33.

1989 Fundamentals Handbook

Allowances for expected decreases in capacity are sometimes

treated as a specific amount (percentage). Dawson and Bowman
(1933) added an allowance of 150Jo friction loss to new pipe
(equivalent to an 8% decrease in capacity). Hennington, Durham,
and Richardson (1981) increased the friction Joss by 15 to 20% for
closed piping systems and 75 to 90% for open systems. Carrier
(1960) indicates a factor of approximately 1.75 between friction
factors for closed and open systems.
Obrecht and Pourbaix (1%7) differentiated between the corrosive
potential of different metals in potable water systems and concluded
that iron is the most severely attacked, then galvanized steel, lead,
copper, and finally copper alloys (i.e. brass). Hunter (1941) and
Feeman (1941) showed the same trend. After four years of cold and
hot water use, copper pipe had a capacity loss of 25 to 65%. Aged
ferrous pipe has a capacity loss of 40to 80%. Smith (1983) recommended increasing the design dischange by 1.55 for uncoated cast
iron, 1.08 for iron and steel, and 1.06 for cement or concrete.
The Plastic Pipe Institute (1971) found that corrosion is not a
problem in plastic pipe, the capacity of plastic pipe used in Europe
and the United States remaining essentially the same after 30 years
in use.
Extensive age-related flow data are available for use with the
Hazen-Williams empirical equation. Difficulties arise in its application, however, because the original Hazen-Williams roughness coefficients are valid only for the specific pipe diameters,
water velocities, and water viscosities used in the original experiments. Th us, when the Cs are extended to different diameters,
velocities, and/or water viscosities, errors of up to about 50% in
pipe capacity can occur (Williams and Hazen 1933, Sanks 1978).

Water Hammer
When any moving fluid (not just water) is abruptly stopped as
when a valve closes suddenly, large pressures can develop. While
detailed analysis requires knowledge of the elastic properties of
the pipe and the flow-time history, the limiting case of rigid pipe
and instantaneous closure is simple to calculate. Under these
condjtions,
(9)

where
pressure rise caused by water hammer, lbr/ft 2
e = fluid density, lbn/ ft 3
cs = velocity of sound in the fluid, ft/ s
V = fluid flow velocity, ft/s

Ph

c, for water is 4720 ft / s, although the elasticity of the pipe

reduces the effective value.

Example 3. What is the maximum pressure ri se if water flowing at 10

ft/s is stopped instantaneously?
Solution: Ph = 62.4 x 4720 x 10/ 32.2 = 91468 lb/ ft 2
= 635 psi

Other Considerations
Not discussed in detail in this chapter, but of potentially great
importance are a number of physical and chemical considerations:
pipe and fitting design, materials, and joining methods must be
appropriate for working pressures and temperatures encountered,
as well as b~ing suitably resistant to chemical attack by the fluid .

Other Piping Materials and Fluids

For fluids not included in this chapter or for piping materials
of different dimensions, manufacturer's literature frequently supplies pressure drop charts. The Darcy-Weisbach equation and the
Moody chart or the Colebrook equation can be used as an alternative to pressure drop charts or tables.

HOI AND CHILLED WATER PIPE SIZING

The Darcy-Weisbach equation with friction factors from the
Moody chart or Colebrook equation (or, alternatively, the HazenWilliams equation) is fundamental to calculating pressure drop
in hot and chilled water piping; however, charts calculated from
these equations (such as Figures I, 2, and 3) provide easy determination of pressure drops for specific fluids and pipe standards.
In addition, tables of pressure drops can be found in Hydraulic
Institute (1979) and Crane Co. (1976).
Most tables and charts for water are calculated for properties
at 60 F. Using these for hot water introduces some error, although
the answers are conservative; i.e. , cold water calculations overstate
the pressure drop for hot water. Using 60 F water charts for 200 F
water should not result in errors in !J.p exceeding 20%.

Range of Usage of Pressure Drop Charts

General Design Range. The general range of pipe friction Joss
used for design of hydronic systems is between I and 4 ft/ 100 ft.
A value of 2.5 ft/100 ft represents the mean to which most systems
are designed. Wider ranges may be used in specific designs, if certain precautions are taken.
Piping Noise. Closed loop hydronic system piping is generally
sized below certain arbitrary upper limits, such as a velocity limit
of 4 fps for 2-in. pipe and under, and a pressure drop limit of 4 ft

30

II

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2000 300l

FLOW RATE , U.S. gal/min

Fig. 1

Friction Loss for Water in Commercial Stee Pipe (Schedule 40)

10000

40000 10000

Pipe Sizing

33.5

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SIZES:
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FLOW RATE, U.S. gal/min

Fig. 2

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Friction Loss for Water in Copper Thbing (Types K, L, M)

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WATER &0 DEG.F.

NOUINAL Pff SIZES

SCHEDULE80
PLASTIC PIPE
I
I

2000 3000 5000

FLOW RATE, U.S. gal/min

I. The chart is based on straight tees, i.e. branches A, 8, and C are the same size.
2. Pressure loss in desired circuit is obtained by selecting proper curve according

to illustrations, determining the flow at the circles branch , and multiplying the
pressure loss for the same size elbow at the flow rate in the circled branch by the
equivalent elbows indicated.

Fig. 3

3. When the size of an outlet is reduced, the equivalent elbows shown in the chart
do not apply. Therefore, the maximum loss for any circuit for any flow will not exceed 2 elbow equivalents at the maximum flow (gpm) occurring in any branch of
the tee.
4. The top curve of the chart is the average of 4 curves, one for each of the tee cir
cuits illustrated.

Friction Loss for Water in Plastic Pipe (Schedule 80)

per 100ft for piping over 2-in. diameter. Velocities in excess of 4

ftls can be used in piping oflarger size. This limitation is generally
accepted, although it is based on relatively inconclusive experience
wi th noise in piping. Water velocity noise is not caused by water
but by free air, sharp pressure drops, turbulence, or a combination of these, which in turn cause cavitation or flashing of water
into steam . Therefore, higher velocities may be used if proper
precautions are taken to eliminate air and turbulence.

Air Separation
Because piping noise can be caused by free air, the hydronic
;ystem must be equipped with air separation devices to minimize

the amoun t of entrained air in the piping circuit. Air should be

vented at the highest point of the sytem .
In the absence of such venting, air can be entrained in the water
and carried to separation units at flow velocities of 1.5 to 2 ft / s
or more in pipe sizes 2 in. and under. Minimum velocities of 2 ft/s
are therefore recommended. For pipe sizes 2 in. and over,
minimum velocities corresponding to a head loss of 0.75 ft / 100
ft are normally used. Maintenance of minimum velocities is particularly important in the upper floors of high-rise buildings when
the air tends to come out of solution because of the reduced
pressures. Higher velocities should be used in down-comer return
main s feeding into air separation units located in the basement.