WORKS CITED

PRIMARY SOURCES

Barney, J. W. "Bureau Agent's Experiences as an Outsider." Letter to Bvt. Brig. Gen. C. C.

Sibley. 29 Aug. 1868. MS. Carnesville, Georgia.

This letter to Gen. Sibley depicts the challenges Bureau agents faced dealing with the
South (a foreign place to most of them), and the hostility they were greeted with. In this
case, J.W. Barney couldn’t handle the constant pressure and subsequently quit his job.

Child, Lydia M. The Freedman's Book. Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1865. Print.

This was a post-war student textbook used in freedmens schools, meant to educate young
black students regarding morals, history, and their responsibility in society. Written
mostly by white northerners, it gives light to a minority of the North who wanted and
believed in racial equality.

"Condition of The South :Views of a Refugee--New Affairs Look at Memphis--Feeling of the

People on the Slavery Question.. " New York Times (1857-Current file)

12 July 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 -

2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This New York Times article compares and contrasts the post-war Democrat and
Republican views and especially the difference in their views on what freedom means for
the black. It reiterates the old belief that the most important task of the government is to
reunite a "revolted people."
Fiske, F. A. "A Report on Education in North Carolina and a Radical Suggestion for Funding

Freedmen's Schools." Letter to Capt. Jacob F. Chur. 31 Oct. 1866. MS. North Carolina.

This report from Cpt Fiske to Cpt Chur showed the contrasting ideals of Republican
Bureau agents and some flaws in Yankee ideological action. The Bureau’s lack of
resources severely inhibited its jurisdiction.

"From Washington: The Closing Work of Congress. The Tax Bill Passed by the Senate with

Important Amendments. The Rate of Postage Not to be Increased. Alterations in the

Tobacco State Banks Encouraged to Nationalize. Failure of the Effort to Increase the

Salary of Members of Congress. Debate on Political Prisoners. Civilians Hereafter to be

Tried by Civil Courts. Passage of the Civil Appropriation Bills. The Closing Work of the

Session. " New York Times (1857-Current file) 3 March 1865 ProQuest Historical

Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This article was printed the day that Congress adjourned, voting yes on the Freedmen's
bill and also on the Civil Appropriation Bill. The Civil Bill prohibited military courts
from trying civilians where civilian courts were available, which later affected the
Bureau's scope of power. Interestingly enough, on the same day was a petition to
recognize a "supreme being" in the Constitution.

"Front Page 1 -- No Title: Cabinet Meeting. Gen. Sickles. Pardon the Freedmen from South

Carolina Baltimore and Boston Appointments. Austrian Envoy. " New York Times (1857-
 Current file) 19 July 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851

- 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

In this report, General Howard fights against the issue requiring blacks to carry passes
from their employers while traveling. The newspaper also encouragingly notes the
rapidly improving condition of the freedmen, that they "are already more self-sustaining
than the whites."

Gienapp, William, ed. A Documentary Collection: for the Civil War and Reconstruction. 1. New

York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.

This anthology of primary sources offers a wide view into the political, social, economic,
and military history in the Reconstruction era. The experience of African Americans and
other minorities is emphasized.

Goldberg, Chad. Citizens and Paupers Relief, Rights, and Race, from the Freedmen's Bureau to

Workfare. New York: University of Chicago, 2008.

This historical narrative demonstrates that welfare beneficiaries such as the Freedmen's
Bureau played a major role in the battles regarding race, among other issues that shaped
the post-war nation. I plan to use this in explaining the need for and the success of the
Bureau."

"House of Representatives: Revolutionary Pensions. The Gold and Silver Lands. Pay and

Bounty of Deceased Soldiers. Freedmen’s Bureau. The Illinois and Michigan Canal.

The Deficiency Bill. Colored Mail Carriers. " New York Times (1857-Current file)
 3 February 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 -

2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This newspaper article printed in the New York Times exactly one month before the
official creation of the Freedmen's Bureau describes all aspects of the proposed
organization. It also discusses the initial opposition and worries of Congressmen like Mr.
Kernan of New York.

McClary, LT. Ira D. M. "A Bureau Officer Enforces a Contract on Freedpeople." Letter to Capt.

William H. Sterling. 20 April 1867. MS. New Orleans, Louisiana.

This letter written from Lt. McClary to Cpt Sterling proved the Bureau’s belief that for
free-labor to be successful, both employers and employees had to stick with
their agreements. Lt McClary had issues with blacks keeping their ends of the bargain.

“News From Washington: Early Payment of Interest. Nationalizing New York Banks.

Asking Postponement of the Draft. Head of the Freedmen’s Bureau. The Singleton

Tobacco. Our Consul at Matamoras Not Driven Out We Have No Counsul There.

Guerrilla Raid. A Pleasure Trip to the South." New York Times (1857-Current file)
 14 March 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 -

2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

In this newspaper article on March 13, 1865, Oliver Otis Howard, a military man, is
appointed to head of the Freedmen's Bureau. The pressure to appoint a civilian is
discussed, although the Secretary of War claims to favor an experienced military official.

Sumner, Charles. Bridge from Slavery to Freedom: Speech of Honorary Charles Sumner, on the

Bill to Establish a Bureau of Freedmen, in the Senate of the U.S., June 13 and 15.

Washington, D.C.: H. Polkinhorn & Son, 1864. Print.

This speech given by congressman Charles Sumner reinforced my knowledge that

investigations were made into the South and reports were written declaring the need for
federal aid, and the Freedmen's Bureau was believed to be the solution. Sumner
discusses the perfection of the Bureau, that it is a “careful machinery.”

"The Freedmen and Their Lands :Important Order from Gen. Howard The Rights of Freedmen

to the Lands they Cultivate until the Crops are Secured. The Seven-Thirty Loan. The

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Arrival of Gen. Sheridan. Shocking Murder in

 Brooklyn.. " New York Times (1857-Current file) 29 May 1865 ProQuest Historical

Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This newspaper article clearly describes the Bureau's defense of the freedmen, prescribing
all abandoned land occupied by blacks to remain under their possession until the crops
are secured for their benefit, and only then can the owners fully compensate freedmen for
their labor and buy back their land. It also states that "the application for the restoration
of [rebel] lands will in no case be entertained by any military authority."

"The Freedmen of South Carolina :Order from Gen. Van Wyck.. " New York Times (1857-

Current file) 20 August 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times

(1851 - 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This New York Times article condemns all who disregard the rights of the freedmen, thus
making necessary the presence of military power and disrespecting the government. It
claims that white southerner's happiness and prosperity demand the presence of the free
labor system, that "the waste places will blossom once more."

"The Freedmen: Organization of the Freedmen's Bureau Its Objects, and What It Has

Accomplished. Interesting Speech by Gen Howard. The Freedmen of South Carolina

Order from Gen.Van Wyck. Gen. Slecum's Orders in Regard to the Freedmen in

Mississippi. Address of Gen. Palmer to the Negroes of Kentucky. The Freedmen’s

Bureau. Interesting Speech of Gen. Howard Organization of the Bureau.. " New York
 Times (1857-Current file) 20 August 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New

York Times (1851 - 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This New York Times article quotes a speech by General Howard in which he states the
Bureau's main objective is to give "practical opportunity…to the freedmen," but goes on
to question how it is to be achieved. He claims the task can be achieved with the
regulation of labor, encouragement education, formation of relief establishments and
"security of justice for the freed people.

"The Freedmen’s Bureau: Important Official Order by the President.. " New York Times (1857-

Current file) 18 June 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851

- 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This official order from President Andrew Johnson in the New York Times orders all
government personnel turn over all abandoned land and tax (collected for the benefit of
refugees or by abandoned land) to the Bureau. This early act (July 1865) in support of
the Bureau contrasts with Johnson's later clash and opposition to it.

" The Freedmen’s Bureau : Its Organization and the Progress of its Work. Report of the

Condition of the Freedmen. The Questions of Labor, Compensation, Government and

Education.. " New York Times (1857-Current file) 26 June 1865 ProQuest Historical

Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This article from a New York Times correspondent discusses the organization, labor, land,
compensation, education, moral, and military aspects of the Bureau and the freedmen. It
states that it doesn't have the resources to establish or conduct schools, but leaves it to the
 voluntary North and freedmen to create what they hope will be a self-sustaining system
of education.

"The Freedmen's Bureau " New York Times (1857-Current file) 21 May 1865 ProQuest

Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 - 2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec.

2009.

Oliver Otis Howard lets known in this New York Times newspaper article from May 21,
1865 that under no circumstance shall "the government support [the black] in idleness."
He also asks all agents to cooperate and to ensure uniformity in reports.

"The Freedmen's Bureau: The Bills Before Congress To-day. " New York Times (1857-Current

file) 9 February 1865 ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851 -

2006), ProQuest. Web. 9 Dec. 2009.

This New York Times newspaper article discusses which department the Bureau will be
headed under and states the decision that ex-Confederate land will not be granted under
the Freedmen's bill. The theory of a separate department for which the President is
responsible and which the military will support is explained. Surprisingly, the newspaper
doesn't come across as racist, but instead describes blacks as an "ignorant but a most
honest and deserving population." Fears of the difficulty of enforcing peace is
mentioned.
"Yoder, Jacob. Fire of Liberty in their Hearts: the Diary of Jacob E. Yoder of the Freedmen's

Bureau School, Lynchburg, VA, 1866-1870. Richmond: The Library of Virginia,

1996.

This primary source is a useful insight into the daily life and personal interests of a young
black child coming of age in the post-war South. I plan to integrate this into the
successful strides achieved in education by the Bureau"

SECONDARY SOURCES

Cimbala, Paul A. Freedmen's Bureau and Reconstruction: Reconsiderations. New York:

Fordham UP, 1999. Print.

This historical narrative provided me with most of the preliminary information (like
reasons for creation, who led the movement, why it was necessary) that I needed. It was
used mostly by me as a “beginner’s guide.”

Cimbala, Paul A. Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War.

Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub., 2005. Print.

This historical narrative me with in-depth analysis of the Bureau and the reasons for doing
it. Being a relatively new book, it contrasted with some older books I used (in the
analysis, i.e. older books thought the Bureau was only Republicans attempt at control,
whereas now with more in depth research into documents, it is believed that Congress
was legitimately trying to protect civil rights.

Donald, David, Jean Baker, and Michael Holt, eds. Civil War and Reconstruction. New York:

Norton, 2001.

This revised historical narrative details the social and cultural aspects of southern society,
slavery, and the black experience. It goes a step further to analyze the parallels
 between events in the North and the South.

Gallagher, Gary. The Confederate War: How Popular Will, Nationalism, and Military Strategy

Could Not Stave Off Defeat. N.p.: President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1997.

This historical narrative gave a unique explanation of the Civil War and the aftermath
from the Southern viewpoint. I only utilized certain sections of this book dealing
with freedmen.

Foner, Eric. Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. Ed. Joshua Brown.

New York: Random House, 2005.

This is a narrative book of the black's position in society before and after the war. Its
chronology leads to the eventual abandonment of Reconstruction by the nation and the
Republican Congress in particular.

Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. New York: Harper & Row, 1990.

The beginning of this historical book stresses the effect the Civil War had on the
relationship between the North and the South and the incredible impact the war had on
the South. It goes on to describe the failure and the successes of Reconstruction in
relation to the presidency and Congress."

Hope, Franklin, John. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans. New York:

Knopf, 1980. Print.

This chronological account was the most helpful information regarding the context of
the FB, i.e. the Civil War, destruction in the South, black conditions.
Peirce, Paul S. The Freedman's Bureau: A Chapter in the History of Reconstruction. New York:
Haskell House, 1971.Print.
This was one of the most helpful historical novels I came across. It was incredibly
straightforward, with little focus on the language or writing. It went in depth to the
history of the Freedmen’s Bureau and how it fit into the context of reconstruction.

Ripley, C. Peter. Slaves and freedmen in Civil War Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP,

1976. Print.

This historical narrative furthered my understanding of the NorthÕs view of the SouthÕs
situation (its focused on little in other books). It also provided statistical data helpful in
understanding the quantitative side of the Bureau’s reach.

Stewart, David. Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's

Legacy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.

This closely analyzing historical book of President Andrew Johnson was invaluable to
my understanding of him. It provided a thorough explanation of why he
harassed the Bureau.