Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz area of spectrum and provides a range of 10 metres.

It offers
transfer speeds of around 720 Kbps.

CDMA stands for Code

Radio communication uses electrical energy to transmit information. Radio

Division Multiple Access which uses digital format. In CDMA

systems several transmissions via the radio interface take place simultaneously
on the same frequency bandwidth. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology .

transmitter converts audio (sound) signals to electrical signals that are sent over wires or
through space. A radio receiver converts the electromagnetic waves so that the information can
be found out.

Range of Audio Frequency?

20Hz to 20 KHz

Range of Radio Frequency?

10 KHz to 1000GHz.

Harmonics is the signals with frequencies that are an integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency.

What is the range of frequency in commercial AM broadcasting?

540 KHz to 1600 KHz has a 10 KHz bandwidth.

Modulation index (m) is the ratio between the amplitude of the message signal to the amplitude
of the unmodulated carrier signal.

Frequency deviation the maximum frequency change between a modulated and unmodulated
carrier signal.

Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) an oscillator that uses an input voltage to control its output
frequency.

PLLs are used in FM and AM demodulation because they do not require complex coil
adjustments.

noise is an unwanted signal that will disturb the transmission or processing of signals in
communication systems.

A shot noise arises from the discrete nature of diodes and transistors.

A thermal noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a conductor.

A noise is white if its PSD (Power Spectral Density) equals constant for all frequencies.

Multiplexing is method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are
combined into one signal.

JK flip-flop is used in this type of keying in order to separate the even an odd bits according to
the digital inputs.

AM is used for video signals for example TV.

FM is used for audio signals for example Radio.

When you talk into a mobile telephone it converts the sound of your voice to radiofrequency
energy (radio waves). The radio waves are transmitted through the air to a nearby base station.
The base station then sends the call through the telephone network until it reaches the person
you are calling.

Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless network,
and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the wireless network.

The life span of the satellite is about 15 years.

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight
simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency. TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into
time slots and then allocating slots to multiple calls. In this way, a single frequency can support
multiple, simultaneous data channels.

Full duplex refers to the transmission of data in two directions simultaneously.

walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can transmit at a time.

why modulation is required?

Signal with low frequencies cannot travel longer distance.
To make msg signal or voice signal travel longer distance.
To increase the signal to noise ratio.

In analog modulation bandwidth required is low while in digital modulation due to higher bit
rate, heigher channel bandwidth are required.

It is the technique of separating the signal in time is called TDM.

TDM is the process of dividing up one communication time slot into smaller time slots.
OR, It is the techniquve of separating the signal in time is called TDM.

Frequency division multiplexing is the technique of separating the signal in frequency is reffered

as FDM.

In ASK the digital data modulates amplitude of the carrier.

In PSK the digital data modulates the phase of the carrier.

Aliasing effect takes place when sampling frequency is less than Nyquist rate.Under such
condition, the spectrum of the sampled signal overlaps with itself Hence higher frequencies take
the form of lower frequencies. This interference of the frequency components is called as
aliasing effect.

DM encodes the input sample by one bit. It sends the information about + or -,ie step rise or
fall. DPCM can have more than one bit of encoding the sample. It sends the information about
difference between actual sample value and the predicted sample value.

Eye pattern is used to study the effect of ISI in baseband transmission.

1 ) Width of eye opening defines the interval over which the received wave can be sampled
without error from ISI.
2.) The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the
eye as the sampling time is varied.
3.) Height of the eye opening at sampling time is called margin over noise.

Eye pattern can be obtained on CRO by applying the signal to one of the input channels and
given an external trigger of 1/Tb Hz.

In the raised cosine spectrum, the frequency response P(f) decreases towards zero gradually .

The nyquist bandwidth is the minimum transmission bandwidth for zero ISI.

In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier
at the transmitter. The detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and locally
generated carrier. .The coherent detection is a synchronous detection.

ASK is on-off signalling, where as the modulated carrier is continuously transmitted in PSK.
Hence peak power requirement is more ASK, whereas it is reduced in case of PSK.

A baseband signal receiver increases the signal to noise ratio at the instant of sampling. This
reduces the probability of error. The baseband signal receiver is also called optimum receiver.

The matched filter is a baseband signal receiver, which works in presence of white Gaussian
noise. The impulse response of the matched filter is matched to the shape pf the input signal.

Maximum signal to noise ratio is the ratio of energy to psd of white noise. i.e.,
This maximum value occurs at the end of bit duration i.e. Tb.

ax = E/ N /

Correlator is the coherent receiver.

Error probability of matched filter is given as

Pe = 1/2erfcE/No.

Bit error rate for coherent binary FSK is given as,

Pe = 1/2erfc0.6E/No.

MSK signal have continuous phase in all the cases, where as QPSK has phase shift of /2 or .

Error probability of MSK: Pe = 1/2erfcE/No.

Error probability of DPSK: Pe = 1/2e -Eb/No.

BPSK:In BPSK, binary symbol 1 and 0 modulate the phase of the carrier. band width
2Fb.very good noise immunity.coherent detection requires.

DPSK:DPSK is differentially coherent modulation method. It does not need a coherent carrier
at the demodulator. The input sequence of binary bits is modified such that the next bit
depends upon the previous bit. In DPSK the phase of the carrier changes only on symbol
, while i BPK, phase of the arrier get ha ges oth at a d at . o this is the
major difference between DPSK and BPSK.BW=Fb.noise intereference is more.error
propogation is more.

Pseudo noise sequence is a noise like high frequency signal. The sequence is not completely
random, but it is generated by well defined logic. He e it is alled pseudo noise sequence
.Pseudo noise sequences are used in spread spectrm communication for spreading message
signals.

How can a Pseudo Random Noise Code be usable?

1. Sequence must be built from 2 levelled numbers.
2. The codes must have sharp autocorrelation peak to

enable code

synchronization.

3. Codes must have a low cross-correlation value, the

lower it is, more are the number of users which can be allowed in the system.
4. The odes should e
between ones and zeros in code may only be 1.

ala ed i.e. the differe e

in spread spectrum communication the transmitted data sequence occupies much more band
width than the minimum required bandwidth. Special code is used to aspread the bandwidth of
the message signal. This special code is known only to authorized receiver .Hence the
transmitted signal is received only by authorized receiver.Unwanted receivers cannot receive the
signal..Thus spread spectrum communication provides secure transmission of data.

In direct sequence spread spectrum modulation, the pseudo-noise sequence is directly

modulated with data sequence. Thus pseudo-noise sequence acts as high frequency carrier and
data sequence acts as low frequency modulating signal. The pseudo-noise sequence and data
sequence are applied to a product modulator. The output of product modulator can be used
directly or it can further generate BPSK signal for long distance communication.

In frequency hop spread spectrum, the data is transmitted in different frequency slots. These
frequency slots are selected with the help of pseudo-noise sequence. Selection of frequency
slots is called frequency hopping. The bandwidth of frequency hop spread spectrum is very
much large compared to direct sequences spread spectrum. Frequency hop spread spectrum is
of two types: I) slow frequency hopping and ii) fast frequency hopping.

Spread spectrum is used in mobile communications.

Spread spectrum communication are used in distance measurement.
spread spectrum communications are secure. This secrecy capability of spread
spectrum is used in military as well as in many commercial applications.

DS-SS system as best noise performance.

Disadvantages of DS-SS system:1 .It required wideband channel with small phase distortion.
2. The pseudo noise generator should generate sequence at high rates.
3.This system is distance relative.

Advantages of FH-SS System:1 .These systems bandwidth (spreads) are very large.
2. .They can be programmed to avoid some portions of the spectrum.
3.The distance effect is less.

Disadvantages of FH-SS System:They need error correction.

Spread spectrum systems are essentially synchronous. The pseudo noise sequences generated

at the receiver and the transmitted must be same and locked t each other so that the
transmitted signal can be extracted.

Deterministic Signal: Deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no certainty with
respect to its value at any time.

Random signal: Random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty.

DTFT output is continuous in time where as DFT output is Discrete in time.

Nyquist rate = 2W samples/sec.