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Nonlinear
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Kinematic relation
It is assumed that the continuity of displacement at the
interface between the layers is as shown in Fig. 2. This
assumption requires that the following relations hold [12]:
h w
h
w
uc + c
= u v + v v
x
2 x
2
(1)
hb w
hv
w
ub
= uv
v
x
2 x
2
where uc, uv and ub are respectively the mid-plane
displacements of the constraining layer, viscoelastic layer and
base layer along the x-axis. v is the rotation of the normal to
the mid-plane of the viscoelastic layer. The straindisplacement relations for the base and the piezoeletric layer
can be expressed as follows based on the classic beam theory:
c =
u c
2w
z 2
x
x
(2)
u b
2w
b =
z 2
x
x
where ui is the mid-plane displacements of the ith layer, and x
is the axial distance relative to one end of the beam.
Then, by considering only the poling direction (since the
piezoelectric layer is thinner than the base layer), it is found
that E3 = E3 (x, t) and E1 = 0, where E is the electric field
applied across the piezoelectric layer. For PCLD treatment, E3
u
2w
D3 = e31 c z 2 33 E3
x
x
Vv =
np
np
T =
1
2
np
x2p
x1p
p =1
1
bhc
2
np
p =1
u c
2
33 E 3 + e31 E 3 x
x 2p
x1p
dx
2w
1 L
u b
Yb Ab
=
+ Yb I b 2 dx
2 0
x
x
dx +
w
dx (8)
t
b Ab
P1 =
P2 =
f (x, t )w(x, t ) dw
0
np
x2p
x1p
p =1
(7)
x2p
( c Ac + v Av ) w
Gv* Av v2 dx
Av hb2Yb2 2 u b
dx
xp
Gv* x 2
p =1 1
and the kinetic energy for the whole beam is
1
=
2
np
B. Energy expressions
The above relations are then used to derive the expression
of the potential energies of the layers and kinetic energy of the
beam. For the case of multiple patches, the potential energy of
the piezoelectric layer consists of strain energy and electric
energy as:
1
1
Vc =
c c dv
D3 E 3 dv
V
2
2 V
2
np
2
2w
1
c
Yc Ac
=
x + Yc I c 2
2 p =1
x
(5)
u c
dx
hc be31 E 3
x
x1p
p =1
p =1
Fig. 2 The deformation pattern of the layers in the model of beam with CLD
treatment
x2p
x2p
x1p
bV (x, t )Q( x, t ) dx
(9)
C. Equation of motion
Semi-analytical approach is used to derive the equation of
motion. The displacement is thus approximated by assumedmodes expansion. For a beam, the displacement is given by:
w( x, t ) =
u b ( x, t ) =
W (x ) (t ) = W
U (x ) (t ) = U
i =1
n
(10)
i =1
L
(11)
ix
U i (x ) = cos
L
Then, by substituting the related equations into the extended
Hamiltons principle, i.e.
t2
t1
[T (Vc + Vv + Vb ) + P1 + P2 ]dt = 0
(12)
dE30
(13)
dt
and the sensed voltage by piezoelectric film sensor given by
E 3 = G v
e31 u b
3 u b
2w
(14)
h 2 + G1
33 x
x
x 3
the governing equations of the motion can be derived as
follows [13]:
M 11 0 && C11 C12 &
+
+
0
0 && C 21 C 22 &
(15)
L
K 11 K 12 1 f (x, t )Wi dx
K
= 2 0
21 K 22
0
E30 =
where
np
M 11 =
p =1
x2p
x1p
( c Ac + v Av )WW T dx +
(Y I
K 11 =
p =1
x2p
+ Yc Ac h 2 W W T dx +
Yb I bW W T dx
np
K 12 =
c c
x1p
x2p
x1p
p =1
Yc Ac h U W T + G1U W T dx
K 21 = K 12
np
[G U U
K 22 =
p =1
x2p
x1p
+ Yc Ac U U T +
)]
2G1U U T + G12U U T dx +
Yb I b U U T dx
np
C11 =
x1p
p =1
np
C12 =
p =1
x2p
x2p
x1p
2 2
Ac e31
h
G vW W T dx
E 33
2
Ac e31
h
G v U W T +
E 33
G1U W T dx
C 21 = C12
np
C 22 =
p =1
x2p
x1p
2
Ac e31
G v U U T +
E 33
2G1U U T + G12U U T dx
G1 =
hv hb Yb
G*
, G2 =
Objective function =
W 2
i
(16)
i =1
b AbWW T dx
np
Av hb2 Yb2
*
G
A. Description of methods
Two early methods, namely the subproblem
approximation method and first order optimization method,
are investigated first. These two methods are chosen for
evaluation because they have already been integrated into a
multi-physics commercial finite element code, ANSYS, as
optimization tools [23]. In these two methods, a constrained
problem is formulated into a basic unconstrained problem by
using a penalty function for solutions which are near or
beyond the constraint boundary. The constrained problem is
then solved using a sequence of parameterized unconstrained
optimizations, which in the limit (of the sequence) converges
to the constrained problem.
In subproblem approximation method, the objective
function and the constraints are first being approximated using
least squares fitting of a number of design sets generated
randomly. The constrained minimization problem is then
converted into an unconstrained form by using penalty
functions, leading to the following subproblem statement:
m1
m2
n
F (x, p k ) = f + f 0 p k
X (xi ) +
G (g i ) +
H hi (17)
i =1
i =1
i =1
in which f , g and h are the objective function, inequality
( )
f
+
Px (xi ) + q Pg ( g i ) +
Ph (hi ) (18)
Q ( x, q ) =
f 0 i =1
i =1
i =1
where Px, Pg and Ph are the exterior penalty function of the
objective function and constraints. Gradient method utilizing
various steepest descent and conjugate direction searches are
then performed during each iteration until convergence is
Beam
(aluminium)
PZT material
(PZT-5H)
Viscoelastic
material
Elastic Modulus,
~
E (GPa)
70(1 +
0.0001i)
49(1 +
0.0001i)
Density, (kg/m3)
2.71 103
7.50 103
1.00 103
Thickness, h (m)
0.004
0.002
0.001
Shear Modulus, G
(MPa)
0.896(1 + 0.5i)
Fig. 4 Frequency response of the beam with PCLD treatment using single
patch
L ( x, ) = f ( x ) +
g (x )
i
(19)
i =1
(20)
g i ( x k ) d + g i ( x k ) 0
The matrix Hk is a positive definite approximation of the
Hessian matrix of the Lagrangian function and can be updated
by using quasi-Newton methods. The solution to the
subproblem is then used to form a new iterate until
convergence occurs.
To improve the chances of obtaining a minimum closer to
global minimum, a trial-and-error or heuristic approach is used
together with the SQP method. A simple heuristic method
involves randomly selecting a set of starting points in the hope
that one of these starting points is close to the global
minimum. While global minimum is not assured, the
probability of obtaining a better minimum increases with
number of starting points.
T
Fig. 5 Frequency response of the beam with PCLD treatment using 3 patches
Fig. 6 Maximum displacement at x = 0.2 m versus ratio of the mid CLD patch
to total length of the CLD patches for a total CLD coverage of 18.45% added
weight
subject to
y1 +
=1
k =2
2
n 1
, k = 1, L ,
2
n +1
2
y ( n +1) / 2
n +1
l total = constant
y k + y k +1
(21)
n +1
2
To compare the current SQP-heuristic method with above
two penalty methods, we optimize the 3-CLD configuration
with the total length of patches fixed at 0.17 m (62.7% added
weight). A maximum displacement of 1.6116 10-4 is obtained
y k , l total 0, k = 1, L ,
V. GENETIC ALGORITHM
TABLE 2
TWO POSSIBLE OPTIMAL CLD CONFIGURATIONS
l1
l2
l3
maximum
% weight
ltotal
displacement
added
0
2.71 103
18.45
0.05
0.0119
0.0117
0.0073
7.24 106
47.97
0.13
0.0040
0.0562
0.0067
3.57 106
A. Description of method
Genetic algorithms is a more advanced heuristic method
than the sampling method used in previous sections. It
maintains and manipulates a family or population, of solutions
and implements a simulated evolution or survival of the
fittest strategy in their search for better solutions. In general,
the fittest individuals of any population tend to reproduce and
survive to the next generation, thus improving successive
generations. GA has been shown to solve linear and nonlinear
problems by exploiting all regions of the state space and
exponentially exploiting promising areas through mutation,
crossover and selection operation applied to individuals in the
population.
The current GA implementation utilizes the Genetic
Algorithm Optimization Toolbox (GAOT) for MATLAB
developed by Houck et al [24]. GAOT is designed for
unconstrained problem. The layout optimization problem is
however subjected to physical feasibility constraints, and
constraints on the length of the patches. This constrained
problem is converted into an unconstrained form by using
penalty functions. Two forms of penalty functions are
considered, namely penalty function with constant penalty
factor and penalty function with penalty factor that increases
with number of generations. Our preliminary analysis however
showed no significant difference between the two.
B. Results and discussion
The same problem formulation of the 5-CLD
configuration used in Section 4.2 is used and a total patch
length of 0.05 m is considered. The optimal configuration
obtained is l1 = 0.011 m, l2 = 0.0068 m and l3 = 0.013 m. The
resulting maximum displacement is 6.5086 10-6 m, which is
equivalent to a vibration reduction of 52.38 dB for the
frequency range 0-3000 Hz. When the position of each patch
TABLE 3
PARAMETERS IN THE 5-CLD CONFIGURATIONS OPTIMIZED USING
GAS WITHOUT CONSTRAINTS ON POSITIONS OF THE PATCHES
Patch number
position, m
0.3859
length, m
0.01138
2
3
4
5
0.3100
0.2680
0.1258
0.3518
0.004217
0.0001463
0.01320
0.01498
REFERENCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fig. 9 Frequency response for optimal configurations obtained using GAs for
18.45% added weight
5.
6.
Config.
3-CLD
5-CLD
5-CLD with
relaxation
8.
TABLE 4
SUMMARY OF THE OPTIMA OBTAINED BY FOUR OPTIMIZATION METHODS
Subproblem Approx.
First Order
SQP
GAs
Amplitude
% added
amplitude
% added
amplitude
% added
amplitude
% added
reduction,
weight
reduction, dB
weight
reduction, dB
weight
reduction, dB
weight
dB
24.79
72.7
18.91
62.7
24.50
62.7
51.44
18.45
52.38
18.45
66.73
18.45
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.