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Clapping
on the
Backbeat
Ethan Hein
Research question
To what degree do people know
that they are supposed to clap on
the backbeat along with the
blues and music like it? Does
musical training or practice
correlate with knowledge of the
backbeat clapping convention?
Hypothesis
Clapping on the backbeat of
dance-oriented 4/4 rhythms
strongly correlates with musical
training and experience in music
of the African diaspora: jazz,
rock, blues, funk, R&B, hip-hop
and related styles. Clapping on
the backbeat correlates weakly
with training and experience in
other musical idioms.
The backbeat originated in Dixieland jazz, country and gospel music. It has
since become ubiquitous throughout American and global popular music.
While accenting weak beats was a common device in American popular
music throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the term backbeat
did not enter common usage until the advent of rock and roll in the early
1950sappropriately enough, since the backbeat is a foundational
component of rock.
Procedure
Participants filled out questionnaires
asking them to self-evaluate their degree of
sophistication with African diasporic music
and music generally. They then clapped to
a series of breakbeats representative of
contemporary dance music. The beats were
looped continuously in Ableton Live 8.
Participants were told to clap along in
whatever way they felt to make the most
musical sense. Their performances were
recorded via a Macbook Pros built-in
microphone into Live. The experimenter
stopped recording when the participant
was observed to be clapping in a stable
pattern. The drum loops were presented in
a mostly random order, with exception of
the the most complex break. This was
presented last, out of concern that
participants would be discouraged by it.
Methodology
The twenty-two study participants were
New York City residents between
twenty and forty years old, spanning a
broad variety of nationalities and
cultural backgrounds. Most had formal
musical experience and training, some
up to the professional level, but effort
was made to include non-musicians as
well. The stimuli were breakbeats
chosen on the basis of their familiarity to
even casual listeners of contemporary
backbeat-driven African diasporic
music. All are in 4/4 time at medium to
fast dance tempi. Their instrumentation
is limited to standard drum kit, except
for Take Me to the Mardi Gras, which
adds bells and found sounds. The
breakbeats are listed below in order of
increasing complexity.
Billie Jean
This two-bar drum pattern opens a little-known 1973 song by the Honey
Drippers. Despite the source recordings obscurity, the breakbeat is one of
the most common samples in hip-hop. It has appeared in songs by Audio
Two, Eric B. and Rakim, Big Daddy Kane, Biz Markie, Slick Rick, Nice &
Smooth, De La Soul, Mary J. Blige, Digable Planets, Notorious B.I.G. and the
Wu-Tang Clan, among many others.
The opening to Bob James 1975 instrumental version of Paul Simon's song
"Take Me to the Mardi Gras" combines a funk beat, an agog bell pattern
and some sampled radio chatter. This break is best known as the basis for
"Peter Piper" by Run-DMC, and has also been sampled by LL Cool J, the
Beastie Boys, Missy Elliott, Common and the Wu-Tang Clan. It is distinctive
in its blend of traditional Afro-Caribbean rhythm, American funk and
musique concrte.
"The Funky Drummer Parts One and Two" by James Brown and the JBs,
recorded in 1969, was not well known until the first generation of hip-hop
producers discovered Clyde Stubblefield's drum break. In 1986, Polydor
released In The Jungle Groove, a compilation featuring the hard-edged,
open-ended grooves preferred by hip-hop listeners. It was the first album
release of "The Funky Drummer Parts One and Two" and also included a
sampling-friendly remix of the break, "Funky Drummer (Bonus Beat
Reprise)." The break has since appeared in uncountably many hip-hop,
dance, pop and rock songs.
Amen, Brother
There are few sounds more important to electronic dance music than
Gregory Cylvester Coleman's drum break in "Amen Brother" by the
Winstons, an obscure B-side to the minor hit "Color Him Father." Since the
Amen break began to appear in hip-hop songs in the early 1980s, it has
become ubiquitous throughout all styles of electronic dance music. In
particular, the beats in the Drum n Bass genre consist almost entirely of
reshuffled and altered versions of the Amen break. The break has crossed
over into the popular mainstream as well, even appearing in television
theme songs and commercials.
The questionnaires were adapted from Mllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Stewart,
L. & Musil, J. (2011). The Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI):
Technical Report and Documentation v0.9. London: Goldsmiths, University of
London. Unless otherwise specified, question response choices were:
1. Completely Disagree
5. Agree
2. Strongly Disagree
6. Strongly Agree
3. Disagree
7. Completely Agree
4. Neither Agree nor Disagree
For the purposes of the questionnaire, African diasporic music includes but is
not limited to the following genres and their subgenres.
Blues
Gospel (spirituals)
Jazz (ragtime, swing, bebop, free/avant-garde, fusion, Latin, bossa)
Country (bluegrass, zydeco)
R&B (doo-wop, soul, funk, disco)
Rock (rockabilly, punk, indie, metal)
Afro-Caribbean (son, rumba, salsa and merengue, calypso, soca, etc.)
Reggae (ska, dub, dancehall)
Electronic dance music (electro, house, techno, drum n bass, dubstep, etc.)
Hip-Hop
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
g.
10 or more
c.
1
d.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
g.
10 or more
c.
1
d.
Results
This image shows Take Me to the Mardi Gras and the first few recorded responses.
The top waveform is the stimulus. The tracks below show three participants
clapping on the backbeats, followed by one clapping on the strong beats.
The majority of
participants clapped
consistently on the
backbeats. Contrary to
expectation, the beat to
receive the next most
claps was not the
downbeat; rather, beat
three received slightly
more claps. This may
indicate a slight
preference for the
hyper-backbeat,
considering a measure
to be two bars of four.
Amen, Brother
16!
14!
12!
10!
8!
6!
4!
2!
0!
1
Billie Jean
18!
16!
14!
12!
10!
8!
6!
4!
2!
0!
African diasporic
musical sophistication
score
107
105
110
58
68
77
104
105
89
55
107
106
96
100
105
86
87
87
49
37
General musical
sophistication
score
95
99
105
57
67
76
103
107
92
57
112
111
101
107
117
96
99
115
95
90
Ratio of African
diasporic to general
Backbeat
sophistication
clapping
scores
score
1.13
5
1.06
10
1.05
10
1.02
10
1.01
8
1.01
6
1.01
7
0.98
10
0.97
9
0.96
1
0.96
10
0.95
3
0.95
10
0.93
10
0.90
10
0.90
10
0.88
6
0.76
8
0.52
1
0.41
3
86.90
95.05
0.92
7.35
22.33
17.80
0.17
3.20
A comparison of
participants musical
sophistication scores
to their backbeat
clapping scores shows
significant variation
from the mean. The
noisiness of the
results is most likely
the result of the
questionnaires
intrinsic subjectivity.
Subject
number
7593
2423
3926
2524
6147
7767
2415
7098
849
7155
285
2683
5094
2982
675
4378
9876
5406
2630
5769
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Ratio of African
diasporic musical
sophistication score to
backbeat clapping score
21.40
10.50
11.00
5.80
8.50
12.83
14.86
10.50
9.89
55.00
10.70
35.33
9.60
10.00
10.50
8.60
14.50
10.88
49.00
12.33
Ratio of general
musical
sophistication score
to backbeat clapping
score
19.00
9.90
10.50
5.70
8.38
12.67
14.71
10.70
10.22
57.00
11.20
37.00
10.10
10.70
11.70
9.60
16.50
14.38
95.00
30.00
16.59
20.25
13.64
21.35
A graph showing lines of best fit through scatter plots of the compared musical
sophistication and backbeat clapping scores reveals an unambiguous positive
correlation between both African diasporic and general musical sophistication scores
and backbeat clapping scores. Furthermore, as expected, the correlation is stronger
for African diasporic musical sophistication than for general musical sophistication.
African Diasporic Music Sophistication Score
vs Backbeat Clapping Score
10!
9!
8!
7!
6!
5!
4!
3!
2!
1!
0!
0!
20!
40!
60!
80!
100!
120!
140!
Discussion
Three participants gave particularly interesting results. Subject 2524 self-reported
the lowest general musical aptitude of any participant, yet clapped consistently
and strongly on the backbeat in all five trials. In an informal discussion after the
experiment had concluded, she described her upbringing in a black church in
Brooklyn. In this context, she experienced the backbeat as the only natural place
to clap. She expressed surprise upon learning that clapping on strong beats is
quite common. Indeed, in the course of the conversation, she consistently used the
term off beat to refer to beats one and three, which, while technically incorrect,
is a testament to the depth of her internalization of the backbeat tradition.
On the opposite side of the spectrum, subject 2630 clapped clearly and confidently
on the strong beats in all five trials, the only participant to do so. Tellingly, her
ratio of African diasporic to general musical sophistication was the second lowest
of any participant. Even though her general musical sophistication score was
almost precisely equal to the median, her African diasporic sophistication score
was among the lowest of all participants. In a conversation after the experiment,
the participant described her most significant participatory music experience,
childhood piano lessons in the western classical music idiom.
References
Baraka, A. (1963). Blues People: Negro Music in White America. New
York: Quill.
Baur, S. (2012). Backbeat. The Grove Dictionary of American Music,
2nd edition.
Bispham, J. (2006). Rhythm in Music: What is it? Who has it? And
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Butterfield, M. (2011). Why Do Jazz Musicians Swing Their Eighth
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Butterfield, M. (2010). The Power of Anacrusis: Engendered Feeling in
Groove-Based Musics. Music Theory Online, 12 (4).
Fitch, W. T., & Rosenfeld, A. J. (2007). Perception and Production of
Syncopated Rhythms. Music Perception, 25(1), 4358.
Grahn, J. A., & Brett, M. (2007). Rhythm and Beat Perception in Motor
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Greenwald, J. (2002) Hip-Hop Drumming: The Rhyme May Define,
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