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Chapter 6:
Learning and Remembering
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Episodic Memory:
Semantic Memory:
Long-term memory for general world knowledge
Example: knowledge of what a high school diploma is
Mental Encyclopedia
Metamemory
n
Metamemory:
Knowledge about (meta) one s own memory, how it works, and
how it fails to work.
Metacognition:
Knowledge about one s own cognitive system and its
functioning.
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Mnemonic Devices
n
Strengths of mnemonics:
The material to be remembered is practiced
repeatedly.
The material is integrated into an existing memory
framework.
The device provides an excellent means of retrieving
the information.
Mnemonic Devices
n
Method of loci.
To-be-remembered items are mentally placed into a set of prememorized locations, with retrieval being a mental walk through
the locations.
Example: Assign needed grocery items to landmarks between
your work and the grocery store
Broccoli hanging from the UNLV sign
Bananas lining the airport tunnel
Milk flowing down the Windmill exit ramp
Peg Word:
A pre-memorized set of peg words is used to remember new
information; the peg words typically used are One is a bun,
Two is a shoe, Three is a tree and so on.
Example: imagine needed grocery items with the rhymed word
Broccoli within a hot dog bun
A shoe filled with Milk
Bananas hanging from a tree
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Mnemonic Devices
n
Relearning task:
a list is originally learned, set aside for some period of time, then
later relearned to the same criterion of accuracy: one perfect
recitation of the list, without hesitations.
Savings score:
Measure of learning
The reduction, if any, in the number of trials necessary for
relearning, compared to original learning.
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The classic forgetting curve from Ebbinghaus. The figure shows the
reduction in savings across increasing retention intervals (time between
original learning and relearning).
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Rehearsal:
Rehearsal
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Maintenance rehearsal:
Low-level, repetitive recycling. Typically leads to
poorer memory.
Elaborative rehearsal:
More complex rehearsal that uses information
meaning to aid memory storage.
Levels of Processing:
More deeply processed information is typically
remembered better.
Information that gets only maintenance rehearsal
is processed shallowly.
Information that gets elaborative rehearsal is
processed deeply.
Organization in Storage
n Organization:
Subjective Organization:
Organization developed by a person for structuring
and remembering a list of items without
experimenter-supplied categories.
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Imagery
n
Visual Imagery:
Encoding Specificity
n
Mood-congruent learning:
Memory is better when a
person s mood at encoding
and retrieval are similar.
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Decay:
The older a memory trace is, the more likely it has been
forgotten
Difficult to prove, could be that time doesnt cause forgetting, its
what happens during that time that causes forgetting.
Interference:
Memories go through a period of consolidation to make them
permanent.
Newly encountered information uses the same neural processes
and therefore interferes with the consolidation process of older
information.
Memory improves during sleep because the consolidation
process of older information is not disrupted by new information.
learning:
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Retrieval Failure
n
Available:
Information stored in long-term memory remains there
permanently.
Accessibility:
The degree to which information can be retrieved from memory.
Testing as Learning
n
Testing Effect
Being tested for information boosts memory of that
information.
The additional exposure to material rehearses the
information.
Testing strengthens the retrieval and recall process of
memory.
Can be more beneficial than simply rereading.
How will you study for the test?
Immediate feedback strengthens the testing effect
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Amnesia:
Retrograde Amnesia:
Anterograde Amnesia:
Dissociation:
Doubly dissociated:
Special Cases
n
Patient K.C.:
Patient H.M.:
Severe anterograde amnesia as a result of brain surgery to prevent
seizures, damage to hippocampus.
Lost ability to form new memories, his memory of events before
surgery remained complete
Any task that required him to retain information across a delay
showed severe impairment, especially if the delay is filled with a
distractor task.
Evidence suggests that H.M. s procedural memory was normal. He
could improve on procedural tasks over weeks and still have no
recollection of ever performing the task.
Implicit learning was still functioning.
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