogous to wind tunnel
modelling, the numerical methods determine
physical properties in discrete points of the spatial
domain. Hence, the aerodynamic coefficients of lift,
drag and momentum can be calculated.
Initially, non-upwind schemes were developed to
simulate flow over simple and complex geometries
owing to their simplicity in numerical
implementation.
Predictor-corrector
and
symmetrical schemes were the most employed
algorithms from the 60s to 80s. Some of them are
reported below.
MacCormack (1969) developed a numerical method
which is second order accurate in space and time to
solve the Navier-Stokes equations in a twoReceived: 19 Feb. 2007; Accepted: 1 Apr. 2007
147
Q / t + 1 / V PdV = 0
v
(1)
148
v
w
u
u
uw
u 2 + p
uv
Q = v , Ee = uv , Fe = v 2 + p , Ge = vw ,
w
vw
w2 + p
uw
(e + p )u
(e + p)v
(e + p) w
e
(2)
yx
xx
1
1
xy
yy
Ev =
, Fv =
and
Re
Re
xz
yz
(3)
zx
1
zy
Gv =
Re
zz
In these equations, the components of the viscous stress tensor are defined as:
(4)
(5)
(6)
The components of the conductive heat flux vector are defined as:
q x = ( M Pr d + T Pr d T ) ei x , q y = ( M Pr d + T Pr d T ) ei y ;
(7)
q z = ( M Pr d + T Pr d T ) ei z .
(8)
Re = u
REF
(9)
(10)
or
p = RT
(11)
i, j , k
(P S )
+ PS
i, j, k
r r
(P S )
( Pr Sr )
+
i, j, k
i , j 1 / 2, k
i, j, k
( )
i , j + 1 / 2, k
r r
+ (P S )
( )
+ PS
i 1 / 2, j , k
(14)
i, j , k 1 / 2
i, j, k + 1 / 2
r
where, for example, S i , j 1 / 2 , k has the same
r
direction as ni , j 1 / 2 , k and magnitude equals to the
S i , j 1 / 2 ,k area. The half indexes indicate flux
calculated at the respective faces or cell surfaces.
By discretizing space and time, according to the
Lax-Wendroff method, dividing the resultant
algorithm in two time integration steps (predictor
and corrector) and adopting a forward spatial
discretization in the predictor step and a backward
spatial discretization in the corrector step, it is
possible to obtain the MacCormack (1969)
algorithm, on a finite volume context, as follows:
i, j , k
i + 1 / 2, j , k
Qn + 1 = Qn
i, j, k
i, j , k
i , j ,k
i, j , k
r
S ( P n ) i , j ,k dS i , j ,k (13)
Predictor Step:
(E E )n
V
S
+
Qn = t
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
i, j, k
i, j, k i, j, k e v xi, j 1/ 2, k
e v yi, j 1/ 2, k
e v zi, j 1/ 2, k
i, j 1/ 2, k
i, j, k
S
+
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
(Ee Ev )nx
e
v
z
e
v
y
1
/
2
,
,
i
j
k
1
/
2
,
,
+
i+
jk
i +1/ 2, j, k
i +1, j, k i +1/ 2, j, k
S
+
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
(Ee Ev )nx
i, j +1/ 2, k
e
v
z
e
v
y
i, j +1/ 2, k
i, j +1/ 2, k
i, j +1/ 2, k
i, j +1, k
S
+
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
(Ee Ev )nx
e v yi 1/ 2, j, k
e v zi 1/ 2, j, k
i 1/ 2, j, k
i 1/ 2, j, k
i, j, k
S
+
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
(Ee Ev )nx
i, j, k 1/ 2
e
v
z
e
v
y
,
,
1
/
2
i
j
k
,
,
1
/
2
i
j
k
i, j, k 1/ 2
i, j, k
S
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
(Ee Ev )nx
,
,
,
1
/
2
i
j
k
e
v
z
e
v
y
+
i, j, k +1/ 2
i, j, k +1/ 2
i, j, k +1/ 2
i, j, k +1
.
Q n +1 = Qn + Qn
i, j, k
pi, j, k i, j, k
150
(15)
Corrector Step:
(E E )n
Q n +1 = t
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
+
S
V
i, j 1/ 2, k
ci, j, k
i, j, k i, j, k e v xi, j 1/ 2, k
e v yi, j 1/ 2, k
e v zi, j 1/ 2, k
i, j 1, k
S
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
+
(Ee Ev )nx
i +1/ 2, j, k
e v yi +1/ 2, j, k
e v zi +1/ 2, j, k
i +1/ 2, j, k
i, j, k
p
E
E
n
(
)
(
)
(
)
S
+
+ F F n
+ G G n
e v x
i, j +1/ 2, k
e v yi, j +1/ 2, k
e v zi, j +1/ 2, k
i, j +1/ 2, k
i, j, k
p
+
(
)
+
(
)
+
(
)
E
E
n
S
F
F
n
G
G
n
e v x
i 1/ 2, j, k
e v yi 1/ 2, j, k
e v zi 1/ 2, j, k
i 1/ 2, j, k
i 1, j, k
p
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
+
S
(Ee Ev )nx
i, j, k 1/ 2
e v yi, j, k 1/ 2
e v zi, j, k 1/ 2
i, j, k 1/ 2
i, j, k 1
p
+ (F F )n
+ (G G )n
S
,
(Ee Ev )nx
i, j, k +1/ 2
e v yi, j, k +1/ 2
e v zi, j, k +1/ 2
i, j, k +1/ 2
i, j, k
n+1
n+1
(16)
i, j, k
r r
(P S )
i, j, k
r r
r r
) dt + ( P S )
+ (P S )
+
i , j 1 / 2, k
i + 1 / 2, j , k
i , j + 1 / 2, k
r r
(P S )
r r
+ (P S )
i, j, k 1 / 2
i 1 / 2, j , k
r r
+ (P S )
i, j, k + 1 / 2
= 0
(17)
where:
r r
(P S )
i , j 1 / 2, k
=E E
v
e
i , j 1 / 2, k
i , j 1 / 2, k
+ (Fe Fv )i , j 1 / 2, k S yi , j 1/ 2 ,k
+ G G
151
v i , j 1 / 2, k
i , j 1 / 2, k
(18)
i, j , k
i, j, k
i, j, k i, j, k
i, j , k
i, j , k
k i, j , k
i, j , k i, j, k
i, j , k
(n + 1)
(k )
=Q
Q
i, j , k
i, j , k
(21)
where k = 1,...,5; m = 0 until 4; 1 = 1/4, 2 = 1/6,
3 = 3/8, 4 = 1/2 and 5 = 1. Swanson and
Radespiel (1991) suggested that the artificial
dissipation operator should only be evaluated in odd
stages when the Navier-Stokes equations were
solved (m = 0, m = 2 and m = 4). This procedure
aims at CPU time economy and also better
smoothing of the numerical instabilities of the
discretization based on the hyperbolic/parabolic
characteristics of the Navier-Stokes equations.
5. TURBULENCE MODELS
5.1 Turbulence model of Cebeci and Smith
(1970)
The problem of the turbulent simulation is in the
calculation of the Reynolds stress. Expressions
involving velocity fluctuations, originating from the
average process, represent six new unknowns.
However, the number of equations remains the
same and the system is not closed. The modeling of
turbulence is to develop approximations to these
correlations. When calculating the turbulent
viscosity according to the Cebeci and Smith (1970)
model, the boundary layer is divided into internal
and external layers.
Initially, the kinematic viscosity (w) at wall and
the shear stress (xy,w) at wall are calculated. After
that, the boundary layer thickness (), the linear
momentum thickness (LM) and the boundary layer
tangential velocity (VtBL) are calculated. Then, the
normal distance from the wall (N) to the studied cell
is calculated. The N+ term is obtained from:
(19)
with:
r r
r r
+ (P S )
+
) = ( P S )
i, j, k
i , j 1 / 2, k
i + 1 / 2, j , k
r r
r r
(P S )
+ (P S )
+
C (Q
i , j + 1 / 2, k
r r
(P S )
i, j, k 1 / 2
i 1 / 2, j , k
r r
+ (P S )
+
i, j, k + 1 / 2
N + = Re
(20)
xy , w
N
w
(22)
D = 1 e
152
( N
/ w w / / A+
(23)
= Re (ND) 2 dVt dN
Kleb
( N ) = 1 + 5.5(N )6
U dif =
(25)
Te
BL LM
Kleb
Ti
(26)
(27)
Te
7.1
lmix = N 1 e N
7.2
and
mix
A0+
with:
= MIN N F ; C N U 2 / F and
max max wk max dif max
= 1 MAX l
N mix
max
+ v2
N = N max
(32)
Initial condition
Boundary conditions
8. RESULTS
wake
max
(28)
) ( u
+ v2
= l 2
= MIN ( , )
(u
= Re(0.0168) Vt
(31)
(24)
Ti
6 1
(30)
8.1
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
Fig. 3
Laminar results
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
156
157
158
160
L (M)
0.0825
0.2100
Table 2
L (JM)
0.1125
0.1773
CS (M)
0.1275
0.1664
CS (JM)
BL (M)
0.0975
0.1937
BL (JM)
0.1200
0.1773
Angle (o)
L (M)
L (JM)
CS (M)
CS (JM)
BL (M)
BL (JM)
:
Error (%):
51.0
50.6
51.6
50.4
50.0
50.0
3.8
4.5
2.6
4.9
5.7
5.7
Table 3
Scheme/Model
MacCormack (L)
MacCormack (CS)
MacCormack (BL)
Jameson e Mavriplis (L)
Jameson e Mavriplis (CS)
Jameson e Mavriplis (BL)
Iterations
41,515
21,670
35,132
23,473
18,815
22,773
Cost*
0.0000857
0.0001304
0.0000944
0.0002515
0.0003678
0.0002775
9. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
163