GATE Power Systems Book

POWER SYSTEMS
for
Electrical Engineering
By
www.thegateacademy.com
Syllabus
Power Systems
Syllabus for Power Systems

Basic power generation concepts; transmission line models and performance; cable
performance, insulation; corona and radio interference; distribution systems; per-unit
quantities; bus impedance and admittance matrices; load flow; voltage control; power
factor correction; economic operation; symmetrical components; fault analysis;
principles of over-current, differential and distance protection; solid state relays and
digital protection; circuit breakers; system stability concepts, swing curves and equal
area criterion; HVDC transmission and FACTS concepts.
Analysis of GATE Papers

(Power Systems)
Year
Percentage of marks
2013
7.00
2012
5.00
2011
16.00
2010
14.00
2009
12.00
2008
12.67
2007
14.67
2006
16.00
2005
13.33
2004
17.33
2003
18.00
Overall Percentage
13.27%
THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
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Contents
Power Systems
CONTENTS
#1.
#2.
Chapter
Transmission and Distribution
Page No.
1 94
13
3 21
21 43
43 49
49 55
55 58
59 63
63 73
73 78
79 83
83 87
88
88 94
Economics of Power Generation
#3.
Basic Concepts of Line Constants in Transmission

Types of Conductor
Performance of Transmission Line
Voltage Control
Concepts of Corona
Mechanical Design of Transmission Lines
Overhead Insulators
Under Ground Cables
Distribution System
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations
Load Curve
Methods of Determining Depreciation
Base load and Peak Load on Power Station
Economics of Power Generation
Expression for Cost of Electrical Energy
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations
Symmetrical Components & Faults Calculations
Introduction
Operators
Sequence N/Ws of a Synchronous Generator
Fault Calculations
Load Flow
Power System Network
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations
95 114
95 97
97
97 98
98
98 102
103 106
106 108
109
109 114
115 153
115 117
117 119
119 125
125 135
135
135 140
141 145
145 147
148
148 153
Page i
Contents
#4.
Power System Stability
#5.
Protection & Circuit Breakers
#6.
Introduction
Steady State Stability
Transient Stability
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations
Introduction
Functional Characterstics of a Protective Relay
Types of Relay
Alternator Protection
Protection of Transformers
Circuit Breakers
High Resistance Interruption Methods
Classification of Circuit Breakers
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations
Generating Stations
Steam Power Plants

Schematic Arrangement of Steam Power Stations
Hydroelectric Power Station
Selection of Turbines
Calculation of Hydro Electric Potential
Nuclear Power Plants
Assignment
Answer keys
Explanations
Module Test
Test Questions
Answer Keys
Explanations
Reference Books
Power Systems
154 181
154 - 155
155 163
163 169
170 172
173 175
176
176 181
182 208
182
182 183
183 187
187 188
188 189
189
189 191
192 194
195 199
199 202
203
203 208
209 230
209
209 213
213 215
216 219
219 220
220 224
225 228
229
229 230
231 256
231 242
243
243 256
257
Page ii
Chapter 1
Power systems
CHAPTER 1
Transmission and Distribution
Basic Concepts and Line Constants in Transmission
Power Generation
Non Conventional Energy sources
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Non Conventional Energy Sources

Small capacity power Generation over
a shorter interval of time. Ex:- Wind,
Solar, Tidal, Geothermal, Diesel, Biomass
and MHD.
Most of the plants are located near to
consumer premises i.e., there is no
constraint in setting up of these plants
The operation of these plants are based
on day-to-day weather constraints
Most of these plants having less fixed
cost and high running cost.
Suitable to meet peak load demands
except Geothermal plants.
Asynchronous Generators are employed
Ex:- dc Generator, ac Generator and
Induction Generator
Distribution network is sufficient
8. Generated voltage will be at 1 kV.
Conventional Energy Sources

Conventional Energy Sources
1. Bulk capacity power Generation over a
Longer period. Ex:- Steam (or) Thermal,
Hydro, Nuclear and Gas
2. Most of the plants are located at remote
places i.e. these plants are set-up based on
geographical constraints.
3. There are no weather constraints while
operating these plants.
4. Most of these plants are having high fixed
cost and less running cost.
5. Suitable to meet base load demand except
Gas plants.
6. Synchronous Generations are used
7. Both the transmission and distribution

networks are employed.
8. Generated voltage will be 3.3, 6.6, 11, 13.2
and 18.2 kV.
Necessity of Transmission Lines: Bulk amount of powers Generation could able to produce on
economical basis by employing synchronous Generators at remote locations. The Bulk amount
of power from the remote Generating station could able to be carried out to the load center by
using suitable network and the network is called transmission network (or) transmission lines.
Transmission line: It is a connection (or) line between the remote Generating station and the
load center.
Page 1
Chapter 1
Power systems
Transmission 1
load
Transmission 2
load
Step-up
Transformer
Transmission 3
load
Level of voltages
Low voltage: - 220V 1-phase (or) 415V 3-phase
High voltage:- 11kV, 33kV
Extra High voltage: - 66kV, 132kV, 220kV and 400kV.
Ultra High voltage: - 765kV and above.
Most of power generation in India at 11kV
Necessity of Extra High Voltages for transmission system
1. The size of the conductor is reduced so that the cost of the conductor is reduced.
Ex: - For the same power, same length and same material the size of the conductor will
become 1/nth of original size as the operating voltage increased by n times.
2. The transmission line loss will be reduced.
Ex: - For the same power, same length, same material the copper loss becomes 1/nth to
that of original loss as the voltage increased by n times.
3. The transmission efficiency will increase
= l k / v cos
4. The power transfer capacity is enhanced
Special Case: For the same power, same loss, same material and same length, the size of the
conductor becomes 1/n2 to that of original loss as the voltage increased by n times to that of
original voltage. As the level of voltage is increasing beyond certain limit, for the same amount
of power to be transmitted, the extra cost required for insulation is more that the saving in
conductor cost. So, the selection of operating voltage to transmit the power is the compromise
between in saving of conductor cost and extra cost required for insulation. Selection of the size of
conductor in Transmission lines: - In transmission lines there are no tapings (or) consumers in
the middle. So the current throughout the transmission line is same from the generating station
to the load center. Hence the conductor is designed based on current carrying capacity (or)
constant current density. This is up to 220kv transmission line only.
In case of the voltages beyond 220kv, the concept of corona is predominant than that of current
carrying capacity. So the transmission lines are designed based on concept of corona.
Page 2
Chapter 1
220 kv -- conductors
Power systems
400kv and above - - - bundle conductors
Types of Conductor
Solid Copper Conductor
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
High Cost
High Tensile Strength
Difficult to string the conductors. So difficult to transport
High skin effect while using an ac system
Stranded Conductor: It consists of two or more smaller cross sectional strands (or) filaments
which are twisted together to get the required strength and running in parallel to increase the
current capacity for the given operating voltage.
homogenous Stranded Conductor: It is made up of all the strands by one material only. The
advantages are.
(i) reduced Tensile strength due to strands when compared to solid conductor.
(ii) easy to string the conductors. So easy to transport
(iii) reduced skin effect when compared to solid conductor.
But the costof the conductor is not reduced to greater extent even though the strands are
employed.
Alluminium Homogenous Stranded Conductor
(i)
Almost equal conductivity when compared with copper.

Page 3
Chapter 1
Power systems
(ii) Less cost of alluminium

(iii) Low Tensile strength so that the span length is less. The reduced span length will increase
the number of towers which in turn increases the cost of Insulators and Erection. So the
cost of transmission will increase.
In order to improve the tensile strength and reduce the cost of transmission system by
increasing the span length composite stranded conductors are employed (i.e.) two (or) more
conducting materials.
Al
Fe
In the composite stranded conductor the outer strands are having high conductivity and low
tensile strength i.e. Alluminium and central strands are having low conductivity and high tensile
strength i.e., steel are used which is known as ACSR conductor.
ACSR (Alluminium conductor and steel reinforced)
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
Required Tensile strength

Less cost of transmission
Easy stringing
Reduced skin effect when compared to solid (or) homogenous stranded conductor.
Disadvantages
1. Increased transmission loss
Skin effect: The non uniform distribution of current through the given cross sectional area of the
conductor when it is operated on alternating current system is called skin effect. The main
reason for the skin effect is non-uniform distribution of flux linkages. The skin effect will result
in
(i) Increased effective resistance (Rac)
(ii) Internal Inductance will increase (Lin)
(iii) External Inductance will reduced (Lexternal)
Explanation
Page 4
Chapter 1
Power systems
In case of dc system, there is no rate of change of current. So the current is uniformly distributed
throughout the cross sectional area of the conductor. So, the entire area will be considered while
calculating the dc resistance offered.
Rdc =
~
In case of system, there is a rate of change of current. Whenever the switch is closed, the system
is under sub/transient behavior. So the flux produced in the outer stands will link with the inner
stands due to low reluctance offered, where as the flux produced by inner strands could only
link with those strands and not with the external strands. So the internal flux linkages will
increases which will increases the internal inductance.
Inductance will oppose the flow of current, so that the most of the current will concentrated on
outer strands and very less current will be allowed through the inner strands. While calculating
the effective resistance, the area in which the current concentrated is more only considered than
that of entire area of cross section of the conductor. So the ac (or) effective rsistance R ac = (a|
< a)
Rac (ac resistance) is greater than Rdc resistance
Rac > Rdc [ Rac = K Rdc ; K = 1.6 ]
In case of ACSR conductor, the current distribution is non- uniform and the materials are also
non-uniform. So, the entire area will be considered while calculating the effective resistance. R ac
=
AI
Fe
a = Entire area of cross section

(or)
High current is concentrated on the surface. So the conductivity of alluminium is extracted
effectively. Less current is concentrated at the inner strands. So the conductivity of steel will
also be effectively utilized. Hence the entire cross-sectional area will be considered, while
calculating the ac resistance.
The over all Diameter of ACSR conductors will be
Page 5
Chapter 1
Power systems
D= (2n-1) d
D=Overall Diameter in cm
n = Number of layers. Single central strand will also be considered as one layer.
Number of strands = (N) = 3n
3n
d = diameter of each strand in cm.

Ex: An ACSR conductor consists of 30 Alluminium strands and 7 still strands will be represented
as 30/7. In general for a given ACSR conductor, the numbers of alluminium strands are more in
number when compared to steel strands.
Ex: The ACSR conductor represented as 1/6 It consists of one steel and six Alluminium strands.
Ex: An ACSR conductor consists of 7 steel strands and 54 Alluminium strands will be
represented as 7/54.
The configuration of strands in the layers will be 1 6 12 18 24 .
As the diameter (or) Area of cross section of the conductor increases the skin effect will
increase (i.e.) Rac will increase.
As the permeability of the material will increase, the skin effect will increase (i.e.) R ac will
increase.
As the operating frequency will increases, the skin effect will increase (i.e.) Rac will increase.
But it is more effective in communication circuits than that of power circuits, because the
operating frequency is only 50Hz.
Skin effect (Rac)
A r f
Skin effect (Rac)
d2 r f
Bundle conductors: Whenever the operating voltages beyond 270kv, it is preferable to use more
than one sub conductor/phase which is known as bundle conductor.
Bundle conductor is one which consists of two (or) more sub conductor / phase which are
running in parallel in which the spacing between sub conductors is very high when compared to
radius of each sub conductor; where as the distance of separation between the two phases will
be very high when compared to the spacing between sub conductors. The each sub conductor is
again composite stranded conductor.
r=4cm
8m
Y
8m
8m
R
r=15cm
s
s=20cm
B
400 kV line Single conductor
400 kV line Bundle conductor
Page 6

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POWER SYSTEMS

Syllabus for Power Systems

Analysis of GATE Papers

Economics of Power Generation

Basic Concepts of Line Constants in Transmission

Symmetrical Components & Faults Calculations

Power System Stability

Protection & Circuit Breakers

Steam Power Plants

Non Conventional Energy Sources

8. Generated voltage will be at 1 kV.

Conventional Energy Sources

7. Both the transmission and distribution

400kv and above - - - bundle conductors

Almost equal conductivity when compared with copper.

(ii) Less cost of alluminium

Required Tensile strength

a = Entire area of cross section

d = diameter of each strand in cm.

Skin effect (Rac)

400 kV line Bundle conductor

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