Volum Afases 2014

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HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA
GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK

ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER

AFASES 2014
Brasov, 22-24 May 2014
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Presidents ship:
Commander Vasile BUCINSCHI, PhD
Brigadier General Boris URKECH, PhD
Members:
Professor Rzvan - Lucian ANDRONIC, PhD
Colonel Mihail ANTON, PhD
Professor Hamid R. ARABNIA, PhD
Brigadier General Ghi BRSAN, PhD
Commander Mircea BOCOIANU, PhD
Professor Gavrila CALEFARIU, PhD
Professor Ivan Menes CAMEJO, Doc
Associate Professor Sergiu CATARANCIUC, PhD
Professor Constantin -Edmond CRACSNER, PhD
Professor Aurel CRIAN, PhD
Researcher Maria DINESCU, PhD
Professor Philippe DONDON, PhD
Professor Constantin DUGULEAN, PhD
Professor Ctlin Marius GHERASIM, PhD
Lecturer Mihaela GURANDA,PhD
Professor Vladimir HORAK, CSc
Professor Maria IOANIDES, PhD

Professor Barry JACKSON, PhD
Professor Yiwen JIANG, PhD
Professor Alexei LEAHU, PhD
Associate Professor Ludovic Dan LEMLE, PhD
Associate Professor Doru LUCULESCU, PhD
Professor Melissa LUKA, PhD
Professor Mircea LUPU, PhD
Associate Professor Jaromir MARES, PhD
Professor Eng. Juraj MIEK, PhD
Colonel (GS) Pavel NECAS, PhD
Professor tefan NEDELCU, PhD
Professor Victor Valeriu PATRICIU, PhD
Professor Marian PEARSICA, PhD
Pofessor tefan-Gheorghe PENTIUC, PhD
Associate Professor Anca PETRE, PhD
Professor Ciprian Ioan RULEA, PhD
Professor Gherman A. DE LA REZA, PhD
Professor Daniela ROSCA,PhD
Commander Eng. Constantin ROTARU, PhD
Assistant Professor Ozgur Koray SAHINGOZ, PhD
Commander Professor Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, PhD
Professor Florentin SMARANDACHE, PhD
Professor Milan SOPOCI, PhD
Colonel Professor Robert SZABOLCSI, PhD
Professor Alex STEFAN, PhD
Professor Maria TUDOR, PhD
Professor Corneliu UDREA, PhD
Professor Petrica VIZUREANU, PhD
Professor Joseph ZARKA, PhD
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
President:
LTC Laurian GHERMAN,PhD
Members:
Prof. Ion DINESCU, PhD
Capt. Cmd. Ionica CRCIU, PhD
Maj. Cornel ARAM, PhD
Lt.col. Danut BLOS
Lt.col. Cristian ENE
WO. Vasile PRISACARIU
Assist. Prof. Liliana MIRON, PhD
Assist. Prof. Constantin STRMBU, PhD
Assist. Prof. Cristian CONSTANTINESCU, PhD
Maj. Ctlin CIOAC, PhD
Math. Carmen URSOIU
Assist. Prof. Math. Gheorghe RADU, PhD
Assist. Prof Mihaela GURANDA, PhD
Assist. Prof Mihaela SMEADA, PhD
Assoc. Prof. Diana ILIOI, PhD
Assist. Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU
Assist. Daniela NAGY
Logistics:
Col Dumitru DINU
Maj Bogdan CHIOSEAUA
Lt Cosmin TTULESCU
WO Marian MIHALACHE
Secretariat:
Maj Criste RU
Capt. Roxana ANTOCHE
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
CONTENTS
Pag
AIR FORCE
Drago Cristian ACHIEI, Petric VIZUREANU, Mirabela Georgiana MINCIUN,
Bogdan ISTRATE, Andrei Victor SANDU
PHASES ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CuAlMnFe
ALLOY
Vladimr BEO, Frantiek ADAMK Jr
UNMANNED COMBAT AIR VEHICLE: MQ-9 REAPER
Oliver CIUIC, Marcel PREDESCU, Eduard MIHAI
PLAYING WITH THE SAFETY DUE TO LACK OF RESOURCES
Ionic CRCIU , Andrei LUCHIAN
THEORETICAL ASPECTS RELATED TO FLIGHT SAFETY SYSTEMS IN EARLY
WARNING AIR TRAFFIC CONFLICT
Ion DINESCU, Gabi MOLDOVAN, Ovidiu MOSOIU
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REGARDING THE MANUFACTURING
OF THE ANTI FRICTION MATERIALS USED IN AERONAUTIC
CONSTRUCTIONS
Adrian-Ioan LI, Ioan PLOTOG, Lidia DOBRESCU
MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR MINI-UAV
CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING
Doru LUCULESCU
THE DRIVELINE ANALYSIS OF HYPER SUSTENTATION DEVICES
Eduard MIHAI
PRECISION APROACH SYSTEM BASED ON GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
SYSTEM
Alexandra PALLA PAPAVLU, Fabio DI PIETRANTONIO, Domenico CANNAT,
Massimiliano BENETTI, Enrico VERONA, Valentina DINCA, Thomas LIPPERT,
Maria DINESCU
GAS SENSORS FABRICATED BY LASER-INDUCED FORWARD TRANSFER
Manuela-Cristina PERJU, Petric VIZUREANU, Carmen NEJNERU
THE STUDY OF ENERGY TRANSFER ON THIN LAYERS ACHIEVED BY
ELECTRO-SPARK DEPOSITION WITH TiC ELECTRODE
Vasile PRISACARIU, Andrei LUCHIAN
THE AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Marius RADULESCU, Vasile SANDRU
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE LIFE EXTENSION PROGRAMS BY TECHNICAL
RESOURCE RENEWAL APPLIED TO THE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES
13
19
25
31
35
41
47
53
57
65
69
77
Constantin ROTARU, Pericle Gabriel MATEI, Raluca Ioana EDU,

Mihai ANDRES-MIHIL
UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC MODEL FOR AN AIRFOIL WITH TIME
DEPENDENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Ctlin-Andrei UGUI, Petric VIZUREANU, Drago Cristian ACHIEI,
Ion PALAMARCIUC, Andrei-Victor SANDU
THE ANALYSIS OF THE ALLOY AlCu4Mg1,5Mn USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF UTILITY AIRCRAFTS
Jarosaw KOZUBA, Adam BONDARUK
FLIGHT SIMULATOR AS AN ESSENTIAL DEVICE SUPPORTING THE PROCESS
OF SHAPING PILOT'S SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
83
97
695
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICAL ENGINEERING

Alexandru BALICA, Mihai MIJEA, Florin SANDU
MOBILE APPLICATION FOR BUSINESS CONTROL OF
TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES
Otilia CROITORU
CODE ACQUISITION WITH DOUBLE CORRELATOR IN DSSS RECEIVERS
Vasile DOBREF, Alexandru SOTIR, Octavian TRBU, Ctlin CLINCI
HIGH POWER ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS FOR MILITARY APPLICATIONS
Adrian-Ioan LI, Ioan PLOTOG, Lidia DOBRESCU
MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR MINI-UAV
CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING
Gheorghe MORARIU, Ecaterina Liliana MIRON
FRACTAL SECTOR ANTENNA WITH RESONATORS
ARRANGED IN A SQUARE SHAPE
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, Serghei RADU, Florentiu DELIU, Raluca MATES
THE ANALISYS OF NAVAL ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS USING SOFTWARE
PROGRAMS
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, Radu SERGHEI, Floreniu DELIU, Laura CIZER
RULES FOR LIMITING RISK EXPOSURE OF THE HUMAN BODY TO
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Constantin STRIMBU
ABOUT SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS OPERATION
103
109
117
121
127
133
141
149
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

Daniel BOSNICEANU, Marian VATAVU
SOME ASPECTS ABOUT AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES RELIABILITY
Aurel CRIAN, Ioan CIOBANU, Daniela IONESCU, Maria STOICNESCU
COMPUTER SIMULATION BASED COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE
SOLIDIFICATION OF A CAST IRON AND STEEL CASTING
Melih Cemal KUHAN, Selim GRGEN, Tolga NALIR, Sinem EVK
A NOVEL APPROACH FOR ARMOR APPLICATIONS OF SHEAR THICKENING
FLUIDS IN AVIATION AND DEFENSE INDUSTRY
153
157
165
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Marin MARINOV, Zhivo PETROV

AN APPROACH FOR STATIC CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETER MMA8451Q
Marin MARINOV, Zhivo PETROV
ALLAN VARIANCE ANALYSIS ON ERROR CHARACTERS OF LOW-COST MEMS
ACCELEROMETER MMA8451Q
Marian MITROI, Cornel ARAM
ON BOARD DIAGNOSIS IMPLICATIONS ON THE VIABILITY OF MILITARY
PATROL AND INTERVENTION VEHICLES
Marius Nicolae MOLDOVEANU, Cornel ARAM
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF THE ONBOARD HYDROGEN SUPPLY EQUIPMENT ON THE ENGINES COMBUSTION
Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTI, Remus BOBOESCU
ASPECTS OF THE POWER BALANCE FOR LASER CUTTING PROCESS
Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTI, Remus BOBOESCU
STRUCTURED DESCRIPTION FOR OXYGEN ASSISTED LASER CUTTING
PROCESS
Adrian PETRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA
WOOD PROCESSING BY LASER TOOLS
COLOUR MEASUREMENT USING DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS
Camelia PITULICE, Ioan GIACOMELLI, Maria STOICANESCU
THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT AND SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE WEAR
RESISTANCE OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
Camelia PITULICE, Adriana ZARA, Nicoleta TORODOC, George VASILE
ESEM AND X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRA OF TITANIUM ALLOY IN DIFFERENT
STRUCTURAL STATUS
Fulga TANAS, Mdlina ZNOAG, Raluca DARIE
EVALUATION OF STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES
OF SOME NEW POLYMER-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE AND
DEFENCE APPLICATIONS
Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A JET ENGINE
WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMPRESSOR
Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE
WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMBUSTOR
Mdlina ZNOAG, Fulga TANAS
COMPLEX TEXTILE STRUCTURES AS REINFORCEMENT FOR ADVANCED
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
175
179
185
191
197
205
213
221
227
233
241
251
259
267
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Bogdan CIORUA, Mirela COMAN, Andrei-Alin CIORUA
STUDYING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMATICS AND HAZARDS WITH HELP
OF INFORMATICS APPLICATIONS (SEPHIA)
Bogdan CIORUA, Mirela COMAN
THE IDEA OF IMPLEMENTING A MATHEMATICS PLATFORM FOR ANDROID
DEVICES WITH HELP OF APP INVENTOR
Tatiana GRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA
ECONOMICS CONSIDERATION ON WOODEN BIOMASS CONSUMPTION
Aurel LUNGULEASA
HYGROSCOPICITY OF CHIPBOARD VERSUS SOLID WOOD
Raluca NICOLAE (MANESCU), Anisor NEDELCU
UTILIZATION OF TECHNICAL INNOVATION ON A NEW PRODUCT
MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS TO SUPPORT FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT IN ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Ramona PAKOCS
QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPLIED THROUGH QFD METHOD
Ramona PAKOCS, Noura Barbu LUPULESCU
RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK TYPE ANALYSIS SPECIFIC TO
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN INDUSTRIAL PROFILE COMPANIES
275
279
283
291
297
301
305
311
APPLIED MATHEMATICS, COMPUTER SCIENCE, IT&C

Irina Carmen ANDREI
INVESTIGATION OF SWEEP APPLIED TO ROTATING AXIAL CASCADES AND
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF FLOW
Cristina Sanda CISMAIU
AN APPLICATION TO Mastroianni OPERATORS
Mihaela DUMITRACHE, Camelia GHELDIU
THE EQUATION OF DISPERSION AND THE DISPLACEMENT VECTOR IN THE
SYMMETRIC CASE
Gabriela MOGOS
BUILDING A HYBRID SECURE SOCKET LAYER PROTOCOL
Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU
ON THE MAX PARETO
POWER SERIES DISTRIBUTION
Mihai Lica PURA
USER AUTHENTICATION TO A WEB SITE USING FINGERPRINTS
Mihai Lica PURA, Victor Valeriu PATRICIU
IDENTITY-BASED CHRYPTOGRAPHY: FROM PROPOSALS TO EVERYDAY USE
Paul VASILIU
AN ASYMPTOTIC PROPERTY OF THE MERGING ALGORITHM
Paulina VLEZ, Antonio FERREIRO
SOCIAL ROBOT IN ATTENTIONAL THERAPIES
317
325
331
335
341
347
353
361
365
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
MANAGEMENT
Arina CIUREA, Anior NEDELCU
ANALYSIS OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES USED FOR TOTAL
QUALITY MANAGEMENT. APPLICABILITY AND IMPLICATIONS IN THE
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
Gherasim Solovestru DOMIDE, Alexandru DOMIDE
VEHICLE DAMAGE PROFIT DECREASE FACTOR FOR THE ROMANIAN
INSURANCE MARKET
Constantin DUGULEAN, Steliana BUSUIOCEANU
AUTOREGRESSIVE MODELS USED IN THE STUDY OF
LABOR MARKET
Liliana DUGULEAN, Constantin DUGULEAN
CHANGES IN TOP 10 EUROPEAN BRAND CORPORATIONS DURING THE
ECONOMIC CRISIS
Flavia FECHETE, Anisor NEDELCU
ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF A ORGANIZATION USING
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
Alexandru Florin MGUREANU
FEW ASPECTS REGARDING THE PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION IN THE EU
Alexandru Florin MAGUREANU , Ioan TEFU
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ARMED CONFLICTS IN NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
Mria PETRUFOV Eva RVAYOV
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF MANAGER AS BASED ASSUMPTION OF
MANAGER COMPETENCES IN AIR FORCE ACADEMY CONDITIONS
Ioan PITICAR
THE INTERALLIED CONFEDERATION OF RESERVE OFFICERS- CIOR, AND
PERSPECTIVE OF RELATION WITH EX-SOVIET UNION (E-SU) STATES IN THE
CONTEXT OF CRIMEA CRISIS.
ROLES OF THE PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS AND MILITIA OF ETHNIC
MINORITIES IN THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY TURBULENCE THEATRE
Marian SFETCU
ANALYSIS OF THE POSSIBILITY OF PROVIDING A COMPLEX MOTIVATIONAL
SYSTEM FOR PUBLIC INTERNAL AUDITORS BY MANAGEMENT
Ioan UNEA, Grigore VASILIU, Simona SPIRIDON
BEYOND THE FAST-FOOD MODEL OF EDUCATION. IS THE SCHOOL
CAPABLE TO FOSTER CREATIVITY?
Ioan UNEA, Grigore VASILIU, Simona SPIRIDON
THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE
ROMANIAN STRATEGY FOR RDI
9
369
375
381
387
397
403
407
411
423
431
441
447
SOCIO AND HUMANITIES

Anca ANDRONIC
OPEN DISTANCE EDUCATION NEW CHALLENGES
Rzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC
DEFINITION OF VOLUNTEERING IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
Rzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC
VOLUNTEERING: THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND PERSONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Cristiana BALAN
PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF MORAL EDUCATION IN DETENTION
Cristiana BALAN
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING IN IMPROVING BEHAVIORAL
DYSFUNCTIONS IN RECIDIVIST CRIMINALS
Angela BOGLU
EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT IN A DEMOCRATIC PERSPECTIVE
Angela BOGLU
FORMING THE EMPATHIC CAPACITY OF THE TEACHERS
Viorel CONSTANTINESCU
MOBBING: PSYCHOLOGICAL TERROR IN THE WORKPLACE
Georgiana CORCACI
RELEVANT PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR SUCCESS
Camelia Maria DINDELEGAN
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE PROGNOSIS OF
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Camelia DINDELEGAN, Florina SERAC-POPA
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE AT STRESS LEVEL
PERCEIVED BY THE PEOPLE DIAGNOSED WITH DEPRESSION
Mihaela GURANDA
THE ANALYSES OF SIGNIFICANT CHANGES
IN THE FIELD OF PROFESSIONAL CAREER
Ramona HENTER, Elena Simona INDREICA
REFLECTIVE JOURNAL WRITING AS A METACOGNITVE TOOL
Elena HURJUI
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS IN THE
WORK OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELLOR
Elena HURJUI
COUNSELING OF CHILDREN COMING FROM DISADVANTAGED
ENVIRONMENTS TO PREVENT FAILURE AND AVOID SCHOOL
ABANDONEMENT
Diana ILIOI
IMPACT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVES
Nicoleta LIOIU
TRAINING PROGRAMS APPROACHES IN THE CONTEXT OF ADULT
EDUCATION. CASE STUDY ON A TRAINING PROGRAM IN DEVELOPING
ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCES
10
453
457
461
465
471
477
489
497
501
509
519
527
533
541
547
553
559
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Roxana Viorica MAIER

THE EDUCATIONAL PARTNERSHIP THE PARENT-STUDENT-TEACHER
RELATIONSHIP
Roxana MAIER, Angela BLOGU
PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION- A PREMISE FOR A HARMONIOUS
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Loredana MANASIA, Alina BOZON
THE EFFECTIVE TRIAD: IMPACT, DIGITAL CONTENT AND ADULT
EDUCATION. A CASE STUDY APPROACH
Aurelia MORARU
IMPLICATION OF PARENTAL AGGRESSION IN CHILDREN PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
Aurelia MORARU, Adina MORARU
THE TEENAGERS AND YOUNG BEHAVIOUR, DETERMINATION AND SELFADJUSTING VALUES
Daniela NAGY
INSTANCES OF FEMINITY IN THE NOVEL VOICA, BY DE HENRIETTE
YVONNE STAHL
Gabriela Carmen OPROIU
A STUDY ON THE TRAINING AND FORMATION NEEDS OF TEACHING STAFF
IN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES
Maria Dorina PACA
THE IMPORTANCE OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
Mihaela PUNESCU, Clara Maria NEACSU
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF PILOT ACTIVITY
Aurora SIMIGIU
A PREGNANT TEENAGER. ASSESSMENT, DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION 15
YEARS LATER
Constantin-Ioan STAN, Ecaterina CEPOI
CHALLENGES OF IRAQI INTELLIGENCE IN POST-SADDAM ERA
Mihaela Alina STATE
DEATH IN THE ROMANIAN CULTURE
CASE STUDY PRESENTATION/ ADLERIAN APPROACH
Marilena TICUSAN
COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION, RECIPROCITY IN THE PARENT-CHILD
RELATIONSHIP
11
565
571
577
585
589
603
609
615
619
625
631
639
647
Marilena TICUSAN
SCHOOL DROPOUT IN CURENT SOCIETY
Otilia Anca TODOR
THE ROLE OF THE FEUERSTEIN INSTRUMENTAL ENRICHMENT PROGRAM
IN THE SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Otilia Anca TODOR
COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND R. FEUERSTEINS CONCEPT ON MEDIATED
LEARNING
Florin VANCEA
PERSONALITY, IDENTITY AND PSYCHIC MATURITY
Petronela Sorina VRBAN, Florin Marian ANTONESCU
INMATES PERCEPTION, MOTIVATION AND FEELINGS TOWARDS SCHOOL
ON EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED IN GIURGIU PRISON
Loredana VCU
BECOMING A PSYCHOTHERAPIST
Corina Mihaela ZAHARIA, Grigore DUMITRU
BioSpecter PSYCHOMETRIC SYSTEM OR EXPERT SYSTEM OF PERSONALITY
EVALUATION
12
653
659
665
671
677
685
689
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
PHASES ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

CuAlMnFe ALLOY
Drago Cristian ACHIEI*, Petric VIZUREANU*, Mirabela Georgiana MINCIUN*,

Bogdan ISTRATE**, Andrei Victor SANDU*
*Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iai, Romania,
** Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iai, Romania,
Abstract: The paper presents a study on alloy CuAlMnFe, analyzed in terms of phases and structural
aspects and physical and mechanical properties, after some heat treatments like annealing, quenching
and tempering.
Keywords: aluminum bronzes, micro-hardness, constituents
1. INTRODUCTION
The properties of cast alloys are dependent

on the chemical composition and structure.
The introduction of one or more alloying
elements in the metal alloy can be obtained for
various compositions, structures and properties
that will be suitable for technical purposes.
Forming the non-ferrous alloys is
influenced by development conditions and the
configuration of the parts and on the casting
and cooling thereof.
The most important copper alloys are
brasses, bronzes and copper alloys - nickel zinc.
Bronzes are characterized by good
mechanical properties, superior castability and
good corrosion resistance.
Alloying elements contained in a bronze
may have influence on the properties:
13
Aluminum - improves castability and

plasticity.
Silicon - increases the fluidity.
Manganese - improves elasticity and
electrical resistance.
Lead - improves plasticity and antifriction properties.
Nickel - increases the mechanical
strength and electrical resistivity.
Beryllium and titanium - add further
strength.
Table 1
Applications of aluminum bronzes
AIR FORCE
Valve case for

railway industry
[3]
Bearing pivoting
for medical
applications[3]
ne na 3 2 ;
- phase - is formed on the basis of a novel
compound of formula Cu32Al19 electronic and
electronic concentration and the changes in the
ordering phenomena due to solid state at
780...870C [1,9] .
phase stable at high temperature
undergoes
eutectoid
decomposition
temperature of 570 C and 11.8 % Al :
570 C
'.
Clutch
components for
ship winch system
[4]
Rough-cast wheel
gearbox [4]
Fittings [7]
Spare parts [5]
Fig.1. Cu-Al equilibrium diagram [2].
Valve case for

railway machines
[3]
Six propeller
blades used to
propel the ship. It
weighs 107 tons
and is 9.1 meters
in diameter [6].
Aluminum bronze are alloys of copper aluminum containing up to 15 % Al , which

may also contain other added materials (iron ,
silicon , lead , manganese , nickel ) in order to
improve certain physico - chemical properties
[1,8] .
According to the Cu- Al equilibrium
diagram (fig. 1), the structure of aluminum
bronzes can be found:
- Phase - solid solution of aluminum in
copper substitution, with face-centered cubic
lattice. The solid solubility limit is 7.4 % Al to
1037C and is increased to 9.4 % at 570C,
remains approximately constant up to the
normal temperature;
- phase - intermediate solid solution based
on electronic compound Cu3Al, report
The structural constituents of the

aluminum bronzes [1] according to the
composition and the cooling rate are shown in
table 2.
Table 2
Composition
% weight
Cu
Al
100 92.5
92.5 91
91 88.2
88.2 84
0 ... 7.5
7.5 9
9 11.8
11 16
Equilibrium
constituents
after slow
cooling
annealing
+
+
Equilibrium
constituents
after rapid
cooling
quenching
+
+
+
2. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
a. Chemical compositions determination
Chemical composition determinate by
spectral analysis, made on Foundry Masters
optical spectrometer, is presented in table 3.
Cu
88.8
14
Zn
Sn
0.0985 0.0053
Mn
1.97
Table 3
Fe
0.741
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Si
Cr
0.0637 0.0265
Al
8.19
As
Co
0.0097 0.015
Based on analysis bulletin, was establish

that the studied alloy was from aluminum
bronzes classes, type CuAl8Mn2Fe1.
b. Optimum heat treatment applied to
studied aluminum bronze
Heat treatments parameters recommended
to studied bronze are the following:
Annealing:
- heating 850950C
- cooling in air or once furnace.
Quenching:
- heating 850900C
- maintaining 68 min/mm thickness sample
- rapid cooling in water or oil.
Tempering:
- heating 380420C
- maintaining 23 min/mm thickness sample
- cooling in air
c. Investigation using X-ray diffraction
X-ray diffraction is a non -destructive
analytical technique versatile, and with the
help they can get information on the
identification and quantification of various
crystalline compounds known as "phase"
compounds that are present in the material.
We analyzed and characterized, and
structural roentgeno method based on X-ray
diffraction crystallographic planes of the
structure, the alloy CuAlMnFe.
Determination of structural constituents is
by diffraction is the dependence of the
diffracted radiation intensity and double
diffraction angle.
Determination of the compositional phases
was carried out by qualitative analysis by X ray diffraction, X -ray diffraction carried out to
Panalytical X'Pert PRO MPD.
15
Scope of analysis was between 2 = 20120, step size being 0.0010, and the time step
is 3 seconds / step.
It was used a proportional detector with a
single channel, the analysis is performed as
Gonio.
The analysis of copper alloys by X-ray
diffractometry, the samples will be obtained
from the system alloy, Cu-Al-Mn-Fe section
having 15 mm and sample length 20 mm.
Figure 2 shows the diffraction pattern obtained
for alloy CuAlMnFe - after annealing.
Fig.2. X-ray diffractogram (indexed)

obtained for alloy CuAlMnFe - annealed
X-ray diffraction is the process by which
the radiation, to wave lengths without change,
is converted by interfering with the crystal
lattice of a large number of "reflection" of the
observable characteristic spatial directions.
Indexing diffractometry is the association
of maximum - diffraction peak and a plan.
Indexing diffractogram reveals the following:
The test phases are present as majority:
Fe3Mn7 with cubic crystal lattice, with the
main peak at 2 = 42.6430 and Al60Cu30Fe10
angle with cubic crystal lattice, with the main
peak at 2 = 42.8920 angle.
Figure 3 shows the diffraction pattern
obtained for new alloy CuAlMnFe - after
quenching heat treatment.
AIR FORCE
Fig.3. X-ray diffractogram (indexed) obtained

on the sample CuAlMnFe - quenched
condition.
Indexing X-ray diffraction pattern reveals
the following:
The test phases are present as majority:
Fe3Mn7 with cubic crystal lattice, with the
main peak at 2 angle = 42.54540 and Cu3Fe4
with cubic crystal lattice, with the main peak
at 2 = 42.1160 angle.
As a minor phase present AlCu3 compound
crystallized in the orthorhombic system, with
the main maximum at the angle 2 = 44.7910.
Figure 4 shows the diffraction pattern
obtained for sample CuAlMnFe - after heat
treatment tempered.
d. Dilatometric analysis
The purpose of the experiments is the
record length (l) that a sample undergoes
when subjected to a certain temperature.
Dilatometer L75 is suitable for both the
expansion and the contraction of the sample.
Dilatometer analysis in this paper was
performed using differential dilatometer
L75H/1400 LINSEIS type (fig. 5).
Using large samples promotes good
accuracy for determining elongation, instead
using small samples ensures a good
temperature control precision and repeatability
of results.
To obtain accurate and repeatable
experimental data is recommended that the
dilatometer to work with relatively low speeds
of approx. 5 to 10 C/min.
The heating rate was required for the
experiment at 10 C/min.
Fig.5. Linseis L75H / 1400 dilatometer.
Fig.4. X-ray diffractogram (indexed) obtained

for sample CuAlMnFe - tempered condition.
After applying heat treatment, the samples

with specific size dilatometer tests were
carried out dialatograme heating from ambient
temperature to 900 C.
The dilatograms, obtained for CuAlMnFe
alloy, have the shape of the specific of alloy
shown in figures 6, 7, 8.
X-ray structural analysis is the method by

which the direction and intensity of these
reflections is measured and deducted order
atoms.
The sample CuAlMnFe tempered condition
is present as majority phases: Fe3Mn7 with
cubic crystal lattice, with the main peak at 2
= 42.6430 and Cu3Fe4 angle with cubic crystal
lattice, with the main maximum at the angle 2
= 42.59770.
Fig.6. Dilatogram of alloy after annealing.
16
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Quenching
Tempering
328.73
304.83
270.41
217.02
184.91
208.24
301.32
203.39
All the measurements of micro-hardness

for studied aluminum bronze were in the
specific values to the heat treatments applied.
The quenching effect to hardness is visible, but
the decrease of hardness after high tempering
is specific to mechanical parts used in
industry.
Fig.7. Dilatogram of alloy after quenching.
f. Microscopic analysis by optic

microscopy
Fig.8. Dilatogram of alloy after tempering.

It was found that the samples were small
oscillations of length, elongation is
approximately 200m, in any state of heat
treatments that the samples are.
e. Micro-hardness measurements
To highlight the efficiency of heat
treatments, applied to CuAlMnFe bronze, was
made HV100 micro-hardness measurements
on heat treated samples.
The measured values of micro-hardness are
presented in table 4.
Table 4
Measured
Average
Heat
micro-hardness
value /
treatment
in points /
sample
sample
181.40
Annealing
175.84
174.68
171.46
17
100X
200X
Fig.9. Alloy microstructure, annealing state,
ammonium persulfate attack.
100X
200X
Fig.10. Alloy microstructure, quenching state,
AIR FORCE
good lifetime for industrial applications based

on aluminum bronze.
4. REFERENCES
100X
200X
Fig.11. Alloy microstructure, tempering state,
In annealing state, the studied bronze has a
homogeneous structure composed by solid
solution, recrystallized
in the form of
polyhedral grains with macles and phase, in
smaller quantity and uniformly distributed.
After quenching and tempering heat
treatments application, in the structure in
addition to Solid solution phase, appear and
phase, which improve the mechanical
characteristics of alloy.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Phases composition of the unit cell
structure and characteristics of each phase
identified were determined by X-ray
diffraction, and the main objective was to
determine
the
phase
composition,
microstructure and of alloy composition
CuAlMnFe after applying heat treatments
annealing, quenching and tempering.
Physical and structural characteristics
analyzed in the paper falls within the specific
parameters of the alloy and can guarantee a
1. Gdea Suzana, s.a., ndrumar de laborator

pentru metalurgie fizic structura
materialelor metalice, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti (1967).
2.http://pwatlas.mt.umist.ac.uk/internetmicrosc
ope/index.html
3.http://www.piad.com/aluminum-bronzealloys.html
4.http://www.copper.org/publications/newslett
ers/innovations/2002/08/aluminum1.html
5.http://www.indiamart.com/mamahamayaengineering/products.html
6.http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/05/su
pership/source/6.htm
7.http://www.sabtek.co.uk/aluminium.asp
8. Cimpoesu, N., s.a., Behavior simulation of a
cooper shape memory alloy under an external
solicitation, Journal of optoelectronics and
advanced materials, ISSN 1772-1776, (2010).
9. Achitei, D.C.; Vizureanu, P.; Stanciu, S.; et
al., Studies concerning thermal conductivity
for some copper base memory shape alloys,
Conference: 14th International Conference on
Modern Technologies, Quality and Innovation
- ModTech 2010, NEW FACE OF TMCR,
PROCEEDINGS Book Series: Proceedings of
the International Conference ModTech, pages:
15-18, (2010).
18
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
UNMANNED COMBAT AIR VEHICLE: MQ-9 REAPER

Vladimr BEO*, Frantiek ADAMK Jr.**,
* Kosice, Slovakia, ** Faculty of Aeronautics, Technical University Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia,
Abstract: Currently are increasingly we meet with the term flying unmanned aerial vehicles or also
drones. Also gets are into the awareness of the notion unmanned combat air vehicles, also known as
UCAV. Among the best known means of unmanned aerial vehicles in categories UCAV include MQ-9
Reaper, also known as the Predator B.
Keywords: Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle, UCAV, MQ-9 Reaper, Predator, Aircraft
1. INTRODUCTION
Unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9 Reaper
belongs to a group of defense systems and its
primary purpose is finding, tracking and
destruction of land and sea targets. This flying
unmanned combat aerial vehicle has a
wingspan of 20 meters and a length of 11
meters. Maximum weight of take-off is 4,763
kg, can carry 1361 kg load externally, ie. in
underslung and 386 kg load internally in the
fuselage.
Fig.2 Drawing MQ-9 Reaper from above and
from the front
Fig.1 The Dimensions of MQ-9 Reaper
Drive provides turboprop unit from

Honeywell TPE331-10, which allows this air
vehicle achieve of maximum speed of 240
KTAS (445 km/h), has endurance in the air 36
hours and altitude ceiling maximum 50 000 ft
(15 240 m).
19
The aircraft is equipped with a 6-bearing

pylons for the possibility carrying of weapons
and weapons systems, as well as underslung
fuel tanks for increase its range. MQ-9 Reaper
carries on its board 1769 kg of fuel (without
underslung fuel tanks). On board there is also
a multi-functional anti-ground radar LYNX
ER, Multi-mode maritime radar, transmission
system, electro-optical infrared system MTS-B
EO/IR, laser designator of targets, electronic
AIR FORCE
support systems SIGINT/ ESM, electronic

jammers, various probes and sensors. The
aircraft has the developed system for the
automatic take-off and automatic landing. It
also contains multi-spectral tracking and
targeting system (MTS-B) AN/AAS-52.
Communication link is provided via
SATCOM, via single channel, C-band (LOS),
Ku-band SATCOM bandwidth is 1.6/3.2
Mbps. For the operation and management of
the MQ-9 Reaper are required at least 2
people, 1 pilot and 1 operator.
turbine speed is 41730 rpm, the maximum

limit of speed propeller is 2000 rpm.
Fig.4 Turboprop engine

Honeywell company
2. CONSTRUCTION
Aircraft structure is composed primarily of
advanced materials. It is a composite materials
made mostly up of carbon fiber, these
materials constitute up to 89% of the airframe
structure. Such a high percentage of these
materials contribute to the low weight of the
aircraft and the prolongation of its range.
TPE331-10
of
As fuel for this power unit is most

commonly used fuel JP-8 or also JP-4. Weight
of the entire power unit is 174,63 kg.
Fig.5 Showing power unit TPE331-10 with

propeller in the cut
Fig.3 MQ-9
armament
Reaper
with
underslung
Overall the construction, the shape and the

materials are developed to contribute to the
reduction of detectability by a radar, as well as
human senses. MQ-9 Reaper is in the basic
configuration 11 meters long, 3.6 meters tall
and its wingspan is 20 meters, what allowing
of this UCAV high ratio of buoyancy/weight.
3. DRIVE
Drive of unmanned combat air vehicle
MQ-9 Reaper provides turboprop engine unit
TPE331-10 from company Honeywell, which
provides maximum power 944 hp (712 kW)
and allows the air vehicle to reach maximum
speed of 240 KTAS (445 km/h). Maximum
4. ARMAMENT
The primary armament which are uses for
unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9 Reaper is
constituted of missiles AGM-114R known as
Hellfire II which weighing 100 pounds and are
designed to destroy armored objects on land
and sea. Using modern semi-active laser head
allows the launch also from great heights,
which is for the unmanned aerial vehicles very
important in view of their higher operational
flight levels. Due to higher flight levels is
reached even higher angle of impact of the
missile to target which increases her
effectiveness and thanks to the new navigation
unit is more accurate. Another frequently used
armament in MQ-9 Reaper are laser-guided
500-pounds aerial bomb termed as GBU-12
Paveway II. These bombs using modern
advanced semi-active laser-guidance warhead
20
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
to the effective destruction of solid-static

targets, mobile targets and moving targets.
With the new dual navigation units INS/GPS
are accurate and destruction of targets is more
efficient with reduced collateral damage.
Fig.6 Demonstration of a possible armament

MQ-9 Reaper
Between the further armament may be

included bombs GBU-38 JDAM and GBU-49
laser-JDAM. Aerial bomb GBU-38 JDAM and
its design is based on the Mk-82 bomb, but has
JDAM guidance system. Thanks tail part
bombs, which contains navigation system with
GPS/INS is becomes accurate guided weapon,
the which of accuracy is approximately 9.6 m.
Weight GBU-38 JDAM is 500 pounds (227
kg), it may be drain her up to 28 km from the
selected target, through day and night and in
all weather conditions. Construction of GBU49 laser-JDAM is based at bomb GBU-12 with
JDAM guidance system that includes dual
guidance system with laser and GPS-guidance
(Bomb GBU-12 was also developed from the
Mk-82).
5. SYSTEMS
5.1 AN/AAS-52 System
Multi-spectral surveillance and targeting
system (MTS-B) AN/AAS-52 includes
electro-optical, laser and infrared sensors for
detecting, tracking and labeling of objects and
targets. Allows remote monitoring of targets in
high resolution, determine their distance,
coordinates and label for Hellfire missiles, as
well as for all laser-guided munitions NATO.
The whole system is composed of two main
parts and namely from rotating tower unit,
which is located in the inferior front part of the
MQ-9 Reaper and electronic optical unit,
which is located in fuselage UCAV. This
system also allows for lighting targets, is
designed to be modular and can be
complemented with various optical sensors for
different wavelengths, as well as additional
electronic circuitry, allowing wide-spectral use
of the system and as well its development.
Fig.8 Turret unit WRA-1 with electronic unit

WRA-2 of system AN/AAS-52 (MTS)
5.1 SIGINT/ESM System
Fig.7 Munition GBU-38 JDAM
The accuracy of the bomb is about six meters,

the maximum launch is 15,000 m from the
target, this aerial bomb can also be found
under designation EGBU-12 Paveway II.
21
System SIGINT / ESM allows conducting

radio-electronic warfare and supports the
distribution of actions at capture, identify and
locate sources of electromagnetic energy. ESM
system provides information you how to avoid
menace, targeting and guiding of potential
missiles. Information on electronics systems
AIR FORCE
can be used for creating signal intelligence SIGINT.
<85kg).
6. Control
5.2 Radar LYNX ER

Multifunction radar Lynx ER provides
selectable resolution, operation in all weather
conditions, day and night. This radar has to the
fight certificate, the ability to change detection
and as well can capture images SAR in high
resolution. Thanks to the latest electronics and
sensor delivers images of photographic quality
of objectives through the clouds, dust, smoke,
fog and total darkness. These its features are
crucial for detecting and tracking targets at
greater distances and poor visibility when it is
not possible to use electro-optical and infrared
sensors. Radar is composed of the two
systems, namely from the radar antenna and
the electronics module. Also allows to work in
maritime search mode, also in mode the search
ground moving targets and is able to work in
so called mode of indication of movement on
the ground (GMTI).
Drone MQ-9 Reaper disposes a modern

management system and autopilot. The aircraft
can operate fully autonomously without pilotoperator during the entire mission, so as can
take off, fly to the target of the mission, go
back and land safely without human-pilot
intervention to control. Such management
requires careful programming of the entire
mission of the aircraft to be able to fly fully
autonomous.
Fig.10 Control panel of MQ-9 Reaper
Fig.9 Radar Lynx ER with antenna and with

electronics module
Radar range is 80 km, and its resolution is in

the range 0,1 to 0,3 m for mapping images objects at surface depending on the mode
selected. Can detect the even small vehicles
moving with speed up to 70 km/h. At
maximum airspeed MQ-9 Reaper 445 km/h
can this radar to map the surface from a
altitude of 13700 m land area of approximately
60 square kilometers per minute. In mode
SPOT is capable radar to map in detail the area
300x170m from a distance of 40 km. On these
images may view objects smaller than 10 cm.
AN/DPY-1 Block 30 radar may detected of
the car movement in real-time (system weight
Pilot-operator, however may intervene at

any time into control and take control. In the
event that the aircraft is in autonomous mode,
command signals are received from ground
control stations. Control of the aircraft is
possible with using multiple systems, such as
direct management (LOS) using small portable
stations consisting of laptops and antennas that
may use ground troops, also is possible to
control UCAV using small mobile control
stations (OSRVT/ ROVER). For full control of
the aircraft and the manage of operations, it is
necessary in most cases uses of the system
SATCOM respectively Wideband Global
SATCOM (WGS).
5. Communication
Unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9
Reaper uses blos C2 data lines in the range of
ultra high frequency UHF (300MHz) for the
Ku band (15 GHz). Data lines Ku band of
system SATCOM are often used blos C2
system (system of indirect command and
control), this band is used for UAV means,
22
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
because has of the high resistance to

interference. Uses the frequency range from
11,7 to 12,7 GHz for downlink and 14-14,5
GHz for uplink. For maintaining domination in
the conflict is needs to be effectively
command and control (C2). Blos C2 system is
designed to build own network management
and control, capable of self-interference
suppression and encryption.
For this aircraft can also be used so called
Common data line (CDL) and also tactical
CDL (T-CDL). There are two technologies for
CDL lines, the first data line uses the I-band
SATCOM second data line uses Ku-band at
frequencies from 14,5 to 15,38 GHz for to
increase the available bandwidth.
targets, makes it from unmanned combat air

vehicle MQ-9 Reaper one of the most
sophisticated aviation weapons systems of 21st
century, which is able to attack anywhere in
the world without finding was its presence.
Development and modernization of systems
this UCAV are will expand the already so
wide range of uses, as well as the possibility of
using other weapons systems. Aircraft MQ-9
Reaper has in currently been stable place in the
several armed forces different countries of the
world and its use, as well as reports of him
even more rise.
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. Brda, R. imr, J. Sotk, M. Beo

V.: Leteck prstroje, Vysokokolsk
uebnica, Technick Univerzita Koice,
Leteck Fakulta, ISBN: 987-80-553-06261. (2011)
2. Adamk, F. Adamk, F. jr: Spacecrafts
electrical power systems,. Acta Avionica
2010. ISSN 1335-9479. Ro. 12, . 20,
S. 76-78. (2010)
3. Adamk, F. : Artificial Intelligence
Technology on Board of Aircraft, Advances
in Military Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1,
pp.137-142, (November 2006)
4. Valavanis, K. P. - Oh, P. - Piegl L.A.:
Unmanned Aircraft Systems, International
Symposium on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,
UAV 08. Springer, USA. ISBN 978-14020-9136-0. (2008)
5. General Atomics Aeronautical Systems,
Inc.: MQ-9 REAPER/PREDATOR B,
Persistent Multi-mission ISR and Strike
Aircraft: Brochure. Poway, California,
USA. Available: http://www.gaasi.com/products/aircraft/pdf/Predator_B.pd
f (2012)
Unmanned combat air vehicle MQ-9

Reaper represents in many aspects of the
revolution in military aviation. This aircraft
was among of the first unmanned flying means
which were armed and used in real conflicts.
These experiences and information helped
at develop unmanned combat air vehicles
(UCAV) in the world and also UAV systems.
Properties of this UCAV, as well his stamina
in the air, modern tracking systems, the option
to equip it exactly abetting ammunition as well
as its price predetermine it for use in military
conflicts in various regions of the world. It is
thanks to the fact that this system is managed
automatically or remotely and eliminates the
risk of losing the crew in case of shooting
down, as well as other potential costs and risks
associated with the tracing actions intended to
rescue the crew. Also provides support to
ground and naval forces, is an excellent tool
for guarding the border on land, and at sea, in
day or night, in all weather conditions. With a
wide range of uses, its accuracy destruction of
23
REFERENCES
AIR FORCE
6. Austin, R: Unmanned Aircraft Systems,

UAVS DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND
DEPLOYMENT, Wiley, USA, ISBN 9780-470-05819-0. (2010)
7. Cullen M, T.: The MQ-9 Reaper remotely
piloted aircraft: Humans and machines in
action. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, USA. (2011)
8. Raytheon Company, Missile Systems:

Enhanced PavewayII Dual Mode
GPS/Laser Guided Bombs: Dual-Mode
Precision-Guided Weapon. Tucson,
Arizona, USA. Available:
www.raytheon.com (2009)
24

HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
PLAYING WITH THE SAFETY DUE TO LACK OF RESOURCES

Oliver CIUIC*, Marcel PREDESCU**, Eduard MIHAI***
*Air Foce Academy, Braov, Romania, ** Flight Safety Officer, Kabul International Airport,
Afghanistan, *** Air Foce Academy, Bra ov, Romania
Abstract: This paper deals with one of the common issue of the flight safety organization: limited
resources for Air Forces. Is it better to look forward for next days or for the next years? That is the
question. The article shows how the safety has to be, which are the steps of flight safety in aviation
history, and why the defense area from Swiss cheese model of J. Reason has to start from the top
management of organization. The paper argues that a collective understanding of these issues is essential
for those systems seeking to achieve an optimal safety culture to be able to maintain the requested level of
capabilities, with minimum resources, in the actual worldwide context.
Keywords: safety culture, Air Force, resources, management, capabilities, training.
1. INTRODUCTION
Flight safety. Two words. In fact it is a
condition for airmen. Flight safety will never
be just a task in aviation. It should be a way of
life from the beginning until the end of story
for each and any individual linked to aviation
(pilots, air traffic controllers, maintenance
personnel, managers... ).
It's main goal is to prevent the loss of
aviation resources.
Flight safety is the desired condition
gained by organizations through their
individuals in order to be able to forecast air
operations risks and produce a positive attitude
for safe use of the resources using the right
procedures, services, skills and knowledge to
reduce to a minimum level the risks to air
operations.
Basically, it is a puzzle built by each
member of an organization and everyone
having their own personality, behavior, and
temperament.
25
2. SAFETY CULTURE
Risks in aviation vary depending on the
stage of aviation development. The history of
progress in aviation safety can be divided into
three eras [1].
Technical era - from the early 1900s
until the late 1960s
First attempts to build, fly, and control
an object heavier than the air had its tribute. In
the beginnings, identified safety deficiencies
were initially related to technical factors and
technological failures due to the lack of
knowledge. The focus of safety was on the
investigation and improvement of technical
factors. During the two World Wars, aviation
was seen as a very effective tool in the battle
field and also an important element of the
transportation industry that was constantly
growing. Technological improvements starting
in the early 1950s, were the first step in
decreasing the frequency of accidents and the
flight safety process started to be upgraded.
AIR FORCE
Human Factors era - from the early

1970s until the mid-1990s
The 1970s improved technology and
materials used in aircraft construction. Despite
the progress in aviation, new flight safety
threats started to show up after the
introduction of many new revolutionary design
solutions and the new theories led for
researching human factors and issues
including the man/machine interface. An
example of these types of risks can be found
in the causes of events connected with new
aircraft automation, or in the increased
maneuverability of combat aircraft resulting in
frequent incidences of high G-loads which
affect the pilot. Despite the investment of
resources in error mitigation, human
performance continued to be cited as a
recurring factor in accidents. The application
of the Human Factors science, tends to focus
on the individual without fully considering the
operational and organizational context. But
individuals operate in a complex environment,
which includes multiple factors having the
potential to affect behavior.
Organizational era - from the mid1990s to the present day
The research until the early 1990s put
first place the human factor as an individual
even if this is strongly related with other
individuals from the organization. The theories
that followed began to highlight that those
individuals operate in a fully complex
environment which includes multiple factors
having the potential to affect behavior, life
style, or even knowledge acquisition. As a
result, the notion of organizational accident
was introduced and since then it has gained
widespread acceptance and use in many
service domains including the aviation safety
industry. Many of them focus on so-called the
cumulative act effects. A new proactive
approach to safety was introduced in aviation
organizations based on routine collection.
Analysis and diffusion of data using proactive
and reactive methodologies to monitor known
safety risks and to guide all levels of
organizations to aim one safety environment.
SAFETY ORGANIZATION
An organization is known as a social

entity, such as an institution or an association,
which has a collective goal and is linked to an
external environment. Members of an
organization usually share a common vision,
mission, values, and goals.
Members of an air organization have to
be seen as a system that includes product and
service providers. It is a complex system that
requires an assessment of the human
contribution to safety and an understanding of
how human performance may be affected by
its multiple and interrelated components.
Safety is a dynamic characteristic of
the aviation system, whereby safety risks must
be continuously mitigated in response to the
social and technical request. Acceptability of
safety performance is often influenced by
domestic and international norms and culture.
[2] Being in a situation where the risks of an
aircraft accident or air safety incident are
reduced to a level as low as reasonably
practicable [3]
As long as safety risks are kept under
an appropriate level of control, a system as
open and dynamic as aviation can still be
managed to maintain the appropriate balance
between production and protection. [2]
So, as we see, all definitions of safety
include risk management and a solid culture
that is supposed to be able to maintain and
focus on acceptable level of risk aimed by
organization.
Culture is characterized by the beliefs,
values, biases and their resultant behavior that
are shared among the members of the
organization.
Safety management is actually the
understanding of these cultural components,
and the interactions among them.
Linking the two definitions another concept is
defined: safety culture.
AIR FORCE SAFETY CULTURE
SOMEWHERE IN THE WORLD
There is no system fully safe. If you
are convinced that your organization has a
good safety culture, you are almost certainly
mistaken...a safety culture is something that is
striven for but rarely attained. The virtue and
the reward lies in the struggle rather than the
outcome James Reason said.
26

HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Is this organization safe? Does it have

a proper safety culture? Is there something
to improve? If yes, which can be the starting
point?
Somewhere, time ago it was a country,
NATO member, that had a vast history of
aviation; their predecessors were the pioneer
of the flight, inventors of the jet plane. Due to
the limited resources, in last 20 years, its air
power decrease so much and in our days the
total number of hour of flight and training for
entire fleet per one year is about at the same
level where only one single air base was years
ago. Despite of that it is still able to maintain,
with a minimum number of forces, the Aerial
Police for the nation and for NATO. It is still
able to maintain minimum of capabilities for
air lift. But for how long?! Its pilots who are
doing these kinds of missions have an average
of 40-45 years old. And now some questions
come around. Who will be their replacements?
What level of training do they have now? How
many hours of flight and training do they need
to be fully capable for the kinds of missions
their aircraft where designed for? Is it able to
respond to NATO request?
The wings men for tomorrow will be
the actual 25-30 years old pilots, but the actual
culture, from this Air Force organization, said
that being young is not an advantage but
contrary, it's quite inadequate (it is redundant
to remind that the spike of combat pilots in
World War II had an average of 25-30 years
old), and even it will not be like this, the few
resources that it has are used only to
accomplish operational needs and to keep the
actual level for CMR (Combat Mission Ready)
pilots. With a minimum (unacceptable) hours
of flight and training it is impossible to
maintain a safety environment, and that not
only for flying personnel but also for
maintenance department, air traffic controllers,
ground operations and all elements linked to
aeronautical activities due to lack of practice,
27
absence of lessons learned, premature aging of

planes, materials and systems used in aviation
activities.
James Reason found that most of the
accidents happened because of the weaknesses
in all levels of the system, including the
decision makers level: organizational
influences, working conditions, unsafe acts
(errors and violations) and the (improper)
defense layers. The system as a whole
produces failures when the weakness barriers
align, permitting to the latent condition
trajectory (hazard) passes through the holes in
all of the defenses leading to a failure [4].
Fig. nr. 1 Swiss cheese model (ICAO)
Main target of this article is the

organization by itself mainly focusing on the
top level where the management decisions and
organizational processes are making according
to risk perception in order to reduce the
possible accidents. A healthy safety culture
relies on a high degree of trust and respect
between personnel and management and must
therefore be created and supported first at the
senior management levels. As you see in the
defense area the training and regulations are
present but just for one single reason: to be
upgraded and improved for a better product of
entire members work. Often, regulations and
AIR FORCE
training are strongly related regarding the

objectives, the requests of the actual national
or international context and not finally, the
necessary level of practice training. We all
know that training costs money, but often
simple calculations suggest that failing to be
safe, or at least having incidents, costs more.
Because of the strongly budgetary restrictions,
the present training regulations have to be
changed to be able to aim the main objectives.
How can that be done?! Using the same people
that have themselves the necessary skills,
knowledge and training; grounding the others,
making the youngest an inexperienced next
victim. So, in that way, the Air Forces can
maintain its priorities, its engagements and
objectives. But for how long can it do that?
There will be a hole in human resources
management. When can be fill that gap and
how? Nobody belongs forever to organization
and when those who now are ready for mission
will be retired, next generation (if there will
still be one) will start to learn again without a
proper training, by doing mistakes, teaching
one each other. It makes no sense to remind
that the actual laws will never give the
opportunity to the ex-members to come back
for teaching from their experience the
remaining future Air Force. Despite of that,
more resources will be spent in a short period
of time for getting the requested level of
capabilities, not mentioning that during this
time frame the air power level will be as
lowest as it could be or it will not even exists.
According to Reason, the elements of safety
culture include: learning, informed, just,
flexible and reporting culture. [5]
Fig. nr. 2 [6]

The most suggestive representation of
Reason's definition is the fig. nr.2. According
to this figure, the mentioned organization risk

perception is the same at all its management
levels, but attitudes to safety and safety related
behavior is completely understood on
individual scale and pretty accurate at the
tactical level of management. Speaking about
that and the Swiss cheese model, in the
defense area where regulations, training and
technology of organization is supposed to
close the existing holes, these will become
larger and larger and the hazard passes easier
through all of these defensing walls and leads
to a failure.
Does it need that? No! A real country
air power should always be ready to respond to
its duties. It has to be prepared at any times, in
any weather conditions even if the attack
threat is minimum; it exists. If we lose the
war in the air we lose the war and we lose it
quickly [7] . Don't wait to learn from your
mistakes, it is better to learn from the others.
The elements of safety culture have to
be the guidance within every organization.
a) learning culture for implementing
the major reforms an organization have to
have the competence and the willingness to
learn from mistakes, so named lessons learned.
Flight debriefings, reports even safety issues
between the members must be visible at any
level.
b) informed culture if the
management understands the hazards and the
risks of its members, (and this is the best way),
they will be encouraged to identify the safety
threat streams and to seek real solutions for
overcome them.
c) just culture people are able to
define and clearly understand where must be
the line between acceptable and unacceptable
behavior. Also there has to be a better
understanding that the punishment is not
always a solution to improve the safety
environment. All is related to circumstances
(no blame culture).
d) flexible culture the ability to
reconfigure and take different forms but is
characterized as shifting from the conventional
hierarchical mode to a flatter professional
structure.
e) reporting culture sharing safety
information. This element depend on how the
28

HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
organization is able to handle the report, blame

and punishment. Having a strong reporting
culture is one of the success keys.
It is well known why something have
to be changed regarding that organization.
Because it has to be efficient for maintaining
its capabilities and to increase the safety status.
That can only be done by understanding the
short chart of safety culture. What should be
changed?
One underlying reason why cultural
change often fails to succeed is that the new
situation is unknown to the participants. If this
is added to existing beliefs, such as the belief
that the current situation is as good as it gets,
then there is little real need to change and
failure is almost certain. If these failures are at
the level of the workforce, then strong
management commitment may save the day. If
the problems lie with management, then there
is little hope because they will enforce the old
situation, which feels most comfortable, on the
most proactive of workforces [8]
3. CONCLUSION
To invent an airplane is nothing. To
build one is something. To fly is
everything[9].
Starting from that statement and from
the airplane history it's easy to remark and to
understand the three steps of the progress in
aviation safety. Beside the technical and
human factor the most complex one is
organization with all its concepts, behavior
and cultural values. The first maneuver for
improving the safety culture is the quality of
communication (reports, briefings, requests,
human needs...) inside the company between
management and the rest of the members. For
a better understanding of communication
every part of the command chain has to be
familiar with the conceptual environment
regarding cultural background, people
29
behavior, needs and last but not least the top

management level has to be filled with airmen.
It is easy to say that the most safety stage of
Air Force is not to fly. If somebody we'll think
like this he will have the most safest air
organization in the world, but this should not
be the only goal. The leaders must try to
maintain the balance between safety and air
power. Take a look around the actual political
status. Try to act like NATO not only be a part
of NATO.
REFERENCES
[1,2]
International
Civil
Aeronautical
Organization, Safety Management Manual
Doc. 9859 AN/474 Third Edition 2012 p. 12,
13.
[3]
Airservices Australia 2001, AA-Safe001, p. 1.
[4]
Reason, James T, Human Error, New
York Cambridge University Press 1990, p. 203
[5]
James Reason, Safety paradoxes and
safety culture, Department of Psychology,
University of Manchester, U.K. Injury Control
& Safety promotion 2000, p. 12.
[6]
Civil
Air
Navigation
Services
Organization, Safety culture; definition and
enhancement process, p. 3.
[7]
Bernard Law Montgomery.
[8]
Patrick Hudson, Safety Culture
Theory and Practice, Center for Safety
Science Universiteit Leiden p. 11 Paper
presented at the RTO HFM Workshop on The
Human Factor in System Reliability Is
Human Performance Predictable?, held in
Siena, Italy,1-2 December 1999, and published
in RTO MP-032. )
[9]
Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896), early
inventor of mono-plane and bi-plane gliders .
1.
A-GA-135-001/AA-01, Flight safety
for the Canadian Forces, (2013).
AIR FORCE
2.
European Organization for Safety of Air

Navigation Revisiting the Swiss
cheese model of accidents, EEC Note
13/06, (2006).
3. IFATCA, A just culture in safety
reporting, paper presented at the 43rd
annual Conference, Hong Kong, China
MAR (2004)
4. Panagopoulost, I.,
Flight Safety in
Combat Training: A revised pilots error
framework for EU Air Forces,
5th
Biennial Hellenic Observatory PhD

Symposium, LSE, (2-3 Jun 2011).
5. Reason, J., Human error. New York:
Cambridge University Press, (1990).
6. Reason J., Managing the risk of
organizational accidents, Burlington:
Ashgate Publishing Company, (2000).
7.
Roughton, E. J., Mercurio, J. J.,
Developing an effective safety culture: a
leadership
approach,
Woburn:
Butterworth-Heinemann, (2002).
30
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
THEORETICAL ASPECTS RELATED TO FLIGHT SAFETY SYSTEMS

IN EARLY WARNING AIR TRAFFIC CONFLICT
Ionic CRCIU *, Andrei LUCHIAN **
*
Henri Coanda Air Force Academy, Brasov,Romania,

**
University of Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: The quick evolution of global demographic component and the intense increase in the number
of aircrafts of all types, resulted a significant congestion of air routes especially in areas near large
airports. To meet the new demands of air traffic services we must modernize and implement new systems
for flight safety. Air collision risk is still present and therefore is remarket the idea and concept of
accepting a standardized and effective warning system.
Keywords: collision, traffic and resolution advisory, protected volume
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the 1950s, international civil aviation
forums discussed the concept and development
of a system to avoid collisions. ICAO
(International Civil Aviation Organization) has
developed standards for ACAS (Airborne
Collision Avoidance Systems).
ACAS is designed to operate independent
of both the navigation systems of the aircraft
and ground equipment used for the provision
of air traffic services [1,2]. Airborne Collision
Avoidance System (ACAS) is the ultimate
method accepted at global level regarding
search and solve critical situations of air traffic
between aircrafts.
The system mainly consists of the
implementation of ACAS equipment onboard
31
TCAS (Traffic Alert and Collision

Avoidance System) and pilot procedures
regarding the use of these systems [2,3,4].
The alerts provided by ACAS depend on how
sensitive is the aircraft transponder in the
considered area:
There can be no warning if the
transponder is not working or is not
compatible with ICAO standards;
TA (Traffic Advisory), intended to help
the pilot to visually identify aircraft in the
area
considered
sensitive;
RA (Resolution Advisory) are
recommended pilot maneuvers, if the
transponder reports the altitude
(Figure 1).
AIR FORCE
Fig.1 RA coordination example
2. ROLE
The functionality of TCAS is based on the
transponder on board. The level of protection
provided by TCAS equipment depends on the
type of transponder which operates with the
nearby aircrafts. So it is obvious that TCAS
can provide protection against an aircraft not
The protected volume (Fig. 2) is the

represented by the airspace volume
surrounding each aircraft equipped with
TCAS. As shown in FIG. 2, is a threshold
value expressed as the mean length up to the
point of maximum proximity between the
aircrafts or till it reaches the same altitude on
both aircrafts [4, 5, 10].
In order to determine the distance and altitude,
the aircraft is identified in a Cartesian
coordinate system.
=
(1),
equipped with a transponder or is not

operating [3,4,5,6].
TherearethreetypesofstandardizedACAS:
ACASIprovidesonlyTA;
ACASIIprovidesTAandRAvertically;
ACASIIIprovidesTAandRAbothvertically
andhorizontally.
3D position of the aircraft equations of n and

=
(2),
3Dexpressionrateswheretheindicesx,yaxes
are horizontal coordinate system and z is the
altitude.
On the horizontal dimension the amount of
protection is not defined only by the distance
threshold, but also for a estimated buffer .
However it depends on the size and speed of
the
aircraft
head
intruder.
The first implementation of a mandatory
collision avoidance system, TCAS II, was
requested in the airspace of the United States
starting with30 December 1993. All civil
32
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
aircrafts with turbine engine having on board

more than 30 passengers flying in American
airspacemust beequipped withTCASII.
In 1995, EUROCONTROL Comitee of
approved a policy
Management has
implementing a mandatory program of ACAS
II equipment in Europe. It was ratified by the
Council of the European Air Traffic Control
Projects Harmonisation and Integration
Programme
(EATCHIP)
[6,
7,
8].
Theapprovedpolicyrequires that:
starting from January 1, 2000, all civil
fixedwing aircraft and turbine engine
havingamaximumtakeoffover15,000
kg or a maximum approved
configuration for passenger seats more
than 30, will have to equip themselves
with
ACAS
II
and
starting from January 1, 2005, all civil
fixedwing aircraft and turbine engine
having a maximum takeoff over 5700
kg, or a maximum approved
configuration for passenger seats more
than 19, will have to equip themselves
withACASII,[7,8,9].
3. COMPOSITION
TCAS II system components
A TCAS II (Figure 3) [1, 4, 11, 12].
Fig.3 TCAS II system block diagram
Is composed of:
a computer - which processes
information regarding airspace surveillance,
coordinates and tracking potential dangerous
aircrafts, detect potential threats, calculate and
determine avoidance maneuvers and making
33
recommendations on avoiding collisions. Dual

microprocessors are used to introduce
surveillance system algorithms and collision
avoidance to decide if a transponder response
should be considered a threat and then to
calculate the appropriate climb speed to avoid
AIR FORCE
the collisions. In addition data is transmitted to

It was established the fact that the use
the screens of the pilots to inform them that of the information on the TCAS display, by
they should be able to avoid the collision.
pilots, as a aerial surveillance equipment is
TCAS control panel - built into the misinterpreted due to the fact that the shown
transponder. It is a 3-position selector: - Stand- information is approximate regarding the
by - TCAS off - TA Only - are issued only TA aircraft position relative to others around him.
- Automatic or TA / RA - TCAS operation.
two antennas - one mounted on top of
5. REFERENCES
the airframe, and the second at the bottom.
Above is a directional antenna to increase 1. James K. Kuchar and Ann C. Drumm, 2007
surveillance aircraft in the sensitive area.
- The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
These antennas are separated by the
System, Volume 16, Number 2, 2007
transponder antenna. Queries are transmitted
Lincoln Laboratory Journal
on 1030 MHz and the responses are received 2. PANS-ATM(ICAO Doc 4444) and in
on 1090 MHz, the same frequency used by
PANS-OPS (ICAO Doc 8168)
SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar).
3. *** PANS-OPS (PROCEDURES FOR AIR
Connections that make it possible to
NAVIGATION SERVICES - AIRCRAFT
receive information from other navigation
OPERATIONS - VOLUME I FLIGHT
systems
of
the
aircraft:
PROCEDURES - ICAO DOC. 8168 OPS/611),
Mode S transponder connection - to
FIFTH EDITION 2006 PLUS AMENDMENT 3
generate complementary and coordinated RA 4. *** ICAO ANNEX 10, VOL. IV
when both aircraft are equipped with TCAS;
(AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS Connection with altimeter - to provide
SURVEILLANCE AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE
pressure altitude, and / or ADC (Air Data
SYSTEMS), FOURTH EDITION, JULY 2007
Computer) if it is equipped with it;
DEFINITIONS
A radar altimeter connection - on one 5. *** PANS-ATM (PROCEDURES FOR AIR
hand to restrict RA when the aircraft is near
NAVIGATION SERVICES - ICAO DOC. 4444
the ground, and on the other hand to determine
FIFTEENTH EDITION 2007-ATM/501)
whether the aircraft followed by TCAS is on 6. ***
ICAO
Doc.
7030/4
(Region
the
ground;
Supplementary Procedures), Fifth Edition,
Speakers - for warning sound. The
2008
speakers which are in the cockpit alert the 7. *** AIRBORNE COLLISION AVOIDANCE
crew by acoustic means, and are recommended
SYSTEM (ACAS) MANUAL (DOC. 9863)
by TCAS. Acoustic messages are detailed in 8. *** T S O C119B ( TECHNICAL STANDARD
the table below according to the type of
ORDER ) - TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION
recommendation: Traffic Advisory (TA) and
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT
Resolution
Advisory
(RA) 9. *** EUROCONTROL BROCHURE ACAS
Displays - to display relevant data.
TRAINING VERSION 2.0
10.
Fedja Netjasov, Andrija Vidosavljevic,
4. CONCLUSIONS
Vojin Tosic, Henk Blom, 2011 - Systematic
Validation of a Mathematical Model of
The implement of TCAS system on
ACAS Operations for Safety Assessment
aircrafts has led to significant air safety, event
Purposes, Ninth USA/Europe Air Traffic
which will require that all aircrafts around the
Management Research and Development
globe to be equipped with these systems
Seminar (ATM2011);
The operating characteristics of the 11.
http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/
system provides a significant improvement in
standard_page/ACAS
the safety of flight, however, ACAS is not 12.
http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/gallery
perfect. ACAS can not eliminate all risks of a
/content/public/documents/ACAS_guide71.
collision.
pdf .
34
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REGARDING THE MANUFACTURING

OF THE ANTI FRICTION MATERIALS USED IN AERONAUTIC
CONSTRUCTIONS
Ion DINESCU*, Gabi MOLDOVAN**, Ovidiu MOSOIU*

* Henri Coand Air Force Academy Brasov, Romania,
** Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The designing of a product which must be fulfilled by the product, thus it is worth to mention
the issue of selecting the material out of which that particular product will be made.
The experimental researches are those concerning the assurance of high mechanical and physical
characteristics under special regimes, where as the weight of the finished product must be minimized by
diminishing the density of the samples.
Thispaperpresentsafewcharacteristicsofmaterialsusedintheproductionoffrictionmaterials
usedintheaeronauticconstructions.
Keywords: manufacturing,material,frictionbearings,aeronautic,construction.
1. INTRODUCTION
explained by the inter-atomic forces from the

microstructure.
The paper present some aspects regarding

the experimental researches of the antifriction
materials used in the aeronautic constructions:
AS20 Steel Support Plated with AntiFriction Material: 20% Tin, 1% Copper, the
rest - Aluminum
and
CP10S10 Steel Support with AntiFriction Material Sintered from: 23% Lead,
10% Tin, the rest - Copper).
The anti-friction sample based on Cooper,
Tin, Lead, sintered powders end not sintered,
has a metallic structure, the relations
established during the sintering process
between the granules powders can be
35
2. MATERIALS USED
At present, the main categories of metallic
materials used in the production of friction
(radial, axial and hydrostatic) are the following
ones: [2, 4]
- alloy from the Lead-Tin system;
- cast piece or sintered Cooper-based alloy;
- Aluminium-based alloy;
- other alloys etc.
The tin based alloys (babbit the
composition 88% Sn, 8% Sb and 4% Cu). This
alloy has rapidly become the most frequently
used in the production of anti-friction
AIR FORCE
materials. The white metals have capacity of

incorporating the particles, which conferred
them certain clear advantages in comparison
with other anti-friction materials. But the
white materials have lost ground in the
production of friction materials because of the
reduced mechanical resistance, especially at
high temperatures.
Pb based alloys (especially the alloys with
as content) are used in the world because of
the advantages offered by the Pb which
replaced Sn, the Pb which is not short. The
hardness and the mechanical resistance, they
are similar to the Tin-based alloys. These
materials are inferior from the point of view of
the fatigue strength.
Bronze alloy with Lead, on steel support
is applied by casting or sintering. The CooperLead alloys sintered on steel support are more
modern than those directly cast on steel strip
or support. These materials have a charging
capacity and a strength resistance which are 35 bigger, the high hardness of the copperbased alloys requires a higher pin hardness.
The Aluminium-based alloys anti-friction
materials have been cast, because are
obtaining an alloy having a structure similar to
the babbit, that is a hard stage alloy in a soft
basal mass.
An disadvantage at the Al-Si alloys is the
fact that, having constituents with high melting
points, they do not present the advantages of
those with low hardness. In order to replace
the lack of conformability, other companies
use the method of working surface galvanic
coating of the Al-Si layer or the AlSn6 with an
extra Pb-Sn layer thick of about 0.25 mm. This
layer achieves a micro-conformability of the
bushing working surface during exploitation,
thus intertwining the qualities of the Al-Si and
AlSn6 alloys (high buoying force lift,
chemical stability etc.).
3. TECHNOLOGIES USED
IN THE PRODUCTION
3.1. The Production Technology of the
AS20 material (Aluminium Tin 20%) is
made in the following stages:
- the preparation of the pre-alloys of Al-Ni,
Al-Cu and raw material;
- the melting of the charging;
- the transfer of the material,

degasification, de-oxidation and maintenance
at the casting temperature;
- the casting.
The properties of the anti-friction material
are greatly determined by its chemical
composition. It decides the good behaviour
following lamination operations in which the
material suffers structural transformations.
Except the basic elements Sn, Cu, Al, Ni, the
other two elements Fe and Si are undesired
impurities, thus they must be limited at the
minimum value. [1, 4]
The temperature must reach 750-760C.
The temperature plays an important role must
be transferred into the soaking furnace, period
of time in which the temperature decreases.
This is followed by a heating over the best
casting temperature leading to the excessive
burning of Sn.
The casting of the anti-friction material
represents a important operation which greatly
determines the quality of the cast material.
The appreciation of the quality of the cast
material is made according to the standards.
There are rejected presenting gaseous
inclusions, faults as metallic beads, cold
welding or other casting faults. In order to get
an ingot with great properties, deprived of
casting faults, the ingot butt must be removed,
that is the crop end proper.
The Production Technology of the Al-Sn
material requires the use of the pre-alloy made
up of Aluminium-Nickel and AluminiumCooper. Because of the huge differences
between the melting temperatures of the
alloying elements, the nickel and copper will
not be introduced directly, he form of the prealloy Al-Cu and Al-Ni, respectively, which
have low melting points.
The pre-alloy casting temperature is of
850-860C.
The main operations for obtaining the
double strips of Aluminium-Tin based antifriction material are the following ones:
- pre-lamination of the AS20;
- annealing of the pre-laminated;
- plating the alloy ingots with Al foil;
- lamination of the plated;
- plating the steel strips with alloy strip;
- annealing the double strips.
36
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
The pre-lamination thicknesses of the alloy

ingots are chosen according to the final
thickness of the alloy from the double strip.
The annealing temperature of the prelaminated ingots is made at the best of 355360C, and the best annealing time duration is
of 150 minutes.
After plating the alloy ingot with the Al
foil and laminating the plated ingots, after a
series of secondary operations, the shift is
towards plating the steel (support) strips with
alloy strips, thus obtaining the double strips.
3.2. The stages of the Production
Technology of the CP10S10 are the following
ones:
- production of alloy powder;
- sintering of the powder on the steel
support (obtaining the double strip based on
sintered Cu-Pb).
The technological process of obtaining the
alloy powder consists of the following
operations:
the preparation of the cold
charging, melting, casting and production of
powder. [2]
The best melting temperature ranges in
between 1200C and 1280C.
The casting, the mode of action of the
atomizers and which will form the powder
from the melted alloy is monitored.
The powder should be highlighted certain
parameters: the pressure of the filtered water,
the water softening degree, the regeneration of
the de-ionized water, the pressure of the deionized water at the atomizers, the moisture of
the powder at the entrance of the drier, the
temperature at the exit of the drier, neutral air
supply in the drier, powder sieving manner,
the sieve quality and in the end it can be
noticed if the powder corresponds to the
requirements. [3, 4]
37
The technological process of obtaining the

double strip based on sintered Cooper-Lead
consists of the following:
- the preparation of the strips for sintering;
- depositing the powder on the steel strip
having in view the sintering;
- the sintering of the powder on the steel
strip;
- lamination of the double strip.
The preparation of the steel coils on which
the Cooper-Lead powder is sintered consists in
executing certain operations aiming at assuring
a continuous technological process: butt
welding of the strips, straightening the
curvatures and unevenness resulted after
welding, washing at the 77-88C with water
mixed with a degreasing and washing, drying
at the 95C through infrared rays heating.
Depositing the powder for sintering on the
steel strip is made by means of a complex
plant: the plant for the strip speed control and
adjustment, the depositing plant proper and the
suction hood.
To avoid the oxidation the powder and the
steel, a neutral atmosphere is in the furnace
and the sintering speed will be established
according to the heating curve of the furnace.
The sintering process ends with the strip
cooling. The cooling takes place in a complex
and closed plant, the same neutral atmosphere
being maintained, just like in the sintering
furnace.
The lamination of the sintered aims
obtaining the density of the deposited powder.
The Cu-Pb based powder sintering on the
steel support is made in the sintering furnace
(tsint.=900-950C).
According to the hardness of the alloy
layer as well as to the tolerance of the double
strip thickness, it is recommended to deal with:
- a final sintering and lamination;
AIR FORCE
- two sinterings and two laminations (a

lamination in between the sinterings and a
final lamination).
The lamination reduction will be made so
that not to appear the melting of the lead from
the alloy.
Cu-Pb (CP10S10) and steel OLC 45. These are

presented in the figures 2 and 3.
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The materials used in the production of the
friction pieces for which there have been used
samples and have been carried out studies and
experimental research are the following ones:
[1, 3, 4]
- Al-Sn plated on the steel support;
- Cu-Pb sintered powders on steel support.
AS20 (Steel Support Plated with AntiFriction Material: 20% Tin, 1% Copper, the
rest - Aluminum).
CP10S10 (Steel Support with Anti-Friction
Material Sintered from: 23% Lead, 10% Tin,
the rest - Copper).
These samples are presented in Figure 1.
Fig.2. The mobile semi coupling (steel OLC 45)
In figure 2 there are presented the four

mobile semicuplings made out of steel OLC
45.
a
Fig. 1. Samples of Materials Used
Concerning these materials, there have

been studied the following properties:
chemical
composition,
micro-structure,
resistance (hardness, stretching resistance,
shearing, bending, adherence of the antifriction layer), values of friction static
quotients.
Experimental research studies have been
made on a six couplings made out of different
materials used when making the anti-friction
materials: anti-friction material based on
Aluminium-Tin (AS20) and steel OLC 45, anti
friction material based on synthesized powders
b
Fig.3. Fixed semi couplings (sintering materials)
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
In figure 3 (a, b) are presented the four

fixed semi couplings (sintering antifriction
material.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The anti friction material based on
Cooper-Lead sintered powders has a metallic
microstructure. During the sintering process
between the granules can be explained the
inter-atomic forces.
There is a metallic contact between the
powder granules. This contact is seldom
realized due to an oxide coating at the surface
of the granules. The concentration of oxide
cannot exceed the imposed value of 0.55% in
the case of the powder under research, in order
to preserve the metallic structure.
At the heat temperature from the sintering,
the powder deposited on the steel suffers the
phenomenon of surface and volume diffusion
(in solid phase). This is explained by the fact
that the atoms situated on the prominences of
the powder granules move on the surface of
the other granules, concentrating themselves in
the surface unevenness. At the heat
temperatures, the diffusion between the
powder granules and those of the steel takes
place. [4]
The factors which influence the CooperLead powder sintering on the steel are: the
sintering temperature, the heating speed, the
cooling speed, the atmosphere, the size of the
granules, diffusion, the powder.
The mixture of alumina and tin oxide is
accepted only if the surface occupied by them
doesnt exceed 80% of the interface length.
The sulphide inclusions, the foreign bodies
inclusions and small cracks are accepted
according to the adherence tests (chiselling,
peeling).
39
The structures with superficial corrosion of

tin melt at the alloy surface during annealing
and
inter-crystalline
corrosion
are
unappropriate.
The double strips must not present a series
of faults, such as: overlaps, surface slag
imprints, oxide traces after pickling, foreign
bodies inclusions, cracks.
REFERENCES
1.
Bardocz, G., Dinescu, I. Cercetri

experimentale privind proprietilor de
rezisten ale materialelor bimetal pe baz
de Cu-Pb i Al-Sn. Sesiunea de comunicri
tiinifice cu participare internaional
Educaie i cercetare tiinific la
standarde europene, 11-12 mai, Editura
Academiei Forelor Aeriene Henri
Coand (mai 2007).
2. Dinescu, I., Bardocz G. Materials for the
Bushings, REVIEW of the Air Force
Academy, The Scientific Informative
Review No. 1/2007, The Air Force
Academy Henri Coand Printed House,
ISSN 1842-9238, p. 19-22 (May 2007).
3. Dinescu, I., Bardocz, G. Remarks Regarding
the Friction within the Bushings, Bulletin
of the Transilvania University of Brasov,
Supliment BRAMAT 2007, Transilvania
University Press, ISSN 1223-9631, p. 503508 (2007).
4. Dinescu, I., Bardocz G. Technologies of
Obtaining the Materials Used in the
Production
of
Bushings
(Friction
Bearings),
The
21st
International
Conference NAV-MAR-EDU 2009, 12th14th, MIRCEA CEL BATRAN Naval
Academy, Constanta, Romania, ISSN
1843-6749, p. 494-501(November, 2009).
AIR FORCE
40
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MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR MINIUAV CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING

Adrian-Ioan LI*, Ioan PLOTOG*, Lidia DOBRESCU*
*Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology, POLITEHNICA University
of Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: The paper describes an electronic multiprocessor system that assures functionality of a
miniature UAV capable of 3D flying. The apparatus consists of six independently controlled brushless
DC motors, each having a propeller attached to it. Since the brushless motor requires complex
algorithms in order to achieve maximum torque, efficiency and response time a DSP must be used. All the
motors are then controlled by a main microprocessor which is capable of reading sensors (Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input commands (remote controller or
trajectory plan) and sending independent commands to each of the six motors. The apparatus contains a
total of eight microcontrollers: the main unit, the IMU mathematical processor and one microcontroller
for each of the six brushless DC motors. Applications for such an apparatus could include not only
military, but also search-and-rescue, geodetics, aerial photography and aerial assistance.
.
Keywords: hexacopter, brushless, IMU, search-and-rescue, BLDC
1. INTRODUCTION
Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL)
vehicles have been developed in the past
century starting with the helicopter. The main
advantages between VTOL vehicles and
airplanes is hovering over a small area and
being able to operate in areas with no runway.
Comparing to a helicopter, having six
propellers instead of two highly increases the
useful
payload,
the
stability
and
maneuverability. Multi-rotor systems (with 4,
6 or 8 propellers) can run faster, maintain
stability in tougher winds and execute turns
much faster (also used in aerobatics) than a
traditional helicopter [1]. The main drawback
of such systems is that building gas-powered
41
multi-rotor systems is much harder than a

classic helicopter.
The apparatus presented by the authors is
an electrical powered small-sized vehicle with
six vertical propellers.
The applications that can be developed on
such a vehicle are of two types: imagery and
transportation of small payload. From
conception and design point of view, the
transportation no needs extra processing.
Imagery on the other hand introduces a whole
new set of applications, especially when the
image can be sent back to base in real time for
more complex analysis, according to the
mission requests.
AIR FORCE
2. THE MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM

PROOF OF CONCEPT
2.1. The multiprocessor system solution.
The authors have chosen brushless DC motors
(BLDC) as solution for electrical powered of
multi-rotor apparatus in order to assure
capability to operate with a payload of 4 Kg.
The reason for this requirement is that imagery
applications demand high-resolution cameras,
which are usually heavy.
Taking into account the necessity to
implement a complex algorithm capable to
achieve maximum torque, efficiency and
response time for the motor, a digital signal
processor (DSP) type controller was chosen.
All the BLDC controllers are then controlled
by a main microprocessor which is capable of
reading sensors (Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input
commands (remote controller or trajectory
plan) and sending independent commands to
each of the six motors. The apparatus (Fig. 1)
contains a total of eight microcontrollers: the
main unit, the IMU mathematical processor
and one microcontroller for each of the six
BLDC.
All the movements are combined and

calculated by the main controller unit in order
to achieve 3D flying. In (Fig. 2) the scale
drawing of the apparatus is presented, noting
the fact that the red leg represents the front
direction. Also drawn with a circle around
each motor is the propeller occupied area. The
small arrow on the circle indicates the
spinning direction of the propeller.
Fig. 2. Six propellers apparatus general view.
2.2. Design of movement control. While

designing the apparatus (next referred as
hexacopter), in order for it to be able to fully
execute three-dimensional maneuvers each
movement axis was considered, resulting in
three separate moves: roll, pitch and yaw.
For maximum efficiency, all the propellers
push air down.
Fig. 1. Movement on Y axis Roll.
Fig. 1. Block schematic.
The roll and pitch maneuvers are

obtainable just by modifying the push force on
some of the propellers. In order for the
hexacopter to be able to modify the yaw angle
and in order for it not to keep spinning at all
times due to added momentum, half of the
propellers need to spin in one direction and the
others in the opposite direction. For best
42
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response time, the propellers spin is alternated

clockwise and counter clockwise.
Considering the red motor-propeller pair as
the front of the hexacopter (parallel to Y
Cartesian axis), we can define the roll and
pitch movements as following: roll moves the
apparatus left and right, while pitch moves it
forward or backward. (Fig. 3, 4, 6, 7) depict
the propellers spinning speed as follows:
transparent normal spin, red faster spin,
more thrust and green slower, less thrust.
This makes the hexacopter modify its angle
and execute the maneuver.
can be more than one variation, but the fastest

is the one illustrated in (Fig. 7).
Fig. 3. Forward Movement.
Fig. 2. Movement on X axis Pitch.
It is worth noticing that the roll is done

using only 4 out of 6 propellers, while pitch
uses all. The reason behind this is that the
pitch maneuver dictates the maximum forward
speed of the apparatus, which is used more
often. (Fig. 5) presents the forward movement
of the UAV: red faster spin, pink faster
spin, but slower than red.
The yaw maneuver is illustrated in (Fig. 6),
using all 6 propellers. Fewer propellers may be
used for steadier control, with the condition
that the total yaw momentum remains
constant.
The last described movement is
represented by the take-off and landing.
Basically all propellers have the same speed,
which is either higher (take-off) or lower
(landing) than the steady altitude speed. There
43
Fig. 4. Movement on Z axis Yaw.
Fig. 5. Take-off and Landing.
2.3 The motor controllers. The authors

have chosen BLDC motors NX-4006-530
having speed constant Kv = 530 rpm/v, maxim
current = 10A, phase resistance = 75m,
phase inductance = 10uH, power = 150W and
AIR FORCE
weight = 67g [7]. While using brushless

motors without any sensor, the usage of a
microcontroller with is mandatory. The
microcontroller
contains
a
sensorless
trapezoidal six-step algorithm which drives six
MOS-FET transistors in a three half-bridge
configuration used to connect the three phases
of the brushless motor.
Six-step trapezoidal commutation (Fig. 8)
requires the use of PWM channels. Two half
bridges drives two of the phases while the
third remains floating and is measured by the
ADC module of the microcontroller.
not to create acoustical disturbance, the PWM

frequency used is 20 KHz. High frequency
require more expensive MOS-FET transistors
to keep the losses to minimum. The duty-cycle
is set by a PI (proportional integral) controller,
which receives the speed as the measured
parameter and the desired speed from the main
controller unit as the input parameter.
The communication between the main
controller unit and the motor controllers is
done via I2C protocol.
Fig. 6. Six-step trapezoidal commutation.
Fig. 7. Zero-Crossing detection.
The floating phase is used to compute

when the next commutation occurs. This can
be usually implemented by two methods, both
requiring prior filtering: comparing it either to
half the DC voltage or to the reconstructed
motor neutral point. The algorithm used in this
paper uses the first method as it requires fewer
electronic components and makes full use of
the microcontrollers DSP functions.
Comparing the floating phase voltage (also
known as back electro-magnetic force
BEMF) to half the DC voltage will result in
finding the zero-crossing point (Fig. 9) of the
voltage. The zero-crossing point is the exact
moment at which the floating phase voltage is
equal to DC bus voltage divided by two, and is
the exact moment at which the rotor moved
30 out of 60 of a sector. By measuring the
time between the sector change and zero
crossing moment (30), the algorithm then
waits this exact amount of time before
changing the sector again. This approach is
used to replace the sensor by using the floating
phase as a sensor. By using PWM modulation
to control the MOS-FET transistors, the motor
speed is controlled by increasing or decreasing
the duty-cycle. In order for the commutation
The microcontroller used in this case is the

dsPIC33EP64MC502 made by Microchip, for
its motor control dedicated PWM channels, its
10-bit ADC module and its communication
protocols (I2C and also CAN, leaving room
for further implementation) [2]. The devices
consume less than 100 mW of power, which
minimizes the losses.
2.4 The main controller unit. The main
controller unit is responsible for sensor data
acquisition, wireless communications with the
base station, communication with the motor
controllers and for the main movement
computations. It contains a 32 bit
microcontroller capable of making all the
calculations required in order for the apparatus
to be stable and to have a fast response. The
main controller unit also has access to the GPS
sensor. The main controller unit has the
possibility of sending all its data to another
system (faster, such as a PC) via wireless link
or directly via UART or SPI. This was
designed to allow running of higher
complexity applications such as automatic
search and rescue, or monitoring. They require
a color camera and image analysis software,
which is very demanding and cant be ran on
44
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the main controller unit. The interface allows

full control of the hexacopter by the 3rd party
computer, but still allowing for manual
override of the commands if needed. The
processor used for the main controller unit is
the PIC32MX795F512L made by Microchip.
It offers a lot of communication protocols, 4
UART modules, 4 I2C modules, and over 100
MIPS of processing power on 32 bits
mathematical sets, while requiring less than
400 mW of power [2].
The main sensor is the inertial
measurement unit (IMU) which uses a threeaxis accelerometer, a three-axis gyroscope and
a three-axis magnetometer in order to compute
the angles of roll, pitch and yaw. Initially,
when the hexacopter is not started, all angles
are reset in order to set the forward direction.
The sensor uses UART communication to send
the data back to the main controller unit.
and a 1.8 Kg apparatus gives us a total of

about 4 Kg of useful payload, exactly as
designed.
Fig. 8. Hexacopter.
The brushless DC motor controllers

provides very fast response, low commutation
noise and excellent performance (Fig. 11).
New speed information is fed to the motor
controller with a frequency of 500 Hz.
3. THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND

DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Build. As seen in (Fig. 10), the six
motor-propeller pairs are connected to the
main unit through carbon-fiber tubes to a
central aluminum hexagonal plate. Carbonfiber and aluminum were chosen for being
very lightweight materials with increased
durability and strength. The total weight of the
apparatus is 1.8 Kg. The central plate was
chosen to be hexagonal instead of round in
order to provide higher contact to carbon-fiber
tubes. Also, for increased strength, the carbonfiber tube profile is square instead of round.
The tube houses the wiring needed to provide
power and commands to the motor controllers.
3.2. Lift and power consumption tests.
Tests have shown that each motor-propeller
pair is capable of pushing air up to a thrust
capable of lifting 1 Kg / pair. Having 6 pairs
45
Fig. 9. Motor BEMF and driving voltage.
The total power consumption of the

hexacopter while standing, with no motors
running was of 850 mW, which, with a battery
of 16.8V and 5800 mAh (a total of 97.4 Wh) is
less than 1%.
Each of the motors running in full thrust
(when able to lift approximately 1 Kg each)
had a current consumption of 9.8 A at 16.8V.
With the hexacopter running in full thrust, this
AIR FORCE
would give about 6 minutes of flight time.

However, while hovering (keeping a steady
altitude in no-wind conditions) with no
payload, the total power consumption is
170W, giving a total flight time of over 30
minutes. The exact case is somewhere between
6 and 30 minutes, depending on the payload:
when the apparatus is required to have extra
payload (1 Kg), it is still fast in response, but
the total consumption is 290W, which means
about 18-20 minutes of flight. When
maximum load is applied, the response time is
slow, since there isnt a lot of reserve power to
make the fast movements: all the power is
consumed to lift and keep the payload.
The BLDC controller (Fig. 12) was
designed in respect of Design for
Manufacturing concept [8], so it would fit
below the motor, in order to save space and
increase efficiency.
Fig. 10. BLDC controller board all layers
Further development require designing

new algorithms which can be applied to the
hexacopter in order to automatically perform
complex tasks, most in the field of digital
image processing: automatic search for certain
objects on an area, monitoring perimeter, etc.
4. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
4.1. Conclusions. The main controller unit
initially has a simple PID controller to feed the
output for the motor controllers. Though the
response time is good, some oscillations are
present. Tuning the PID loop parameters is
mandatory, and the PID was added complexity
by adding an auto-tuning sequence to be
executed on every start of the hexacopter.
The ability to execute 3D maneuvers gives

virtually any possibility to any application
which requires 3D flight. More complex
algorithms can be implemented when using
more than one hexacopter to perform a
collaborative work. Other example would be
that the estimated flight time is around 20
minutes, and the charge time is around 1.5-2
hours, meaning that in order to fully monitor a
perimeter, at least four are needed, one to be
operational and the others to charge.
4.2. Acknowledgment. This work has
partial supported by the SIOPTEF project (PNII-PT-PCCA-2011-3, C-121/2012).
REFERENCES
1. Gablehouse C. Helicopters and autogiros: a
chronicle
of
rotating-wing
aircraft
Lippincott (1967)
2. Lita, A., Cheles M. AN1160 Sensorless
BLDC Control with Back-EMF Filtering
Using a Majority Function [online].
Available: http://www.microchip.com
3. Alamio A., Artale V., et all. PID Controller
Applied to Hexacopter Flight Journal of
Intelligent & Robotic Systems. Issue 1-4
(Jan 2014).
4. Oursland J., The design and implementation
of a quadrotor flight controller using the
QUEST algorithm South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology (2010)
5. Markley, F. L., Mortari D. Quaternion
altitude
estimation
using
vector
observations The Journal of the
Astronautical Sciences (2000)
6. Erginer B., Altug E. Modeling and PD
control of a quadrotor VTOL vehicle IEEE
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (2007)
7. NX-4006-530kv Brushless Quadcopter
Motor. Source. [online]. Available:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/sto
re/__17923__NX_4006_530kv_Brushless
_Quadcopter_Motor.html.
8. Plotog I., Marin A., Boanta L., Model of
assembling process for electronic parts
integrated in mechatronic products, The
Romanian Review Precision Mechanics,
Optics & Mechatronics, 2013, No. 44,
ISSN 1584 5982.
46
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THE DRIVELINE ANALYSIS OF

HYPER SUSTENTATION DEVICES
Doru LUCULESCU
Air Force Academy Henri Coand Braov
Summary: The flaps is a device used for the expansion of the hyper sustentation flight
envelope. The flaps kinematics driveline control mechanisms require a dimensional study by
dimensional parameterization kinematic rods and bearings used. This paper presents an
optimized driveline analysis of the flaps control.
Key words: flaps, driveline, kinematics analysis, depending on the position.
1. INTRODUCTION
The flaps is a hyper sustentation device
placed usually at edge of the wing
(aerodynamic surface) which works on the
voucher principle, see Figure 1.1. The flaps
role is to increase the coefficient lift by
changing the local geometry. The flap
actuation leads to a change in curvature of the
wing that will produce an increase in lift at the
same speed or a reduction in the constant
incidence rate.
plain flap
split flap
slotted flap
Fowler flap
double slotted flap

Fig. 1.2 Types of flaps placed on the edge of the
wing
Fig.1.1 The effect of operating flaps

A series of papers [3, 5, 11] presenting
the type of flaps highlighted in Figure 1.2.
47
AIR FORCE
Fig. 1.3. Flaps down Cessna 172
Fig. 1.4. Flaps down L-29 Delfin [4]
According to the papers [8, 9, 10] the

introduction of smart materials and system
drive control surfaces define the concept of
morphing (biologically inspired) which
deleted the joints, the structure of the bearing
surfaces being flexible.
2. KINEMATIC ANALISYS
2.1. Defining the components
The kinematics of mechanisms from

command driveline of the flaps requires a
rigorously dimensional study to prevent
buckling phenomena and reduce the friction
and the kinematic parameterization games in
the rods and bearings.
The flaps actuator transmits force and
motion in the powertrain, which includes
sticks scenes and kinematic coupling elements
with different degrees of freedom [1].
The voucher command includes a
number of constructive landmarks, such as the
control lever assembly, support for indexing,
control rods, bearing assembly, lever
assembly, damper, fasteners (screws, nuts,
washers, split pins), [2]. In Figure 2.1 is
shown a rigid driveline (plan) for actuating the
flap, where B is the retracted position of the
flap (00) and the flap position is removed
(250).
Fig. 2.1 The kinematic mechanism for operating the rigid flaps
l0
Fig. 2.2 Rigid kinematic mechanism for actuating the flaps (CAD solution)
kinematic couplings resulting connectivity,

the number of independent contours, namely
mobility mechanism. Based on kinematic
scheme and the law of motion it is necessary
to determine the intrinsic kinematic
2.2.Theoretical considerations.
The kinematic analysis of the
articulated plan mechanism analyzed
previously assumed structural analysis of
48
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parameters
mechanism
(defining
parameters) and the independent coordinates
(input data).
The necessary reference system is adopted
and the flap actuator relations between the
unit vectors of the reference relatively to the
base. In every contour considered a
independent mechanism we each attach our
own verse and fixed unit vector establish our
own basic expressions for reference system.
The stated problem for the analyzed case, is
the vector equations which is written for
each of the independent contours closing
mechanism.
The equations reveal the unknown
vector and closing through appropriate
algebraic operations, we determined the
necessary scalars and most importantly the
law of motion transmission. We can
determine successive derivations which
require angular velocity and acceleration
kinematics
torso
writing
(reduced
appropriately to chosen points). To control
the flaps mechanism in the embodiment
shown in Figure 2.2 it is necessary to
determine the speed and acceleration
functions.
We took into consideration the
geometry mechanism in Figure 2.2 and
Table 2.1 data analysis.
Tabel 1. Data analisys
Element antrenare l1l2
Element execuie l9
Timp de analiz
Unghi levier 1
Unghi flaps 9
According to [7] we can define the

kinematic mechanism function:
Conform [7] putem defini funcia
cinematic ale mecanismului:
nj nj li , l k , k
(1)
Depending on the position of the mechanism
it is analyzed as:
f l ( i , l1 , l 2 , l 3 , l 4 , l 5 , l 6 , l 7 , l 8 ) (2
)
where parameter position

2.3. The kinematics analysis of the
control mechanism of the flaps.
For the kinematic analysis, we used a
software tool called Artas SAM 6.1. This is
an interactive software environment for the
design, analysis, synthesis and optimization
of planar mechanisms. SAM integrates a
numeric preprocessor and post-processing
analysis of animation and graphic display of
parameters. The mathematical model is
based on finite elements with a large number
of characteristics allowing a unified
approach for a number of highly complex
mechanisms (ex. planetary gears). SAM 6.1
has a number of tools such as: design and
modeling mechanisms, CAD interface,
optimization mechanisms, post-processing
and analysis of results [6].
500 mm
500 mm
3s
400
450
49
AIR FORCE
1
9
Fig. 2.3 The kinematic representation of a optimized rigid flap actuator SAM 6.1
Element 1/2 control levers

Element 3, 4 i 7 link connections
Element 5/6 i 8 sticks

Element 9 flaps
Fig. 2.5 Flaps coordonates
Tabel 2.1. Kinematic characteristics

Time
[s]
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
x(1)
[m]
0.576
0.545
0.519
0.497
0.479
0.467
0.461
y(1)
[m]
1.187
1.157
1.124
1.088
1.05
1.009
0.967
x(9)
[m]
3.7
3.703
3.744
3.799
3.857
3.907
3.926
y(9)
[m]
0.272
0.276
0.33
0.416
0.536
0.703
0.949
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Fig. 2.4 Kinematic characteristics
We analyze the kinematic mobility

(l1,l2) and a kinematic running element (l9)
separately and have the characteristics shown
in Figure 2.4 and 2.5, values in Table 2
50
3.1.Conclusions
The kinematic analysis of the
mechanism can build a driveline of
dimensional design commands for a simple
type of damper flap.
HENRI COANDA
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3.2. Acknowledgment
Artas, SAM 6.1 The ultimate mechanism

designer, manual 2010, 160p.
7 Luculescu, D., Lazr, I. (2008) - Cinematica
mecanismelor plane, Editura Academiei
Forelor Aeriene Henri Coand din
Braov, ISBN 978-973-8415-65-2, 2008,
218p
8 Crciu I., Prisacariu V., Commnad and
control of the flying wing in the morphing
concept, Review of the Air Force Academy,
no.1(23)/2013, ISSN 1842-9238, p13-18
9 Prisacariu V., Sandru V., Ru C.,
Introduction morphing technology in
unmanned
aircraft
vehicles
(UAV),
International Conference of Scientific
Paper, AFASES 2011, Brasov, 26-28 May
2011,
Romania,
available
at
http://www.afahc.ro/site_nou/ro/afases/2011
/uav/Prisacaru_SANDRU_RAU.pdf
10 Prisacariu V., Crciu I., Bocoianu M.,
Morphing concept of UAVs of the swept
flying wing, Recent journal, ISSN 15820246, vol.15, 1(41) march 2014, p.26-33
The authors wish to thank the Henri

Coand Air Force Academy of Braov for
supporting the research necessary for writing
this article.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
2
3
4
5
Creu Mariana-Simona, Mecanisme, Analiz

structural teorie i aplicaii, Editura
Sitech, Craiova, 2010, ISBN 978-606-110760-5, 160p
ICA Braov, Catalog piese de schimb,
comand volet, avion IAR 28MA, 1984, 41p
McCormick, B. W., 1994, Aerodynamics,
Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics, 2nd
Edition, Wiley
http://www.airliners.net/photo/Aero-L-29Delfin/1887338/L/
Rebbello da Silva B.M., Mattos B., and
others, Flap Optimization for Take-off and
Landing, Proceedings of the 10th Brazilian
Congress of Thermal Sciences and
Engineering, ENCIT 2004, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, Paper CIT04-0229, 10p
51
AIR FORCE
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PRECISION APROACH SYSTEM BASED ON GLOBAL NAVIGATION

SATELLITE SYSTEM
Eduard MIHAI
Henri Coand Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: This paper will present an intelligent system for high precision approach. The current core
satellite constellation is unable to provide accuracy and integrity to achieve precision approach. This
system uses the concept of differential corrections to augment satellites signal in order to meet these
requirements.
Keywords: navigation, satellite, augmentation, approach, GLS
1. INTRODUCTION
Unfortunately,
typical,
ground-based
navigation aids failed to keep up with the
global navigation requirements and modern
aircraft. The old method of navigation through
the use of a sextant and dead reckoning is just
not adequate for modern day systems. The
development, initially by the United States, of
a global system providing positioning and
timing services allowed the introduction of an
alternative to those conventional navigation
and approach aids with the possibility of using
new concepts in air navigation capable of
satisfying the new needs of the aeronautical
community.
The
International
Civil
Aviation
Organization (ICAO) had actively promoted
the use of Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS). A wide area of applications have
already demonstrated the enormous benefits to
be gain from onboard Global Positionong
System (GPS) receivers, including safety
enhancements. In air operations, GPS accuracy
streamlines enroute and terminal navigation,
53
thereby reducing flight times and ultimately

fuel consumption. Since it is a threedimensional system, descent, approach, and
landing operations can be monitored more
closely.
Today, GPS is used on land, sea, and in the
sky to provide life saving information to
navigation systems around the earth.
2. GROUND-BASED
AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
For precision approach, standard GPS
information alone does not offer the required
quality
level.
The
Ground-Based
Augmentation System (GBAS) is a system that
provides enhanced GPS positioning to aircraft
with the accuracy, integrity, continuity and
availability that precision approaches demand.
The GBAS principle relies on differential
corrections of the GPS signal. A ground
station is fitted with a number of GPS
receivers. Given the pin pointed position of the
receivers, errors in the received signal can be
measured and corrections calculated. Together
AIR FORCE
with final approach information this

corrections are transmitted to the aircraft via
Very High Frequency Data Broadcast (VDB).
The aircraft benefits from accurate lateral and
vertical positioning enabling procedure
approach and landing operations.
GBAS works based on three segments:
satellites constellation, ground station and
aircraft receiver, as shown in Figure 1.
SATELLITE/GNSS
AIRCRAFT
GROUND
Figure 1 GBAS architecture
Satellite subsystem:
provides satellite status, position and
timing signal;
has sufficient number of satellites to
determine user position.
Ground subsystem provides:
pseudorange corrections for each
satellite in view;
integrity of aircraft subsystems
(protects against satellite signal errors,
ground
subsystem
errors
and
anomalous ionospheric errors);
approach paths (Final Approach
Segment FAS for all runway ends);
local
tropospheric
parameters,
necessary to adjustment;
predicted availability for precision
approaches and estimates aircraft
protection levels against alert limits.
Aircraft Subsystem:
applies
broadcast
pseudorange
corrections (PRCs);
computes position using corrected
PRCs only;
computes deviations from broadcast
approach path;
determines if GBAS Landing System
(GLS) approach is safe;
54
follows desired approach path to

decision height continue with GLS
approach or execute missed approach.
3. GBAS BENEFITS
Why is GBAS such a good system? It

allows to fly very accurately approaches to
airfields or towards runways, but with a
ground installation which is more simpler,
more cheaper and more flexible than the
Instrumental Landing System (ILS).
One GBAS station can support
multiple runway ends and reduce the total
number of systems at an airport. With one
ground station on an airfield you can feed all
the runways and fly GLS approaches to all
those fields with just one station which is
located inside the airfield. A GBAS is sited to
minimize critical areas which place fewer
restrictions on aircraft movement during
ground taxi and air operations. ILS requires
one frequency per system and GBAS requires
one VHF assignment for up to 48 individual
approach procedures. This reduces the Very
High Frequency (VHF) requirements and
simplifies airport infrastructure. Also, GBAS
requires less frequent flight inspections
compared to those required of ILS systems.
From a pilots point of view, GBAS has
been architected to work identically to ILS
(figure 2). The only difference is the
nomenclature the pilot sees on the display and,
instead of tuning into a frequency, they now
tune a channel to select a specific procedure.
From a flying perspective, it is identical to
ILS, which simplifies training. No specific
simulator training or checking is required as
pilots.
Figure 2 GLS and ILS flight display
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You fly the same, you have the same

signals you have the same information instead
of reading ILS here you read GLS here,
instead having here a frequency you read what
we call a channel, but for the rest, is exactly
the same thing. You fly exactly the same
way.[8]
3. CONCLUSIONS
The future of GNSS appears to be virtually
unlimited. The aviation industry is developing
the GBAS, a new positioning and landing
system that integrates satellite and groundbased navigation information.
In conclusion, potential benefits of the
GLS include significantly improved takeoff
and landing capability at airports worldwide at
reduced cost, instrument approach service at
additional airports and runways, and eventual
replacement of the ILS.
REFERENCES
1. Article. Source. [online]. Available:
http://instrument.landing-system.com
(accessed at March,2014)
2. BONNOR, A. C. N., A Brief History of
Global Navigation Satellite Systems, The
Journal of Navigation, Volume 65 (2012)
55
3.
EUROCAE
ED-114
Minimum
Operational Performance Specification for
Global Navigation Satellite Ground Based
Augmentation System Ground Equipment to
Support Category I Operations EUROCA
4. ICAO, Annex 10 to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation, Volume I Radio
Navigation Aids, International Civil Aviation
Organization, Sixth Edition (2006);
5. ICAO, Annex 14 to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation International Civil
Aviation Organization, Sixth Edition (2006);
6. ICAO, Doc 8071, Vol. II - Manual on
Testing of Radio Navigation Aids, Testing of
Satellite-based Radio Navigation Systems,
Fifth Edition, 2007
7. ICAO, Guide for Ground Based
Augmentation System Implementation, 2013
8. Tarnowski, E. Airbus Indsutrie Engineering
Test Pilot. Source. [online]. Available:
https://www.youtube.com
(accessed
at
March,2014)
AIR FORCE
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GAS SENSORS FABRICATED BY LASER-INDUCED FORWARD

TRANSFER
Alexandra PALLA PAPAVLU*, Fabio DI PIETRANTONIO**, Domenico CANNAT**,
Massimiliano BENETTI**, Enrico VERONA**, Valentina DINCA*, Thomas LIPPERT***,
Maria DINESCU*
*Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele,
Romania, **O.M. Corbino Institute of Acoustics, Italian National Research CouncilCNR, Via del
Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy, ***General Energy Research Department, Paul Scherrer
Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
Abstract: This work summarizes the developments in dynamic release layer (DRL) assisted LIFT of
complex materials such as polymers, biomolecules, or carbon nanotubes for applications as recognizing
elements in miniaturized surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators and chemiresistor devices.
As the functionality of such sensors depends on the applied laser source, target material, and transfer
geometry, first an optimization of the process parameters is reported.
Following a morphological and structural characterization of the active material, the performance, i.e.
the sensitivity, resolution, and response time of the laser-printed devices was evaluated by exposure of the
sensor arrays to different toxic vapors. Different sensitivities and selectivity to the selected chemical
agents i.e. dimethyl methylphosphonate, dichloromethane, dichloropentyhane, ethyl acetate, etc. have
been measured thus proving the feasibility of LIFT for applications in sensors and biosensors.
Keywords: laser-induced forward transfer, surface acoustic wave, sensors, chemiresistors
1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental monitoring due to air
pollution is a problem of current interest both
for the industry, i.e. automotive (detection of
polluting gases from cars) as well as for many
research groups. Since sensors are the main
components in products and systems used to
detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in
air, there are always new and innovative
sensor technologies emerging. Several key
requirements for sensors include sensitivity,
the minimum concentration of target gases
57
they can detect, response speed, reversibility,

energy consumption, and fabrication costs [1].
A wide variety of natural occurring
substances (such as cells, enzymes, receptors,
and antibodies) are commonly used as sensing
elements in sensor technology. Besides these
biological materials, polymers and carbon
nanotubes (CNTs) are used as active materials
in gas sensors.
Polymers are used as recognition elements
in sensor structures, due to their wide range of
capabilities [2]:
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1. Polymers can collect and concentrate

vapor molecules on sensor surfaces by
reversible sorption.
2. They can be applied on device surfaces
as thin adherent films.
3. Their chemical selectivity is determined
by the chemical structure, which can be varied
easily through synthetic design.
4. They can yield sensors with rapid,
reversible, and reproducible responses.
5. Diverse sets of polymers can be
assembled rationally for sensor arrays.
In addition to polymers, single walled
carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) are promising
chemical sensing materials, due to their hollow
structure,
one-dimensional
nanoscale
morphology, and high specific surface area
that benefits physical adsorption or chemical
reaction with target molecules for signal
transformations with higher efficiency and
speed [3,4].
The applicability of devices based on
polymer or SWCNT systems has been limited
by the complexity associated with the device
fabrication. An interesting alternative to
conventional printing techniques is laserinduced forward transfer (LIFT). LIFT is free
from clogging problems, which are
characteristic for inkjet printing, and avoids
the use of expensive photolithographic masks.
LIFT presents also a higher potential for
integration than another possible deposition
methods, e.g. microspotting.
This techniques is versatile and allows
printing a wide class of materials i.e. inorganic
inks and pastes, metals, oxides, polymers and
biological materials in solid or liquid phase [515]. In LIFT the material of interest is
transferred by the laser beam from a
transparent support (donor substrate) onto an
appropriate substrate (receiver). For improving
the process efficiency and reducing the risk of
damaging the layer to be transferred, the donor
substrate can be previously coated with a
polymeric layer, which is called sacrificial
dynamic release layer (DRL) [16-18].
The aim of this work is to contribute to the
study of applying a clean and versatile
fabrication method, i.e. DRL-LIFT of
polymers and SWCNT based sensors for gas
detection.
The microstructure of the active material in

a gas sensor is a key parameter influencing the
sensitivity of the material [19]. Therefore, the
morphology and structure of the transferred
pixels is established. This work is
complemented by measuring the response to
different gas exposure. Based on the
requirements of National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), a
test range of 10-200 ppm of gas was
considered in this work.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Laser-induced forward transfer
The LIFT setup used in this work consists
of the pulsed UV XeCl laser beam (308 nm
emission wavelength, 30 ns pulse length, 1 Hz
repetition rate) which is guided and imaged
with an optical system onto the donor substrate
to transfer micropixels from the donor
substrate to the receiving surface [1, 20]. The
laser fluence is varied from 100 mJ/cm2 to 700
mJ/cm2. A computer-controlled xyz translation
stage allows the displacement of both donor
and receptor substrates with respect to the
laser beam. The donor and the receiver are
kept in contact while the laser irradiates the
donor from the backside. For each laser pulse
single micropixels are obtained. All
experiments were performed under ambient
pressure at room temperature. A scheme of the
LIFT setup is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Scheme of the LIFT setup.
2.2 Donor and receiving substrates

The donor substrates are prepared by spin
coating the triazene polymer (TP) (with a
thickness of 60 nm, 100 nm, and 300 nm) onto
fused silica plates (area 5 cm2, thickness 1
mm) and then spin coating the materials to
transfer: polymers and carbon nanotubes. The
TP is synthesized as described by Nagel et al.
in [16] and is then prepared by spin coating
from a solution in chlorobenzene and
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cyclohexanone (1:1, w/w). TP is chosen as

DRL layer, due to the fact that the emission
wavelength of the laser used in this work
matches the absorption maxima of the TP.
The
chemoselective
polymers,
polyepichlorhydrine (PECH), polyisobutylene
(PIB), polyethilenimine (PEI), poly(styreneco-maleic
acid)
(PScMA),
and
hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) are
chosen to be deposited by laser based methods
as chemical interactive membranes on surface
acoustic wave (SAW) resonators due to their
ability to specifically and selectively identify
target gases.
As previously reported in [1, 20] the first
step in the sensor array production process is
to deposit the five polymers as individual thin
films onto the same substrate plate by matrixassisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE).
The aim is to create multi-ribbon targets,
which would allow single step transfer (by
LIFT) of multiple polymer layers onto
different sensors arranged in a matrix.
Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT,
HiPco) are purchased from Nanointegris (as a
dry powder) and used without further
purification.
In order to obtain SWCNT thin films, 10
mg CNT are dispersed in water (15 ml)
containing the nonionic surfactant Triton X
(100 mg), and the dispersion is bath sonicated
for 40 min. The dispersion is then spin coated
onto TP coated fused silica plates under
different conditions i.e. rotation speed 1500
2500, ramp of 1000 2000 rpm, and spin
coating duration of 30 s and 60 s. In order to
remove any trace of solvent from the donor
films, the spin coated SWCNT were then left
to dry on a hot plate for 2 hours at 50 C. In
Figure 2 an atomic force microscopy (AFM)
image of the SWCNT donor film deposited
onto a TP film is shown.
59
Figure 2. Atomic force microscopy image of a

SWCNT donor film.
As receiver substrates, either SAW

resonators (for polymer deposition) or
chemiresistor structures are used.
2.3 Morphological and structural
investigation
The deposited features as well as the target
prior to ablation are investigated by optical
microscopy. The images are acquired with an
Axiovert 200 Microscope coupled to a Carl
Zeiss AxioCam MRm camera.
Raman microscopy is used to check for
any chemical changes in the structure of the
SWCNT prior and after their deposition by
LIFT. The Raman spectra of SWCNT are
recorded on a Labram confocal Raman
microscopy system from Jobin Yvon. The 633
nm line from a HeNe laser is used as an
excitation source for the Raman spectra. The
laser power at the sample surface is typically
20 mW. For each measurement, the exposure
time and the accumulation were 20 s and 5
times, respectively. Raman spectra are
collected over the range of 2003000 cm-1. All
spectra are recorded at room temperature.
2.4 Sensitivity tests
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In order to test the SAW sensor arrays, a

custom sealed chamber equipped with
electronic oscillators, one for each SAW
resonator, is designed. The sensor arrays,
composed of five polymer coated sensors and
one reference device (uncoated devices),
fabricated on the same quartz substrate, are
placed inside the sealed chamber and
connected to the conditioning electronic
circuits. In order to obtain different
concentrations of VOCs in N2, the sensor array
was exposed to a total flux of 1000 sccm,
controlled by two flow meters: the main for
the gas carrier (N2) and the second for the
analyte. The vapor concentrations are obtained
fluxing N2 in the liquid analyte by using a
bubbler. The oscillation of the reference
sensors is measured and the influence of
humidity, temperature, pressure, etc. in the
oscillation frequency is quantified by using the
reference SAW devices. This information is
subtracted from the measurement of the
polymer coated sensors, allowing thus a
precise measurement.
In order to carry out the sensitivity tests,
the SWCNT pixels are transferred onto Pt
electrodes. They are then mounted on a holder
and electrically contacted with Ag paste.
Resistance is monitored continuously with
time by a computer controlled setup using a
Keithley 2400 source meter. The holder is
placed in a closed chamber with a constant gas
supply and the baseline resistance is
monitored. In order to test the sensors for their
gas detection ability, different ammonia
concentrations were introduced in the test
chamber using a chromatography syringe.
Once the sensor reached saturation, the test
chamber is purged with N2 gas until the signal
recovers the original baseline value.
3. RESULTS &
DISCUSSION
3.1 Polymer SAW sensors
The SAW sensors consist either of 2-port
SAW resonators obtained by two IDTs
arranged between reflecting gratings and
operating at approximately 392 MHz or solidly
mounted resonators (SMRs) operating at
approximately 2 GHz [1, 20].
As reported previously [1, 20-22], the

performances of the SAW sensors are mainly
affected by the physical properties of the
polymer coatings. Therefore in the process of
applying polymer layers onto SAW devices by
LIFT, parameters such as i) the laser fluence
applied for the transfer, ii) the thickness of the
polymer layer, iii) the laser wavelength, or iii)
transfer with DRL and without DRL, are of
paramount importance.
Optical microscopy images of continuous,
debris free and with regular edges polymer
pixels transferred onto the resonating cavity of
SAW devices at laser fluences between 400
and 500 mJ/cm2 is shown in Fig. 3 a)-f). The
red square in Figure 3 a indicates the active
area of the SAW sensor.
As shown in [1, 20-22], the laser fluence
plays an important role in obtaining regular,
debris free polymer coatings. As the image
reveals (Figure 3), only between 400 and 500
mJ/cm2 the transfer is clean and well defined.
Below 400 mJ/cm2, the polymer doesn't reach
the surface of the SAW device, or only debris
from the polymer reaches the SAW surface,
most probably due to the limited available
mechanical
force
from
the
DRL
decomposition. In contrast, at too high laser
fluences, debris from polymer, and destroyed
IDTs are noticed.
Figure 3. a) Reference SAW sensor; SAW sensor

coated with b) PSCMA polymer; c) PEI polymer;
d) PECH polymer; e) HPMC polymer; f) PIB
polymer. The polymers are transferred at different
laser fluences (from 400 to 500 mJ/cm2). The scale
bar is 100 m.
Similarly, polymer pixels are LIFT

printed onto SMR devices. The transfer is
carried out in contact between the donor and
the receiver substrate, as it was shown
previously that the transfer across a gap is not
possible [23] at ambient conditions.
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Figure 4. Optical microscopy images of SMR

devices coated with PEI, PECH, AND PIB
polymers deposited at a) 400 mJ/cm2 laser fluence
(adopted from Ref. 20)
Furthermore it is shown that not only the

polymer pixels are regularly transferred onto
the active area of sensor devices, but the
sensors are functional after LIFT. In Figure 5
the response curves for three different
polymers upon exposure to different
concentration of dimethyl methylphosphonate
(DMMP), i.e. from 2.5 to 40 ppm, are shown.
Figure 5. Response curves for PECH, PEI, and

PIB sensors upon exposure to different
concentration of DMMP. (adopted from Ref. 1)
The response curves for the three polymers

(PECH, PEI, and PIB) to DMMP, DCM, and
EtOAc show a linear behaviour in the tested
concentration ranges. For PIB, a sensitivity of
19.45 Hz/ppm is obtained with a calculated
detection limit of 0.51 ppm. In the case of PEI,
the sensitivity and the detection limit of the
sensor are, 32.34 Hz/ppm and 0.3 ppm,
respectively. Finally, for the PECH a
61
sensitivity of 66.23 Hz/ppm and a detection

limit of 0.15 ppm are achieved. For all the
sensors, the detection limit is calculated
considering a maximum noise level of 10 Hz.
As expected, the response curve behaviours of
the three sensors demonstrate that PECH has a
higher sensitivity to DMMP vapour than PIB
and PEI [24].
3.2 Chemiresistors based on single
walled carbon nanotubes
The investigation of LIFT aiming
applications such as the fabrication of
chemiresistor sensors requires a systematic
variation of different process parameters and
an analysis of the resulting morphological and
chemical features of the transferred materials.
As shown previously in [25] the triazene
polymer thickness is an important parameter
for obtaining a regular, clean transfer. TP as
DRL absorbs the laser radiation and
subsequently decomposes into gaseous
fragments which are used to transform the
energy into required mechanical push.
Therefore, the transfer of SWCNT with 300
and 100 nm TP release layer are investigated.
It has been seen in [25] that for 300 nm TP
layers and all applied conditions never results
in a transfer of uniformly distributed pixels,
i.e. never a CNT array, on the receiver
substrate. Thus only 100 nm TP layer
thicknesses are used.
Another important parameter which is
investigated is the transfer of SWCNT onto
different flexible substrates, appropriate in the
fabrication of intelligent clothing. An optical
microscopy image of SWCNT transferred by
LIFT onto different flexile substrates is shown
in Figure 6. As it can be seen in Figure 6, it is
possible to achieve a relatively clean
transfer, i.e. pixels with well-defined contours
onto all the substrates investigated.
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Figure 6. Optical microscopy images of

SWCNT deposited onto flexible substrates (from
left to right and top to bottom): Kapton,
polystyrene, PDMS, Al foil. Scale bar is 100 m.
In addition, for the fabrication of a

chemiresistor sensor it is important to control
the laser fluence. The laser fluence is varied
over a broad range, i.e. from conditions
insufficient to break the donor layer to high
irradiation fluences (0.1 1 J/cm2), in order to
optimize the shape of the transferred pixels
without any chemical modification of the
SWCNTs. The optimum laser fluence values
are found in the range 200-400 mJ/cm2.
The transferred pixels are investigated
from a structural point of view to check for
possible heat damage after the transfer. The
Raman spectra of the SWCNTs onto the
receiver substrate are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Raman spectra of a SWCNT

pixel transferred at 350 mJ/cm2.
The Raman spectra presents the typical
Raman bands of SWCNTs: weak bands
located between 100 and 300 cm-1 attributed to
the radial breathing mode (RBM); the peak
near 1330 cm-1 (D-band) indicates disorder in
the graphitic layer of the CNTs; while the peak
near 1580 cm-1 (G-band) is due to the
tangential modes of the graphitic planes in the
CNTs. This indicates that after LIFT the

SWCNT do not suffer any decomposition, and
can be therefore further used in sensors
applications.
The last step in order to determine the
sensing ability of the SWCNT transferred by
LIFT is to carry out measurements with ppm
concentrations of ammonia (an electronwithdrawing vapor). In Figure 8 an example of
a typical sensor response to 100 ppm ammonia
is shown (adopted from Ref. 25).
Figure 8. Sensor response upon exposure to

100 ppm of ammonia. (adopted from Ref. 25)
The LIFT-ed sensors show a repeatable

response and recovery. The resistance
increases sharply in the first minute, then the
response begins to saturate in the next 10
minutes. The test chamber is then purged using
N2 gas and a spontaneous signal recovery is
observed. The resistance spontaneously
recovers up to 80 % of its signal response
within the first 1 2 minutes from the removal
of the ammonia vapors. This behavior of these
sensors can therefore be explained in terms of
p-type characteristics.
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The results shown above clearly reveal that
laser-induced forward transfer is a suitable
technique to fabricate functional SAW sensors
and chemiresistors. The deposition parameters
were optimized in order to minimize
scattering, diffraction and attenuation of the
SAWs. In addition, single walled carbon
nanotube were successfully (with no structural
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damage) transferred by LIFT onto metal

electrodes to fabricate chemiresistor sensors.
Financial support from the Romanian
NUCLEU Program, project PN 09 39 and the
Scientific Exchange Programme between
Switzerland and the New Member States of
the European Union (Sciex-NMS), through the
Rectors Conference of the Swiss Universities
(CRUS) project ALECSA Application of
laser induced forward transfer for the
fabrication of a flexible carbon nanotube
sensor array is gratefully acknowledged.
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21. Dinca V., Palla Papavlu A., Matei A.,
Luculescu C., Dinescu M., Lippert T., Di
Pietrantonio F., Cannata D., Benetti M.,
Verona E., A comparative study of DRLLIFT
and
LIFT
on
integrated
polyisobutylene polymer matrices, Appl.
Phys. A 101:429-434 (2010).
22. Dinca V., Palla Papavlu A., Shaw-Stewart
J., Dinescu M., Lippert T., Di Pietrantonio
F., Cannata D., Benetti M., Verona E.,
Polymer pixel enhancement by laser
induced forward transfer for sensor
applications, Appl. Phys. A 101(3): 559565 (2010).
23. Palla-Papavlu A., Dinca V., Luculescu C.,
Shaw-Stewart J., Nagel M., Lippert T.,
Dinescu M., Laser induced forward
transfer of soft materials, J. Opt. 12,
124014 (2010).
24. Ballantine D.S., Rose S.L., Grate J.W.,
Wohltjen H., Correlation of surface
acoustic wave device coating responses
with solubility properties and chemical
structure using pattern recognition, Anal.
Chem. 58 (1986).
25. Palla Papavlu A., Dinescu M., Wokaun A.,
Lippert T., Laser-induced forward transfer
of single walled carbon nanotubes,
accepted for publication in Applied Physics
A (2014).
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THE STUDY OF ENERGY TRANSFER ON THIN LAYERS

ACHIEVED BY ELECTRO-SPARK DEPOSITION WITH TiC
ELECTRODE
Manuela-Cristina PERJU *, Petric VIZUREANU *, Carmen NEJNERU *
*Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University from Iai,
Romnia
Abstract: The paper aims to register tension, intensity, and time at the precise moment of mono pulse
deposition, with electrode of TiC used to achieve hard-alloyed layers by electro-spark deposition method.
Ferrite-pearlitic iron used as base material. An assembly used for determinations, which attached to
Elitron 22A spark installation. This installation consists in an electric resistance of 0,5 inserted within
work system and an oscilloscope with two spots. By means of oscilloscope, intensity, tension and period
of mono pulse deposition measured. Diagrams achieved by using the software Statistica 5.5.
Keywords: electro-spark method, deposition regimes, vibration amplitude, current, electrode
1. INTRODUCTION
Electro-spark deposition method is a
current research method, used for coating by
deposition on installation components, which
works in hard conditions, abrasive wear, in
moist or dry environment, in order to obtain
superficial layers of superior tribological
qualities. Obtaining thin layers with special
properties
(wear
resistance,
corrosion
resistance and shock resistance) requires a
proper choice of filler material, in strict
correlation with the physical and mechanical
properties of the material support, [1,2,3,6,7].
Discharge parameters regimes (voltage,
current and pulse time), depends on the
physico-chemical properties of the electric and
working circuit (device-electrode-piece).
In this context, we can say that the
parameters depend on the type of electrode
deposition, and its melting temperature, the
thermal conductivity, chemical reactivity of
65
the anode elements, diffusivity, density,

electrical
resistance,
thermal
inertia,
flowability and parameters temperature
dependence.
Equally important is the base material,
meaning the discharging cathode, because the
arch character depends by the two electric
poles of the discharge.
Base material
influences the technological and electric
parameters by its conductivity, affinity
absorption for discharge gases, melting point,
boiling point, carbon potential, (comparing to
the carbon potential for the plasma atmosphere
may lead to carburizing or decarburizing of the
base material), oxygen potential (comparing to
oxygen potential from discharge may lead to
oxidation or dezoxidation of the metal bath for
the deposition drop). When changing the
discharge parameters, a significant importance
is the interaction between the cathode (base
material) and anode (electrode) as a working
couple, meaning the alloying intensity, the
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melting temperature of the creating alloy, heat

capacity of the metal bath, electrical resistance
of the metal bath, electrical conductance of the
chemical combinations, layer porosity, affinity
of the melted material to the plasma gases
(oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, CO2, CO).
Another key factor is the existing state of
tension during work, which is the surface
tension of the droplet deposition, heat stresses
and also stresses caused by the rapid cooling,
which creates cracks on the layer due to the
different expansion coefficients of piece-layer
system (depends on the plasticity and elasticity
of deposited layer), [4,5].
The multitude of factors that influence the
electrical parameters of the discharge regimes
(voltage, current, time, power and energy) led
to the conclusion that they should be measured
in terms of specific experimental work,
meaning the ferrite-pearlitic iron cast base
material TiC (titanium carbide) electrode
deposition at regimes and scales according to
the working range of the device Elitron 22A.
2. METHOD
For experiments, an assembly was attached
to the Elitron 22A installation, [8], in order to
record the current pulses during work (Fig. 1).
Elitron 22A presents 9 amplitude steps and 6
working regimes. The installation parameters,
taken from the technical handbook are:
consumed power (kVA) 0,5; productivity
(cm2/min) 4; working voltage (V) 220;
working regimes (r), vibration amplitude (A)
(A1=0,04 mm, A2=0,06 mm, A3=0,08 mm,
A4=0,1 mm, A5=0,12 mm, A6=0,14 mm,
A7=0,16 mm, A8=0,18 mm, A9=0,2 mm);
mass (kg) 21, [4,5].
For recording the electrical signals
characteristics to the established working
regimes an assembly consisting of an electrical
resistance of 0,5 inserted into the working

system and a two spots oscilloscope was used.
By measuring the resistor voltage the work
current was set. Time variation diagrams for
voltage and spark current was recorded using
the two spots oscilloscope.
For each experimental determination, from
the oscilloscope screen were taken the
following values: impulse time (10-4 [s]),
current (A), voltage (V). Power was calculated
(with formula P=UI [W]) and single-pulse
energy (with formula P=UI [W]), [4,5].
Fig. 1. Wiring diagram of installation: S1 spot 1

for intensity of the discharge measurement;
S2 spot 2 for discharge voltage measurement;
E electrode; P part; I source; R electrical
resistance 0,5 .
The total duration of a pulse is between 5

14 ms. Each electrode has a different
ionization capacity, according with the
established working regimes, the control
device positions. Power and pulse energy are
different, depending on the physical properties
and the quality of each electrode.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Depending on the values obtained by
calculation, power and energy were rendered
using spatial graphs obtained with the
Statistica 5.5 software.
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3.1. Deposition regimes for TiC. Singlepulse energy deposition of titanium carbide
electrode has large fluctuations, ranging from
4510-3 J (r1, A4) and 492,810-3 J (r4, A4).
Energy increases and decreases randomly with
regime change and amplitude of vibration. The
mean value for the 48 experiments is Emedium=
161,8310-3 J, (Fig. 2).
Power single-pulse discharge electrode of

titanium carbide varies between 145 W values
(r2, A4) and 448 W (r4, A2), but with much
uniformity as of 48 schemes 32 values
between 180 270 W. The high values, above
400 W are schemes 3 and 4, and the amplitude
of between 2 and 6, (Fig. 3).
Table 1. Unipuls discharge modes for cast iron electrode TiC
Fig. 2. Energy variation depending on the amplitude operating mode and working regime for TiC
electrode.
67
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Fig. 3. Power variation depending on the amplitude operating mode and working regime for TiC
electrode.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Correlation
amplitude
regime
and
deposition electrode and the base material type
is important, both in terms of energy
consumption and in terms of technology in
order to achieve uniform deposition without
burning achieve, pores or overlapping
material. Energy analysis of deposits reveals
that the energy deposit is inversely
proportional to the size of electrical discharge
pulse resistance.
REFERENCES
1. S. Frangini, A. Masci, A study on the effect
of a dynamic contact force control for
improving electrospark coating properties,
Surface & Coatings Technology 204, pp.
26132623, (2010).
2. Liu Dongyan, Gao Wei, Li Zhengwei,
Zhang Haifeng, Hu Zhuangqi, Electro-spark
deposition of Fe-based amorphous alloy
coatings, Materials Letters 61, pp. 165167,
(2007).
3. Liu Jun, Wang Ruijun, Qian Yiyu, The

formation of a single-pulse electrospark
deposition spot, Surface & Coatings
Technology 200, pp. 2433 2437, (2005).
4. Perju Manuela Cristina, Gluc Dan Gelu,
Nejneru Carmen, tefnic Roxana Gabriela,
Rileanu Tudor, The study of energy transfer
on thin layers achieved by impulse discharge
with wolfram carbide electrode, Buletinul
Institutului Politehnic, Iai, pg.69-76, (2010).
5. Perju Manuela Cristina, Gluc Dan Gelu,
Nejneru Carmen, Agop Maricel, Straturi
subiri: descrcri n impuls, Editura Ars
Longa, ISBN 978-973-148-049-7, pagini 339,
(2010).
6. Reynolds, J.L., Holdren, R.L., and Brown
L.E., Electro-spark deposition, Advanced
Materials and Process, 161 (3), pp. 35-37,
(2003).
7. Vermean, G., Vermean, E., JichisanMatiesan, D., Cretu, A., Negrea, G.,
Vermean, H., Vlad M., Introducere n
ingineria suprafeelor, Editura Dacia, ClujNapoca, (1999).
8. *** Instalaie Elitron 22, Academia de
tiine, Republica Moldova, Chiinu, (1992).
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THE AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Vasile PRISACARIU1, Andrei LUCHIAN2

1
Universitatea Transilvania Braov, 2Universitatea Politehnica Bucureti
Abstract: High lift devices (DHS) are designed to expand the flight envelope by changing the
local geometry (mechanization wing), they generally camber changes depending on the phase of flight
(landing, take-off). As controls, the aircraft they developed aeromechanical has effects with implications
for the resistance structure of the wings, and the most important effect is the twisting of the wing. The
article desires a analysis of the 2D aerodynamic profile with changes in curvature at trailing edge.
Keywords: high lift devices (HLD), Clark Y, Javafoil 2.20, XFLR5 6.09, Profili 2.21
1.INTRODUCTION
High lift devices used for bearing
surfaces are designed to expand the flight
envelope by changing the local geometry
(wing mechanization) according to phases of
flight of the aircraft. Figure 1.1 is an example
of this general concept
Fig. 1.2 Flaps of Cessna 172,

The use of high lift modern aircraft
derived from the need for speed with low
values (equation 1) for takeoff and landing
phases.
2G
S c zat
Vat at
1.winglet, 2.low speed aileron, 3.high speed aileron,
4.flap track fairing, 5.Krger flaps, 6.slats, 7.three
slotted inner flaps, 8.three slotted outer flaps, 9.spoilers,
10.spoilers-air brakes
Fig. 1.1 High lift devices (HLD) [1]
Figure 1.2 presents flaps at Cessna 172.
69
Fzat
V2
2
S c zat
(1)
(2)
where:
at - factor influencing soil landing, (0.94
0.96);
Air density;
G Weight of airplane;
S Lifting surface;
Czat lift coefficient in landing configuration
AIR FORCE
Chart Cz-
V - speed
Fz at lifting in landing configuration
In Figure 1.3 the most common types
of flaps lifting surfaces.
Plain flap
Split flap
Slotted flap
Fowler flap
Fig. 1.4 Chart Cz-Cx [4]
Slotted fowler flap

Fig. 1.3 Types of flaps [2, 3]
The methods used to increase the

maximum lift coefficient Czmax rely on either
modifying the profile geometry (passive
systems) or boundary layer control (active
systems) or the combination of both methods.
High lift studies systems based solely on
increasing the bearing surface (type wing
folding or telescoping wing), [14]. In carrying
devices high lift continuity conditions are
imposed to the lifting surfaces produces by the
drag increase when high lift is un-prancing
and keeping balance during turning to avoid
decoupling aerodynamic moments.
Flaps effects
The operation of the wing flaps of
curvature increase will cause an increase in lift
at the same speed and the ratio T / Fx Fx is
changed due to the change value. In this case
Cp (pressure center) moves downstream as the
steering angle of the flaps increases, thus
changing the ratio Fz / G, so it induces a dive
time, see figure 1.5.
When using flaps for negative cycle (up

to 50, 100) we have increased cruise by about
5%
(transport
planes)
or
better
maneuverability for aerobatic maneuvers
(aerobatics aircraft).
Fig. 1.5 Flaps effects
To increase the effectiveness of flaps

we are using some constructive solutions and
methods (operational or concept stage):
- Flaps with multiple sections, (Figure 1.6);
Fig. 1.6 Multiple slotted flaps - Boeing 747, [5]
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- Spoiler on the upper side in front flaps,

figure 1.7;
curvature), or the morphing trailing edge, see

figure 1.10, [6, 7, 8];
Fig. 1.7 Spoilers - DC 9, [5]

- slotted flaps rolling extrados surfaces, see figure
1.8,
drive
/
slot
x ;
Fig.1.8 Slotted flaps

- blowing boundary layer flow on laminating flap
by applying the Coanda effect, the jet flap, [15, 16,
17, 18, 19];
Fig. 1.9 Coand effect [19]

- Usage of partially morphing to remove
pressure jumps in the joints (morphing - no
joints, offering a seamless active continuous
71
Fig. 1.10 Morphing concept [6]
- command and control sequences during

takeoff / landing fully automated, which
eliminates discontinuities maneuver the pilot
(autopilot assisted steering gear intervals);
-implementation of the concept "full stall", the
landing sequence that leads to a landing speed
almost zero;
-flap
actuation-correlation
with
other
commands such as thrust vectoring aircraft
(aircraft V / STOL), see Figure 1.11.
Fig. 1.11 Sukhoi VSTOL (flaps and vectoring

traction), [9]
2. THE 2D FLAPS ANALYSIS
AIR FORCE
We propose to analyze a Clark Y profile

with simple flaps with different steering
angles, by using four 2D analysis software
tools (Javafoil 2.20, Profili 2.20, XFLR5 6.06
and web Airfoil tolls) that are based on Xfoil
code.[10, 11, 12, 13].
Fig. 2.3 Chart Cx- (flaps 00)
Fig. 2.1 Clark Y airfoil

The study aims to analyze the variation of
drag coefficient (Cx, Cz, Cm) depending on the
angle of incidence (), the pressure coefficient
(Cp) along the I chord in different positions of the
flap deflection. Conditions of the analysis are
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Conditions of analysis
Definition
Reynolds
121 pct
100000
Viscosity
Air density
1,46 x 10-5
1.221 kg/m3
Fig. 2.4 Chart Cm- (flaps 00)
2.2. The 2D analysis with flaps 150.
2.1. The 2D analysis with flaps 00

Viewing the three graphs (Fig. 2.2, 2.3,
2.4) the drag coefficient data depends on the
angle of incidence where we can observe the
differences in values of the code provided
Javafoil and for the three other software
environments (profile, XFLR, Xfoil web code)
which revealed close values. [11, 12, 13].
We perform a comparative analysis on

2D flow profile at different angles of
deflection with the same software tools.
Fig. 2.5 Chart Cz- (flaps 150)
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compare (Cz, Cx and Cm) using the software

environment XFLR5 6.09.
2.3. The 2D analysis with flaps 300

Fig. 2.11 Chart Cz- (flaps)

Fig. 2.12 Chart Cx- (flaps)

Fig. 2.12 Cm- (flaps)
The 2D analysis reveals differences in

the values provided by the software tools used,
but similar numerical developments.
Java foil 2D shows an evaluation tool for
highlighting ratio V / V (xfoil code), Figure x
shows changes in flow velocity profile
The flap turning effect from 00 to 150

and 300 is illustrated in the graphs in Figures
2.11, 2.12. and 2.13 in the three coefficients
73
AIR FORCE
turbulence. Their drive and side effects such

as increased dive time decrease the horizontal
speed, increasing speed descension, so
intervention is required to prevent these
effects by correlating flight control (throttle
and stick). Aircraft flight control systems
Coand effect can make 3D maneuvers
throughout the flight envelope. Next
Generation on HDL is morphing concepts
combined with smart materials that will
increase the efficiency reaction rate of HDL.
Flap 00
V/V
3.2. Acknowledgment
Cp
Flap 15
The authors wish to thank the

Transilvania University of Braov and
Henri Coand Air Force Academy of
Braov for supporting the research necessary
for writing this article.
V/V
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1
2
Cp
Flap 300
4
5
6
V/V
Cp
Fig. 2.13 Flow velocity distribution
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
3.1.Conclusions
The main effect of flaps is a generating
flow vortex separation on the upper side
especially in areas of the surface with air
74
http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviati
on:wing
http://herschlogbook.blogspot.ro/2012/07/ae
rodynamics-flight-controls.html
Young
A.D.,
The
aerodynamic
characteristics of flaps, RAE technical
report Aero no. 2622, London, 1953, 56p.
http://www.zenithair.com/stolch801/design/
design.html,
http://www.airliners.net/aviationforums/tech_ops /read.main/281872/
Weisshaar, T.A. (2006) Morphing Aircraft
Technology New Shapes for Aircraft
Design. In Multifunctional Structures /
Integration of Sensors and Antennas.
Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP-AVT-141,
Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: available at :
http ://www.rto.nato.int/abstracts.asp,
Prisacariu V., Ru C., Introduction
morphing technology in unmanned aircraft
vehicles (UAV), AFASES 2011: The 13th
International Conference of Scientific
Papers SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND
EDUCATION IN THE AIR FORCE, mai
2011, Braov, Romania, , 6p
Barbarino S., Bilgen O., and others, A
review of morphing aircraft, Journal of
intelligent material systems and structures,
Vol.22/2011, DOI:10.1177/1045389X1141
4084, p55.
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9
10
11
12
13
14
15
http://soni2006.hubpages.com/hub/ThrustVectoring-Sukhoi,
Hepperle M., JavaFoil 2.20, JAVAFOIL
Users Guide, 2014, 44p., disponibil la
http://www.mhaerotools.de/airfoils/javafoil.htm
Duranti S. Profili 2.21 software, 2012,
Feltre-Italia, www.profili2.com, consulted at
12.02.2014
Drela M., Yungren H., Guidelines for
XFLR5 v6.03 (Analysis of foils and wings
operating at low Reynolds numbers), 2011,
http://sourceforge.net/projects /xflr5/files;
Airfoils database, consulted at 10.02.2014,
http://airfoiltools.com/airfoil/details?airfoil=
clarky-il
Mestrinho J.R.C., Felicio J.M.I., and others,
Design optimization of variable-span
morphing wing, 2nd International Conference
on Engineering Optimization, September
2010, Lisbon, Portugal, 11p.
Williams J., Butler S.F.J., Wood M.N., The
aerodynamics of jet flaps, no. 3304, London,
1963,
35p.,
dsiponibil
la
http://naca.central.cranfield.ac.uk/
75
16 Rudolf P.K.C., High-Lift Systems on

Commercial Subsonic Airliners, NASA
contractor report 4746, 1996, 166p
17 Crciu I, Dinea S., Review of application on
Coand effect, history, theories, new trends,
Review of the Air Force Academy,
no.2(17)/2010, p14-20, ISSN 1842-9238
18 Crciu I., Bocoianu M., An analysis of the
efficiency of Coand NOTAR anti-torque
system for small helicopters, INCAS
Bulletin, vol.2, no. 4/2010, ISSN 20668201, p.81-88.
19 Dumitrache A., Frunzulica F. , Ionescu T.C.,
Mathematical Modelling and Numerical
Investigations on the Coanda Effect,
Nonlinearity, Bifurcation and Chaos Theory and Applications, ISBN 978-953-510816-0, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50403, ,
2012, p101-132,
AIR FORCE
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CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE LIFE EXTENSION PROGRAMS

BY TECHNICAL RESOURCE RENEWAL
APPLIED TO THE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES
Marius RADULESCU*, Vasile SANDRU**
*Electromecanica Ploiesti, Romania, ** ,,Henri Coanda Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The work-paper presents few considerations regarding the opportunity that a life
extension program to be applied in the case of a ground-to-air missile as an Air Defense Missile System
(ADMS) component. A model of a hypothetical AD missile is built and serves as a base for the technical
and economical reasons for the extension life decision. Using some market data for the missiles
components, the authors try to balances the life-extension costs with those of the complete replacement
ones. The scientific, technical and technological support needed for applying such a program is set also.
The conclusions refer to the multitude of the factors which are involved in the life extension program
management.
Keywords: missile, lifecycle, efficacy, program, costs
1. INTRODUCTION
The air power represents the main force
multiplier of an armed force. This assertion
allows the huge efforts make by the owners to
maintain the advance of the aerial features in
the endowment. Any military organization
must be able to counter the aerial menace at an
appropriate technological level. This level is
done today by the Air Defense Missile
Systems (ADMS) using the air defense (AD)
missile or SAMs. If the aerial means evolves
for increasing survivability and efficacy, the
ADMSs and the SAMs default must keep the
same trend [3].
This implies the quickly change the SAM
generation every time when the aerial threat
significantly change the characteristics or the
continuously up-grade of the existing ADMS
until the consumption of their operational life.
77
The frequently replacement of the whole

ADMS involves great expenses, and requires
the access to the ultimate state-of-art in
branch. Only the major scientific and military
powers can practice this way and with
corresponding costs.
The majority of other ADMS keepers may
take in account the possibility of the extension
systems life cycle using the life extension
processes as the technical resources carryover, the technical resource renewal and the
improving up-grade.
2. THE OPERATIONAL LIFE OF THE
SAM SYSTEM
2.1 The main ADMS composition
An ADMS is a complex assembly, assuring
not only the battle engagement, but also the
AIR FORCE
learning [2], the training and the maintenance

functions as a base for the integration into the
armed forces architecture [6], generally
composed by:
- Self-propelled launcher
- Missile
- Mobile summary checking station
- Maintenance checking station
- Replacement vehicle
- Mobile Command Post
- Field training equipment
- Class simulator
- Descriptive documentation
- Flight employment documentation
- Maintenance documentation
- Teaching complete (pads, sliced inert
missile, system elements)
Every component of the ADMS has his
own active life date, depending of some
operational factors, like:
- Complexity
- Using regime
- Critical and expendable elements
- Availability of sub-components on
market
- Morale usage
this way being more accessible for a medium

technological industrial support, and applied
for the main ADMS component the SAM
only.
2.2 AD missile (SAM) the most
perishable system element
Between the ADMS components, the
missile represents one of the most dynamic
elements, direct connected with the potential
target performance evolution. The main
hardware and software aspects including in the
missile structure that are relatively quickly
affected in time are the following:
- The fuel and the igniters of the
propulsion unit
- The explosive of the warhead
- The thermal battery (or/and other power
sources)
- The guidance and control algorithm
- The command and accord function of
the proximity fuse
Generally a short / medium range SAM has
an operational technical resource of 10 years,
while other ADMSs components has 15 to 20
years of resource. Furthermore a system
operates 2 to 3 versions of the missile until
complete replacement.
By the technical resource renewal process a
system regains a new operational life period,
but without the increasing performances.
2.3 The principle SAM organization
Generally a missile destined to an ADMS
has an organization like the following
schedule:
Fuse
Figure 1 A view of a SHORAD type ADMS
Basically three life extension processes

creates the technological base to maintain in
endowment a certain ADMS [4]. These
processes are:
- The technical resources carry-over
- The technical resource renewal
- The up-grade
This work-paper analyses the second
process, having a medium complexity and in
Guidance
Warhead
Sustainer
Booster
Figure 2 General missile organization
According with its type, the missile could

have some differences in organization. For the
work-paper purpose we can suppose an
assembly composes from a succession of
compartments comprising an electro-magnetic
fuse, a guidance section a warhead and a
propulsion unit with a booster and a sustainer,
alongside three aerodynamically sets.
78
Fuse
Checking on
stands
200
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3.1 Missiles components lending to

replacement
The main components that the program
will be applied are shown in the figure 3:
Aerodynamic sets
Sustainer
Fuse
Guidance
Booster
Warhead
Figure 3 The main SAM compartments
[kg]
1
2
3
4
5
Guidance Unit
Proximity fuse
Warhead
Sustainer rocket motor
Booster rocket motor
Sum
12
8
15
67
18
120
[USD/lb
]
10400
7400
4800
4200
3600
Estimated
price *
Component
Cost
indicator
Weight
For the purpose of concept here exposed, a

real close price data can be identified in the
specialized literature [9], like the follows:
* rounded
Section
Operation
1
Battery
replacement
Interfaces refit
Checking on
stands
Checking on
stands
[USD]
275500
130500
159000
621000
143000
1329000
79
Guidance
(cost /
pcs)
Fuse
600
80
13900
200
64
10150
Estimated
price
[USD]
3. THE TECHNICAL RESOURCE

RENEWAL PROGRAM CRITERIA
3.2 The volume of the means that the

program will be applied
In order to have an economical reason to
develop a technical resource renewal program,
a number of systems and a number of missiles
respectively must be the subject of the process.
However, for the accounting necessity, we
can hypothetical consider a limited number of
systems in endowment like follows:
- 18 ADMS in three battalion type units,
having 4 missiles each and another 4 in
the unit depot
- 1 ADMS belonging to an application
school unit
- 1 reserve ADMS as forces generally
reserve
- 2 ammunition fire units as forces
reserve for each ADMS
This account a total of: 144 + 8 + 8 + 160 =
320 of missiles.
For the calculus necessity we consider the
price for a new missile as 1.33 USD millions
that climb the affair value to a total of about
425 USD millions.
3.3 The resource renewal program
Considering the entirely 320 pcs missile
batch into the resource renewal program, and
10 pcs of this will be lost in partial/final tests
for 310 remaining missiles we can evaluate the
financial effort needed to accomplish the task.
Labor
hours
[25USD/hr]
Even from the initial project, a relatively

complex technical system like a missile
disposes of the interfaces that permits to
change a compartment when a new equipment
generation will be ready or for the same type
replacement only.
Material
cost
[USD]
AIR FORCE
Warhead
(cost / pcs)
Sustainer
(cost / pcs)
Booster
(cost / pcs)
Airframe
(cost / pcs)
SubAssembly
tests
(cost /
batch)
Delivery
(cost / pcs)
Final test
(cost /
batch)
Technolog
ical
documenta
tion
(cost /
batch)
1
Dismantle
Cleaning
Destroy of the
old charge
Recharging
with new
explosives
Replacement
of igniters
Assembly
Dismantle
Cleaning
Destroys of
the old fuel
Recharging
with fuel
Replacement
of igniters and
squibs
Assembly
Dismantle
Cleaning
Destroys of
the old fuel
Recharging
with fuel
Replacement
of igniters and
squibs
Assembly
Missile
general
checking
Sections
dismantle
Interfaces refit
Compartments
checking
Assembly
Capacity tests
after refitting
Technolo
gical
devices
1500
16
5400
Cote
4800
88
22750
1600
48
10900
300
64
12100
4200
420
290
for 310 missiles

Boxes
including at
USD 2200
third-part cowork
Missile
general
checking,
including 2
targets at USD
38000 thirdpart co-work
100
16
6600
420
6390
660
for 310 missiles
1200
3240
1600
for 310 missiles
1
Including
USD 66000
third-part cowork
10 missile of
1,33 USD
million each
of batch
destroyed
Total
7700
2160
for 310 missiles

13.3
USD
mill
4
1420
0
42900
for 310 missiles

128460
This approximated result shows that for a

medium-size air-defense missile [5], the
resource renewal program involve a cost at
less than 10% of the new one.
In the same time, the cost of the TRR
program rejoins at approximately:
310 missiles x 128.460 USD each
40 USD millions.
3.4 The restored value of the missile
The restored value of the missile will be
calculated with the formula:
Va = (Vi + VTRR)*TLC/(TLC +TRL)
where Va
- actual value
Vi
- initial value
VTRR - technical resource renewal
program value
TLC
- time of lifecycle
TRL
- time of restored life
Supposing an operational resource of 12
years for a missile and a restored period of 10
years by applying the resource renewal
program, the value of the missile becomes:
Va = (1329000 + 128460)*12/(12 + 10)
795.000 USD
i.e. approx. 60% of the new product value.
3.5 The program implementing
technical and scientific support
In order to be capable to develop a missile
life extension program by renewal of the
technical resource, an industrial organization
must disposes of the following facilities:
- Research and development capacity,
including the tactical support doctrine
- Maintenance technological base
- Production capacities, partially in
cooperation
- Access on the branch technology
market
- Access on the branch materials and
equipment market
- Financial support
- Testing infrastructure
80
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
A continuously attention must be allowed to

the scientific, technical and industrial
infrastructure and personnel in order to assures
the possibility of life extension programs
applied to missiles and missile systems [7].
3.6 Financial risk of the program
Considering the budgetary year allocation
at a cash flow of a half of the needed amount,
with a 25% growth expectation and 20% of a
discount factor, the NPV (Net Present Value)
method can be used [1] to verify the financial
risk of the project:
where
WACC weighted average cost of capital
I0initialinvestment
i
- numbers of years before cash flow
occurs
NPV must be > 0 in order to consider the
project feasible.
If some uncertainty of budgetary cash flow
is considered, respectively did exist 50 50
percent chance to have in the second year an
allowance of 25 USD millions or down at 20
USD millions, according [8] we can calculate
the NPV as:
=0.5max[16.666+17.361,0]+0.5max
[16.666+13.888,0]=0.3475+0=0.35>0
4. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A superior process aiming to an extended
life cycle of a technical system a missile
peculiarly is represented by the up-grade
program, which can be applied to few or all
the system components. But such a process is
most expensive and in many cases requires
unavailable know-how type technical data.
81
Using the available information, we look
for few widespread missile models concerning

their up-grade programs and costs. Using an
inflation calculator [11] we has aligned the
costs at the Fiscal Year (FY) 2013, in order to
calculate the growth of the costs by applying
the modernization program.
System
Version
Previous*
USD / FY
USD
FY13
AIM-9L
84,000 / 1999
185,500
AIM-120C
400,000 / 1998
567,700
SM-2ER
409,000 / 1981 1,032,470
AIM-9
Sidewinder
AIM-120
AMRAAM
RIM67/174
Standard
*data from [10], [12], [13], [14]
Following*
USD FY13
AIM-9X
664,900
AIM-120D
1,492,000
SM-6ERAM
4,284,000
For the studied models, the costs growth is

balanced for a medium value of 245%.
System
AIM-9 Sidewinder
AIM-120 AMRAAM
RIM-67/174 Standard
Media
Growth
258 %
163 %
315 %
245 %
Regarding in terms of costs to all the three

technological way for extend the life cycle of a
missile (presented at #2.1) easily can be observed
that the TRR program represent an intermediary
solution.
Type of life cycle
Approx.
extension program
Costs *
Technical resources carry-over
10 %
Technical resource renewal
60 %
Up-grade
250 %
* reported to the acquisitions unitary cost
The technical resource renewal (TRR)

solution is recommended when the assured
performance of the system have an acceptable
level alongside of hole system life gained by
program.
The TRR is a process that aims to refits the

operational life of an expired system replacing
some pieces and sub-assemblies olds with the
AIR FORCE
new made ones. The TRR supposes the

technologies and equipments destined to:
- dismantling of the systems
- replacement of the pieces and subassemblies
- mechanical and electric assemblies
- adjustments and repairs
- coating and watermark
- general and specific tests
The TRR is a process similar to fabrication,
executed in a technical-skilled entity, equipped
with adequate production and testing facilities.
After the TRR program the system resource
is refitted at the nominal value and can be
extended in the future. In the TRR process a
higher number of products from the
application batch are destroyed, so the new
certified batch is smaller than the initial
number.
An essential aspect regarding the TRR
program is the access to the pieces and subassemblies that will be replaced, these or
equivalent ones must exist on market. That
means if the TRR impose the replacement of
equipment or pieces which is no longer
produces, the program cannot be executed.
The TRR refits the system use capability at
the initial values and parameters, but dont
correct the morale usage of the equipment.
REFERENCES
[1] Luenberger,D.G., (1998), Investment
Science,
Oxford University Press
[2] Rdulescu, M., andru, V., (2014),
Advanced use of the e-resources in the
research activities regarding to missile
integrated systems development, the 10th
International Scientific Conference
eLearning and Software for Education, April
24-25, Bucharest, Romania
[3] Rdulescu, M., Mihilescu, C., Marinescu,
M., (2013), Some aspects of the air defense
missiles upgrading, Proceedings of 1st
International Conference New Challenges in
Aerospace Sciences, ISSN 2344-4762, NCAS
2013, pp.129-133, 7-8 November, Bucharest,
Romania
[4] Rdulescu, M., andru, V., (2013),
Prelungire de resursa, revitalizare si
modernizare pentru complexele de rachete
antiaeriene, Revista Gandirea Militara

Romaneasca Nr. 5, pp. 70 79, ISSN 14540460, Bucuresti, Romania
[5] Rdulescu, M., Calefariu, E., (2012),
Aspects Regarding Technical and Economic
Upgrade Elements in the Case of an A.D.
Missile System, Proceedings of the 14th
WSEAS International Conference on
Mathematical and Computational Methods in
Science and Engineering, pp. 236-242,
ISSN: 2227-4588, ISBN: 978-1-61804-117-3,
Sliema, Malta
[6] andru, V., (2013), The current stage of air
defense systems' structure and performances.
SAM systems comparative analysis in
Romanian inventory, Review of the Henri
Coand Air Force Academy, No 1 (23), pp.
107 112, ISSN 1842-9238, Brasov,
Romania
[7] andru, V., Rdulescu, M., Ciufudean, C.,
Bocoianu, E.C., (2012), Critical Aspects
Regarding the Integration of a Low-Cost Upgrade Architecture in High-technology Assets
for Defense, Proceedings of the 17th WSEAS
International Conference on Applied
Mathematics, pp. 89-94, ISBN: 978-1-61804148-7, Montreux, Switzerland
[8] Shao Rong Song, (2006), Real Option
Approach to R&D Project Valuation,
Dissertation for the degree of MA in Finance
and Investments, p.26
[9] ***, Cost estimating for air-to-air missiles,
(1983), The Congress of the United States
Congressional Budget Office, January, Table
1, p.11
[10]
***,
GAO-13-294SP
Defense
Acquisitions Assessments of Selected Weapon
Programs, US Government Accountability
Office, March 2013, p. 43
[11] ***, The inflation calculator,
http://www.westegg.com/inflation/infl.cgi
[12] ***, Aerospace & Defense Intelligence
Report, US missile/munitions program,
Raytheon AIM-120 AMRAAM,
http://www.bga-aeroweb.com/
Defense/AMRAAM.html#DoD-Spending
[13] ***, RIM-67 Standard,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM 67_Standard
[14] ***, RIM-174 Standard ERAM,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM174_Standard_ERAM
82
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC MODEL FOR AN AIRFOIL WITH TIME

DEPENDENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Constantin ROTARU*, Raluca Ioana EDU*, Mihai ANDRES-MIHIL*
*Faculty of Mechatronics and Armament Integrated Systems, Military Technical Academy, Bucharest,
Romania
Abstract: This paper presents a mathematical model of an unsteady fluid flow around an airfoil where the
time dependency is introduced through the boundary conditions. The methods of solution that were
developed for these models included the treatment of the zero normal flow on a solid surface and the use
of the unsteady Bernoulli equation. As a result of the nonuniform motion, the wake becomes more
complex than in the corresponding steady flow case and therefore the path along which the airfoil moves
was assumed to be prescribed. One of the more difficult aspects of the unsteady problem is the modeling
of the vortex wakes shape and strength, which depend on the time history of the motion. In the paper the
wake shed from the trailing edge of the lifting surfaces was modeled by vortex distributions.
Keywords: unsteady aerodynamics, vortex flow, airfoil circulation
1. INTRODUCTION
In an incompressible and irrotational fluid
flow, the velocity field can be obtained by
solving the continuity equation. However, the
incompressible continuity equation does not
directly include time-dependent terms and the
time dependency is introduced through the
boundary conditions. The methods of solution
for steady flows can be used with only small
modifications that include the treatment of the
zero normal flow on a solid surface boundary
conditions and the use of the unsteady
Bernoulli equation. As a result of the
nonuniform motion, the wake becomes more
complex than in the corresponding steady flow
case and it should be properly accounted for.
The unsteady motion of the surface on
which the zero normal flow boundary
83
condition is applied, is described in a bodyfixed coordinate system (x, y, z) and the

motion of the origin of this coordinate system
(Fig. 1) is then prescribed in an inertial frame
of reference (X, Y, Z).
z
r
y
Inertial frame
of reference
p
x
Fig. 1. Coordinate systems
X
Starting
vortex
AIR FORCE
At the t > 0 , the relative motion of the

origin of the body fixed frame of reference is
prescribed by its location R 0 (t ) = (X 0 , Y0 , Z 0 )
and
the
instantaneous
orientation
(t ) = (, , ) , where (, , ) are the Euler
rotation angles [1].
The fluid surrounding the body is assumed
to be inviscid, irrotational and incompressible
over entire flow field, excluding the bodys
solid boundaries and its wake. Therefore, a
velocity potential (X , Y , Z ) can be defined
in the inertial frame and the continuity
equation in this frame of reference becomes
2 = 0 and the boundary condition requiring
zero normal velocity across the bodys solid
boundaries is
(1)
( + vr ) n = 0
r
where v is the surface velocity and
r
n (x , y, z, t ) is the unity vector normal to this
moving surface (v is defined with minus sign
so that the undisturbed flow velocity will be
positive in the bodys frame of reference).
r
The location and orientation of n can vary
with time, so, the time dependency of equation
2 = 0 is introduced through the boundary
condition. The second boundary condition
requires that the flow disturbance due to the
bodys motion through the fluid, should
diminish far from the body,
lim = 0
(2)
R R 0
where R = (X , Y , Z ) .
On the other hand, the Kelvin equation
could be an additional condition for the
unsteady flow, that can be used to determine
the stream wise strength of the vorticity shed
into a wake, so, the circulation around a
fluid curve enclosing the body and its wake is
conserved,
d / dt = 0
(3)
Because of the boundary condition this
problem becomes time dependent and it could
be solved easier in the body-fixed coordinate
system
[2].
A
transformation
from
(X, Y, Z ) coordinate system to (x , y, z )
coordinate system should include the
translation and the rotation of the (x , y, z )
system and may have the following form
0
0
x 1

y = 0 cos(t ) sin (t )

z 0 sin (t ) cos(t )

cos(t ) 0 sin (t )
0
1
0
sin (t ) 0 cos(t )
cos(t ) sin (t ) 0
sin (t ) cos(t ) 0
0
0
1
X X0
Y Y0
ZZ
0
r
The kinematic velocity v of the
undisturbed fluid due to the motion of the
airfoil as viewed in the body frame of
reference is given by
r
r r
r
r
v = V0 + v rel + r
(4)
where
r
& ,Y
& , Z& )
V0 = (X
0
0
0
r
&
&
&
(
)
v
=
x
,
y
,
z
rel
(5)
r
= (p, q, r )
rr = (x, y, z )
At any moment the continuity equation is

independent of the coordinate system
orientation and the mass is conserved [3].
Therefore, the quantity 2 is independent of
the instantaneous coordinate system and the
continuity equation in terms of (x , y, z )
remains unchanged, 2 = 0 .
2. WAKE SHAPE
The zero velocity normal to the solid

surface boundary condition in the body frame
is
r r
r r r
V0 v rel r n = 0
(6)
in (x , y, z ) coordinates.
In the case of more complex flow field,
when the modeling of nonzero velocity
components across the boundaries is desired, a
84
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
transpiration velocity, Vn can be added, so,

the above equation becomes
r r
r r r
V0 v rel r n = Vn
(7)
For incompressible flows the instantaneous
solution is independent of time derivatives,
therefore the steady-state solution techniques
can be used to approach the time dependent
problem by substituting at each moment, the
instantaneous boundary condition
(8)
( + vr ) n = 0
For lifting flow conditions, the magnitude
of circulation depends on the wake shape and
on the location of the wake shedding line [4].
Taking into consideration that the wake is
force free, the Kutta-Jukovski theorem states
that
(9)
V w = 0
so, when the wake is modeled by a vortex
distribution of strength w the velocity
V should be parallel to the circulation
vector w .
Solution of the equation 2 = 0 in

(x , y, z ) coordinates, provides the velocity
potential and the velocity components [5]
u = / X
(10)
v = / Y
w = / Z
The resulting pressure can be computed by

the Bernoulli equation
p p 1
=
= ( )2 +
t
2
2
2
2
1
=
+
+
+
2 X Y Z t
=

t inertial
(12)
r
r r
V0 + r , , , +
x y z t body
therefore, the pressure difference (p p ) /

has the form
p p 1
+
=
+
2 x y z
r
r r
V0 + r +
t
2
The magnitude of the velocity is

independent of the frame of reference.
3. PLAT PLATE MODEL
For a flat plate at an angle of attack

moving at a constant velocity U in the
negative X direction (Fig. 2) the translation of
r
r
the origin V0 , the rotation and the normal
r
vector n , are
r
& ,Y
& , Z& = ( U , 0, 0)
V0 = X
0
0
0
r
= (0, 0, 0)
(13)
r
n = (sin , 0, cos )
Z
r
n
(11)
Fig. 2. Translation of a flat plate
The time derivative in the (x, y , z ) system

is
The boundary condition requiring zero

normal velocity across the plate is
r
r r r
V0 r n = 0
(14)
85
AIR FORCE
or

+ U , 0,
(sin , 0, cos ) = 0
z
x
The above scalar product has the form
(15)
+ U sin +
cos = 0
z
x
therefore
(16)
=
+ U tan
z
x
If the airfoil (plate) is represented by a

lumped-vortex element with the vortex placed
at the quarter chord (Fig. 3), the Kutta
condition is satisfied.
z
(t1 )
Bound
vortex
Collocation
point
t =0
w1
(t 2 )
w 2
w1
t1 = t
U t
t2 = 2 t
U 2t
Fig. 3. Development of the wake vortex
The concentrated wake vortex has to be

placed along the path traveled by the trailing
edge [6].
If the wake vortex is placed at the middle
of this path, then the zero normal flow
boundary condition at the plates three-quarter
point is
(t )
w1
= U sin (17)
1 +
c
c U t
2
2 +
2
2
4
This equation can be rewritten in the form
(18)
w body + w wake + U sin = 0
which indicates that the sum of the normal
velocity induced by the airfoil, w body , by the
wake, w wake , and by the free stream must be
zero.
On the other hand, an additional equation

could be obtained from the Kelvin condition
(d / dt = 0 ) , namely
(19)
(t1 ) + w1 = 0
The above set of equations with the
unknowns (t1 ) and w1 gives the following
solution
U sin
(t1 ) =
1 1
1
2 c c + 1 U t
2 4 2
(20)
U sin
=
w1
1 1
1
2 c c + 1 U t
2 4 2
After the second time step, t 2 = 2 t , the

airfoil is in a new location. For high Reynolds
number flows, vortex decay is negligible and
therefore the strength w1 will not change
with time. At t 2 = 2 t the two equations
describing the zero normal flow boundary
condition and the Kelvin condition are:
w 2
(t 2 )
+
+
c
c 1
2
2 + U t
2
4 2
w 2
= U sin
+
2 c + 1 U t + U t
4 2
(t 2 ) + w 2 + w 2 = 0
This set is solved for (t 2 ) and w 2 ,

while w1 is known from the previous
calculation at t = t1 . At t = 3t the two
equations can be written in a similar manner
w 3
(t 3 )
+
+
c
c 1
2 + U t
2
2
4 2
w 2
w1
+
=
c 3
c 5
2 + U t 2 + U t
4 2
4 2
= U sin
(t 3 ) + w 3 + w 2 + w1 = 0
86
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
This set is solved for (t 3 ) and w 3 ,

while w 2 and w1 are known from the
previous calculation at t = t 2 .
The values of (t i ) and wi are found from
the following set of equations written in the
matrix form
1
1
c
c 1
(t i )
=
2 + U t
2
2
4
2
wi
1
1
i 1
w (i j)
U sin
j=1 2 c + (2 j + 1) U t
4
2
i 1
wj
j=1
to the vorticity shed during the corresponding

time step t , such that
wi =
wi (t )U dt
(21)
t t
The distance and relative angle to the

trailing edge are important numerical
parameters and the wake vortex location
should be closer to the position of the trailing
edge (Fig. 5).
Z
( x, t )
(t )
X
Path of
w1 trailing
d
U (t ) t
Fig. 5. Position of the discrete vortex
4. WORTEX DISTRIBUTION
The wake shed from the trailing edge of

the lifting surfaces can be modeled by doublet
or vortex distributions (Fig. 4).
If the airfoil circulation is varying
continuously, then a continuous vortex sheet is
shed at the trailing edge and can be
approximated by a discrete vortex model
where the strength of each vortex wi is equal
U (t )
U (t )
(t )
(t )
wi
The placement of the discrete vortex at the

middle of the interval U (t )t is an
approximation that underestimates the induced
velocity when compared with the continuous
wake vortex sheet result. A numerical
approach to correct for this wake discretization
error is to place the latest vortex closer to the
trailing edge.
w (t )
w i 1
w i 2
w i 3
U (t )t U (t )t U (t )t U (t )t
Fig. 4. Discretization of the wakes vortex distribution
87
AIR FORCE
The Helmholtz theorem implies that there

is no vortex decay, that is if a wake vortex
element is shed from the trailing edge, its
strength is conserved. At each time step the
combined airfoil and wake induced velocity
(u, w )i is calculated and the vortex elements
are moved by (x, y ) = (u, w )i t . The
system coordinate (x , z ) is selected such that
the origin is placed on the path and the x
coordinate axis is tangent to the path. The
airfoil camberline is given in this coordinate
system by (x , t ) , which is considered to be
small ( / c << 1) and the path radius of
curvature is also much larger than the chord c.
5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
The time-dependent version of the

boundary condition requiring no normal flow
across the surface is
r r
r r r
V0 vrel r n = 0
(22)
where = B + w is the equivalent of the
steady-state velocity potential, divided into
airfoil potential B and to a wake potential
r
w , V0 is the instantaneous velocity of the
coordinate system origin, V0 = [ U (t ), 0, 0 ] ,
r
v rel is the relative velocity of the chordline
within
coordinate
system
(x , y, z ) ,
r

v rel = 0, 0, , is the instantaneous

t
r
rotation, = 0, & (t ), 0 and n is the normal
vector to the surface

x , 0, 1
(23)
n=
1 c (x 0 , t )
B
dx 0
=
2 0 x x 0
z
so, the time dependent equivalent of the

steady-state boundary condition becomes
(26)
w &
(x , t )
(t ) x
z
t
with the Kutta condition (c, t ) = 0 .
Based on the classical approach of Glauert,
a similar solution to the vortex distribution is
1 + cos
(, t ) = 2U(t )A0 (t )
+ A n (t )sin n
sin
n =1
where
A 0 (t ) =
1 w (x , t )
d
0 U(t )
2 w (x , t )
A n (t ) =
cos nd
0 U (t )
The lift force per unit span L and the

pitching moment about the airfoils leading
edge M 0 are
2
3c
U A 0 + 4 t (U A 0 ) +
L(t ) = c
+ U 2 A1 + c (UA ) + c (UA )
1
2

2 4 t
8 t
U2
7c
(U A 0 ) +
A0 +
2
8 t
M 0 (t ) = c 2
2 U2
3c
(U A1 )
A1 +
+
8 t
2
U2
c
(
U A 2 )
A2 +
8 t
c 2 4
2 c
32 t (U A 3 )

+1
x
If the wake potential is known from the
previous time steps then
B B w

=
+
+ U & z
z
x
x
x
(24)
w &
x +
z
t
On the other hand, the downwash induced
by the airfoil bound circulation (x, t ) with
assumptions presented above is
1 c (x 0 , t )
(x , t )
dx 0 = U(t )
2 0 x x 0
x
(25)
6. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The results of the computations for a

number of steps of 200, a velocity
angle
of
attack
U = 50 m / s an
and
a
time
step
= 5 / 180 rad
t = 1 / (4 U ) are presented in fig. 6. The
circulation at t = 0 is zero since the airfoil is
still at rest. At t > 0 the circulation increases
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but is far less than the steady-state value due to

the downwash of the starting vortex.
1.2
The circulation ratio
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
50
100
150
Time discretization
L = U (t ) + t (t ) c
(30)
D = w (x, t )(t ) + (t ) c
w
t
One important parameter used in the
description of unsteady aerodynamics und
unsteady airfoil behavior is the reduced
frequency, k, defined as k = c / (2V ) , where
is the angular frequency, c is the chord of
the airfoil and V is the flow velocity.
According to the dimensional analysis, the
resultant force, F, on the airfoil of chord c,
can be written in functional form as
F / V 2c2 = f (Re, M, k ) . For k = 0 the flow
is steady and for 0 k 0.05 the flow can be
considered quasi-steady, that is, unsteady
effects are generally small. Flows with
characteristic reduced frequencies above of
0.05 are considered unsteady [1].
The lift amplitude and phase of lift for pure
angle of attack oscillations are presented in
Fig. 7 and Fig. 8, where the significance of the
apparent mass contribution to both the
amplitude and phase can be appreciated.
200
Fig. 6. The circulation ratio (t ) / (200)
In the above figure was represented the

ratio between (t ) / (200) , where the number of
time steps was 200. After approximately 200
steps this ratio reaches the value equals with
the unity. To compute the lift , the small
disturbance approximation (U >> ) is
applied to the unsteady Bernoulli equation
p p
= (U , 0, 0) +
(27)
t
Taking into account that
(x, 0, 0) = (x )
(28)
2
x
the pressure difference between the airfoils
lower and upper surface is
(x )
=
p = pl p u = 2 U
+
2
t
(29)
x
= U (x ) + (x )dx
t 0
For the lumped-vortex method there is only
one airfoil vortex and therefore the lift and
drag per unit span are
89
Fig. 7. Normalized lift amplitude
AIR FORCE
100
Phase angle degrees
80
60
40
20
0
20
1
Circulatory
Total response
2
k
as an imposed unsteady upwash field, which

must be used to satisfy the boundary
conditions of flow tangency on the airfoil
surface.
The airfoil can generate high lift as a result
of a vortex that is shed at the leading edge at
the instant of stall. The vortex travels back
over the top of the airfoil carrying with it a low
pressure wave that accounts for the very large
lift coefficient.
Apparent mass
Fig. 8. Phase angle
At lower values of reduced frequency, the

circulatory terms dominate the solution. At
higher values of reduced frequency, the
apparent mass forces dominate.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The lift at t = 0 + is exactly half of the

steady-state lift due to the acceleration portion
of the lift that results from the change in the
upwash, not due to the airfoil circulation.
The drag force has two components, one
due to the wake-induced downwash which
rotates the circulatory lift term by an induced
angle w w / U and other due to the fluid
acceleration / t which acts normal to the
flat plate, and its contribution to the drag is the
second lift term times . One of the more
difficult aspects of the unsteady problem is the
modeling of the vortex wakes shape and
strength, which depend on the time history of
the motion.
The unsteady forces produced on a rotor
blade arise primarily because of the vertical
velocity between the wake disturbance and the
airfoil surface. In linear theory, this is treated
REFERENCES
1. Gareth, D. P., Helicopter Flight Dynamics,

AIAA Education Series (2007).
2. Gordon L., Principles of Helicopter
Aerodynamics, Cambridge University
Press (2007).
3. Katz, J., Plotkin, A., Low Speed
Aerodynamics,Second Edition, Cambridge
University Press, (2010).
4. Rotaru, C., Circiu, I., Boscoianu M.
Computational
Methods
for
the
Aerodynamic Design, Review of the Air
Force Academy, No 2(17), pp. 43-48
(2010).
5. Rotaru, C., Mihil M., Matei, P., Stefan,
A., Computing Nonlinear Characteristics
of Helicopter Rotor Blades, Review of the
Airforce Academy, Vol. XI, No I(23),
ISSN 2069-4733, pp.5-12 (2013).
6. Rotaru, C., Arghiropol A., Maple soft
solutions for nonlifting flows over
arbitrary bodies, Proceedings of the 3rd
WSEAS international conference on
FINITE DIFFERENCES - FINITE
ELEMENTS - FINITE VOLUMES BOUNDARY ELEMENTS, ISSN 19702769, pp. 270-274 (2010).
7. Maple soft documentation
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ELECTRONIC WAR AND MODERNIZATION OF AIR DEFENCE

MEANS
Prof. Ing. Milan SOPCI, PhD.* Col. Eng. ubomr MATTA *

*Department of Management, The Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav tefnik in
Liptovsk Mikul
Abstract: This article deals with current problems of evalution of the effectivity of radars protection against
electroning jamming. The first part examines experience with electronic warfare in local conflicts and electronic
countermeasures. The paper presents basic notions and division of electronic jamming.
The second part describes a new method of evaluating effectivity of influence of electronic jamming on
radars activity. Using Saaty method of multifunctional evaluation in computer environment gives distinctioned
values to differcut sorts of jamming. The example of Air Defence missiles system SA 6 Gainfull shows the
possibility of using this methodic.
Keywords: electronic warfare, jamming, countermeasures, radar protection, AD missile system
Introduction
A plane has gone missing. Not a small one,
but a large Boening, Malaysia Aerlines with
more than two hundred people on board and
nobody can find it. It is just China that admit
they have more than 20 satellites in that region
monitoring the area. Nobody knows how many
satellites do the USA, Russia, Great Britain
and France have, but we can assume that it
might be far more. And in spite of that, a plane
goes missing. Could this be caused by
Martians? Or are we witnessing another
electronic war, the results of which will be
known in 20 or 30 years? We should
remember what the electronic war is and when
it arose. As a consequence, smaller countries
like us should modernize radar and missile
91
machinery, different approaches, evaluations

and policy of solving problems.
1.
Electronic war
Electronic war a term not many people

know today. They do not know it first occured
in 1967 in relation to the Third Arab-Israeli
War also called Six-Day War due to its short
duration and rapid progress. The author of the
term is major Edgar Ballance, the later Chief
of Intelligence service of the British Air Force.
He relates the usage of this term with
appointing gen. Bar-Lev the Chief of Staff of
Israeli army on 3rd December 1967. The
general, who later became famous for creating
the so-called Bar-Lev Line along the Suez
Canal on the occupied Siani Peninsula, has
AIR FORCE
probably for the first time realised what

electronics meanins especially within combat
aviation and air defence. At the beginning of
the year 1968 Israel took action that is part of
the electronic fight even today(1):
-
equipping all planes (Phantom) with

radiation warning receivers NRL and
launched missiles warning system,
equipping planes with jammers especially
with active narrowband ones,
equipping diverse groups deployed to the
Egyptian coast of Suez Canal with simple
radiolocation jammers active and
passive, while until this time they had been
focused on direct elimination o fair
defence units (in the first part of the war up
to 70% of air defence units were
eliminated by diverse groups),
determining special groups for seizing
radiolocation means or their parts (this was
the way the special comando on 27th of
December 1969 seized antenna set and
parts of radiolocation devices of a P-12
telemeter, the predecessor of P-18),
elektronic
monitoring
of
the
representatives of Arab forces and their
elimination (9th March 1969 the Chief of
Staff of the Egyptian Armed Forces gen.
Riad was killed, 9th September 1969 chief
military advisor of USSR in Egypt killed).
Egypt reacted to these measures adequately:

-
enhancing and equipping all aviation

resources and air defence with unified
identification device (at the beginning of
the war the ratio of shootdowns was 1:1),
deploying air and underwater diverse
groups to the other bank of Suez Canal,
equipping with the modernized PLRK SA2M and SA-3M,
arrival of soviet pilots and new MiG-21 Js
in Egypt and their deployment in direct air
defence of Nile road from Aswan to the
Mediterranean sea,
creating a system of early warning,
creating systems of anti-aircraft missile
defence around objects of state importance.
After the adoption of Rogers peace plan in

1970 it was time for analyzing and evaluating
the mentioned measurements with a definite

result electronic warfare is becoming an
integral part of any operation. The concept of
electronic war was born.
At present, there is probably nobody who
would doubt the importance of electronic
measures related to the success of an operation
or combat. Essential elements are (2):
-
obtaining information superiority in the

desired region,
obtaining electromagnetic superiority in
the field of electronic reconnaissance and
electronic warfare.
Elektronic war, as a military activity in

which the electromagnetic spectrum is used to
obtain information about the enemy, performs
organizational and technical measures for
preventing, disrupting or impeding the enemy
and protect ones own electronic resources.
With the development of electronics the
means of electronic warfare develop rapidly.
Various forms and types of lighting weapons,
laser weapons and high-frequency weapons
are becoming a bigger and bigger threat for air
defence, radiolocators and anti-aircraft
launchers. For the most types of radiolocators,
especially the older ones, the biggest threat is
active, passive, broad-band or narrow-band,
modulation or non-modulation jamming and
all types reduce reconnaissance and firing
options of launchers.
The second part of this article deals with
fighting the enemy.
The division and effect of individual types
of radiolocator, evaluation of radiolocators
resistance and the effect of jamming on firing
options of units, formations o fair defence
were and continue to be current questions.
2.
Air defence measures

electronic war
within
the
Basic division of radiolocation jamming

can be found in many sources (3). To evaluate
the effect of individual types of jamming on
the activities of radiolocators we can use the
method of multicriteria evaluation. A group of
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evaluation experts has been chosen from

teachers with rich experience from practice
and lots of theoretical knowledge. Six types of
jamming with a significant effect on activities
of radiolocators were compared:
-
active noise nawwor-band jamming,

active noise broad-band jamming,
nonsynchronous pulse jamming,
synchronous pulse jamming, response,

synchronous pulse jamming, non-response,
passive jamming.
According to the Chart No 1, of comparing

the significance of individual types of
solutions we get a reciprocal matrix of
pairwise comparison - Chart 2.
Chart 1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A2
A2
A2
A2
A3
A3
A3
A4
A4
A5
9
X
x1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Chart 2
E1
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
24
23
0
22
7
3
E2
21
18
13
13
5
0
E3
E4
E5
Ei
11
24
5
20
0
5
26
19
3
13
7
0
33
27
3
5
0
6
115
111
24
73
19
14
93
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A3
A4
A5
A6
A4
A5
A6
A5
A6
A6
AIR FORCE
After determining the maximum eigenvalue of matrix and determinant of the matrix,
6 max 23
det = 0,000381
eigenvector of matrix will be the solution of homogenous set of linear equations, that will after
modification be as follows:
w1 - 0,1985 w2 0,3971 w3 0,9927 w4 1,1919 w5 1,5883 w6 = 0
w2 0,4955 w3 1,2386 w4 1,4864 w5 1,9819 w6 = 0
w3 0,9334 w4 1,2081 w5 1,5375 w6 = 0
w4 0,4010 w5 0,8071 w6 = 0
w5 1,1310 w6 = 0
Values of eigenvector after solving the
equation:
w1 = w2 = 0,3299, w3 = 0, 0574,
w4 = 0, 1857, w5 = 0,0515, w6 = 0,0455
w6 = 1, w5 = 1,1310, w4 = 1,2607
w3 = 4,0806, w2 = 7,2464, w1 = 7,2464
Ei = 21,9651
The mentioned values can be used when

evaluating the quality of radiolocator devices.
For better understanding there is an example in
Chart 3.
and after the modification of normalized

eigenvector representing the value of
individual types of jamming are as follows:
Chart 3
typeofjamming
1.noiseactive
narrowbandjamming
2.noiseactive
broadbandjamming
weight
0,33
0,33
3.nonsynchronous pulse 0,057

jamming
protectiondeviceinRNRL1S91
RRL1S11M1uses:
manualregulationofamplificationofreceivers;
realignmentoftransmitterfrequency;
turning off the channel of the receiver, in which
jamminghasbeendetected;
NRL1S31M1uses:
realignmentoffrequency;
switchingonthejamming1S31M1regime;
semiautomaticmonitoringcinD;
usinginertialtracking
RRL1S11M1uses:
realignmentoftransmitterfrequency;
turning off the channel of the receiver, in which
jamminghasbeendetected;
NRL1S31M1uses:
realignmentofcarrierfrequency;
switchingonthejamming1S31M1regime;
semiautomaticmonitoringcinD;
usinginertialtracking
VNIScircuit
SMTcircuit(selectionofmovingtargets)
reducingamplificationofjammedchannelusingthe
RRUknob.
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4. synchronous response
pulsejamming
5.synchronouspulsenon
responsejamming
6.passivejamming
0,186
0,051
0,045
VNIScircuit
SMTcircuit(selectionofmovingtargets)
reducingamplificationofjammedchannelusingthe
RRUknob.
realignmentofcarrierfrequency;
bothRRL1S11M1andNRL1S31M1
nextperiodiccompensation2xor4xsubtraction;
windcompensationcircuit(internalphasing);
SPCwithinternalphasing;
withexternalphasing.
For individual types of jamming the

mentioned circuits are used for RNRL 1S91,
PLRK 2K-12 KUB. To determine the quality
of radiolocator we can use the following
formula:
n
WI
i=1
KKV =
n
WJ
j=1
where: i is the number of protection devices
in radiolocator,
j is the number of types of jamming
affecting the radiolocator,
w is the weight of individual types of
jamming.
With proof we can confirm the effectivity
of protection listed under numbers 1, 3 and 6,
PCR = [ 1
n
(1 Pi) ] KKV
i=1
or eventually P1 = P2 = Pi
PCR = KKV . [ 1 (1 P1)n ]
The calculation itself or the way of
defining kru has has never been stated and in
practice various values kru have been used
depending on individual literature. However, if
0,427
then value KKV =
The bigger the KKV value, the better the

quality of radiolocator regarding jamming
protection. The coefficient value in last
generation radar technology will be close to
one.
Similarly we can apporach when counting the
coefficient of jamming that affects the
reduction of firing options, especially for
determining the probability of eliminating the
target and mathematical hope of the number of
eliminated targets. Professional literature
offers the relation to calculate the probability
of eliminating target regarding the coefficient
of jamming resistance PCR (3).
= 0,427
1
95
AIR FORCE
we have defined norstandardized weigh

coefficients characterizing the relation
between individual types of jamming and the
coefficient
characterizing
the
quality
(resistance) of radiolocator, we can also
determine the coefficient of jamming, which
determines the value PCR.
To calculaze KRU we can use the following
formula:
K RU
1
m
1 wi
i 1
where:
m number of protection device agens
radiolocator jamming,
wj weigh of individual type sof jamming.
For the example of calculating the quality
of radiolocator the value PCR provided P1 =
0,7, when launching two rockets will be
determined by following values.
2
PCR 0,7 1 1 0,7 0,63
The credibility of the calculations will be

higher the higher the quality of experts
participating in input data of the multicriteria

decision-making for the calculation of weights
of individual types of jammings.
Conclusion
The above stated calculation of
radiolocator
coefficient
and
jamming
coefficient is not a definite solution of the
given issue. The methodology represents just
one of the possible ways of solutions. It can be
a stimulus for a discussion, as well as serve
other researchers as one of the criteria for the
evaluation of radiolocators and anti-aircraft
launchers, for the selection of machinery
necessary for the AF of SR. It can also allow
to evaluate our own firing options in air
combat more wisely in the phase of planning
or operation.
Bibliography
1. BALLANCE, E.: Electronic War in the
Middle East 1968 - 1970. London: Faber
and Faber, 1974, 148 p.
2. Commander EW, Air Force Headquarters:
EW in present days. Nitra, 2011.
3. Manual rules of fire. Praha, 1976.
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THE ANALYSIS OF THE ALLOY AlCu4Mg1,5Mn USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF

UTILITY AIRCRAFTS
Ctlin-Andrei UGUI1,a, Petric VIZUREANU1,b, Drago Cristian ACHIEI1, Ion
PALAMARCIUC1, Andrei-Victor SANDU1
1
Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Technical University Gheorghe Asachi of IasiRomania, Department of Technologies and Equipments for Materials Processing, Blvd. Mangeron, No.
51, 700050, Iasi, Romania
a
tzugui.andrei@yahoo.com, bpeviz2002@yahoo.com,
Abstract: In this paper we conducted a physic-chemical analysis for a AlCu4Mg1,5Mn alloy

propeller, from a small utility aircraft. Regarding the mechanical properties of the alloy, they
are very good, especially machinability. Thus, if to an aluminium alloy a heat treatment for
tempering is applied, it becomes more pliable and can be easily machined. After the processing
operations, the alloy may be subjected to ageing, such treatment leads to an hardening, thereby
improving the hardness thereof.
Keywords: aluminium, SEM, dilatometry, plane, propeller.
1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminium is the most common metal in
the earth's crust and in the chemical elements
ranks third after oxygen and silicon. It has a
high chemical activity and therefore, is found
in nature only as compounds.
The first attempt of aluminium separation
dates from 1810 and belongs to Davy, an
english physicist who achieved electrolysis for
aluminium
hydroxide.
Following
this
experience was not achieved aluminium but a
Al-Fe alloy [1].
In 1854 Saint-Clair-Deville, used the
Wohler method to obtain the aluminium in
industry, replacing potassium with sodium and
aluminium chloride, unstable and hygroscopic
with double aluminium chloride solution [1].
2. ALUMINIUM IN THE AIRCRAFT
INDUSTRY
97
To the evolution of metallic and nonmetallic materials and building airplanes was
observed a close connection. The development
of this field, industry aircraft manufacturing
was the collaboration result between
metallurgists
specialists
and
aircraft
manufacturers. From this collaboration has
resulted efficient equipment and materials
used to improve characteristics.
Aluminium alloys are numerous, with
different and various properties. For example,
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy has a low weight and that
is why it had been used with success in the
aircraft manufacturing industry. This is
highlighted in figure 1.
AIR FORCE
Figure 1. Highlighting construction aluminium

alloy features from a commercial aircraft [2].
Alloys of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu may be used on

some resistance elements which are loaded
with compression stress due to high values of
yield strength of the alloy.
The components made from 7075 are:
aluminium fuselage, upper wing panels and
sustaining pillars.
Also from the Al-Cu-Mg alloy, which is a
hard aluminium, can be constructed elements
which requires higher hardness such as the
exterior case and the front of the wings [3].
3. SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS OF
THE AlCu4Mg1,5Mn ALLOY
Spectrometric analysis on our aluminium
sample was performed using Foundry Master
01J0013 optical spectrometer.
Following the three aluminium sample
tests, came out the following results as shown
in Table 1.
Table 1. Spectrometry analysis results of the
aluminium alloy.
No test
1.
2.
3.
Average
Al Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn
91,7 0,294 0,522 4,850,683 1,38 0,0768
92,2 0,269 0,562 4,68 0,65 1,44 0,0356
92,2 0,269 0,565 4,590,664 1,46 0,417
92,0 0,277 0,55 4,710,666 1,43 0,517
After spectrometry analysis we found an

aluminium alloy which is AlCu4Mg1,5Mn.
Aluminium alloys are divided into two
categories: foundry alloys and plastic alloy
deformation.
AlCu4Mg1,5Mn is an aluminium alloy
plastic deformation. This alloy is part of those
who can be processed by hot or cold rolled, by
drawing, by extrusion, by stamping or forging.
Deformable alloys are divided into two
98
categories, depending on the possibility of heat

treatment hardening by quenching and aging:
treatable and untreatable [4].
Propeller is a high strength 2024
aluminium alloy which is a commonly used
material in aviation, due to its advantages of
resistance to crack growth, good reparability,
and perfect damage tolerance properties [5].
Magnesium added to the Al-Cu alloy,
improves its properties. Magnesium plays an
important role in reducing the weight and
increasing the hardness by heat treatment.
Figure 3. Image of the studied propeller.
4. HEAT TREATMENTS AND MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS

The heat treatment is the technological
process comprising in heating and maintaining
the metal or the alloy at a given temperature,
usually followed by cooling with a certain
speed, in an environment. The heat treatment
may be applied to such semi-finished and
finished parts in order to obtain superior
operating characteristics and properties of the
material, by modifying the structure.
After performing spectral analysis and
determining the chemical composition of the
material, thermal quenching and ageing
treatments was applied. These treatments were
applied to highlight hardened aluminium
structure and ageing.
4.1. SEM analysis. After applying
quenching and ageing thermal treatments,
microstructural analysis was performed on a
scanning electron microscope SEM VEGA II
LSH, model shown in figure 4.
Using this electron microscope we may
determine material surface properties, based
on the study of its structure, i.e. based on the
constituents present and possible structural
defects, cracks and inhomogeneities.
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Figure 4. Scanning electron microscope VEGA II

LSH SEM
4.2. SEM analysis of the hardened alloy.

Tempering is the most critical step in heat
treatment operations. The purpose of
hardening is to maintain the solid solution
formed at solubilization temperature after the
Figure 5. Fracture SEM image of a hardened
structure: a)500x SE; b)500x BSE; c)1000x SE;
d)1000x BSE.
heat treatment by rapid cooling close to 20.
When the alloy is subjected to solution

treatment for hardening, a partial or complete
dissolution of precipitates occurs, and the alloy
will have a good cold workability.
The SEM uses two types of detectors: SE secondary electrons and respectively BSE back scattered electrons.
Elongated grains are observed in the
fracture, also it is observed that fracture occurs
inter and intra crystalline. Grain elongation
occurs due to hardening thermo chemical
treatment, figure 5.
4.3. SEM analysis of the aged alloy.
Martensitic quenching heat treatment or
solution treatment is followed by tempering,
respectively
ageing
for
increasing
machinability properties.
99
AIR FORCE
Aluminium alloy ageing leads to hardening

by precipitation of the second phase. These are
highlighted in the SEM fracture, in figure 6.
Also in figure 6 we noted the particularly
fragile structure, characteristic for biphasic
alloys. For the aged aluminium alloys intergranular fracture is observed.
5. DILATOMETER ANALYSIS
In this work we performed the analysis
using a differential dilatometer type LINSEIS
L75H/1400.
Figure 7. General Presentation: a) dilatometer

measurement system; b) furnace; c) command and
control system;
On this differential dilatometer can be

studied
in
the
solid
state
phase
transformations.
When a phase transformation in the
material occurs, because the new phase
occupies a different volume, a discontinuity
will occur on the variation curve of the thermal
expansion coefficient with the temperature [6].
Figure 6. Fracture SEM image of the aging
structure: a) 500x SE ;b) 500x BSE; c)1000x SE;
d)1000x BSE.
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Figure 8. Dilatometer curve for alloy AlCu4 Mg1,5Mn.

Table 2. Elongation of the three samples according to the temperature.
Aluminium Sample 1
Aluminium Sample 2
Aluminium Sample 3
Temperature Elongation
Temperature
Elongation
Temperature
Elongation
C
C
C
m
m
m
21,5
0
20,6
0
21,2
1,6
158,8
55
135
42,9
125,5
38,9
231,4
97
232,3
97,5
226,6
94
271,9
125,1
275,2
126,1
264
120,5
307,2
140,5
311,9
142,2
302,4
139
386,6
181
389,1
183
377,7
176,5
478,4
241,5
480,4
244
468,6
235,6
550
286,6
550
291,6
549,3
275,4
Dilatometer diagram of the alloy studied is
REFERENCES
shown in figure 8. From the chart we can see
that at 275C the alloy presents a state
1. Minea, A., Aliaje de aluminium variation passing from structure +C" by Tratamente termice i echipamente de
dissolution of C" in a state of saturation.
nclzire (Aluminium alloy heat treatments of
This is important in finding the heating heating), Ed.CERMI Iai, (2006).
temperature in order to achieve heating
2. http://www.donmaxwell.com/masters
solution treatment at the variable solubility
3. Carabet, R.G., Nejneru, C., Comaneci,
line for the alloy system.
A., Researches regarding aluminium alloys
Solution quenching treatment leads to a hardening through cyclic ageing (Buletinul
solution out the equilibrium, becoming more
Institutului Politehnic din Iai, Tomul
easily processed by cold plastic deformation.
LIV,Fasc. 3-4, Secia tiina i Ingineria
Materialelor, (2008).
CONCLUSIONS
From our research we conclude the followings:
1. The studied propeller is made from hard
deformable
aluminium
alloy
AlCu4Mg1,5Mn.
2. This propeller was made by plastic
deformation, previously solution treated,
and after deformation aged, in order to offer
the necessary functioning hardness.
3. From the dilatometry analysis is observed
that between 26C and 550C there are no
phase transformations but only state
transformation, due to the Mn percent.
101
4. Grmescu, T., Slatineanu, L. Braha, V.,

Sarbu I., Prelucrabilitatea materialelor
(Material processing), Ed. Tehnica-Info,
Chiinu, (2000).
5. Kushan MC, Zafer N. Structure
materials of aeroplanes (in Turkish), I. Ulusal
Metalurji ve Malzeme Gnleri (Prod. Conf.),
Eskiehir, Turkey; May 27-28, (2004).
6. Rusu, I., Tehnici de analiz n
ingineria materialelor - Aplicaii practice
(Analysis techniques in engineering materials Practical Applications), Ed. PIM, Iai, (2011).
AIR FORCE
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HENRI COANDA
STEFANIK
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA
GENERAL M.R.
SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
MOBILE APPLICATION FOR BUSINESS CONTROL

OF TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES
Alexandru BALICA*, Mihai MIJEA*, Florin SANDU*
* Transilvania University,
Bd. Eroilor nr. 29, Brasov, 500036, ROMANIA
Abstract: The expanding telecommunication networks start to support services closer to business control.
Covering by default air-time account information management, they are extending to monetary
operations: bank transactions, accounts interrogations, recharge control. Thanks to smartphones
proliferation the user interface is done via applications (apps) built for Android, iOS, Windows Mobile,
etc. We propose Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) integration a reliable and
universally available control medium for enhancing Business control via apps. By doing this we are
implementing a Service Creation Environment (SCE) available to the operators in emerging economies
and also for establishing immediate control in the new Internet of Things (IoT) environment.
Keywords: App, m-Business, electronic recharge, USSD, Android, Eclipse, IoT, SCE
1. INTRODUCTION
The growth in mobile applications (apps)
will represent a 77 billion market in 2017,
each user providing customized information
via 100 apps per day, according to Gardner [1].
The apps offer to the users an unrestricted
access to services. This interactive model
represents the new apps paradigm, where the
capabilities are limited only by the ability to
imagine and develop a service. This means
expanding the apps towards m-Business and
mobile devices and even wearable devices. In
2014 we are in the first stages of apps
(infotainment) and we are expecting to
continue with monetary services control
(m-Business) and cloud integration. The apps
would control a myriad of electronic devices
in the new Internet of Things (IoT)
103
environment, becoming the access & control

medium towards domotics (Home IoT).
Currently there are over 100 development
media for apps. A very high number are free.
The financial objective is not strong; some
apps are developed just for product placement
or are purely infotainment-oriented. Because
of this, only 0.01% are going to generate
money [2] in a highly competitive market.
Our application is intended for telecom
operators in order to answer specific demands
related to recharge capabilities and can be
extended to support interrogation and control
requests for future Smart Grid and machine-tomachine (M2M) implementations. We are
detailing the application development and
business case for implementation in
production environment and suggest new
approaches related to the SCE (Service
Creation Environment).
ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Electrical and Electronical Engineering
2. CONTEXT
2.1 Current usage an d risks. Telecom
operators are relying on USSD frames or IVR
(Interactive Voice Response) to implement
queries from subscribers (e.g. balance query)
or to allow various operations from authorized
agents (e.g. the sales network geographically
distributed).
Using specialized Value Added Service
(VAS) solutions the operator will increase its
local presence by allowing selected individuals
(commercial agents) to take the burden of
distributing voucher and recharge to
subscribers. This model, highly successful in
emerging and developing markets (e.g. India,
Pakistan, Algeria) is allowing a fast and direct
interaction with the customer in the lack of
banking and financial infrastructure available,
very often ahead of the grid (power
infrastructure is not yet available). The
situation we have encountered is that physical
vouchers cannot be transported on the ground
(e.g. conflict zone or inaccessible due to
natural disasters). For this reason, the
electronic distribution of vouchers is needed,
and was implemented via USSD frame or
WEB interface. Considering that WEB
interface is available to only a selected number
of main agents (dealers) we are noticing that
the bulk of operations is going to be done via
USSD,
by
unspecialized
individuals.
Mitigating the access to the service is the main
concern in this case.
Any USSD frame is starting with * and
ending with #. The intermediary fields are
also separated with *. The first field in the
frame represents the short code (SC) allocated
to this type of service and it is configured
along the core network in the Public Land
Mobile Network (PLMN). An USSD frame
example
for
voucher
recharge
is
*123*123456789012# where 123 represents
the SC followed by a 12 digit hidden recharge
number (HRN) of a voucher.
Used mainly in the developing markets, the
USSD frames are especially useful in
managing the m-Business in electronic
recharge (i.e. top-up subscribers balance).
However, in some cases, like the one we have
encountered, the USSD frames are becoming
too cumbersome for easy and rapid utilization.
One of the reasons is that alongside direct

recharge, we can have other type of operations
possible that can extend dramatically the
number of USSD frames available to the
agents in their interactions with the subscribers
or with other agents. USSD frames, especially
for voucher distribution, are too difficult to
remember (e.g. the example for sending 500
vouchers of 100 units to agent 07712345678 is
*123*321*12345*07712345678*100*500#
with
SCs and USSD password present in the string
(123,321,12345),
alongside the voucher
quantity (500) and face value (100) of the
voucher).
In addition to that, account control is
needed for an agent (e.g. password change,
transfers to and from another agent,
transaction view). This leads to a lengthy list
of USSD operations available to the agents
both for initiating monetary transactions and
for managing the account.
Because of these issues, there is a high risk
that the agents will get discouraged from using
the service.
2.2 Opportunity and our goal. USSD can
also be regarded as an opportunity, since it is a
reliable, tested medium for control. USSD,
much like Short Message Service (SMS), is
transmitted bi-directionally and alternatively
between subscriber and service, along core
network on the signalization channels used by
Mobile Application Part (MAP) protocol.
Available since 1993, it was developed in two
stages [1],[2] and it was finalized in 1999,
making it a tested and universally available
service. Our proposition is that USSD should
not be discarded from future implementations
in the context of the new app paradigm as it is
available by default in the telecom network of
all operators, it is secure and light.
Furthermore, the subscribers are used with this
service. The USSD offers:
stability in exploitation (standardized and
in production for over 15 years);
functional simplicity (transmitted via the
signaling channel);
ease of implementation, regardless of the
service provided;
global area of distribution, supported by all
mobile terminals and all mobile operators;
provides increased interaction compared
with SMS
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For this reasons we are proposing

integrating the USSD functionality via mobile
apps, in this case, Android OS.
2.3 Development environment. We are
using for development the Android Eclipse
Service Delivery Kit (SDK) [5] that includes:
Eclipse + Android Development Tools
(ADT) plugin
Android SDK Tools
Android Platform-tools
The latest Android platform
The latest Android system image for the
emulator
Fig. 1. Eclipse development and testing

environment with the virtual machine (VM) opened
Developing in Android Eclipse is done in

Java programming language and XML
integration for visual app content. The
available simulator (fig. 1, right) is helping the
design and validation, before deploying on real
equipment.
3. BUSINESS CASE
3.1 Advant ages and previous implementations. Our goal is a mobile app that will use
visual graphical interface (GUI) to store and
collect data and then format it, transparently to
the user, into valid USSD frames. There are
several obvious advantages from this point of
view: reducing transaction time, maintaining
105
the app interface paradigm, providing a secure

channel.
Formatting USSD frames via apps is
available through other applications (e.g. Easy
USSD Lite, USSD Dialer, USSD Management,
Mobile Balance Checker, cluBalance,
checkBalance, dBalance) [6]. However, none
of them is dedicated to limited experience
commercial agents and they are not capable to
support all the functions needed.
Via our implementation, it is also possible
to integrate special branding elements into the
application, like logos or corporate on-screen
messages. The application icon, menus, color
scheme, can all be customized in order to be
consistent with the operators brand image.
Vendors and VAS suppliers are already
seizing the opportunity, but most of the
implementations are done using application
programming interfaces (API) and require an
Internet connection. Using USSD requests is
simpler and more reliable, especially given the
rough conditions available in emerging
markets. This approach will allow operators to
seize the app paradigm opportunity without
investing in PLMN infrastructure for Internet
access and it would not limit the service.
3.2 SWOT analysis. To validate our app
we are listing the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats (SWOT) related to it.
Using the SWOT analysis we can identify the
internal factors the strengths and weaknesses
internal to the organization and the external
factors the opportunities and threats
presented by the environment external to the
organization.
Internal
Strengths
easy to use graphical interface
rapid triggering of requests that, if done via
USSD frame, would require separate
training
the operator has complete control over the

application access medium and over the
functionalities as it is built in-house:
USSD frames via the VAS provider
additional
functionalities
like
lock/unlock can be supported
application flow and logic correspond
exactly to local market demands
Weaknesses
the current version is only available on
Android OS
External
Opportunities
channeling the new app paradigm
no other operator, currently, provides this
tool to own commercial agents
Android based smartphones have a large
market share in Middle East and
developing economies.
Threats
As the app is using USSD channel for
triggering the requests, there is no
additional risk. Password storage and login
via the app are done via Android OSs
sharedpreferences function.
The SWOT matrix is important to later

steps in planning to achieve the objective and
in this case it validates our proposal.
3.3 M2M applications. M2M applications
using the apps are possible, providing there is
a database with information available for
query and control. One opportunity is
represented by the common share of the
records by the Smart Grid administrator with
the Telecom operator. This is part of the
vertical network integration scheme (power
transmission network, metering network and
transmission network). One can see simple
applications being possible using already
available USSD strings, even in emerging
economies, where power scarcity is still a
major issue (for example, balance query for
power consumption, tariff plan interrogation
and management).
4. APPLICATION
4.1 Solution design. The functions needed
to be implemented are as follows:
Register and login (store username and
USSD password, fig. 2)
Recharge subscriber
Send voucher to subscriber
Transfer credit to another agent
Transfer vouchers to another agent
Check balance for credit or vouchers
Account settings (account update)
Other possible management operations

include:
Frequent errors (e.g. via search in Action
Bar after Error ID)
Mobile number selection from Contacts
Guide (screens with instructions, app Help)
Implementing these operations must be
done so that the user is able to select easily and
fast the desired option. We are proposing dropdown menus for immediate selection and
usage of large fonts and select buttons. In
order to ease the access, we are implementing
a 3 touch maximum selection criterion (i.e.
from any point of the application to reach
another one in maximum three steps).
Fig. 2. Proposed schemes for

registration and login screens
4.2 Implementation. From programming

point of view, we are using already defined
Android functions and schemes in order to
implement the functionality (i.e. registering,
saving the personal data, accepting selections
via drop-down menus (spinners) and
formatting the USSD string and sending them
accordingly). Apart from the functional side an
equally challenging task is devising an
interface that can be trusted and easily used.
Since the revenue expected from the sales
network is vital, the users must be able to
select and work in a familiar way.
For this reason we are adopting a
standardized graphical interface, the drawer,
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that is available in Google applications like

Google Play (fig. 3), Google + or YouTube
and also Facebook and others.
Fig. 3. Standardized, open source drawer menu

design (Google Play) and the implemented one
Each screen from the drawer menu

selection will contain fragment type screens
according to our guidelines. In the recharge
screen, for example (fig. 4), the user is
presented with an editfield to enter the
destination mobile number and a selection for
the value to be recharged (via a spinner dropbox). The keyboard is used to input the
number in the exact location.
4.3 Security. As the app will only use
USSD frames to communicate with the
system, there is no additional induced risk.
The USSD frames are validated in advance
and are part of the delivered package for
electronic recharge system (license, security,
acceptance). An additional security restriction
can be implemented on the PLMN side: the
subscribers can be barred from accessing the
USSD frames based on their mobile number.
Any commercial agent will have his/her
own USSD password and this can be used in
parallel to trigger manually the USSD requests
or can be stored in the application.
107
An additional functionality allows the

agent to set his/her own USSD password, also.
This does not introduce any additional risk
other than normal operation with USSD
frames.
Fig. 4. Proposed scheme for direct recharge

screen and implementation via Android app
5. CONCLUSIONS &
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
The advantages in developing and using
apps come from reduced development costs
and use of already delivered platforms for
distribution (e.g. Google Play, App Store).
The apps, even after delivery and
installation in the market, remain available for
corrections and updates using the open
development environment we presented
hereby as a SCE (Service Creation
Environment).
This is compliant with the perspective of
IN (Intelligent Networks) where individual
users (e.g. juridical persons like commercial
agents) and not only network infrastructure
manufacturers/ owners/ operators can develop/
deploy/ configure/ administrate the services.
These features reduce maintenance costs as
well.
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CODE ACQUISITION WITH DOUBLE CORRELATOR IN DSSS

RECEIVERS
Otilia CROITORU
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Transilania University of Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The spread spectrum (SS) communications system, use a pseudo-noise (PN) code to spread
the initial bandwidth occupied by data over a bandwidth much wider. In receiver, the SS signal is
despread using the same PN code. The most difficult task to achieve in receiver is to synchronize the
locally generated PN code with the code existing in the received signal. The purpose of this paper is to
present a receiver model for code acquisition that uses two active correlators, method derived from
acquisition with active correlator. The method proposes that, in some circumstance, the synchronization
of signals to be done by delaying the received signal, not the local PN code,with the advantages in
reducing the acquisition time and signal recovery.
Keywords: communications, spread spectrum, direct sequence, code acquisition,correlator.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tracking code finetune process in

order to maintain the synchronization.
In code acquisition, one of the critical
elements is during this process.
In order to reduce time acquisition, have
been developed various methods, starting from
fundamental
techniques
(with
active
correlator, with matched filter, serial or
parallel search, etc.) to advanced code
acquisition techniques [1,6,8].
The purpose of this paper is to present a
receiver model for code acquisition that uses
two active correlators, method derived from
acquisition with active correlator.
The spread spectrum (SS) communication

technique use a pseudo-noise (PN) code as a
waveform to spread the initial bandwidth
occupied by data over a bandwidth much
wider. In receiver, the SS signal is despread
using the same PN code used in transmitter.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS is
a method commonly used for spreading
spectrum where the PN code is multiplied with
input data [1,2,3].
The most difficult task to achieve in DSSS
receiver is to synchronize the locally generated
PN code with the code existing in the received
signal. This synchronization process is carried
out in two stages [1]:
Code acquisition coarse acquisition
process which beings the two PN
sequences in the same range of chip;
109
2. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
MODEL
2.1 The work environment.
Given the
complexity of a SS communication system, it
is preferable that the experiments for
Two blocks for delay, one for received

signal and one for local code.
development of new tyle of schemes to be

made initially, in a software simulation. For
this study, as a working environment for
modeling and experiments was used Matlab &
Simulink software package.
2.2 System description. The structure of
the proposed system is shown in Fig. 1 and
consists of:
The transmitter with: Data Generator,
PN Sequence Generator and BPSK
modulator;
Communication channel with AWGN;
The receiver with double correlator.
Fig. 1 Block diagram for communication

system structure proposed.
Proposed structure for the transmitter

shown in Fig. 2 is a simplified version of
DSSS transmitter using a Gold Sequence
Generator (as PN generator) for spreading
spectrum and a BPSK modulator achieved
with product operator.
Fig. 2 Block diagram proposed for transmitter

with DSSS and BPSK modulation.
For DSSS receiver was designed a model

Pentru receptor a fost creat un model whose
scheme is shown in Fig. 3. The main blocks of
the designed receiver are:
BPSK Demod
a coherent
demodulator that extract the signal
Encoded info_Rx from the BPSK
modulated signal present at its input.
PN Sequence Gen
erator which
generates local replica of the spreading
code used in transmission.
Two blocks with active correlator,
Delay Cou nter_LateRx and Delay
Counter_EarlierRx.
Fig. 3 Block diagram for receiver structure

proposed.
The basic idea is to use two correlator

blocks that have the role to calculate the phase
shift between the received signal and the local
code, phase shift counted in number of code
bits (chips).
Delay Cou nter_LateRx calculates the
number of chips, NrSDelCode, that have
delayed the code to align it with the received
signal.
Delay Counter_EarlierRx calculates the
number of chips, NrSDelBPSK, that have
delayed the received signal to align it with the
code.
Through this mechanism, at the
demodulator input is brought or the received
signal BPSK_Rx, or the received signal
delayed with NrSDelBPSK chips. There are
two possible cases:
1. If the transmitter is turned on later than
the receiver (the receiver waiting for
the arrival of the signal from the
transmitter), becomes operational the
Delay Counter_LateRx block and is
commanded local code delay with
NrSDelCode chips. On entering the
demodulator block is allowed access
for the received signal BPSK_Rx. The
delayed code, Synchro_code, is used to
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extract the data signal Data info_Rx

from the Encoded info_Rx signal.
2. If the transmitter is turned on earlier
than the receiver (begins receiving a
signal that it is not known when it
started), becomes operational Delay
Counter_EarlierRx block and the
other operation is inhibited with the
signal Enable = 0. Is commanded the
delay of the received signal BPSK_Rx
with NrSDelBPSK chips and on
entering the demodulator block is
allowed access for the signal
BPSK_RxDelayed. In this case, the
local code delay is zero, so that the
Synchro_code signal is in phase
(identical) with Local_code.
2.3 Experimental studies.
The
experiments are intended to test the receiver
operation in the two cases above described:
1. The later transmission.
2. The earlier transmission.
The structure of the designed receiver
allows:
Delay setting for any of the two signals
(BPSK_Rx and Local_code);
Pursuit of signal processing at
important points;
Comparing the transmitted data signal
to that recovered in the receiver;
Delay analysis for recovered date
signal in reception, due to proposed
method.
2.4 The bas ic parameters of the system.
To make visible representation of signal in
time diagrams measured at various points,
were chosen for system parameters the
folowing values:
The length of a data bit for signal
information, Tb = 0.01 s;
The length of PN code obtained from
Gold Sequence Generator, Lc = 63Tchip
111
(shortened notation used in this paper:

Lc = 63 chips);
The length of a chip, Tchip = 1/6300 s;
Carrier frequency, fc = 18900 Hz, so
that Tc = Tchip/3 (3 sinusoids/chip);
Time simulation Tsim = 0.04 s,
corresponding to 4 data bits.
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
For each of the two cases (as described in
2.2) were chosen two values of delay to be
within:
a. t < Lc
b. t > Lc
In this way it may reveal to what amount of
delay it is good to make signals alignment by
delaying the PN local code or the received
signal. PN code length being Lc = 63 chips,
were chosen t = 20Tchip and t =50Tchip
(shortened notations used in this paper: t =
20 chips and t = 50).
3.1 Ideal case.
Its shows diagrams of
signals in ideal situation, when there are no
delay and the received signal BPSK_Rx and
Local_code are perfectly synchronized.
Fig. 4 Waveforms for Encoded info_Rx,

Synchro_code and Data info_Rx compared to
Data_info for ideal case.
If it make a zoom in the diagram of Fig. 4

around to t = 0 (see Fig. 5), can be observe a
delay (marked with red) of 1 chip of Encoded
info_Rx signal, due to signal processing in
BPSK De mod block. This delay has to be

compensated by local code delay, in order to
correct alignment of both signals. The effect:
extract data signal is delayed by one chip
towards the transmission.

Data_info for later transmission with t = 20.
Fig. 5 The delay (of extracted data signal) by

one chip towards the transmitted data signal, for
ideal case.
b. For a delay t = 50 chips of BPSK_Rx

signal towards the local code, the behavior is
similar, Variable Delay Chips block performs
local code delay with t + 1 = 51 chips, to
synchronize the signals Encoded info_Rx and
Synchro_code. The waveforms obtained are
shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9.
3.2 The later transmission.

a. For a delay t = 20 chips of BPSK_Rx
signal towards the local code, Delay
Counter_LateRx block calculates the delay
value and generates the signal NrSDelCode =
21, as shown in Fig. 6. The block Variable
Delay Chips performs local code delay, thus
achieving the synchronization of the two
signals, Encoded info_Rx and Synchro_code
from which it is recovered Data info_Rx.
Fig. 8 Waveforms for received signal with 50

chips delay, Local_code and Synchro_code
delayed with NrSDelCode chips for later
transmission with t = 50.
In Fig. 9 can be seen synchronization of the

two signals and a delay with t + 1 = 51 chips
for Data info_Rx signal.
Fig. 6 Waveforms for received signal with 20

chips delay, Local_code and Synchro_code
delayed with NrSDelCode chips for later
On the waveforms shown in Fig. 7 can be

seen synchronization of the two signals and a
dealy with t + 1 = 21 chips of the signal Data
info_Rx.

Data_info for later transmission with t = 50.
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3.3 The earlier transmission.

a. For the case of a signal BPSK_Rx
arrieved earlier with t = 20 chips towards the
local code, Delay Counter_LateRx block
calculates the offset value and generates the
signal NrSDelBPSK = 20 - 1, as shown in Fig.
11. The block Variable Delay BPSK
performs received signal delay with 19 chips
since turning on the receiver (obviously, the
part arrived in advance is lost, can not be
processed). The movement of the received
signal BPSK_Rx on the time axis and the loss
due to late turning on the receiver are outlined
in Fig.10.
Fig. 10 The delay imposed to received signal

to align it with the local code.
When the signal Enable = 0 are two

effects:
Is
commanded
the
signal
BPSK_RxDelayed
access
to
demodulator;
Is inhibited operation of Delay
Counter_LateRx block.
The signal Synchro_code is, in this case, the
same as Local_code, because the Variable
Delay Chips block
receives from Delay
Counter_LateRx block the information
NrSDelCode = 0.
113
Fig. 11 Waveforms for BPSK_Rx, Local_code,

Synchro_code and NrSDelBPSK for earlier
On the waveforms shown in Fig. 11 it can

be seen that the signal Synchro_code is
identical to Local_code signal.

Data_info for earlier transmission with t = 20.
On the diagram in Fig. 12 was marked with

a red line (first from left to right) the moment
when the receiver is turned on. The second red
line marks the moment until which the
receiver delays the
received signal to
synchronize it with local code. Can be
observed the signal Encoded info_Rx delay
with 2t towards time of initiating
transmission, namely t towards time of
turning on the receiver, manner shown in Fig.
10. From the received signal was fully
recovered everything that has been received
from the receiver turning on. The section
between the second red line and the black line
is the area of received signal which would be
lost with a conventional receiver structure,

using code acquisition with active correlator.
Fig. 13 shows the delay of the received
signal by t = 20 chips towards time of turning
on the receiver, respectively 2t towards time
of initiatind transmission, to the demodulator
input being allowed the access for BPSK_Rx
Delayed signal.
Fig. 13 The delay of the received signal

towards time of turning on the receiver, for earlier
b. If the signal BPSK_Rx arrives earlier

with t = 50 chips towards the local code, the
Delay Counter_EarlierRx block calculates
the offset value and generates the signal
NrSDelBPSK = 50 - 1, as shown in Fig. 14.
The block Variable Delay BPSK performs
received signal delay BPSK_Rx with 49 chips
to synchronize the signals Encoded info_Rx
and Synchro_code. The waveforms are shown
in Fig. 14 , Fig. 15 and Fig. 16.

Data_info for earlier transmission with t = 50.
In Fig. 16 can be seen the delay caused to

the received signal, to the demodulator input
being allowed the access for
BPSK_Rx
Delayed signal.
Keeping marking convention described
above, it can be seen that, area between the
second red line and the black line,
(representing the first portion of the receved
signal recovered) is lower than the case of
earlier transmission with t = 20.
Fig. 16 The delay of the received signal

towards time of turning on the receiver, for earlier
3. CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 14 Waveforms for BPSK_Rx, Local_code,

Synchro_code and NrSDelBPSK chips for earlier
On the waveforms shown in Fig. 14 it can

be seen that the signal Synchro_code is again
identical to Local_code signal.
From these experiments it can be deduce

some conclusions.
In the case of later transmission, signals
synchronization is made by local code
delaying and, regardless of the time of
initiating the transmission, if the receiver is
already turned on, do not lose anything from
the received signal. This behavior is identical
to the receivers that make code acquisition by
one of the methods brief presented in
introduction.
The proposed method is advantageous in
earlier transmission case, when the
synchronization is made by delaying the
received signal and not the code. In this way is
possible to recover the information contained
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in the received signal starting right from the

moment of turning on the receiver.
The alignment takes t chips from the
turning on the receiver (interval between the
two marks with red line).
If t < Lc, the time taken for signals
alignment is:
tsynchro = t, in case of proposed method
in this paper;
tsynchro = Lc t, in case of code
acquisition n cazul achiziiei by basic
method, where is made local code
delay.
In other words, proposed method shortens
time acquisition if the delay t is less than half
of length of PN code.
A possibility of extending this benefit is to
combine the two methods as follows:
delaying the received signal, if t <
Lc;
delaying the local code, if t > Lc.
With the model receiver proposed in Fig. 3,
combining those two methods can be done by:
Using
the
blocks
Delay
Counter_EarlierRx and Variable
Delay BPSK for delaying received
signal (as in experiments described in
3.3 a.) if t < Lc;
Reactivation
of
blocks
Delay
Counter_LateRx and Variable Delay
Chips for delaying local code (as in
experiments described in 3.2 a), if t >
Lc.
This is possible because both blocks with
correlator, and Delay Counter_EarlierRx and
115
Delay Counter_LateRx, counts the necessary

delay to align the signals.
REFERENCES
1. Byeong Gy Lee, Byoung-Hoon Kim,
Scrambling
techniques
for
CDMA
communications, Kluwer Academic Publishers
(2002).
2. Gibson, J., D., The communications
handbook, Southern Methodist University,
Dallas,
Texas,
CRC
Press
(2002),
www.crcpress.com.
3. Haykin, S., Communication systems, 4th
Edition, John Wiley&Sons, Inc., (2001).
4. Ibnkahla, M., Signal Processing For Mobile
Communications
Handbook.
Kingston,
Ontario, Canada: CRC Press (2005).
5. Madhow, U., Fundamentals of Digital
Communication, Cambridge University Press
(2008).
6. Rappaport, T.S., Wireless Commu-nications
- Principles and Practice, Prentice Hall
(2002).
7. Sarwate, D. V., Pursley, M. B.
Crosscorrelation properties of pseudorandom
and related sequences, Proc. IEEE, vol. 68, no.
5, pp. 593619, May 1980.
8. Yong - Hwan Lee, Sawasd Tantaratana,
Sequential Acquisition of PN Sequences for
Design
and
DS/SS
Communications:
Performance, Proc. IEEE, vol. 10, no. 4, May
1992.
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HIGH POWER ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS FOR MILITARY

APPLICATIONS
Vasile DOBREF, Alexandru SOTIR, Octavian TRBU, Ctlin CLINCI

*Marine Engineering Faculty, Mircea cel Btrn Naval Academy, Constana, Romania,
Abstract:
Generation of a high energy magnetic pulse with a flux compression generator requires first of all a good
mathematical approach followed by simulations of the theoretical model in laboratory and in the field.
The authors above have been members of a research team that developed an electromagnetic pulse device
started by a conventional explosion. This paper describes the main steps in simulating and testing the
compression of the magnetic flux needed to achieve the high energy magnetic pulse.
Keywords: electromagnetic, pulse, generator, compression
1. INTRODUCTION
Among the military applications of the
electromagnetic pulse (EMP), the most
common and used method is the flux
compression generation (FCG) which was the
path the project followed. The first
experiences involving the so called E-bomb
of the FCG type were conducted by the U.S.A.
and the U.S.S.R. in the late 50s (Bykov et al.,
2001).
2. FLUX COMPRESSION SIMULATION
2.1 The simulation of the flux compression
has been undertaken in a high voltage
laboratory in order to check the actual flux
compression development. The goal of this
activity was to put into evidence the flux
compression
through
the
progressive
mechanical short-circuiting of the coils rings,
according to the electrical scheme of the
117
experimental flux compression generator

(FCG) presented in Figure 1.
Two types of coils have been used. The first
one was smaller and made up of off- the-shelf
components (Fowler et al., 1993). The second
solenoid was manufactured as a prototype in
the Romanian Naval Academys workshop
according to some specific required
dimensions.
Eventually,
the
actual
measurements in the experimentation facility
have been done on this second variant.
2.2 The oscilloscope diagrams of the
experiments using the first coil are presented
in Figure 2. There have been recorded the
current in the coil by using the current shunt
(first two graphs) and the magnetic flux,
received by the frame-type antenna.
Fig. 1. The electrical principles of the experimental

FCG
However, these experiments had been

considered as irrelevant because, as it can be
easily noticed, the vibrations of the contacts,
during the mechanical short-circuiting,
determine signals that have amplitudes
comparable to the surge of the current and
magnetic flux due to the progressive shortcircuit of the coils rings. The second
experiment of the flux compression simulation
used a second coil, identical to those tested in
the range. This time the shunt has been
removed from the circuit and only the resultant
magnetic flux has been recorded by the means
of the frame-type antenna (Dobref et al.,
2008). We could consequently put in evidence
very clearly the flux compression during the
short-circuiting of the coils rings, as presented
in the oscilloscope diagrams from Figure 3.
Fig. 2. Currents and magnetic fluxes in coil no.1.
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Tektronix (TDS 724 D and TDS 5052)

oscilloscopes, placed in the second bunker.
The recordings were done in the same time.
The two coils used for the experiments were
identical.
Fig. 3. Currents and magnetic fluxes in coil no.2.
2.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

During the final stage of this project the
experiments conducted in the range the coil
rings have been continuously shorcircuited at a
very high speed (approximately 7200 m/s) by
the means of the explosive charge. The
explosive charge consisted of a mix of RDX
(hexogen) and TNT. The building principles of
the FCG are shown in Figure 4 (Johns, 2004).
Figure 5 presents the pulse recordings

corresponding to the first and second blast,
respectively
Fig. 5. The experimental recordings of the

magnetic pulse
3. CONCLUSIONS
The authors take full responsibility for the contents
and scientific correctness of the paper. The main
Fig. 4. FCG building principles
The actual arrangement of the experimental

device was the following: the coil with the
explosive charge inside was put in the first
bunker. The two identical receiving antennas
were mounted on the walls, simetrically with
respect to the coil, on the same axis of the
emitter antenna (the last ring of the coil). The
coaxial cables needed to transport the signal
from the antennas have been connected to two
119
conclusion rests in the compression of the flux

generated by the two coils. We noticed that the
signal in the receiving antenna is much greater
for the second detonation, which is possible
thanks to a greater starting coil current
(different timing) but also to a different
evolution of the explosion (Dobref et al.,
2008). For establishing the maximum value of
the magnetic pulse we took in account the
second diagram in Figure 5. Then, the
magnetic pulse size has been calculated in
laboratory, after calibration. The tests in the
own facilities confirmed the simulation results
REFERENCES
1. Abrams, M. (2003). The dawn of the ebomb, IEEE Spectrum
2. Bykov, A.I.; Dolotenko, M.I. &

Kolokolchikov,
N.P.
(2001).
Achievements on Ultra-High Magnetic
Fields Generation, Physica B, 294-295,
p.574-578
3. Dobref, V. et al., (2008). Research
report: Modeling and design of a
conventional
payload
for
an
electromagnetic
pulse
generation
destined to block C4I systems, Mircea
cel
Batran
Naval
Academy,
Constanta, Romania
4. Fowler, C.M.; Caird, R.S. & Garn, B.
(1993). An introduction to explosive
magnetic flux compression generators.
Abstract, Los Alamos
5. Johns, D. (2004). Analysis of EMI/E3
Problems in Defense Applications,
Flomerics
6. Knoepfel, H. (1970), Pulsed High
Magnetic Fields, Nord-Holland
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MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM DEDICATED TO MULTI-ROTOR

MINI-UAV CAPABLE OF 3D FLYING
Adrian-Ioan LI*, Ioan PLOTOG*, Lidia DOBRESCU*
*Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology, POLITEHNICA University
of Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: The paper describes an electronic multiprocessor system that assures functionality of a
miniature UAV capable of 3D flying. The apparatus consists of six independently controlled brushless
DC motors, each having a propeller attached to it. Since the brushless motor requires complex
algorithms in order to achieve maximum torque, efficiency and response time a DSP must be used. All the
motors are then controlled by a main microprocessor which is capable of reading sensors (Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input commands (remote controller or
trajectory plan) and sending independent commands to each of the six motors. The apparatus contains a
total of eight microcontrollers: the main unit, the IMU mathematical processor and one microcontroller
for each of the six brushless DC motors. Applications for such an apparatus could include not only
military, but also search-and-rescue, geodetics, aerial photography and aerial assistance.
.
Keywords: hexacopter, brushless, IMU, search-and-rescue, BLDC
1. INTRODUCTION
Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL)
vehicles have been developed in the past
century starting with the helicopter. The main
advantages between VTOL vehicles and
airplanes is hovering over a small area and
being able to operate in areas with no runway.
Comparing to a helicopter, having six
propellers instead of two highly increases the
useful
payload,
the
stability
and
maneuverability. Multi-rotor systems (with 4,
6 or 8 propellers) can run faster, maintain
stability in tougher winds and execute turns
much faster (also used in aerobatics) than a
traditional helicopter [1]. The main drawback
of such systems is that building gas-powered
121
multi-rotor systems is much harder than a

classic helicopter.
The apparatus presented by the authors is
an electrical powered small-sized vehicle with
six vertical propellers.
The applications that can be developed on
such a vehicle are of two types: imagery and
transportation of small payload. From
conception and design point of view, the
transportation no needs extra processing.
Imagery on the other hand introduces a whole
new set of applications, especially when the
image can be sent back to base in real time for
more complex analysis, according to the
mission requests.
2. THE MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEM

PROOF OF CONCEPT
2.1. The multiprocessor system solution.
The authors have chosen brushless DC motors
(BLDC) as solution for electrical powered of
multi-rotor apparatus in order to assure
capability to operate with a payload of 4 Kg.
The reason for this requirement is that imagery
applications demand high-resolution cameras,
which are usually heavy.
Taking into account the necessity to
implement a complex algorithm capable to
achieve maximum torque, efficiency and
response time for the motor, a digital signal
processor (DSP) type controller was chosen.
All the BLDC controllers are then controlled
by a main microprocessor which is capable of
reading sensors (Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU)-orientation and GPS), receiving input
commands (remote controller or trajectory
plan) and sending independent commands to
each of the six motors. The apparatus (Fig. 1)
contains a total of eight microcontrollers: the
main unit, the IMU mathematical processor
and one microcontroller for each of the six
BLDC.
All the movements are combined and

calculated by the main controller unit in order
to achieve 3D flying. In (Fig. 2) the scale
drawing of the apparatus is presented, noting
the fact that the red leg represents the front
direction. Also drawn with a circle around
each motor is the propeller occupied area. The
small arrow on the circle indicates the
spinning direction of the propeller.
Fig. 2. Six propellers apparatus general view.
2.2. Design of movement control. While

designing the apparatus (next referred as
hexacopter), in order for it to be able to fully
execute three-dimensional maneuvers each
movement axis was considered, resulting in
three separate moves: roll, pitch and yaw.
For maximum efficiency, all the propellers
push air down.
Fig. 1. Movement on Y axis Roll.
Fig. 1. Block schematic.
The roll and pitch maneuvers are

obtainable just by modifying the push force on
some of the propellers. In order for the
hexacopter to be able to modify the yaw angle
and in order for it not to keep spinning at all
times due to added momentum, half of the
propellers need to spin in one direction and the
others in the opposite direction. For best
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response time, the propellers spin is alternated

clockwise and counter clockwise.
Considering the red motor-propeller pair as
the front of the hexacopter (parallel to Y
Cartesian axis), we can define the roll and
pitch movements as following: roll moves the
apparatus left and right, while pitch moves it
forward or backward. (Fig. 3, 4, 6, 7) depict
the propellers spinning speed as follows:
transparent normal spin, red faster spin,
more thrust and green slower, less thrust.
This makes the hexacopter modify its angle
and execute the maneuver.
can be more than one variation, but the fastest

is the one illustrated in (Fig. 7).
Fig. 3. Forward Movement.
Fig. 2. Movement on X axis Pitch.
It is worth noticing that the roll is done

using only 4 out of 6 propellers, while pitch
uses all. The reason behind this is that the
pitch maneuver dictates the maximum forward
speed of the apparatus, which is used more
often. (Fig. 5) presents the forward movement
of the UAV: red faster spin, pink faster
spin, but slower than red.
The yaw maneuver is illustrated in (Fig. 6),
using all 6 propellers. Fewer propellers may be
used for steadier control, with the condition
that the total yaw momentum remains
constant.
The last described movement is
represented by the take-off and landing.
Basically all propellers have the same speed,
which is either higher (take-off) or lower
(landing) than the steady altitude speed. There
123
Fig. 4. Movement on Z axis Yaw.
Fig. 5. Take-off and Landing.
2.3 The motor controllers. The authors

have chosen BLDC motors NX-4006-530
having speed constant Kv = 530 rpm/v, maxim
current = 10A, phase resistance = 75m,
phase inductance = 10uH, power = 150W and
weight = 67g [7]. While using brushless

motors without any sensor, the usage of a
microcontroller with is mandatory. The
microcontroller
contains
a
sensorless
trapezoidal six-step algorithm which drives six
MOS-FET transistors in a three half-bridge
configuration used to connect the three phases
of the brushless motor.
Six-step trapezoidal commutation (Fig. 8)
requires the use of PWM channels. Two half
bridges drives two of the phases while the
third remains floating and is measured by the
ADC module of the microcontroller.
not to create acoustical disturbance, the PWM

frequency used is 20 KHz. High frequency
require more expensive MOS-FET transistors
to keep the losses to minimum. The duty-cycle
is set by a PI (proportional integral) controller,
which receives the speed as the measured
parameter and the desired speed from the main
controller unit as the input parameter.
The communication between the main
controller unit and the motor controllers is
done via I2C protocol.
Fig. 6. Six-step trapezoidal commutation.
Fig. 7. Zero-Crossing detection.
The floating phase is used to compute

when the next commutation occurs. This can
be usually implemented by two methods, both
requiring prior filtering: comparing it either to
half the DC voltage or to the reconstructed
motor neutral point. The algorithm used in this
paper uses the first method as it requires fewer
electronic components and makes full use of
the microcontrollers DSP functions.
Comparing the floating phase voltage (also
known as back electro-magnetic force
BEMF) to half the DC voltage will result in
finding the zero-crossing point (Fig. 9) of the
voltage. The zero-crossing point is the exact
moment at which the floating phase voltage is
equal to DC bus voltage divided by two, and is
the exact moment at which the rotor moved
30 out of 60 of a sector. By measuring the
time between the sector change and zero
crossing moment (30), the algorithm then
waits this exact amount of time before
changing the sector again. This approach is
used to replace the sensor by using the floating
phase as a sensor. By using PWM modulation
to control the MOS-FET transistors, the motor
speed is controlled by increasing or decreasing
the duty-cycle. In order for the commutation
The microcontroller used in this case is the

dsPIC33EP64MC502 made by Microchip, for
its motor control dedicated PWM channels, its
10-bit ADC module and its communication
protocols (I2C and also CAN, leaving room
for further implementation) [2]. The devices
consume less than 100 mW of power, which
minimizes the losses.
2.4 The main controller unit. The main
controller unit is responsible for sensor data
acquisition, wireless communications with the
base station, communication with the motor
controllers and for the main movement
computations. It contains a 32 bit
microcontroller capable of making all the
calculations required in order for the apparatus
to be stable and to have a fast response. The
main controller unit also has access to the GPS
sensor. The main controller unit has the
possibility of sending all its data to another
system (faster, such as a PC) via wireless link
or directly via UART or SPI. This was
designed to allow running of higher
complexity applications such as automatic
search and rescue, or monitoring. They require
a color camera and image analysis software,
which is very demanding and cant be ran on
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the main controller unit. The interface allows

full control of the hexacopter by the 3rd party
computer, but still allowing for manual
override of the commands if needed. The
processor used for the main controller unit is
the PIC32MX795F512L made by Microchip.
It offers a lot of communication protocols, 4
UART modules, 4 I2C modules, and over 100
MIPS of processing power on 32 bits
mathematical sets, while requiring less than
400 mW of power [2].
The main sensor is the inertial
measurement unit (IMU) which uses a threeaxis accelerometer, a three-axis gyroscope and
a three-axis magnetometer in order to compute
the angles of roll, pitch and yaw. Initially,
when the hexacopter is not started, all angles
are reset in order to set the forward direction.
The sensor uses UART communication to send
the data back to the main controller unit.
and a 1.8 Kg apparatus gives us a total of

about 4 Kg of useful payload, exactly as
designed.
Fig. 8. Hexacopter.
The brushless DC motor controllers

provides very fast response, low commutation
noise and excellent performance (Fig. 11).
New speed information is fed to the motor
controller with a frequency of 500 Hz.
3. THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND

DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Build. As seen in (Fig. 10), the six
motor-propeller pairs are connected to the
main unit through carbon-fiber tubes to a
central aluminum hexagonal plate. Carbonfiber and aluminum were chosen for being
very lightweight materials with increased
durability and strength. The total weight of the
apparatus is 1.8 Kg. The central plate was
chosen to be hexagonal instead of round in
order to provide higher contact to carbon-fiber
tubes. Also, for increased strength, the carbonfiber tube profile is square instead of round.
The tube houses the wiring needed to provide
power and commands to the motor controllers.
3.2. Lift and power consumption tests.
Tests have shown that each motor-propeller
pair is capable of pushing air up to a thrust
capable of lifting 1 Kg / pair. Having 6 pairs
125
Fig. 9. Motor BEMF and driving voltage.
The total power consumption of the

hexacopter while standing, with no motors
running was of 850 mW, which, with a battery
of 16.8V and 5800 mAh (a total of 97.4 Wh) is
less than 1%.
Each of the motors running in full thrust
(when able to lift approximately 1 Kg each)
had a current consumption of 9.8 A at 16.8V.
With the hexacopter running in full thrust, this
would give about 6 minutes of flight time.

However, while hovering (keeping a steady
altitude in no-wind conditions) with no
payload, the total power consumption is
170W, giving a total flight time of over 30
minutes. The exact case is somewhere between
6 and 30 minutes, depending on the payload:
when the apparatus is required to have extra
payload (1 Kg), it is still fast in response, but
the total consumption is 290W, which means
about 18-20 minutes of flight. When
maximum load is applied, the response time is
slow, since there isnt a lot of reserve power to
make the fast movements: all the power is
consumed to lift and keep the payload.
The BLDC controller (Fig. 12) was
designed in respect of Design for
Manufacturing concept [8], so it would fit
below the motor, in order to save space and
increase efficiency.
Fig. 10. BLDC controller board all layers
Further development require designing

new algorithms which can be applied to the
hexacopter in order to automatically perform
complex tasks, most in the field of digital
image processing: automatic search for certain
objects on an area, monitoring perimeter, etc.
4. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
4.1. Conclusions. The main controller unit
initially has a simple PID controller to feed the
output for the motor controllers. Though the
response time is good, some oscillations are
present. Tuning the PID loop parameters is
mandatory, and the PID was added complexity
by adding an auto-tuning sequence to be
executed on every start of the hexacopter.
The ability to execute 3D maneuvers gives

virtually any possibility to any application
which requires 3D flight. More complex
algorithms can be implemented when using
more than one hexacopter to perform a
collaborative work. Other example would be
that the estimated flight time is around 20
minutes, and the charge time is around 1.5-2
hours, meaning that in order to fully monitor a
perimeter, at least four are needed, one to be
operational and the others to charge.
4.2. Acknowledgment. This work has
partial supported by the SIOPTEF project (PNII-PT-PCCA-2011-3, C-121/2012).
REFERENCES
1. Gablehouse C. Helicopters and autogiros: a
chronicle
of
rotating-wing
aircraft
Lippincott (1967)
2. Lita, A., Cheles M. AN1160 Sensorless
BLDC Control with Back-EMF Filtering
Using a Majority Function [online].
Available: http://www.microchip.com
3. Alamio A., Artale V., et all. PID Controller
Applied to Hexacopter Flight Journal of
Intelligent & Robotic Systems. Issue 1-4
(Jan 2014).
4. Oursland J., The design and implementation
of a quadrotor flight controller using the
QUEST algorithm South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology (2010)
5. Markley, F. L., Mortari D. Quaternion
altitude
estimation
using
vector
observations The Journal of the
Astronautical Sciences (2000)
6. Erginer B., Altug E. Modeling and PD
control of a quadrotor VTOL vehicle IEEE
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (2007)
7. NX-4006-530kv Brushless Quadcopter
Motor. Source. [online]. Available:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/sto
re/__17923__NX_4006_530kv_Brushless
_Quadcopter_Motor.html.
8. Plotog I., Marin A., Boanta L., Model of
assembling process for electronic parts
integrated in mechatronic products, The
Romanian Review Precision Mechanics,
Optics & Mechatronics, 2013, No. 44,
ISSN 1584 5982.
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FRACTAL SECTOR ANTENNA WITH RESONATORS

ARRANGED IN A SQUARE SHAPE
Gheorghe MORARIU*, Ecaterina Liliana MIRON**
*Electronics & Computers Department, Transilvania University, Brasov, Romania,
**Air Defense Department, Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: This paper presents a model of stripline fractal antenna having resonant elements in the form of
a square shape. The model is presented in two versions, one with compact resonators and second with
frontier resonators, highlighting technical similarities and differences through electrical parameters. In
the same time, the paper emphasizes the concordance between theoretical and experimental results.
Keywords: fractal, stripline, antenna, directivity, field intensity.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ANTENNA DESIGN
Development of mobile telephony and

portable phones miniaturization has imposed
dimensions reduction of the radiant elements
(emission-receiver antenna), keeping as much
as possible their gain and efficiency at an
optimum level. In the same time, it is
necessary to ensure a wide frequency range,
directivity and a large aperture. These
requirements
are
best
satisfied
by
fractal sector antennas with different
geometric shapes of resonators. This paper
presents two versions of a fractal antenna
model with resonant elements arranged in a
square shape, with three levels of
demultiplication. In a radiant field resonators
arranged in a square shape behaves
simultaneously as a magnetic antenna (loop
antenna) and closed dipole.
127
The two variations of the antenna model

are shown in Figure 1 - frontier resonators,
respectively Figure 2 - compact resonators.
The frontier resonators are pairs, having
dimensions and ecart between them as
specified in Table 1 (from the edge inwards).
a.
b.
Fig. 1. Fractal sector antenna: a. with frontier

resonators; b. with compact resonators
Table 1. Lengths of the frontier resonators and

ecart between them
Length [cm]
Ecart [mm]
L11 = 15
L12 = 13
L21 = 5
L22 = 4
L31 = 3
L31 = 2
10
5
5
(3)
where: he - effective height of antenna;
N contours number;
A - surface area [m2];
- the angle of incidence of the wave
relative to antenna plane [].
Table 2. Lengths of the compact resonators and

ecart between them
Length [cm]
Ecart [mm]
L1 = 14
L2 = 4,5
L3 = 2,5
(4)
where Z0 - impedance of free space.
(5)
10
5
5
where E - electric field intensity.

For stripline resonators, according to (2)
Compact resonator lengths were chosen as

the average length of the frontier resonators to
maintain the same central resonance
frequency.
Figure 3 shows the resonators phasing and
the feeder adaptation circuit.
=16L, and bandwidth is
(6)
where fc central frequency.
According to (2), (3) N=1, A=L2 and
(7)
In case of frontier resonators the lengths
are given by
(8)
It is resulting in
Fig. 3. Feeder adaptation circuit.
(9)
Fractal series of the radiating surface is in

division with 4n.
(10)
(1)
(11)
where S0 is the surface of the biggest

contour.
A. Analytical calculation of the resonator
for magnetic antenna regime (***,
2013)
According to (4), radiation resistance is

(12)
Resonance frequencies of the resonators
are:
(2)
where L is edge length in meters.
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Central resonant frequencies are:

(13)
(21)
(14)
(22)
(15)
(23)
Taking into consideration (8) bandwidth of
frontier resonators is given by
(16)
Calculation methodology presented is valid
also for compact resonators with the
observation that the bandwidth is different
eq. (6).
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Experimental data obtained by spectral
analysis (scalar) and vector analysis (with
VNA) are shown in Fig. 4 8 (experimental
diagrams).
Fig. 4 and 5 are shown the directivity
diagrams.
B. Analytical calculation of the resonator

for closed dipole ( /2) regime
(17)
(18)
where hd height of the dipole.
Fig. 4. Fractal sector antenna with compact

resonators: Directivity diagram E field.
For hd = /2,
(19)
(20)
129
Fig. 9. Fractal sector antenna VNA analysis

in the frequency band 3-3.5 GHz.
Fig. 5. Fractal sector antenna with frontier
resonators: Directivity diagram E field.
Fig. 6. Fractal sector antenna with frontier

resonators: The reflection coefficient.
Fig. 7. Fractal sector antenna with compact

resonators: The reflection coefficient.

in the frequency band 4-4.5 GHz.

in the frequency band 5.8-6 GHz.
4. CONCLUSIONS

in the frequency band 2.7-2.9 GHz.
Due to the dual behavior, both the

magnetic resonator and closed dipole (/2),
fractal sector antenna allows operation in a
very wide frequency band with a gain around
10dB.
The small size and relatively simple
technical realization, it is recommended for 4G
and 5G mobile telephony.
Through a judicious choice of fractal
dimensions, antenna can cover frequency
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bands with quasi-constant gain for the entire

spectrum of mobile telephony.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Best, S. (2003). A Comparison of the

Resonant Properties of Small SpaceFilling Fractal Antennas. IEEE Antennas
and Wireless Propagation Letters 2 (1):
197200.
Bogdan, I. (2008). Antene microstrip,
ndrumar de proiectare.
http://staff.etc.tuiasi.ro/bogdani/Antene/Pr
AntMstrip.pdf
Dutca, M., Morariu, G., Croitoru, O.,
Machedon-Pisu, M. (2012). Logarithmic
Fractal Segment Antenna. Brasov,
OPTIM 2012, ISSN 1842-0133, p.12661273
Hephzibah Lincy, B., Srinivasan, A.,
Rajalakshmi, B. (2013). Wideband
131
Fractal Microstrip Antenna for Wireless

Application. ICT Journal, Volume 3 No.
3, ISSN 2223-4985
5. Morariu, G., Zara, M.M. (2013).
Fundamente si aplicatii ale structurilor
fractale in antene pentru microunde.
Brasov,
Editura
Universitatii
TRANSILVANIA
*** (2013). Magnetic Loop Antenna
TheorySID
Monitoring
Station.
http://sidstation.loudet.org/antenna-theoryen.xhtml [11.06.2013]
132
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THE ANALISYS OF NAVAL ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS USING

SOFTWARE PROGRAMS
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, Serghei RADU, Florentiu DELIU, Raluca MATES

*Academia Naval Mircea cel Btrn,Constana,Romnia,** Stena Group,
*** Academia Naval Mircea cel Btrn,Constana,Romnia, ****Academia Naval Mircea cel
Btrn,Constana,Romnia
Abstract: Modernization strategy of the naval power system is based on the following: high efficiency,
high flexibility with low emissions using combined systems consisting of multiple components and various
generators. In order to simulate electro-energetic processes in the naval system and reduce fuel
consumption, we built an application that performs the energy balance in each functioning regime of a
ship by charging each consumer. The program also optimizes underway regimes, offering alternative
changes in the system and thereby reducing electricity consumption on board. The optimization provided
by the program will be made by passing the consumers in a particular type of operation in various modes
so as the total energy consumption to be the lowest.
Keywords: power system, software program, maritime ship, underway and stationary regime
1. INTRODUCTION
In
order
to
optimize
electricity
consumption correlated with increased
reliability of power systems aims in ships all
equipment and facilities to be implemented on
board must be updated along with marine
propulsion development so as a greater
efficiency and a reduced environmental impact
to be achieved. [18, 6, 17, 14]
The aim is to develop and use digital tools
to achieve combined energy production
systems. [19,15] Developing component
models at different levels of complexity,
methods for their assembly into powerful
software simulators, the use of such simulators
to analyze both the dynamic and operational
behavior while identifying limitations are very
133
important in developing the next generation of

naval electro-energetic power systems [8,
21,16, 10, 5, 22, 9, 1].
The program starts with the specifications
of a LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) carrier:
Maersk LPG/NH3 Glory. The program can be
used for any other type of vessel by
introducing a new set of characteristic
parameters, can achieve a theoretical
calculation for a ship proposed for
construction in any shipyard [11,20]. The
program was developed using Microsoft
Visual Studio C # 2008, Microsoft Excel and
MathCAD 15. [2,3,4] The strengths of the
proposed program: it can be applied to all
categories of ships, requiring only the
introduction of the manufacturing nominal
parameters of the generator and consumers
(which can be found in the technical

documentation of the vessel) [13,7], it includes
a study mode according to experimental data
measured onboard while underway, it takes
into
consideration
weather
conditions
(humidity air salinity of sea and air) in the
calculation of the power system losses, it also
deals with time- damage of electrical
consumers caused by harsh conditions on
board usage (overload, mains transient),
resulting in direct decreased efficiency of the
generator [1,12] . The program was tested on
board for the movement of the ship between
two ports, leaving open the opportunity of
using the program for the entire voyage. Weak
points of the program: the format of the given
parameters is not checked , bowing program
on the premise that users are familiar with the
way the program can be used; the program is
not applicable to the short-circuit protection of
NPS.
2. COMPONENTS OF THE
PROGRAM
The program is a Windows-Form
application built in C # (Fig.1). The menu bar
contains seven submenus with functions to
determine the energy balance in standard
underway regimes and to select the consumers
according to the type of vessel.
series of steps, as follows: select the After

experimental data from the Simulation
submenu of the menu. The selected option
appears in the Show data I/O window of the
display;
a) In the display window select the option
Show data. Here the user can become
familiar with the components and operating
parameters of the power system on board (the
main features of the diesel engine used for
inducting the generator, the generator
characteristics and high power electrical
consumers features). Figure 2.
b) Access submenu Options from the
menu. This sets the number of generators
(connected to the board net). During this
simulation the following underway regimes
will be used: Underway regime at sea / at
anchor - one DG, manoeuvre regime - 2DGs;
stationary regime when loading or unloading 2 DGs .
If the emergency generator is the only one
connected to the network, it is considered that
the ship operates in an emergency regime.
Further on, a study on the startup behavior of
generators and large consumers is performed.
This particular step aims to analyze the
transient process of starting the generator with
all the steps that are involved (starting the
diesel engine, generator excitation and
coupling to the network).
Figure 1. Block diagram of the program
3. MODEL SIMULATION
To exemplify the developed program
usage, we present an optimization algorithm
for a set of experimental values measured on
board the reference carrier Maersk LPG/NH3
Glory. This simulation model comprises a
Figure 2. General data display
c) From Settings simulation of the

parent window select the option Synchronous
Generator, then click Start simulation. A
new window with two modules will open:
The rated parameters of the chosen electric
generator and The rated parameters of the
chosen electric engine;
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Figure 3. DG starting simulation
Figure 4. Generator excitation scheme
We will only work with the first module

introducing the generators features (apparent
power, active power, frequency, speed and
type of electric machinery, voltage to bars,
power factor, power generator, excitation
current, and voltage excitation).
d) In the Diesel section special features
needed to run the engine are filled in (diesel
engine rated power, total yaw moment, boost
pressure, rated speed); select the Position
rack / cutting to ensure engine start and its
operation at rated parameters.
e) In the Operations section we will
simulate the startup, excitation and parallel
coupling for the parameters already
introduced. Push the Start Diesel Engine. A
text box with the message Engine started
successfully will appear.
f) Click Excitation from the Start
Simulation. A new form opens. It contains
the excitation of the generator. In the new
window a set of buttons that separate parts of
the excitation scheme appears. After pressing
each of the 5 buttons, the AVR window will
look like in Figure 4.
135
g) Close AVR window and click Join

in parallel from the Start Simulation. A
new form containing in parallel connection of
the main generators opens.
h) Close all windows except the parent
window. Select the option Induction motor
from the section Synchronous and induction
electric machineries in the parent window,
then click Start Simulation. A new window
will appear (Start Simulation).
i) We will apply the necessary settings to
simulate the induction motor start in the
following sections: electric engine type,
original engine starting mode, operations. For
this simulation, we consider the default option
Rotor fault induction motor, specific to the
electric motor of the reference vessel. In this
section there are also the main parameters of
the electric motor: active power, apparent
power, frequency, speed work, voltage,
impedance startup, number of pole pairs, the
rotor resistance, load factor. For this
simulation, we will work with default values
specific to the electric motor of the reference
vessel. We will fill in the Rotor Resistance
and Choke start only if the engine is a coil

winding rotor one. Otherwise we will fill in
the indicated fields with zero. In the section
Original engine starting mode the following
options are available: direct start, star
start/triangle, autotransformer start, start with
features given by the rheostat, frequency
converter start.
j) In the Operations section with the
settings given above, click MathCAD
Starting Calculus. A new form will open
[Figure 5 ].
Figure 6. Comparing MathCAD calculus with

illustrated systems
Figure 5. MathCAD Starting Calculus for the

analyzed Electric motor
In the section Illustration of MathCAD

characteristics and calculus for major
consumers calculations are available for the
following consumers: 270kW Compressor
Motor, Deep Well Pump Motor, Booster Pump
Motor, Water Pump Spray Motor, Fire and
General Service Pump Motor Bilge, Ballast
Pump Motor, Fire Pump Emergency
generators Motor. We continue with the
generators stability study. To do this, click
Check static and dynamic stability. A form
that contains a number of options to illustrate
the different types of system stability will
appear. Press the button Show complete
MathCAD calculus to illustrate the generator
stability calculation considered in the current
simulation, and then press the four buttons.
Compare the result with the three already
shown systems [Figure 6].
We will do three tests, the first for the

underway regime, the second for the
manoeuvre regime, and the third one for
loading and unloading arrangements regime.
Underway regime analysis we use
consumers that work continuously. We set up
the main distribution panel like in figure 7. We
obtain a power consumption of 507.44 kW.
Therefore it is only necessary to connect one
generator (507.44 kW represents 56% of the
power generator of 910 kW). Manoeuvre
regime analysis - we use consumers that work
continuously. We will also add the consumers
used in manoeuvring: bow winches, stern
winches, and other deck installations that can
be required. The necessary power will be
763.04 kW which is more than 75% of the
power generator. We will also add automatic
mode consumers and get a 906.64 kW power.
So, for this particular regime we will have two
generators connected in parallel for the
network.
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We obtain a total of 1206.96 kW

power consumption, having two generators
connected in parallel.
Figure 7. Main distribution panel for underway

regime
Loading and unloading arrangements

regime analysis we have the following
configuration of the main panel, Figure 8:
Figure 9. Statistics for considered ranges and

regimes
Display the final data we can observe all

steps of this simulation. From the Display
Mode window conclusions and proposals of
the analyzed ship power system are accessed.
Figure 8. Main panel for loading / unloading

regime
137
facilities that are to be implemented on board

so as to achieve greater efficiency and reduced
environmental impact. The control and
management of electricity consumption are
integral parts of achieving naval power system
monitoring functionality of the system. The
efficiency of electricity consumption has been
charted. It has also been made a selection of
marine equipment focusing on low power
consumption, high efficiency and low
pollution. The quality of power supply is
determined by the following factors: the
operational safety of the plant, power quality
at the point of separation between the
consumer and the supplier, the electromagnetic
compatibility of systems with the works.
REFERENCES
1.
Figure 10 . Final results of the simulation
4. CONCLUSIONS
The program will do the initial analysis of
the existing energy system and then will
optimize each regime and seek alternatives for
reducing electricity consumption thus lowering
fuel consumption of internal combustion
engines. The optimization made by the
program allows the passage of consumers from
a given running curve on another due to
regime and charge changes, therefore,
considering the calculated energy balance, the
total power consumption to be the lowest. It
also allows choosing the best alternative for
the consumers as to achieve better system
reliability and to launch windows illustrating
energy balance for standard regimes. Particular
regimes could be created as needed by
selecting the consumers. Physical and
functional integration of the power system and
automation system, optimal allocation and
power control for all subsystems are important
criteria in optimizing power consumption. The
aim was to use methods of analysis and
optimization of energy consumption so as to
realize the analysis of dynamic behavior of the
equipment with the support control and energy
management. In order to optimize electricity
consumption in correlation with the increased
reliability of power systems all equipment and
***, Electric Ship Research and

Development Consortium. Available:
www.esrdc.com.
2. ***, MathCAD 14 - Software.
3. ***, Microsoft Excel Software (2008).
4. ***, Microsoft Visual Studio C # - Software
(2008).
5. ***, The Frontrunner - A new era in ship
propulsion : The first large size ( 154K )
LNG carrier with electric propulsion is
now in operation - ABB Marine (2007).
6. Badea, Eugene, Contributions to the
optimization of electrical and automation.
Bucharest: Technical University of Civil
Engineering (2010).
7. Chalfant, J.S., Chryssostomidis, C., Analysis
of Various All - Electric Ship Electrical
Distribution System topologies. Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, pp.
72
-77
(2011)
Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ESTS.
2011.5770844
8. Dan, Florin, Contributions to identify,
optimize
and
forecast
electricity
consumption. Oradea: Oradea University
(2011).
9. Doerry, N., Next Generation Integrated
Power System (NGIPS) Technology
Development Roadmap. Washington: Naval Sea Systems Command, Navy Yard,
DC , Ser 05D/349 (2007).
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10. Eremia , M., Cartin G. , et al , Artificial

Intelligence Techniques In Power Systems
Management. Bucharest: AGIR (2006).
11. Hawbaker, Benjamin Forrest, Analyzing
the effects of component reliability on
Naval Integrated Power System quality
service. Massachusetts: Institute of
Technology,
Dept.
of
Mechanical
Engineering,
System
Design
and
Management Program (2008). Available:
http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/44844
12. Mamoh, J. A., Zhu, J.Z., Kaddah, S. S.,
Optimal load shedding study of naval -ship
power system using the Everett
optimization technique. Original Research
Article, Electric Power System Research,
Volume 60 , Issue 3 , Pages : 142-152,
(2002).
13. Mitronikas, E.D., Tatakis, E.C., Migrating
the experience of industrial electrical
systems to ships:propulsion motors and
foul detection. "Proceedings of the
International Workshop on Electric 1st
Marinlive
Machines
and
Power
Converters" (2012).
14. Nemeanu, Florin, Review ITS & S. (2010).
15. Rusinaru, D., Mircea, I. Mircea, P.M., Use
of dynamic simulation in the training
process in power systems. Craiova:
Universitaria Publishing House (2004).
16. Samoilescu, G., Spiridon, B., Numerical
methods in electrical engineering.
Constanta: "Mircea cel Batran" Naval
Academy Publishing House (2011).
139
17. Sarchiz, Dorin, Electric System Reliability

Optimization. Publishing MatrixRom
(2012).
18. Scutaru, Gheorghe, Advanced Electric
Systems. Brasov: Transilvania University
(2012).
19. Sohrab, A., Mohamad, D., A Maintenance
Optimization Program for Utilities '
Transmission and Distribution Systems.
Lincoln:
Department
of
Electrical
Engineering Principal Research Engineer
University of Nebraska, Omaha Public
Power District.
20. Spyropoulos, Dionysios V., Mitronikas,
Epamindas D., A Review on the Faults of
Electric Machines Used in Electric Ships.
Hindawi
Publishing
Corporation,
Advances in Power Electronics, Volume
2013,Article
ID
216870,
Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/2
16870
21. Stnciulescu, Florin, Highly Complex
Systems Modeling Applications (Modelling
of high complexity systems with
applications).
Boston:
WIT
Press,
Southampton (2005).
22. Zhou, W., Habetler, T.G., Harley, R.G.,
Bearing condition monitoring methods for
electric machines: a general review.
"Proceedings of the IEEE International
Symposium on Diagnostics for Electric
Machines , Power Electronics and Drives"
(SDEMPED ' 07) , pp. 3-6 (2007).
140
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RULES FOR LIMITING RISK EXPOSURE OF THE HUMAN BODY TO

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Gheorghe SAMOILESCU*, Radu SERGHEI**, Floreniu DELIU*, Laura CIZER*
* Mircea cel Btrn Naval Academy, Constan a, Romnia, ** Barklav Company, Constan a, Romnia
Abstract: This paper provides an analysis of the risk exposure of the human body to electromagnetic
fields based on the European and American reference exposure levels for the general population, in
controlled and uncontrolled environments, which are corroborated with our national documents
regarding technical norms for ship equipment and products, stipulated by the international conventions
to which Romania has adhered.
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to interpret the data measured both
with and without protective equipment, a
comprehensive documentation was carried out
based on [1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13,
14].
a) recommendations by Specific Directive
96/98/EC on the "maritime equipment",
implemented in Romania by Law no.
582/2003 of the Minister of Public Works,
Transport and Housing approving technical
type norms regarding marine equipment and
products,
stipulated
by
international
conventions to which Romania has adhered,
MLPLTL.ANR-EM 2003 code;
b) SREN 55011:2001 Romanian standard
provisions industrial radio-frequency,
scientific and medical equipment (ISM). Radio
and electrical disturbance characteristics.
Limits and methods of measurement;
c) SREN 60945:2001 Romanian standard
provisions Navigation equipment and
systems, and maritime radiocommunication.
General rules. Testing methods and outcomes;
d) comparative analysis of European and
American norms regarding limits of human
141
body exposure to the electromagnetic field

within in a frequency range from 0 Hz to
300GHz ("Radio-Frequency Radiation for
Transmitters: A Comparison of U.S. and
European Requirements"- paper authors: Steve
Dillingham and Nick Cobb);
e) recommendations by 1999/519/EC
European
document
Council
Recommandation on the Limitation of
Exposure of the General Public to
Electromagnetic Fields (0 Hz to 300 GHz);
f) provisions of FCC American standard:
Radio-Frequency Radiation Exposure Limits.
Rule Parts 1.1310, 2.1091, and 2.1036
(frequency range from 3 GHz to 300 GHz);
g) provisions of "General safety rules" no.
880/06.12.2002, Sections 4 and 5, Annexes 72,
73, 74 and 75;
h) provisions of 50166-1 and 50166-2
SREN standards regarding the permissible
limits of induced current density and the
biological effects associated, the specific
absorption rate SAR, the permissible limits
of the electric field and magnet intensities, of
the peak power density in the human body in
controlled and uncontrolled environments
within the frequency range 3kHz - 300GHz;
i) Government Decision HG no. 59 of

06.09.2006 on the minimum health and safety
requirements regarding the exposure of
workers to electromagnetic field hazards Annex: Exposure limits and activation values
for electromagnetic fields;
j) rules for limiting general public exposure
to electromagnetic fields ranging from 0 Hz to
300 GHz, passed by the Ministry of Public
Health and published in the Official Gazette of
Romania, Part I, no. 895/03.11.2006;
k) NATO standard: Evaluation and Control
of Personnel Exposure To Radio Frequency
Fields - 3 kHz to 300 GHz, promulgated in
February 13th, 2003;
l)
ICNIRP
recommendations
International Commission On Non Ionizing

Radiation Protection: Guidelines for Limiting
Exposure to Time Varying Electric,
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields (up to
300 GHz);
m) recommendations by 2004/40/EC
Directive of the European Parliament and the
European Council, as of 29 April 2004, with
regard to minimum safety requirements for
workers exposure to electromagnetic fields;
n) restrictions regarding "specific norms on
labor protection", Volume 6, 1977, ch. NSSM
for
non-ionizing
radiations,
DoD,
Occupational Safety and Health Inspectorate.
International organizations recommend
taking measures to reduce the risk of human
body exposure to electromagnetic fields. The
standard values regarding the limits of both
electric and magnetic fields with a frequency
of 50/60 Hz to which the human body may be
exposed are: the electric field (exposure time =
8/24 hrs.): 10kV/m - professional areas; 5kV/m
- public domain, the magnetic field (exposure
time = 8/24hrs.): 500T - professional areas;
100 T public domain.
At the industrial frequency of 50/60Hz, the
criterion for exposure limits is the induced
current density since the well-established
effects such as interactions with excitable
membranes of nerve and muscle cells depend
on this factor [10].
In this respect, the SR EN 50166 1
standard stipulates the following ranges of
values of the induced current density and the
associated biological effects [8]: under
1mA/m2 - lack of effects; between 1-10mA/m2

- minor biological effects; between 10mA/m
and 100mA/m2 biological effects that are
already
known
such
as:
visual
(magnetophosphenes) and possible effects on
the nervous system; between 100-1000 mA/m2
- changes in the excitability in the central
nervous system; stimulation thresholds;
possible health risks; over 1000 mA/m2 potential extrasystoles and ventricular
fibrillation, imminent health risks.
In case of permanent exposure to electric
and magnetic fields of 50 Hz, the norm
requires limitation of induced current density
in the head and trunk to less than 10 mA/m2.
In defining the standard values for the
average current density, the following limits of
magnetic induction B have been taken into
consideration: ranging from 5 mT for 12
hours of daily exposure to 150 mT - for one
second of daily exposure; the limits of the
electric field strength E have also been
considered: 50 V/m, for all times of daily
exposure.
t 80 / E ,
(1)
where t (hours/day) is the exposure time limit,

and E (kV/m) is the electric field strength.
Normally the induced current density in the
body is a resulting vector expressed by:
J = J B + J E ,
(2)
where JB is the density corresponding to the

magnetic flux while JE - the one
corresponding to the unperturbed electric field.
Thus, the basic restriction has to be interpreted
as follows:
J B + J E 10mA / m 2 .
(3)
Normally the summation of the two

densities is a vector product, acknowledging
this simplification involves a significant safety
margin.
Current densities are calculated by the
following relations:
J E = k E E; k E = 0,2 ;
142
(4)
climate area (temperature, humidity), peoples

J B = k B B; k B = 2 ,
(5) health, their clothing, etc.
Establishing the basic derivative limits is
done
by entering a safety factor of 10
considering that the fields through the bodies
compared to 4W/kg ( the threshold value), so
are homogeneous. [14, 17]
The current density limit for f = 10 kHz that the whole body will accept an average
will be 0.1 A/m2 and it will linearly increase, SAR of 0.4 W/kg - in controlled environments,
proportional to frequency as expressed by the and of 0.08 W/kg in uncontrolled
relation:f/100 A/m2; these values are valid for environments (in uncontrolled environments
controlled environments. In uncontrolled an additional safety factor of 5 is entered).
The EN 50166-2 Standard stipulates the
environments, a new additional factor of 2.5 is
allowed
limits of the electric field strength as
applied, so that the new relation will be f/250
2
well as the ones of the magnetic field in the
A/m .
human
body, starting from the basic
For frequencies of the electromagnetic
2
2
restrictions
f/100A/m and f/250A/m .
field ranging from a few MHz or GHz, the
When exposed to pulses of the
Specific Absorption Rate SAR is used as a
electromagnetic
fields in the microwave range
significant size in order to establish the
(over 300 MHz), the Specific absorption - SA exposure limits of the human body.
An increased risk to health was reported at represents a significant measure, its basic limit
the threshold value of the SAR ranging is 10 mJ /kg, in controlled environments, and
between 1 and 4W/ body kg, depending on the 2mJ/kg in uncontrolled environments [15,16].
Table no. 1. Limits of field strength and power density in controlled environments, in case of continuous
exposure
Field Frequency (MHz)

0.01-0.045
0.045-1.000
1.000-10.000
10,000-400,000
400-2000
2000-300,000
Value of Electric
Field Strength
(V/m)
614
614
614/f
61,4
3.07 x f 1/2
137
Value of Magnetic
Field Strength (A/m)
35.6
1.6/f
1.6/f
0.16
8.14 x 10-3 x f 1/2
0.364
Power Density,
average value
(W/m2)
10
f/40
50
Table no. 2. Limits of field strength and power density in uncontrolled environments, in case of
continuous exposure
Field Frequency
(MHz)
0.01-0.045
0.045-1
1-10
10-400
Value of Electric
Field Strength (V/m)
275
275
275/f
27.5
143
Value of Magnetic
15,6
0.7/f
0.7/f
0.07
Power Density,
average value (W/m2)
2
Field Frequency
(MHz)
400-2000
2000-300,000
Value of Electric
1.37 x f 1/2
61.4
Value of Magnetic
3.64 x 10-3 x f 1/2
0.163
Power Density,
average value (W/m2)
f/200
10
Table no. 3. Limits of field strength and peak power density in controlled environments
Field Frequency
(MHz)
0.01-1
1-10
10-400
400-2000
2000-300,000
Value of Electric
20,000 x f 0,675
20,000/f
2000
100 x f 1/2
4500
Value of Magnetic
50
50/f
5
0.25 x f 1/2
11.5
Peak Power Density

(W/m2)
10, 000
25 x f
50, 000
Table no. 4. Limits of field strength and peak power density in uncontrolled environments
Field Frequency
(MHz)
0.01-1
1-10
10-400
400-2000
2000-300,000
Value of Electric
8700 x f 0,675
8700/f
900
45 x f 1/2
2000
In case of simultaneous exposure of the

body to multiple independent sources of field
of various frequencies, the assessment of
Value of Magnetic
22
22/f
2.24
0.112 x f 1/2
5
Peak Power Density

(W/m2)
2000
5xf
10.000
actual reference levels was made on the

principle of the accumulation of heat effects or
electrical stimulation effects on the body.
Table no. 5. A comparison between the European and American reference exposure levels for the
general public in controlled and uncontrolled environments
Frequency
Range
Magnetic Flux
Density (mT)
Current
Density
(mA/m2)
(rms)
0 Hz
0>1 Hz
14 Hz
41000 Hz
1.0100 kHz
0.110 MHz
0.0110 GHz
10300 GHz
40
8
8/f
2
f/500
f/500
Whole
Body
Average
SAR
(W/kg)
0.08
0.08
144
Localized
Localized
SAR
Power
SAR
(Head and
Density,
(limbs)
Trunk)
S (W/m2)
(W/kg)
(W/kg)
2
4
2
4
10
E-field Strength
(V/m)
H-field
Strength
(A/m)
B-field
(T)
Frequency
Range
01 Hz
18 Hz
825 Hz
25800 Hz
0.83 kHz
3150 kHz
0.151 MHz
110 MHz
10400 MHz
0.42 GHz
2300 GHz
10,000
10,000
250/f
250/f
87
87
87/f1/2
28
1375 f1/2
61
3.2 x 104
3.2 x 104/f2
4000/f
4/f
5
5
0.73/f
0.73/f
0.073
0.0037 f1/2
0.16
4 x 104
4 x 104/f2
5000/f
5/f
6.25
6.25
0.92/f
0.92/f
0.092
0.0046 f1/2
0.20
2. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF
THE RESULTS OF FIELD
MEASUREMENTS, WITH AND
WITHOUT PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
Following a well-documented research
work, our choice for comparison was "The
reference levels for occupational exposure to
electric and magnetic fields and time varying
Equivalent
Plane-Wave
Power Density
Seq(W/m2)
2
f/200
10
electromagnetic fields (unperturbed RMS

values)" drawn up by ICNIRP - International
Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection, also mentioned in the Romanian
Labor Protection Rules no. 880 as well as the
NATO - STANAG standard regulations Evaluation And Control of Personnel
Exposure to Radio Frequency Fields - 3 kHz to
300 GHz.
Table no. 6. Reference levels for occupational exposure to time varying electric and magnetic
fields, and electromagnetic fields (unperturbed RMS values)
Frequency Range
E - Electric Field
Strength (V/m)
H- Magnetic
Field Strength
(A/m)
B- Magnetic
Flux Density
(T)
Up to 1 Hz
1 8 Hz
8 25 Hz
0.025 0.82 kHz
0.82 65 kHz
0.065 1 MHz
1 10 MHz
10 400 MHz
400 2000 MHz
2 300 GHz
20,000
20.000
500/f
610
610
610/f
61
3f1/2
137
1.63 105
1.63 105/f2
2 x 104/f
20/f
24,4
1.6/f
1.6/f
0.16
0.008f1/2
0.36
2 x 105
145
2 x 105/f2
25/f
30.7
2.0/f
2.0/f
0.2
0.001f1/2
0.45
Equivalent Plane
Wave Power
Density - Sech
(W/m2)
10
f/40
50
Table no. 7. Permissible levels of RF field exposure, uncontrolled environments
Frequency
Range (MHz)
E - Electric
Field (V/m)
H- Magnetic
Field (A/m)
Power Density,
S (mW/cm2)
0.003 0.1
0.1 1.34
1,34 - 3
3 - 30
614
614
823,8/f
823,8/f
163
16.3/f
16.3/f
16,3/f
30 100
27.5
158.3/f1,668
100 - 300
300 - 3000
3000 15,000
15,000
300,000
27.5
-
0.0729
-
(102; 106)
(102; 104/f2)
(180/f2; 104/f2)
(180/f2; 104/f2)
(0.2; 9,4 x
105/f3,336)
0,2
f/1500
f/1500
Medium Time,
Tmed (min)
E2, S sau H2
6
6
6
6
2
f /3
6
30
6
30
0.0636f1,337
30
30
30
90,000/f
10
616,000/f1/2
With reference to the above tables the

foolowing remarks are to be pointed out:
1. At a mains frequency of 50/60 Hz, the
reference level of the electric field strength is
10 kV/m (according to the table) and 0.5 mT
for the magnetic field.;
2. For frequencies (occupational exposure)
of up to 100 kHz, the limit for the electric
fields may be exceeded by a factor of 2.
The data resulted from measurements
reveal that within the considered frequency
ranges (88-200 MHz and 200 MHz - 2.2 GHz)
the electric field strengths and radiated power
densities do not exceed the basic restrictions
for the health protection according to both the
European norms and the U.S. standards due to
the fact that the power strengths of the radio
stations working in the frequency ranges
covered by the measurements are of small
values. The power standard of stations
working in the range of 156-174 MHz
(maritime VHF) is 1W in ports, and 25 W
outside them.
Thus, the maximum values measured
for the electric field strength do not exceed 1
V/m, whereas for the electromagnetic power
density they do not exceed 0,02 W/cm2.
The European Standard stipulates
levels of: 28-61 V/m - for the electric field,
0.073 - 0.16 A/m for the magnetic field and
2-10W/m2 for the power density in the range
of 10-400 MHz, and respectively a level of

1.375f 1/2 - 3f 1/2 V/m - for the electric field,
0.0037f 1/2 0.08f A/m - for the magnetic
field and f/200 f/40 W/m2 - for the power
density in the range of 400 - 2000 MHz. The
NATO - STANAG standard regulations
stipulate levels of: 27.5-61.4 V/m - for the
electric field, 0.0729-0.163 A/m - for the
magnetic field and 2-10W/m2 - for the power
density in the range of 100 - 300 MHz, and
respectively a level of f/1500 f/300 mW/cm2,
or f/150 f/30 W/m2 for the power density in
the range of 300 - 3000 MHz .
3. CONCLUSIONS
Due to the lack of measurement sensors in
the analyzer used in frequency ranges below
80 MHz and above 2 GHz, no measurements
were taken for the frequency ranges with
powerful signal sources (radio and radar)
onboard the ship, which are the main risk
factors for the onboard personnel. For certain
radio stations in the range of 4-30 MHz
(marine HF) the power strength ranges
between 400-750 W, while for other stations,
strengths of up to 1.5 kW are used. For some
radar stations, the 9 GHz- range transmission
strengths are 15 and 25 kW.
Due to the fact that both the constitutive
parameters of the propagation medium (, )
146
and the air wave impedance (Z0)are practically

constant, in the absence of suitable sensors the
measured values can be linearly extrapolated
to other frequency ranges in order to see the
exact values that can be reached by the field
strengths and power density. Thus, by
extrapolating the electric field strength
radiated by the radio station at the power of
100 W (0.2509 V m - value measured on the
bridge), at 25 kW (the value of the
transmission strength power), a value of the
radiated electric field strength of 62 725 V / m
is obtained. This value is particularly
dangerous for the human factor onboard the
ship and exceeds by far the permissible levels
for the human body, according to both
European and American standards.
The standard values of the electric field
strength allowed are 27 V/m in the frequency
range of 100-300 MHz.
Since all regulations in force stipulate the
limitation of emission power in VHF range to
1 W when in port, the power densities
measured on deck have small values. In order
to obtain conclusive values of the radiated
power density, onboard measurements are
required in all frequency ranges of stations
outside the port as well, while sailing in
formation.
REFERENCES
1. Directiva Specific 96/98/EC, referitoare la
Echipamentul maritim, obligatorie de la
1 ianuarie 1999, transpus n Romnia prin
Ordinul ministrului lucrrilor publice,
transporturilor i locuinei nr. 582/2003,
pentru aprobarea normelor tehnice de tip a
echipamentelor i produselor pentru nave
maritime, prevzute de conveniile
internaionale la care Romnia este parte,
cod MLPLTL.ANR-EM 2003;
2. Standardul romnesc SREN 55011:2001
Echipamente de radiofrecven industriale,
tiinifice i medicale (ISM). Caracteristici
de perturbaii radioelectrice. Limite i
metode de msurare;
3. Standardul romnesc SREN 60945:2001
Echipamente i sisteme de navigaie i
radiocomunicaii
maritime.
Reguli
147
generale. Metode de ncercare i rezultate

impuse;
4. Analiza comparativ a normelor europene
i americane cu privire la limitele de
expunere la cmp electromagnetic a
organismului uman n gama de frecvena O
Hz la 300 GHz, lucrarea Radio-Freqnency
Radiation for Transmitters: A Comparison
of U.S. and European Requirements,
autori: Steve Dillingham i Nick Cobb);
5. Documentul european 1999/519/EC
Council Recommandation, of 12 Iuly
1999, on the Limitation of Exposure of the
General Public to Electromagnetic Fields
(OHz to 300 GHz);
6. Standardul american FCC Radio-Frequency
Radiation Exposure Limits. Rule Parts
1.1310, 2.1091, and 2.1036 (gama de
frecven 3 GHz 300 GHz);
7. Normele generale de protecia muncii nr.
880/06.12.2002, Seciunile 4 i 5, Anexele
nr. 72, 73, 74 i 75;
8. Standardele romneti SREN 50166-1 i
SREN 50166-2, referitoare la limitele
admise ale densitii curentului indus i
efectele biologice asociate, limitele ratei
specifice de absorbie SAR, limitele
admise ale intensitii cmpului electric ale
celui magnetic i ale densitii de putere de
vrf n corpul omenesc, pentru medii
controlate i necontrolate, n gama de
frecven 3kHz - 300GHz;
9. Hotrrea Guvernului Romniei, HG nr. 59,
din 06.09.2006, privind cerinele minime
de securitate i sntate referitoare la
expunerea lucrtorilor la riscuri generate
de cmpurile electromagnetice Anex:
Valori limit de expunere i valori de
declanare a aciunii pentru cmpurile
electromagnetice;
10. Normele privind limitarea expunerii
populaiei
generale
la
cmpuri
electromagnetice de la 0Hz la 300GHz,
elaborate de Ministerul Sntii Publice i
publicate n Monitorul Oficial al Romniei,
Partea I, Nr. 895/03.11.2006;
11. Standardul NATO: Evaluation and Control
of Personnel Exposure To Radio
Frequency Fields 3 KHz to 300 GHz,
promulgat la 13 febr.2003;
12. Recomandrile ICNIRP International

Commission On Non Ionizing Radiation
Protection: Guidelines for Limiting
Exposure to Time Varying Electric,
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields (up
to 300 GHz);
13. Directiva 2004/40/EC a Parlamentului
European i a Consiliului European, din 29
aprilie 2004, privind cerinele minime de
siguran a lucrtorilor la expunerea n
cmpuri electromagnetice;
14. Radu, S., Introducere n Compatibilitate
Electromagnetic,
vol.I,
Ecranarea
aparaturii electronice, Editura Gheorghe
Asachi, Iai, 1995
15. Hortopan, G., Principii i tehnici de

COMPATIBILITATE
ELECTROMAGNETIC, Editura Tehnic,
Bucureti, 1998
16. Ignea, A., Msurri i teste n
Compatibilitatea
Electromagnetic,
Editura Waldpress, Timioara, 1996
17.
Schwab,
J.A.,
Compatibilitatea
Electromagnetic,
Editura
Tehnic,
Bucureti, 1996
18. Sotir, A., Mooiu, T., Compatibilitate
Editura
Militar,
Electromagnetic,
Bucureti, 1997
148
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ABOUT SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS OPERATION

Constantin STRIMBU*
*Faculty of Aeronautic Management, Henri Coanda Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract:Some issues regarding the analysis of single-phase voltage rectifier operation will be presented
in this paper. The switch is an uncontrolled-type, a diode in this case, which is considered as an ideal
one. The expressions of the parameters characterizing the rectifier operation are computed in the paper.
Their variations depending on load are also discussed.
Keywords: rectifier, diode, single-phase
1. INTRODUCTION
The schematic of an angle-phase voltage
rectifier is presented in figure 1.
Fig.1. Single-phase voltage rectifier with diode
The steady-state signals expressions are the

following [1]:
The diode is on: t p ,
UM
i S R sin t I M sin t
i C C U M cos t
(1)
1
2
i U
C sin t
M
R2
I m sin t
The diode is off: t , 2 p
149
i S i C I S e t ctg
(2)
u S R i S U M sin e t ctg
where:
UM
(3)
sin I M sin
I S
R
p ctg
sin p sin e
The following notations were used:
tg RC
R
Z
1 RC 2
UM
R
U
I
M M
Z
cos
IM
Im
(4)
2. CIRCUIT ANALISIS
UM
U
M
U d ef
p
2
I p 1 U M I M
R
I S p I M
U m p
2.1 The Voltages and Currents Average

Values
According to [2], the expressions of the
average values of the circuit signals are the
following:
Um
- average value of the output
voltage:
U
M
2
U m p
1 sin 2 e
1
cos p cos
p ctg
U d ef
(5)
U m p
U d ef
p sin p cos p A
where
(6)
sin 3
A
1 e 2 ctg
cos
I p - average value of the current
flowing through the diode:

I p 1 U M cos p 1
(7)
2 R
I S - average value of the load (R)
current:
I S p
I
M
2
cos p
cos
1 sin 2 e
p ctg
(8)
Limit cases:
For pure resistive load, RC 0 , 0 it
results:
p 0 0 , 90 0
(9)
(11)
UM
p
UM
(12)
I p 0
I S p 0
(10)
it results:
p 9 0 0 , 180 0
voltage:
U d ef
For pure capacitive load, RC ,
- RMS value of the output
UM
2.2 Rectifier Parameters
According to [2], the following parameters

are defined:
The periodicity factor:
U m p 1
1
km
cos p
UM
2
cos (13)
ctg
1 sin 2 e p
The k e factor:
U d ef
p
1
ke
UM
2
p sin p cos p A
(14)
unde
sin 3
1 e 2 ctg
cos
The shape factor:
k
kf e
km
The wave factor:
k u k f2 1
(15)
(16)
The graphic representations of the four

parameters variation as functions of load
150
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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arctg (RC ) are shown in the figures

below.
The graphing was performed by using
Mathcad.
1.6
1.4
8
The periodicity factor, k m
1.3
6
kf
km
The shape factor, k f
0.8
1.2
4
0.6
1.1
2
1
0.4
0.3
2
0.6
0.9
)
3 a tan( 4RC
1.2
6
1.5
7
0.2
0
0.00157
0.32
0.63
0.94
1.26
1.57
a tan( RC)
Fig.4 k f factor variation as function of load,
arctg (RC )
Fig.2 k m factor variation as function of

load, arctg (RC )
The wave factor, k u

1.
5
The k e factor
ke
1.
5
1.3
8
1.2
5
1.1
3
1
0.8
8
0.7
5
0.6
3
0.
5
1.
2
ku
0.
9
0.
6
0.
3
0
0.0015
7
0.3
2
0.6
0.9
1.2
3
4
a tan( RC) 6
1.5
7
Fig.3. k e factor variation as function of load,
arctg (RC )
151
0.3
2
0.6
0.9
)
3a tan( 4RC
1.2
6
1.5
7
Fig.5 k u factor variation as function of load,
arctg (RC )
Considering the limit cases, the following

values of the rectifier parameters are
computed:
For the pure resistive load,
RC 0 ,
p 00
it results:
k m 0.318
k e 0.707
1
2
(17)
k f 1.571
k u 1.21
For pure capacitive load,
RC ,
p 90 0 ,
it results:
km 1
ke 2
k f 1
ku
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The following conclusions are deriving

from the study of the half-wave voltage
rectifiers equipped with uncontrolled electrical
valves:
The diode turn-on angle p has an
increasing variation of load (R);
The diode turn-off angle has an
decreasing variation of load (R);
The periodicity factor k m is an increasing
function of load (R);
The k e factor is an increasing function of
load (R) too;
The shape factor k f is a decreasing
function of load (R);
The wave factor k u is also a decreasing
function of load (R).
REFERENCES
(18)
1. Cerbulescu, D. Convertoare statice de

putere: Redresoare Craiova: Editura
Scrisul Romnesc (1995).
2. Matlac, I. Convertoare electroenergetice
Timioara: Editura Facla (1987).
152
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SOME ASPECTS ABOUT AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES RELIABILITY

Daniel BOSNICEANU*, Marian VATAVU*
*PhD students, Faculty of Mechatronics and Integrated Armament Systems,
MilitaryTechnicalAcademy, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: Based on the main factors which alter the durability of a structure (the loading range, the
mechanical features of the materials, the environmental and technological factors, etc.) the present paper
presents a way for assessing the aircraft structure durability. In this respect, there has been endorsed the
linear cumulative damage criterion Palmgren-Miner results, used in the assessment of average damage
level attained by the end of operating period.
Keywords: fatigue life, durability, failure, reliability
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Take into consideration the main factors

which determine the service lifetime of an
item or an aircraft structure (the loading range,
she mechanical features of the materials, the
environmental and technological factors etc ).
There has been estimated the structural life based on a sample group of representative
structures of a same kind - according to the
romanian current standards.
There has also been considered the
influence of fatigue phenomena (reiterated
loads) upon the structures regarded.
Prediction of the fatigue performance is a
simple process but one beset by several
complexities. Load magnitude and sequence
are very important features of the process.
The need to increase by 3-4 times the
landing gears durability to the fact that the
problem of choosing the material brand, the
designing solution and the admissible stresses
is solved by reasons of fatigue strength and not
static strength, as well using fracture
mechanics principles.
153
Although many techniques have been

devised to satisfy specific conditions, the
simplest and the most practical technique is
Palmgrcn-Miner.
This method merely proposes that the
fraction of fatigue life used up in service is the
ratio of the applied number of load cycles at a
given level divided by the allowable number
of load cycles to failure at the same variable
stress level. If several levels of variable
stresses arc applied to a detail, then the sum of
the respective cycle ratios is the fraction of
fatigue life used up.
When the cycle ratio sum equals unity all
of the potential service life has been used. It is
important to notice that there is just so much
potential fatigue life available for operational
utilization.
The landing gear's load range can be
expressed through working cycles
groundair-ground (GAG) because within the landing
ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Mechanical Engineering. Materials and Technology
gear is used up the biggest part of the

structure's durability.
The durability fraction used up through
iterated loads (fatigue) by one GAG cycle is
called wear cycle (relative damage) (1).
1
N=
Dt
(1)
N - Total number of landings
Dt -damage produced by iterated loads
during one GAG cycle: Dt (0,11].
For instance, a relative damage of D t = 0.5
means that the landing gear should face a
double number of GAG cycles, thus for a
resource of 3000 landings, the structure should
resist up to 6000 GAG cycles.
D = PREDICTED _ LIFE = (
n1 n2
n
+
+ ..... + K ) = 1.0
N1 N 2
NK
(2)
where:
nK - number of loading cycles at the K th
stress level;
NK - number of loading cycles to failure for
th
the K
stress level based on constant
amplitude N for the applicable material

and stress concentration factor.
K - number of stress levels considered.
Fatigue crack initiation is assumed to occur
when the predicted life is equal to 1.0 (2).
There are three parameters which alter the
magnitude of the summation of the cycle
ratios:
1.First, there is the effect caused by the
order of load applications. Consider, for
example, two different stress levels, f1 and f2
and their cyclic lives. N2 and N2. respectively.
If f1 is greater than f2 and if it is applied first,
the life will be shorter than if f2 is applied first.
2.The second effect on summation of cycle
ratios is due to the amount of damage caused
by continuous loading at the same level. The
summation of cycle ratios for different stress
levels is accurate only if the number of
continuous cycles at each stress level is small.
For the most aircraft structures, the loading
is random and the stress level is constantly
changing.
3.The third parameter which affects the
summation of the cycle ratios is whether the
fatigued part is notched or not.
The fatigue strength evaluation must show

by analysis and/or testing that the structure can
withstand the typical loading spectrum
expected in service.
With respect to fatigue life verification
testing of safe-life structures, the aviation
regulation (FAR) adheres to the use of the
following scatter factors:
Table 1
Number of test
Scatter factor
specimens
1
2
3
4
3.00
2.58
2.43
2.36
This means that the test should verify the

safe-life times the factor without failure, or, if,
failure occurs earlier the safe-life is designated
as test life divided by the scatter factor.
The above short review of the theoretical
notions and of the nowadays settlements in the
field of aircraft structures durability has used,
for the accomplishment of the testing program,
a chosen structure of the landing gear made of
D.16 AT aluminium alloy.
2
The stress (daN/mm ) spectrum to be
applied locally to the part consists of 5 loading
sequences arranged as shown in table 2.
Table 2
Mean
stress
Number
of
Cycles
(n)
(3)
(4)=(1)+(2)
(5)=(1)-(2)
70
10
150
30
50
140
150
40
70
60
40
40
150
70
21.7
25.0
26.3
27.1
20.6
27.4
32.5
32.8
25.0
26.0
27.6
28.3
31.0
31.8
4.3
1.0
-0.3
-1.1
7.4
1.6
-3.5
-4.3
-10.0
-11.0
-12.6
-13.3
7.0
6.2
14.6
180
15.3
120
15.9
50
16.7
30
Total : 1450 cycles
24.6
25.3
25.9
26.7
-4.6
-5.3
-5.9
-6.7
(1)
13.0
14.5
7.5
19.0
10.0
154
Varying
Stress
(2)
8.7
12.0
13.3
14.1
6.1
12.9
18.0
18.8
17.5
18.5
20.1
20.8
12.0
12.8
Max.
Stress
Min.
Stress
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND

CONCLUSIONS
in order to increase the durability of the

analyzed structures.
For the tested structure, after 1000 cycles

(landings) there
has been determined
cumulative damage of D = 0.05751.
The calculated life.
REFERENCES
NC =
1000
= 17388cycles
0.05751
(3)
The best estimate of predicted fatigue

life:
N cb =
17388
= 5796cycles
3 .0
(4)
The bottom line is that by adopting the

Palmgren-Mincr cumulative damage criterion,
corrected with the stresses interaction factor,
there can be estimated the average damage
level reached at the end of the operational
period and also, can be established
technological means for designing and repair
155
1. Cioclov. D., Rezistenta si fiabilitatea la

solicitari variabile. Timisoara: Ed. Facia
(1975).
2. Draghici. I.. Indrumar de proiectare in
constuctia de masini. Bucuresti: Ed. Tehnica
(1982).
3. Iordache. M., Aspects concerning the
durability of aircraft structures with regard to
the landing gear. Conferinta Nationala
OPROTEH-95, Bacau (1995).
4. Kumar, R., Dash, P.K., Design and analyses
of main landing gear structure of a transport
aircraft and fatique life estimation for the
critical LUG, International Journal of
Mechanical and Production Engineering (Oct.
2013)
5. Niu C.Y. Airframe Structural Design.
Technical Book Company, Los Angeles
(1988).
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COMPUTER SIMULATION BASED COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE

SOLIDIFICATION OF A CAST IRON AND STEEL CASTING
Aurel CRIAN*, Ioan CIOBANU*, Daniela IONESCU*, Maria STOICNESCU*
*Transilvania University of Braov, Romania
Abstract: The authors conducted a comparative study on the solidification of a part cast from three
different alloys. The study was achieved by computer simulation and concerned the solidification of a
stepped casting. The analysed cases were of castings from 0.1% C steel, 0.5%C steel and eutectic
spheroidal graphite cast iron, respectively. The alloys differ by their casting temperature and their
solidification temperature interval. Analysis included the influence of the alloy type on
macrosolidification parameters like solidification time, hot spot position, temperature distribution in the
casting at the end of solidification, map of the solidus front displacement, extent of the two-phase area
(solidus + liquidus) in the casting, aspect of the cooling curves, etc.
Keywords: alloys, steel, solidification
1. INTRODUCTION
A comparative study was carried out on the
solidification of stepped parts cast from two
steels of different chemical compositions, and
from eutectic grey cast iron. In the three
studied cases both the casting temperature of
the liquid alloy and the solidification time
interval differ.
shows the part studied by simulation. Figure 2

shows the studied casting mould subassembly.
The mould is made from sand hardened with
sodium silicate and CO2. Solidification was
simulated for parts cast from the following alloys:
- carbon steel with 0.1%C;
- carbon steel with 0.53%C;
- eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron with
4.2 % CE (equivalent carbon).
2. AIM OF THE PAPER AND WORKING

METHOD
The solidification of the casting (test piece)

from eutectic cast iron was simulated at
equilibrium (constant temperature solidification without reproducing the undercooling and
the recalescence occurring during solidification). The aim was to reveal the extent to which
the solidification interval influences the
solidification parameters of a casting
(solidification time, hot spot position, etc.). Figure 1
157
Figure 1 Casting
for the mould sand: density FO=1550Kg/m3,

specific heat cFO=1050J/KgK; FO=0.65W/mK.
3. RESULTS
The influence of the solidification
interval (TL-TS) on the following
solidification parameters was analysed:
- the total solidification time (related
to the initial moment, tsol);
- the total actual duration of the
solidification of the hot spot (the time elapsed
between the beginning and the end of

solidification: tES= tsol tstart sol);
- the position (coordinates) of the
ending point of solidification (xNOD; yNOD,
zNOD);
- the distribution of the isotherms in the
casting at the end of solidification;
- the map of the solidus front
displacement;
- the extent of the two-phase area
(solidus + liquidus) at a given time, in the
case of steels;
- the aspect of the cooling curves
(temperature variation) in the hot spot;
- the variation in time of the solidus
fraction (kinetics of solidification) in the hot
spot;
- the evolution of the instantaneous
cooling rate in the hot spot versus time;
- the distribution of temperature along a
line/row and a column, respectively in the
casting-mould assembly at a given time.
Table 2 and figures 3 to 10 feature the
obtained results.
Figure 2 Casting mould assembly used in

simulation.
In all cases simulation maintained the

same overheating of the liquid alloy in
relation to the liquidus temperature. The
overheating related to TL was T= T0ME - TL
1550C.
Table 1 shows the values for the thermophysical characteristics of the alloys considered
in simulation. The following values were used
Table 1 Values of the thermo-physical quantities used in simulation

No.
Type of alloy
Symbol
u.m.
1
2
3
0.1%C steel
0.53%C steel
Eutectic
spheroidal
graphite cast
iron
Initial
Solidus
Liquidus
temperature temperature temperature
TS
C
1495
1430
1150
0
TL
0
C
1530
1495
1150
T0ME
0
C
1685
1650
1305
158
Overheating
of the alloy
in relation to
TL
T
0
C
155
155
155
Overheating
of the alloy
in relation to
TS
T
0
C
190
220
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No.
Liquid alloy
density
Specific
heat in
solid state
Symbol
u.m.
1
2
3
Kg/m3
7200
7200
6800
CS
J/kg/K
750
750
750
Specific
heat in
liquid
state
CL
J/kg/K
850
850
850
Thermal
Thermal
conductibility conductibility
in solid state in liquid state
S
W/m/K
30
29
35
L
W/m/K
28
27
30
Latent
solidification
heat
L
J/Kg
270000
270000
250000
Table 2 Results on the influence of the solidification interval on the parameters of solidification
Actual
Start time of
End time of
solidification Coordinates of
Type
of
alloy
No.
solidification solidification
the hot spot
time of hot
spot
Symbol
TSTART SOL
TSOL
tEF SOL
xNOD; yNOD;
zNOD
u.m.
s
s
s
mm
1
0.1%C steel
166.5
589.5
423.0
68,132,104
2
0.53%C steel
166.5
684.0
517.5
60;132,104
4
Eutectic spheroidal
573.0
718.75
145.75
68,132,104
graphite cast iron
a.) 0.1%C steel
c.)Eutecticspheroidalgraphitecast
iron
Figure 3 Isotherms at the end of hot spot solidification
b.) 0.53%C steel
159
a.) 0.1 %C steel
c.) Eutectic spheroidal

graphite cast iron
Figure 4 Map of the displacement of the solidification front
a.) 0.1%C steel
b.) 0.53 %C steel
c.) Eutectic spheroidal graphite cast

iron
Figure 5 Distribution of the two-phase area (solidus + liquidus) at time t = 150s
a.) 0.1%C steel
b.) 0.53%C steel
b.) 0.53%C steel

c.) Eutectic cast iron
Figure 6 Variation of temperature in the hot spot
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a.) 0.1%C steel

b.) 0.53%C steel
Figure 7 Variation of the solidus fraction in the hot spot
a.) 0.1%C steel
b.) 0.53%C steel
Figure 8 Cooling rate in the hot spot
a.) 0.1%C steel
b.) 0.53%C steel
Figure 9 Distribution of temperature along line L= 19 at time t = 150s
161
a.) 0.1%C steel
b.) 0.53%C steel
Figure 10 Distribution of temperature along column C=9 at time t=1500s
4. CONCLUSIONS
The results presented in table 2 and in
figures 6 to 10 yield the following conclusions:
- the position of the hot spot is identical
in all three studied cases, what shows that the
solidification interval does not influence this
solidification parameter at all; this can be
explained by the fact that the dynamics of heat
transmission from the casting to the mould is
not influenced by the solidification interval, but
only by the geometry of the casting and of the
mould.
- for the same overheating in relation to
the liquidus temperature (which in this case
was T = T0M -TL =1550C) the solidification
time of the hot spot (in steels of different
chemical compositions and different solidus
and liquidus temperatures and in eutectic cast
iron) is influenced to a relatively great extent.
This influence can be. explained by the
different amounts of thermal energy (heat)
discharged by the alloy during solidification;
- in the case of steels solidification
starts at a significantly higher rate than in the
part cast from eutectic cast iron. (Table 2,
tSTART SOL OTEL = 166.5s while tSTART SOL FONTA =
573.0s); this can be explained by the
temperature difference at the initial moment
between the liquid alloy and the casting mould
(T0ME TFO ), which is significantly greater for
steels that are cast at a higher temperature; for
this reason the heat transfer from the liquid
steel to the mould immediately after filling of
the mould is much more intensive for steels,
what determines a higher cooling rate of the
alloy at the beginning of cooling in liquid state;
- for steel parts the actual solidification

takes longer (tSOL - tSTART SOL) than for the
eutectic cast iron part; this can be explained by
the larger overheating of steels in relation to the
solidus temperature, as the overheating in
relation to the solidus temperature is equal to
the overheating in liquid state plus the
solidification
interval.
Thus
during
solidification the steel parts have to discharge a
larger quantity of heat the latent heat plus the
heat corresponding to the solidification
interval;
- the start time of solidification (tSTART
SOL) and the end time of solidification (tSOL) for
the eutectic cast iron part are higher than those
for the steel parts; this is explained by the
smaller casting temperature of cast iron; thus
the intensity of heat transfer to the mould is
smaller for cast iron parts and the solidification
time is greater;
- in the case of the two studied steels, at
the same overheating in relation to the liquidus
temperature, the magnitude of the solidification
interval T = TL TS, (i.e. the liquidus and
solidus temperatures) has little influence on the
extent of the liquidus area. For the same filling
time of the mould (for example at t = 1250s)
the position of the liquidus front is
approximately the same (figure 5).
- in the case of the two studied steels, at
the same overheating in relation to the liquidus
temperature, the magnitude of the solidification
interval T = TL TS, (i.e. the liquidus and
solidus temperatures) influences the magnitude
of the two-phase area (solidus + liquidus) and
its evolution in time in the section of the
casting. This is caused by the modification of
the position of the solidus front. For the same
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filling time of the mould (for example at t =

1250s) the two-phase area is smaller in the steel
with a smaller solidification interval (0.1%C
steel) and a higher casting temperature, the
solidified area being more extended (figure 5).
- a two-phase area does not occur in the
eutectic cast iron, only a liquidus area, and at
the same time (a-150s since the filling of the
mould) its extent is comparable to the extent of
the two-phase + liquidus areas in steels with a
solidification interval (for the same initial
overheating) (figure 5);
- in the case of the two studied steels no
differences occur as to the start time of
solidification (tSTART SOL); differences occur,
however, related to the end of solidification
(tSOL) and the actual duration of hot spot
solidification (tSOL - tSTART SOL); the 0.53%C
steel has a greater end of solidification time
than the 0.1%C steel, due to the larger
solidification interval;
- in the studied steels (alloys with a
solidification interval) the obtained evolution
curves of temperature in the hot spot are
influenced by the casting temperature (by the
magnitude of the solidification interval and the
liquidus temperature), as well as by the fact
that during solidification temperature is no
longer constant; the slope of the variation curve
of temperature within the solidification interval
is greater when the casting temperature (liquidus
temperature) is smaller;
- in the studied alloys with a solidification
interval (steels) the evolution curves of the solidus
fraction in the hot spot (kinetics of solidification)
differ significantly from the solidification curve of
the eutectic cast iron; in the latter the evolution
curve of the solid fraction is significantly more
abrupt, what reveal s a slower solidification kinetics
in steels (alloys with a solidification interval); the
greater the solidification interval is, the kinetic
curves (the variation of the solidus fraction) have a
smaller slope, what shows that the actual
solidification of the hot spot occurs within a greater
163
time interval; alloys solidifying at constant

temperature (eutectic cast iron) have significantly
swifter solidification kinetics.
- the general aspect of the variation curves
of the cooling rates for the three studied alloys is
similar, given the presence of peaks of the cooling
rates in the first stage of cooling and immediately
after completed solidification of each volume
element;
- in the studied steels and cast iron the
aspect of the evolution curves of the cooling rate in
the hot spot differs as regards the cooling rate
peaks, occurring prior to the beginning of
solidification and at the end of solidification;
- the temperature distribution curves along
a line/row or column of the casting-mould system,
at a given time, are of similar shape, but differ by
the values of the temperatures; the different values
are explained by the different casting temperatures
of the studied alloys.
5. REFERENCES
1. Ionescu D., Ionescu I., Ciobanu I., Monescu V. 3D mathematical modelling of solidification of
castings from alloys solidifying within a
temperature interval, in: Metalurgia International,
Special issue no.6, 2013, pp. 105 - 110, ISSN
1582-2214
2. Ciobanu I., Ionescu D., Monescu V., Varga B.,
Munteanu I. S., Bedo T., Crian A., Pop M. Alin
Simulation of Solidification of Parts Cast from
Alloys Solidifying within a Temperature Interval,
Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov,
Brasov, 2014, ISBN 978-606-19-0337-5
3. Ciobanu I., Monescu V., Munteanu S.I., Crian
A. 3D Simulation of the Solidification of Castings,
Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov,
Braov (RO), 2010, ISBN 978-973-598-678-0.
4. Ionescu D. - Research Concerning the
Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation
of the Solidification of Castings from Alloys
Solidifying within a Temperature Interval, Tez de
doctorat [PhD Thesis], Universitatea Transilvania
din Braov, Braov, 2014
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A NOVEL APPROACH FOR ARMOR APPLICATIONS OF SHEAR

THICKENING FLUIDS IN AVIATION AND DEFENSE INDUSTRY
Melih Cemal KUHAN*, Selim GRGEN*, Tolga NALIR**, Sinem EVK***
* Department of Mechanical Engineering, ESOGU, Eskiehir, Turkey
** Payra Design Co. Inc., Eskiehir, Turkey
*** Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
Abstract: At the beginning of 2000s, armor technology introduced to a new material: shear thickening
fluid (STF). Due to the thickening behavior of this fluid under the stress, liquid state of the material turns
into a solid-like state in a very limited time interval. This unique behavior of STF is intended to be used in
armor systems. This paper offers an overview of STF properties and armor applications using the STF
technology.
Keywords: Shear Thickening Fluids, Armors, Aviation, Defense Industry
1. INTRODUCTION
Armor systems have a remarkable
importance for the area of security and
military. From past to present there have been
different kinds of personal armor systems used
to eliminate the attacking threats. Early
applications used bulk layers of leathers
covering around the body as the personal
armor systems. By the emerging of advance
weapons, metal armor systems came into
prominence such as steel shields. Metal armors
were safe but unfortunately heavy to act freely
during the combats. For this reason, recent
studies have been focused on ceramic
composites and light ballistic fabrics such as
aramid based fabrics.
At the beginning of 2000s, shear
thickening fluids (STF) were thought to be
used as armor materials then inevitable
development in the defense industry started.
Usage of these fluids merely or combined with
165
the other armor systems not only provides

protection also flexible motion for the users.
2. SHEAR THICKENING FLUIDS
Shear thickening fluids are an example of
non-Newtonian fluids which have increasing
viscosities since shear stress is applied. Even
the shear stress reaches the upper levels, fluid
shows solid-like behavior for a split second.
After removing the stress from the medium,
fluids turn to the initial liquid behavior [1-9].
STFs are seen as appropriate armor materials
with their unique characteristics.
History of STFs in the investigation area is
quite new and not more than 50 years.
Improvement of the research techniques such
as latest rheometers, scanning methods, rheooptical devices and Stokesian dynamics, gave
us a chance to understand the STF mechanism
profoundly [10]. Because discontinuous
characteristics may be seen at the critical shear
rates, stress controlled rheometers are more
convenient than conventional type rheometers.
Beside Stokesian dynamics simulation is used

widely to simulate the behavior of many-body
interactions in the suspension [11].
Plenty of non-Newtonian fluids can be
found in the nature, but STFs are very rare.
The most common example is wet sand at the
beaches. Another easily accessible example is
cornstarch in water suspension whose
rheological behavior is given in Figure 1.
Behavior of the particles in the suspension

is seen in Figure 2. In the shear thickening
zone, dark particles indicate the hydroclusters
in the suspension.
Figure 2. Particles in suspension [18]
Figure 1. Rheological behavior of 55 wt%

cornstarch in water suspension [9]
2.1 Mechanism of STFs. There are two

main theories explaining the mechanism of
STFs: order-disorder and hydroclustering.
Hoffman made the pioneering study about
the micromechanical of shear thickening. This
study became the basis of order-disorder
theory. He proposed that below the critical
shear rate, particles in the suspension are in a
hexagonally packed order. After the critical
shear rate, this packed particles disorder and
particles aggregate. This transition from order
to disorder causes a drastic increase in the
viscosity [12].
Hydrocluster theory was first introduced by
Bardy with Stokesian dynamics simulations
[13]. This theory was supported by neutron
scattering, rheological and rheo-optical tests as
well as computer simulations [14-17].
Hydrocluster mechanism arises from particle
interactions in the liquid suspension. Under the
high level stress, particles have contacts each
other. This effect yields an increase in the
hydrodynamic forces. Then hydroclustering
emerges which is defined as aggregation of the
particles with increased viscosity and jammed
behavior of the fluid [16, 17].
2.2 Particle effects in suspensions. STFs

are obtained by constituting suspensions with
solid particles in appropriate liquids. These
suspensions can be prepared in many different
ways. Since the mechanism of STF depends on
particles behavior, particles have strong
influence in the suspension characteristics.
Particle effects can be defined in terms of
particle volume fraction, particle shape,
particle size, particle size distribution, and
particle interactions [1, 18-21].
Particle volume fraction is defined as the
fraction of total volume by particle volume
and said to be the most important parameter in
the thickening mechanism. A lower limit value
is reported for the thickening behavior by
Barnes et al. [20]. It is stated that above the
volume fraction of 0.5, behavior of fluid
changes drastically with the change in shear
rate. Critical shear rate, which is defined as at
which the shear thickening begins, decreases
with the increase of particle volume fraction.
Figure 3 shows the effect of the particle
volume in the suspensions.
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Figure 4. Effect of particle shapes in the

suspension [20]
Figure 3. Effect of particle volume fraction [23]
Particle shape is another parameter having

effect on the characteristics of the suspensions.
Sharp edged particles in the suspension cause
quick thickening as seen in Figure 4.
Suspension with rod particles has the critical
shear rate of 100s-1 whereas with sphere
particles this rate is about 300s-1 [20].
Beazley [24] also states that particle
rotation during flow may result in particle
interlocking and jamming. With the high
aspect ratio particles such interlockings will be
seen more easily at lower particle volume
fractions. Therefore, suspensions with high
aspect ratio particles require lower critical
volume fraction to achieve shear thickening.
167
Particle size is another important parameter

in STF behavior. It is known that as the
particle size increases, critical shear rate
decreases [20]. Figure 5 shows the relation
between particle size and critical shear rate.
Particle size distribution affects the critical
shear rate in the suspension. It is noted that
critical shear rate increases when the particle
size distribution becomes wider. Shear
thickening can be achieved at lower shear rates
by eliminating the small particles from the
suspensions [20].
Figure 5. Effect of particle size in suspension [20]
Particle interactions have an influence on

the shear thickening behavior. Particles in the
suspensions may be neutral or repulsive to
another by the effects of electrostatic, entropic,
or steric interactions. It is stated that
viscosities of deflocculated suspensions are
lower at low shear rates. Shear thickening of
these fluids occurs at high shear rates. On the
other hand, viscosities of flocculated
suspensions are higher at low shear rates.
These fluids show shear thinning at high shear
rates [1, 20]. Figure 6 shows the effect of
chemically induced flocculation.
Figure 6. Effect of chemically induced flocculation

[20]
Beside the parameters given above,

additional parameters can be shown as
examples. Hardness of the particles is one of
these parameters. Shear thickening behavior
increases with increase in hardness of the
particles [21]. Another parameter is
temperature which improves the shear
thickening behavior by decreasing [25].
Some studies focus on the methods for
improving the shear thickening behavior. For
example, nano fillers are used to improve the
shear thickening. In this method, nano fillers
increase the dispersibility of nano particles
which enhances the interaction between the
particles and results in a better particle
clustering. To achieve this, carbon nano tubes
(CNTs) are applied into silica-poly ethylene
glycol suspension. It is noted that CNT
reinforcement improves the dispersibility of
nano particles in the suspension [19].
3.1 Fabrics in protection. Ballistic fabrics

are made of high strength fibers and chosen
due to their high energy absorption capacity
and proper tenacity/weight ratio. Furthermore,
ballistic fabrics provide easy motion for users
with their flexible structures [27-29].
Energy absorption and propagation
capacity of fabric layers are related to the
tensile modulus of fibers. Fibers having high
tenacity and high elastic modulus are chosen
for production of ballistic fabrics. In addition
to this, construction of the fabrics has an
intense effect on ballistic performance. In the
construction of these fabrics, warp and weft
yarns are woven by using different weaving
types such as plain and basket types.
Generally, warp and weft yarns are selected
with identical strengths to achieve the same
properties in all directions [30]. Then, woven
layers are piled on each other to obtain
laminated fabrics. Laminated fabrics are called
2D fabrics and the major problem is
delamination. Latest studies focus on 3D
fabrics in ballistic protection. 3D fabrics have
yarns running in three directions therefore,
delamination problem is decreased by the
reinforcement of yarns along the third
direction [31-41]. Figure 7 shows fabrics in 2D
and 3D forms schematically.
(a)
(b)
3. ARMOR APPLICATIONS
Figure 7. Fabrics in (a) 2D form (b) 3D form
Armor technology has been continuously

improved like weapon technology. These two
terms always keep up with each other. Ballistic
protection has to be actual to overcome the
attacking threats. Therefore, every kind of
material has been considered as armor
materials such as aluminum, steel, leather and
silk. Principally, the method of protection uses
a hard rigid material for resisting the
penetration of missiles. But, after the debut of
synthetic textiles, better ballistic armors have
been developed [26].
3.2 Application of STFs in ballistic

protection. Although STFs are worldwide
known, application of these materials in
ballistic protection is quite novel. First studies
were started at the University of Delaware in
mid 1990s. Considerable results were attained
at the beginning of the 2000s. Composites of
Kevlar and STFs were introduced as armor
systems in the publications. This technology
was also supported by Army Research
Laboratory. In 2004, a patent application [42]
was filed with the cooperation of University of
Delaware and Army Research Laboratory [1].
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The most important gains in STF based

armors are reduced weight and flexible
motion. In the combat zones, conditions are
already crucial. In additions to these
difficulties, struggling with the equipment and
the armor makes the soldiers daunted. Average
combat loads for U.S Army soldiers in
Afghanistan 2003 are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Average combat loads for U.S Army
soldiers in Afghanistan, 2003[43]
Duty Position
Rifleman
Automatic rifleman
60mm mortar gunner
Average Fighting Load

Weight
Percentage of
(kg)
Body Weight
28
36
36
45
29
38
In 2001, U.S Army Chief of Staff

expressed a goal that the combat load of the
individual soldier was not to exceed 23kg [44].
Wagner et al. [45] studied characteristics
of STF impregnated Kevlar. It is noted that
starting shear rate values of thickening
behavior are between 10s-1 and 300s-1 whereas
the shear rates estimated in the ballistic
shootings are at 45x103s-1 based on the
projectile velocity. Therefore, the STFs used in
the study are ready to exhibit thickening
behavior in the ballistic tests. In the conclusion
of the study, it is stated that STF impregnated
Kevlar has the highest energy dissipation
value with respect to the neat Kevlar and
ethylene glycol (EG) impregnated Kevlar.
EG impregnated Kevlar has the worst
protection level because EG is Newtonian
fluid and serves as lubricant between the yarns
and the projectile. Figure 8 shows the energy
dissipation percentages of armor constructions
by considering the armor weights.
169
Figure 8. Energy dissipations of targets [45]
In another study using STF-Kevlar

composites, particle volume fraction of STF is
investigated. As in the pure STF, thickening
mechanism is more intense on fabrics with
high
volume
fractions
of
particles.
Furthermore, at low particle loadings, ballistic
performance is less than neat Kevlar while at
high loadings is better than neat Kevlar [23].
Tan et al. [50] studied single, double,
quadruple and six ply Twaron fabric systems
with different percentages of STFs. Ballistic
tests showed that the best protective system is
double ply fabric impregnated by 40wt% STF.
This system improves the ballistic limit by
65% compared to the neat double ply system.
In the studies, finite element method is
preferred for modeling the STFs on fabrics.
But, it is quite complicated to define the
properties of STF in the model. To overcome
this problem, Kim et al. [51] modeled the STF
impregnated Kevlar without modeling the
liquid STF. Since STF increases the friction
between the yarns, a friction function
dependent to velocity was obtained by
conducting yarn pull-out energy tests. In the
conclusion, good agreements between
simulation and ballistic tests were achieved in
terms of residual velocities.
3.3 Application of STFs in stab

protection. STF reinforced fabrics can also be
considered as protective armors against stab
attacks. In the literature, studies investigating
this issue are available.
Protection of STF impregnated ballistic
fabrics is determined by conducted some tests.
These tests are generally performed in two
ways: drop stab test and quasistatic test. It is
proven that STFs reinforce the Kevlar
significantly for spike impacts while slight
improvement is seen for knife impacts. Also in
the quasistatic tests, for puncturing the same
thick armors, STF-Kevlar composites
require two times more load by knife and five
times more load by spike with respect to the
neat Kevlar armors [19, 46, 47].
Decker et al. [48] and Gong et al. [49]
studied the stab resistance of the armors at the
fiber level. Deformation of ballistic fabric
fibers were investigated by SEM imaging. It is
noted that STF restricts the fiber mobility
which prevents the sharp tip of the spike from
pushing aside fibers and penetrating between
them (windowing effect). This effect is also
seen in knife stabs but since cutting takes place
in knife stabs, fiber mobility cannot be
restricted effectively. This mechanism
explains that protection of STF impregnated
fabrics is higher in spike stabs than in knife
stabs. Figure 9 shows the load-displacement
curves for quasistatic loading of Kevlar and
STF-Kevlar targets against both spike and
knife impactors.
Figure 9. Load-displacement curves for quasistatic

loading [47]
4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
STFs in armor systems are very new
technology and open to developments. This
technology provides two main improvements:
reduced weight and flexible motion. Whenever
reduction in weight comes into question, any
relation with aerospace industry may take
place. Thus, STFs can be applied to aerial
vehicles such as helicopters beside the
personal protection. Today it is just an idea
however, in the near future it might be
possible that this technology can protect the
aerial vehicles.
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of shear thickening fluid (STF) treated

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AN APPROACH FOR STATIC CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETER

MMA8451Q
Marin MARINOV*, Zhivo PETROV*
*Aviation Faculty, NVU V. Levski, Dolna Mitropolia, Bulgaria
Abstract: In this paper an approach for low-cost MEMS accelerometer static calibration is proposed.
The approach is applied to estimate the MEMS accelerometer mathematical model, including scale
factors and bias. The method does not require a three-axis rotary platform to perform perfect alignment
to the Earth gravity. The measurement is easy to perform, the calculation is simple, and the proposed
approach provides a different choice for accelerometer calibration. Experimental data is analyzed to
prove that the bias and scale factors are eliminated.
Keywords: accelerometer, bias, calibration, scale factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
By analyzing MEMS accelerometer
measurement principle and environment, it
could be proved that the main errors include
three gain factors and three biases [4, 5].
The manufacturers of the MEMS
accelerometers usually apply a calibration. The
original factory accelerometer calibration
becomes less accurate once the accelerometer
is soldered, by the end users, onto its circuit
board as a result of thermal stresses during the
soldering process.
Different approaches for recalibration are
used. Some of them require measurements in
only one or two positions of the accelerometer
[3] but only bias can be estimated. Other
approaches estimate more than 10 parameters
[1, 6]. The approaches computing six
calibration parameters are most widely used
[1, 3]. Most of these approaches require
precise orientation of the accelerometer.
175
In this paper an approach for low-cost

MEMS accelerometer static calibration
without precise orientation is proposed.
2. ACCELEROMETER
CALIBRATION METHOD
According to the characteristics of the
measurement error, the MEMS accelerometer
error model is defined as:
a x S x
a = k S
y 1 x
a z k 2 S x
where:
k4 S y
Sy
k3 S y
bx , by , bz
Sx , S y , Sz
are
accelerometer;
k 5 S z g x b x n x
,(1)
k 6 S z g y + b y + n y

S z g z bz n z
are accelerometer bias;

scale
n x , n y , nz ,
factors
are
for
the
random
measurement noises; k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 , k5 , k6
are installation error coefficients.
For an application demanding lower
accuracy it could be assumed that the scale
factors are equal to one and the equation (1)

becomes:
a x S x 0 0 g x bx n x
a = 0 S
0 g y + by + n y . (2)
y
y

a z 0
0 S z g z bz nz
To determine the accelerometer bias and
scale factors six different static positions are
used. In each position one of the axes is
directed along or opposite Earth gravity.
The instantaneous outputs of the
accelerometer in one of the positions
a px , a py , a pz are given by:
a px = S x g px + bx + n1x
a py = S y g py + b y + n y ,
(3)
a pz = S z g pz + bz + nz
where p = 1 6 is the position number.

Multiple measurements in each position are
done and output data is averaged to decrease
the impact of noise. The averaged
accelerations are described by:
Apx = S x g px + bx
Apy = S y g py + b y
(4)
1
Apz bz = g pz
Sz
Both sides of each equation in (4) are
raised to the second power and then the
equations are summed to obtain:
A2p + 2 Apx C x 2 Apy C y 2 Apz C z + b 2 +
, (5)
+ x a x2 + y a 2y + z a z2 = 1
where: A2p = A2px + A2py + A2pz ;
b 2 = bx2 + b y2 + bz2 ;
Cy = 1 + y b y ;
x =
= C x ,C y ,C z , x , y , z
p = 1 6 ;
C x = (1 + x )bx ;
C z = (1 + z )bz ;
1
1
1
1; y = 2 1 ; z = 2 1 .
2
Sx
Sy
Sz
]T ; p q ;
Ai = A2p Aq2 .0.5 ; i = 1 15 ;

q = 1 6 ; j = 1 15 .
An iterative algorithm is used to find the
least squares solution of system (6):

= C x , C y , C z , x , y , z , .
(7)
Using (7) the bias and scale factors are

obtained:
bx =
Cx
,S y =
Cz
,bz =
1+ y
Cy
,b y =
1+ x
1
Apy b y = g py .
Sy
+ Apx x + Apy y + Apz z +
2
2
2
, Aqx
A2px , Aqy
A2py , Aqz
A2pz ]
H j = [ Apx Aqx , Apy Aqy , Apz Aqz ,
Sx =
1
Apx bx = g px
Sx
where:
1+ x
Apz = S z g pz + bz
In this way six equations are formed. Each

equation is combined with other five and the
result is fifteen couples of equations.
Equations in every couple are subtracted and
system of linear equations is created. The
matrix form of the system is:
H = A ,
(6)
(8)
1 + z
,Sz =
1+ y
. (9)
1+ z
The proposed method allows obtaining the

bias and scale factors without requiring a
perfect orientation of accelerometers along the
Earth gravity.
3. TEST RESULTS
The data from MMA8451Q is read using a

device described in [2]. The accelerometer is
set up to: 14 bits of resolution; 2 g full scale;
100 Hz output data rate. The accelerometer
was placed in six different positions and in
each position the data was collected for 50
seconds. Collected accelerations are shown in
figures from 1 to 6.
The proposed method is applied to estimate
bias and scale factors of measurement. The
obtained values of six parameters are:
b x = 16.1 mg ; b y = 4.7 mg ; b z = 4.6 mg ;
S x = 0.9961; S y = 1.0023; S z = 1.0019
176
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Figure 1. Accelerometer output data in position 1.
177
To verify proposed approach some data is

collected when accelerometer is arbitrary
orientated. Using measurements from each
axis the relative Earth acceleration is
calculated (a on fig.7). The relative Earth
acceleration is also calculated after calibration
of measurements (acal on fig.7).
Figure 7. Accelerometer output calibration.
Figure 7 shows that calculated relative

Earth acceleration is closer to 1g, when
calibration is used. This proves that the
proposed approach could be used to eliminate
bias from measurement.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes the Accelerometer

static calibration method using six parameters.
The method is accurate, easy to implement and
doesnt require additional equipment.
The bias and scale factors of MEMS
accelerometer MMA8451Q are estimated. The
results show that the x-axis bias is the biggest
whereas y-axis and z- axis bias are almost the

same.
The obtained experimental results prove
the validity of the method.
REFERENCES
1. Pedley M. High Precision Calibration of

aThree-Axis Accelerometer, AN4399, Rev.
1, Freescale Semiconductor, (01/2013)
2. Petrov Zh., Marinov M., Dimitrov D.,3-axis
digital accelerometer data transfer
controller, Scientific conference , Aviation
Faculty, D. Mitropolia, Bulgaria (2013).
3. Tuck K., Offset Calibration of the
MMA8451, 2, 3Q, AN4069, Rev. 1,
Freescale Semiconductor, (03/2012)
4. Umeda A., Onoe M., Sakata K., Fukushia
T., Kanari K., Iioka H., Kobayashi T.,
Calibration of three-axis accelerometers
using a three-dimensional vibration
generator and three laser interferometers,
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical,
Volume 114, Issue 1, (2004)
5. Won P., Golnaraghi F., A trail
Accelerometer Calibration Method Using
a Mathematical Model, IEEE Transactions
on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol.
59, NO.8, (2010)
6. Zhang L., Li W., Liu H., Accelerometer
Static Calibration based on the PSO
algorithm, 2nd International Conference
on Electronic & Mechanical Engineering
and Information Technology (2012)
178
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ALLAN VARIANCE ANALYSIS ON ERROR CHARACTERS OF LOWCOST MEMS ACCELEROMETER MMA8451Q
Marin MARINOV*, Zhivo PETROV*

*Aviation Faculty, NVU V. Levski, Dolna Mitropolia, Bulgaria
Abstract: This paper gives an evaluation of low-cost MEMS digital accelerometer errors. Such
evaluation is required to construct an appropriate model of the accelerometer. Allan Variance is a simple
and efficient method for verifying and modelling the errors by representing the root mean square random
drift error as a function of averaging time.
In this paper the characteristics of MEMS accelerometers stochastic errors are identified and
quantified, using Allan variance. The derived error model can be applied further to navigation systems of
small aircraft.
Keywords: accelerometer, Allan variance, bias instability, error, random walk, rate random walk.
1. INTRODUCTION
Advances in the Micro-Electromechanical
Systems (MEMS) technology combined with
the miniaturization of electronics, have made
possible to introduce light-weight, low-cost
and low-power chip based inertial sensors for
use in measuring of angular velocity and
acceleration [9].
MEMS accelerometers output the aircraft
acceleration which is used to obtain the
position and velocity. The accuracy of
accelerometer measurements usually depend
on different types of error sources, such as
bias, bias instability, velocity random walk,
rate random walk, etc. By integrating these
measurements in the navigation algorithm,
these errors will lead to a significant drift in
the position and velocity. To improve the
accuracy of aircraft navigation system,
different kinds of algorithms are used,
179
integrating accelerometer measurements with

other sensors such as GPS receivers [8]. To
achieve an accurate estimation of aircraft
navigation parameters a good model of
sensors errors is required.
The errors are caused by noise sources
which are statically independent, and many
approaches for modeling noise are developed.
The frequency-domain approach is based on
the power spectral density (PSD) [7]. Several
time-domain methods have been devised for
stochastic modeling [4,14].The simplest and
most used is the Allan variance time-domainanalysis technique, originally developed in the
mid-1960s to study the frequency stability of
precision oscillators [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 12]. Allan
variance is a directly measurable quantity and
can provide information on the types and
magnitude of various noise terms. The method
has
been
adapted
to
random-drift
characterization of a variety of devices

including MEMS accelerometers [15, 16].
In this paper, the Allan variance timedomain-analysis technique is used to
characterize the 3-axis, 14-bit/8-bit digital
accelerometer MMA8451Q.
2. ALLAN VARIANCE METHOD
If the instantaneous output of the
accelerometer is a (t ) , the cluster average is
defined as:
a k ( ) =
tk +
a (t )dt ,
(1)
tk
where ak ( ) represents the cluster average of

the output acceleration for a cluster which
starts from the k-th data point. The definition
of the subsequent cluster average is:
a k + ( ) =
tk + 2
a (t )dt .
,
(7)
N
2 1
n
where N is the number of samples in the data
set.
To ensure percentage error less than 25%
the following expression is obtained from (7):
N
N
(8).
9 n
n
9
Consequently the number of clusters has to
be not less than nine.
Different types of random processes cause
slopes with different gradients to appear on the
log-log plot of Allan standard deviation [11],
as shown in Figure 1. Furthermore, different
processes usually appear in different regions of
, allowing their presence to be easily
identified [16].
(2)
tk +
The difference between the two cluster

averages d k ( ) is:
d k ( ) = a k + ( ) a k ( ) .
(3)
The variance of differences between every
two adjacent cluster averages d2 ( ) is given
by:
d2 ( ) = (d k ( ) k )2 ,
(4)
where: k is the mean of d k ( ) ;

is the
ensemble average.
The Allan variance as function of
averaging time is defined as:
( ) =
2
d2 ( )
.
(5)
2
Since in digital accelerometers the output
data are available in discrete form (5)
becomes:
K 1
1
(d k (nT ) k )2 , (6)
d2 (nT ) =
2(K 1) k =1
where: n is the number of samples in one
cluster; K is number of clusters; T is sample
time.
It can be shown that the percentage error
, in estimating the Allan standard deviation
of the cluster due to the finiteness of the
number of clusters is given by [10]:
Figure 1. A possible log-log plot of Allan

Deviation analysis results
The values of the parameters could be

obtained directly from the plot. For a MEMS
device such as MMA8451Q the important
processes that have to be measured are random
walk, bias instability and rate random walk.
The random walk is white noise and
appears on the plot with a slope 0.5. The
deviation of random walk is obtained by the
following expression [11]:
rw = ( 0 ) 0 ,
(9)
where the plot of ( ) has the slope of 0.5

for = 0 .
The bias instability appears on the plot as a
flat region around the minimum. The deviation
of bias instability is given by [11]:
bi = ( 1 )
180
2 ln(2 )
(10)
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where 1 is chosen around the minimum of the

plot.
The rate random walk is represented by a
slope of +0.5 on a log-log plot of ( ) and its
deviation is given by [11]:
3
rrw = ( 2 )
,
(11)
2
where the plot of ( ) has the slope of +0.5
for = 2 .
3. RESULTS
Figure 3. Measured acceleration in y-axis.
The data from MMA8451Q is read using a

device described in [13]. The accelerometer is
set up to: 14 bits of resolution; 2 g full scale;
100 Hz output data rate. The data was
collected for eight hours. Collected
accelerations for each axis (x,y,z) are shown in
figures from 2 to 4.
Figure 4. Measured acceleration in z-axis.
The orientation of the accelerometer was

such that none of the axes was aligned with
Earth gravity. The alteration of acceleration in
each axis is of different character,
consequently the accelerometer errors are
different too.
Allan standard deviations for each axis
(x,y,z) are presented in figures from 5 to 7.
Figure 2. Measured acceleration in x-axis.
181
rate random walk is obtained from (11) at

2 = 300 s and it is rrw = 0.0930 mg s .
Figure 5. Allan standard deviation for x-axis.
Figure 5 shows that the slope of Allan

Deviation curve for = 0.1 1 s is -0.5002.
The value of rw = 1.5742 mg is obtained for
deviation of random walk, using equation (9)
with 0 = 1s . For the deviation of bias
instability is measured bi = 0.46508 mg at
1 = 45s . The slope of Allan Deviation curve
for = 70 80 s is +0.4928. Deviation of rate
random walk is obtained from (11) at 2 = 75s
and it is rrw = 0.0692 mg
s .
Figure 6 Allan standard deviation for y-axis.

Deviation curve for = 0.1 1 s is -0.4978.
The value of rw = 1.9408 mg is obtained for
1 = 142 s . The slope of Allan Deviation curve
for = 280 320 s is +0.4970. Deviation of
Figure 7. Allan standard deviation for z-axis.

Deviation curve for = 0.1 1 s is -0.5019. The
value of rw = 1.7118 mg is obtained for
1 = 940 s .
There isnt slope of Allan
Deviation curve for obtaining the rate random
walk.
According to MMA8451Q technical data
the square root of power spectral density is
g
for output data rate (ODR) of
126
Hz
400 Hz. The minimum and maximum value of
ODR
output data bandwidth is f min =
and
3
ODR
. Using these parameters a
f max =
2
following range of random walk is obtained
rw = 1.4549 1.7819 mg .
The relative Earth acceleration is
calculated, using the following equation:
a = a x2 + a 2y + a z2 .
(12)
The calculated relative Earth acceleration

is shown on figure 8.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
Figure 8. Relative Earth acceleration.
Allan standard deviations for measured

Earth acceleration is presented in figure 9.
The Allan-variance technique presented in

this paper allows a systematic characterization
of the various random errors in the output data
of the digital accelerometer. The characteristic
curves are obtained and different types and
magnitude of error terms existing in the
accelerometer MMA8451Q are determined.
The eight-hour static data from the
MMA8451Q were investigated. Most of the
results from the Allan-variance analysis are
close to the manufacturers claim, which
proves that the method presented in this paper
is valid.
There isnt a slope of -1 on plot of Allan
standard deviations (Fig.5-7). Consequently
the quantization errors are much less than
other errors and can be ignored.
The results of the MMA8451Q clearly
indicate that the random walk is the dominant
error term in the short cluster time, whereas
the bias instability and rate random walk terms
are the dominant errors in the long cluster
time.
The experimental results have provided a
useful evaluation of a low-cost accelerometer
MMA8451Q.
Figure 9. Allan standard deviation for measured

Earth acceleration.
REFERENCES

Deviation curve for = 0.1 1 s is -0.4991. The
value of rw = 1.8390 mg is obtained for
1 = 400 s .
1. Allan D. W., Statistics of atomic

frequency standards, Proc. IEEE, vol. 54,
no. 2, (1966).
2. Allan D. W., Time and frequency (timedomain) characterization, estimation, and
prediction of precision clocks and
oscillators, IEEE Trans. Ultrason.,
Ferroelectr., Freq. Control, vol. UFFC-34,
no. 6, (1987).
183
3. Allan D. W., Barnes J. A., A modified

Allan
Variance
with
increased
oscillator characterization ability, in
Proc. 35th Annu. Freq. Control Symp.,
(May 1981,).
4. Bendat J. S., Piersol A. G., Measurement
and Analysis of Random Data, New York:
John Wiley and Sons, (1966).
5. Chaffee J.W., Relating the Allan variance
to the diffusion coefficients of a linear
stochastic differential equation model for
precision oscillators, IEEE Trans.
Ultrason., Ferroelectr., Freq. Control, vol.
UFFC-34, no. 6, (1987).
6. Conroy B. L., Le D., Measurement of
Allan variance and phase noise at
fractions of a millihertz, Rev. Sci.
Instrum., vol. 61, no. 6, (1990).
7. EI-Sheimy N., Analysis and Modeling of
Inertial Sensors Using AV, IEEE
Transaction on instrumentation and
measurement, vol. 57, No.1, (2008).
8. Grewal M. S., Weil L. R., Andrews A. P.,
Global positioning systems, inertial
navigation, and integration, Wiley, (2007).
9. Hulsing R., MEMS Inertial Rate and
Acceleration Sensor, IEEE Position
Location and Navigation Symposium,
(1998).
10. IEEE Std 952-1997, IEEE Standard

Specification Format Guide and Test
Procedure for Single Axis Interferometric
Fiber Optic, 16 (1997)
11. IEEE Std 962-1997 (R2003) Standard
Specification Format Guide and Test
Procedure for Single-Axis Interferometric
Fiber Optic Gyros, Annex C. IEEE,
(2003).
12. Lesage P., Audoin C., Characterization
of frequency stability: Uncertainty due to
the finite number of measurement, IEEE
Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. IM-22, no. 2,
(1973).
13. Petrov Zh., Marinov M., Dimitrov D.,3axis digital accelerometer data transfer
controller, Scientific conference , Aviation
Faculty, D. Mitropolia, Bulgaria (2013).
14. Sinha N., Kuszta K., B., Modeling and
Identification of Dynamic Systems, New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, (1983).
15. Titterton D.H., Weston J.L., Strapdown
inertial navigation technology -2nd ed,
Institution of electrical engineers, UK,
(2004)
16. Woodman O.J., An introduction to inertial
navigation, Cambridge, (2007)
.
184
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ON BOARDDIAGNOSIS IMPLICATIONS ON THE VIABILITY OF

MILITARY PATROLAND INTERVENTION VEHICLES
Marian MITROI*, Cornel ARAM**
*Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,Transilvania University of Braov, Braov, Romania
**Henri Coand Air Force Academy, Braov, Romania
Abstract: The constant uses of sensors, high performance actuators, as well as informatics have imposed
an upward trend to the hardware and software electronics auto. In these situations the control and the
management of the vehicles is very important, mainly for those which have a military purpose. The need
of an on board computer diagnosis of military intervention vehicles is very useful and necessary, due, at
first, to the accoutrement of any kind of vehicle equipped with a lot of electronics equipment. Secondly,
the on board display of the operating parameters also offers the possibility to improve the vehicles
operating in order to succeed in the combat missions.
Keywords: viability, reliability, diagnosis equipment, experimental determinations.
1. VIABILITY/RELIABILITY
The viability is the reliability of the
military technique assets to which a practical
and tactical assembly of measures and
preoccupations is added (the capacity of
military technique assets and people to avoid
the wastage, to avoid in time the enemys gun
strikes and their ability to fast recover their
strike, fire, maneuvers and protection
capacities) that guarantee the fulfillment of the
intervention [1].
The reliability studies need to be done
in order to:
a) freely operate the systems on which the
vehicle depends to travel safety;
b) ensure a level of reliability suitable for
relatively simple devices, but whose failure
could attract major faults;
c) plan maintenance activities;
185
d) increase the efficiency of transport by

reducing turnaround times.
e) spare inventory planning;
Fig.1 Interdependency of viability factors [1]
Analyzing the expenses incurred, the

reliability of a device can be represented
according to the schedule:
Fig. 2 Economic level of reliability[2]
Performance
values
Constructive
and functional
characteristics
Free
operation
Durability
Characteristic situations:
* the technical criteria prevail R 1;
* the prevailing economic criteria Reconomic.
Take account of: the destination vehicle, the
user possibilities.
The viability factors of military
vehicles:
1. reliability;
2. vehicles performance;
3. efficiency of the maintainability and
maintenance works;
4. rules providing the movement;
5. combat service;
6. combat service support;
7. the quality of transport infrastructure;
8. human resources management;
9. cooperation and collaboration for
support.
From the qualitative point of view,
reliability is the ability of a device found in
given conditions of use, to perform specific
functions for a certain period of time [2].
Operating
characteristics
Level
design
Ease of
manufacture
Level of technical satisfaction
Reliability
QUALITY
Technology
Maintainability
Conservation
Meeting security requirements
The existence of
automatic protection
Solutions that reduce

the effect of traffic
accidents
Level of
satisfaction of
the norms
Fig. 3 Report of reliability, quality and technology[2]
186
Possibility of
upgrading
Use of the
quality
materials
Standardization
level
Robotics
level
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The
approach
of
reliability,
maintenance motor performance as well as
human resources management, is mostly
similar in military and civil field.
The reliability and durability of
engines, as well as the other assemblies,
depend largely on the quality of maintenance
work carried out for every season, as well as
the quality of materials and supplies used for
this purpose. Also, the time and the quality of
intervention, how this takes place has a special
role.
Maintenance represents all the
organizational and technical activities done in
order to maintain and re-establish the technical
state of a product so that this product could
fulfill all the functions it was created for[3].
Depending on the technical condition
and the time they are performed, maintenance
can be:
- predictive;
- preventive;
- corrective;
- planned;
- based on diagnosis;
- based on state.
In the current conditions of military
actions, when the reaction rate has an
important role, and the possibilities of
unannounced interventions taken to the
extreme are also present, the use of viable
vehicles that meet successfully the imposed
requirements is impetuously needed.
The ability of technical systems of
patrol and intervention cars to function
optimally can decrease from a mission to
another by the occurrence of abnormal
functioning. They are found stored as codes in
the vehicle management system.
Errors generated on computer boards
about the engine system operation, broken
security, as well as ABS or ESP, can be
187
managed using electronic On-Board

Diagnosis (OBD).
Diagnostic work currently occupies a
within
the
very
important
position
terotechnical system. Early detection of any
malfunction during operation could reduce the
consequences arising from their timely remedy
as well as the subsequent intervention cost.
Pattern of asset maintenance system design
vehicles may be shown as follows:
Fig. 4 Pattern of maintenance[3]
The diagnosis in vehicles can monitor

in real time, but it can also identify in useful
time the problems which occur to the entire
management system of the vehicle.
The exploitation and the operation
optimization are very important problems and
need to maintain focus on the responsible
factors because this is the key to maintain a
high level for a good intervention and combat
capacity.
2. DIAGNOSIS EQUIPMENT
The equipment for diagnosis are
designed to optimize maintenance activity for
different electric, electronic, electromechanic

or hydraulic systems existing in each vehicle
component by reducing the time allocated to
intervention on their operations.
An example of OBD system is shown
in the following figure:
Fig.6 Display of program [6]
Fig. 5 ELM327 BLUETOOTH MICRO [6]

Very small size: 5 x 4.5 x 2.5 cm
Weight: 32 g
High baud rate: 38400 bps
Bluetooth 3.0
Reads:
engine parameters;
probes;
flowmeters ;
fuel intake : l/h and l/100km ;
power calculation ;
time calculation from /to 100km ;
clear the error message.
It supports the following communication
protocols:
ISO15765-4 (CAN)
ISO14230-4 (KWP2000)
ISO 9141-2
J1850 VPW
J1850 PWM
It can diagnose almost any type of car
mode after 1996 which plug s type is OBD II.
It supports the functional operating
systems:
Windows XP, Vista, Windows 7;
Mac;
Symbian;
ANDROID[6].
Because its operating system is
ANDROID, this device is very practical and it
can easily be used before every mission by all
the drivers by simply using a cellphone soft
named: Torque.
A part of technical fault codes which

can be read by this OBD system is presented
on the point 2.1 and the understanding of them
on the 2.2 point.
2.1 Technical fault code (DTC)
17965 Overload control positive deviation:
P1557 - 35-10 - - - intermittent;
01039 Temperature transducer-G230-10 open or short circuit to plus
intermittent;
00930 Closing overall - F222- block left
27-00 - implausible signal;
01312 - Bus date drivetrain
37-10 - Defect intermittent;
00778 Steering angle sensor -G8549-10
No
communicationintermittent;
00516 - Contact closed throttle idle-F6030-10 - Open or short circuit to B+
intermittent;
01249 - Cylinder injector 1.-N3031-10 Open circuit or short to ground
intermittent;
00532 Power supply B+
- low signal intermittent;
1316 - Control module ABS
49-10 No communication
intermittent [5].
2.2 The understanding of fault codes
Positive deviation load: the signal comes from
the air inlet circuit. It can be a problem at the
pressure regulator or at the valve that makes
the turbine not to work property;
188
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Open circuit or short to plus (B+)intermittent: sensor fault occur after cooling
circuit located on the cylinder head;
Implausible Signal: error occurs when closing
door system detects continuity in the electrical
signal;
Bus date drivetrain: failure occurs due to lock
of electrical signal on one of the relay that
sends tension to the ECU;
Open or short circuit to ground intermittent:
the code is generated due to a short circuit to
ground or to the control circuit of the given
circuit;
Low signal intermittent: in this case it is a
low voltage on the positive < 11,5v;
No communication intermittent: due to an
inappropriate tension, the command mode of
the system can not send date to ECU.
3. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATIONS
Monday, 25th , February, 2014,15:12:19:55062
Data version: 20100326
Addresses scanned: 01 02 03 08 15 16 17
19 35 36 37 46 47 55 56 57 58 75 76 77
Controlled composition: 1,9l R4 EDC
G000AG 1464
Workshop: WSC 02410
Determinations
were
made
on
intervention and patrol vehicles type VW
Transporter Syncro. The diagnose equipment
used was: ELM 327 Blue Tooth, VCDS 12.12,
and software Torque, Vital Scan, Vag-Com
ROJ 12.12.
3.1. Functional parameters
Group 001: Quantity Injection
882 /min Engine Speed (G28)
8.2 mg/race Quantity Injection
7.1*KW Injection Duration Magnetic
Valve
189
62.1*C Antifreeze - Temperature (G62)

Group 003: Gas Recirculation (EGR)
285.0 mg/race Air Mass Absorbed (req.)
416.5mg/race Air Mass Absorbed (meas.)
4.8 % Activity EGR-Valve
Group 004: Aquator Valve for
Pump/Duse
-0.0 *DPMS Start Injection TEOR-Wert
7.7*KW Duration Injection TEOR-Wert
1.7*KW Sync - Angle
Group 005: Start Conditions (last start )
9.1 mg/race Quantity Start
48.0 Start - Sync
Group 007: Sensor Temperature
(engine warm)
69.3*C Energy - Temperature (G81)
0.0 % Fuel cooling status
Admission49.5*C
Manifold
Temperature (G42)
Group 010: Mass air
426.3 mg/race Absorbed - Mass air
999.6 mbar Atmospheric Pressure
994.5 Pressure Adm.
0.0 % Accelerator Position Pedal
Group 011: Turbo Pressure Control
1091.4 mbar Turbo Pressure (pres.)
994.5 Turbo Pressure (meas.)
19.9 % Activity Solenoid Valve
Group 013: Idle Adjustment
0.71 mg/race Cylinder 1
-0.26 mg/race Cylinder 2
0.05 mg/race Cylinder 3
-0.54 mg/race Cylinder 4
Group 015: Fuel Consumption
882 /min Engine Speed
8.2 mg/race Quantity Injection (meas.)
1.00 l/h Fuel - Consumer

0.0 mg/race Injection Quantity (desire)
is above normal. This is due to the function of

the injection above normal parameters.
[7].
4. CONCLUSIONS
3.2. Diagnostic interpretation
Group 003
It can be seen the fault of the air
received by the engine. This is mainly due to
the peacemaker valve which does not come
back to the normal position after leaving the
circuit in order to open the admission circuit.
Group 004
Injection occurs immediately after
TDC and creates a mismatch between the
angle of camshaft timing that normally has a
value up to 1,5 KW. Situation occurs due to
the change of distribution or some operation
where the camshaft sprocket was at the
beginning.
Group 011
The lock of adequate pressure on the
blower at a small value creates a negative
deviation and it is caused by some air leakage
on the hoses path or connections, but it can
also be generated by the malfunction of the
turbocharger geometry.
Group 013
The injectors from the 1-st and/or 3-rd
cylinder work on unsuitable parameters. The
1-st injector shows a light un-calibration
distributing a larger amount of diesel fuel or it
compensates the 3-rd injector that seems to be
stifled.
Group 015
It can be noticed that although the
vehicle is running at idle and the consumption
A simple On-Board Diagnosis, which

usually takes between 7-10 minutes, may
highlight certain aspects of operation of
military vehicles patrol on response, manager
issues that can make it hard or impossible to
accomplish the mission given. The On-Board
Diagnosis operation significantly reduces
maintenance time spent from the military
vehicles without being operational and it can
improve their viability.
So, we can say that the possibility of a
vehicle to execute the mission in the best
conditions can be expressed best by viability
factors and a lot of them are directly and
significantly influenced by OBD systems.
REFERENCES
1.Aram, C., Investigation of Possibilities to
Improve the Performances of Special Vehicles,
Transilvania University of Braov, Doctoral
degree thesis, 2006;
2. University POLITEHNICAof Bucharest
Reliability Vehicles Courses
3. Pomazan, N., Termotechnica Car Guide,
Publishing House: Ovidius University of
Constana, 2006;
4. Mitroi, Marian, University Courses,
Publishing House: Ovidius University of
Constana, 2013;
5. Mitroi, Marian, Individual Tests and
Measurements, Constana, 2014
6. http://www.elm327.net
7. http://www.Ross-Tech.com
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE

OF THE ON-BOARD HYDROGEN SUPPLY EQUIPMENT
ON THE ENGINES COMBUSTION
Marius Nicolae MOLDOVEANU*, Cornel ARAM**
*Sunrise Technology Co. Ltd, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, China,
** Henri Coand Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The rational use of fuels and the decreasing of IC (Internal Combustion) engines pollution are
fundamental requirements which were globally emphasized by the traffic authorities. As a transition
solution to the propulsion system which is nowadays named unconventional but, at the same time, as a
viable possibility to improve the IC engines performances of the future HVs (Hybrid Vehicles), some
researchers suggest the solution of Semy-Hybrid hydrogen fuelling system. This study is included in the
same activity area but it has to be mentioned that the researchers have begun from a different idea: the
hydrogen is not the real culprit for the positive results which were sometimes reported. The key of
problem is a substance which is fully presented but it was neglected by the majority: the nitrogen.
Keywords: Semy-Hybrid vehicle, nitrogen, nitro-hydrogen additivation, Pre-Combustion Treatment
Technology (PCTT)
1. INTRODUCTION
The rational use of fuels and the decreasing
of IC (Internal Combustion) engines pollution
are fundamental requirements which were
globally emphasized by the traffic authorities.
Due to these, the OEMs invest more and more
resources. The HVs (Hybrid Vehicles) and
first of all the EVs (Electric Vehicles) are
remarkable developing in the last years.
Unfortunately the global economic crisis
influenced this process negatively and partly
stopped it before some aspects (which had
decreased the costumers interests: the
acquisition price, the limited range, the
technological constructive difficulties etc.) to
be solved.
As a transition solution to the propulsion
system
which
is
nowadays
named
191
unconventional but, at the same time, as a

viable possibility to improve the IC engines
performances of the future HVs, some
researchers suggest the solution of SemyHybrid fuelling system. These fuelling systems
are based on the on board hydrogen supply
equipment. All of them insist on the
unquestionable positive effects of the
hydrogen use together with conventional fuels
(first of all, gasoline and diesel fuel).
Unfortunately, the researchers who were
interested in the scientific study of these kinds
of fuelling systems (which are sometimes
named Semi-Hybrid) have noticed that the
results from the tests were contradictory in too
many situations and in the end, the energy
balance was a negative one.
The aim of this paper is to explain why this
phenomenon is happening and to try to explain
how it is possible that the use of hydrogen

does not have a positive effect on the fuel
consumption and on the IC engines pollution
for all the working conditions
2. GENERAL RESEARCHES TRENDS IN
THIS DOMAIN
Hydrogen as a fuel for automotive IC
engines has had a long history of study in the
academic and industry area. The properties
that contribute to its use as a combustible fuel
are well known: wide range of flammability,
low ignition energy, small quenching distance,
high auto ignition temperature, high flame
speed at stoichiometric ratios, high diffusivity
and very low density. Nowadays, the main
researches are focused on using it as
independent fuel or in developing the fuel
cells. In this paper it is going to be discussed
the situation of the IC engines which are using
the conventional fuel enriched with hydrogen.
The use of hydrogen as an additional fuel
to gasoline has been considered since the early
70, the alternative to the full hydrogen
powered engine. Relying on its characteristics,
all the producers or commercial firms
advertise for their on-board hydrogen system
gadgets because, from their points of view the
Oxy-Hydrogen gas (the mixture called HHO,
Aguygen gas, Brown gas, Hydroxy or EEWElectrically Expanded Water) obtained from
water electrolysis may improve the
combustions chemicals reaction and also
increase the water formation as by product of
combustion.
This work, which was performed at
JIAXING SUNRISE TECHNOLOGY CO.
LTD is included in the same activity area but it
has to be mentioned that the researchers have
begun from a different idea: the hydrogen is
not the real culprit for the positive results
which were sometimes reported. The key of
problem is a substance which is fully
presented but it was neglected by the
majority: the nitrogen.
3. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS/ NITROHYDROGEN ADDITIVATION

For our situation, the IC Engine seen as a
thermodynamic and thermochemistry system
looks as in figure 3.1.
Note: the other components from the air
were neglected because of lower percentage
and the low influence on the combustion.
Nitrogen is essentially chemically neutral
and does not react in the combustion process.
Its presence, however, does affect the
temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber. This is a general statement of the
researchers in the IC engines. But, in case of
On-board electrolyzers the situation could
change radically.
The nowadays situation:
The lean-burning nature of diesel engines
and the high temperatures and pressures of the
combustion process result in significant
production of Nitrogen oxides, and provide a
unique
challenge
in
reducing
these
compounds. Modern on-road diesel engines
typically must use selective catalytic reduction
to meet emissions laws, as other methods such
as exhaust gas recirculation cannot adequately
reduce NOx to meet newer standards in many
jurisdictions. However, the fine particulate
matter (sometimes visible as opaque darkcolour smoke) has traditionally been of greater
concern in the realm of diesel exhaust.
Actual pollution reduction technologies are
sophisticated (and expensive): electronic
injection systems correlated to various sensors
and coordinated by ECU (Electronic Computer
Unit) corroborated with EGR (Exhaust Gas
Recirculation)
systems,
DPF
(Diesel
Particulate Filters), catalysts systems and DEF
(Diesel Exhaust Fluid) (commonly referred to
it as AdBlue).
A new approach of the emissions problem
was highlighted by US Department of
Transportation report from 2007: Onboard
electrolyzers are used with hydrogen injection
systems for diesel engines. In this case, only a
small amount of hydrogen and oxygen is
produced to supplement, not replace, the
diesel fuel used in the engine. The electricity to
operate the electrolyzer is typically supplied
by the engines alternator or 12/24-VDC
electrical system.
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Fuel(CnHm)
Reactants
Air(21%O2,79%N2)
HHOgas
Reaction/
combustion
chamber
Products
NOx (NO and NO2 - nitric

oxide and nitrogen dioxide)
CO, carbon monoxide
HC, unburned hydrocarbons
H2O
Fig. 3.1 The IC Engine seen as a thermodynamic and thermochemistry system
Fig. 3.2 The Pre-Combustion Treatment Technology (PCTT)
Oxy-Hydrogen (the mixture called HHO)

obtained from water electrolysis may improve
the combustions chemicals reaction and also
increase the water formation as by product of
combustion. Water will be converted into
steam and that act as carbon deposits cleaner
and enhance the pressure on the explosion
stroke. The addition of HHO is effective
technology but is limited to efficiency of the
193
system, the type of engine and operational

parameters.
In conclusion, all the technologies in use
are applied as a post combustion phase as
passive methods or involve extra energy to
operate (in case of HHO methods). Post
combustion methods are expensive and
resource consuming. NOx and unburned
particulates
generation
and
reduction
mechanisms are opposite and achieving both
results require a complex system. None of

them are designed to solve the main pollution
problem: actual engines park!
The
Pre-Combustion
Treatment
Technology (PCTT):
Considering the facts that diesel engines
already produce Nitrogen Oxides and the
addition of HHO increases the temperature and
this fact creates conditions to produce NOx, an
active method called Pre-Combustion
Treatment
Technology
(PCTT)
was
developed in order to reduce both NOx and
soot particulate matters - from exhaust gases.
A combination between HHO generator and a
regenerative bubbler (RB) were used as it can
be seen in figure 3.2.
The RB is fixed to exhaust manifold and
use the EG (Exhaust Gas) temperature to
warm up the water content where a small
amount of EG is bubbled then transferred to
HHO cell. The alkaline type Oxy-Hydrogen
generator (an electrolytic cell) produces the
HHO gas and water vapors, contaminated with
electrolyte (usually KOH).
The Regenerative Bubbler contains water
which is bubbled a small amount of EG in
order to produce HNO3 (nitric acid). As it is
well known, the nitric acid is one of the
strongest inorganic (mineral) acids. It is, at the
same time, in pure state or concentrated, a very
powerful oxidant. The nitric acid is very toxic,
very corrosive and it can destroy different
materials which get in contact with it (from the
weaves to the metals). The nitric acid is very
used in explosive industry where it is one of
the most important substances. An example:
the nitro-glycerine and other explosive
substances are obtained by nitration.
Combined, the oxidant KNO2/HNO3 and
extra H2 and, in some conditions, ammonia,
NH3, is generated in a Oxy-Hydrogen rich
flow of mixed steam. In terms of energy
conservation our technology is synergetic and
regenerative since the use of the elevated
exhaust gases temperature to increase water
temperature, induces the conditions of NOx
reaction and produces supplemental steam,
then using a chemical reaction to neutralize
both KOH and HNOx vapors to almost neutral
pH salt KNOx. Oxy-Hydrogen positive effect
is enhanced by Nitrogens chemical reaction
and the presence of extra volumes of water in

the form of steam.
In short, for this situation, the chemical
reactions are:
2H2O = 2H2 + O2
2H2O = H3O + OH
3NO2 + H2O = 2HNO3 + NO
4NO + 6H2O = 4NH3 + 5O2
2NO + 2KOH = 2KNO2 + H2
HNO3 + KOH = H2O + KNO3
The bubbler is shown in figure 3.3 and the
electrolytic cell in figure 3.4.
Fig. 3.3 The bubbler
Fig. 3.4 The electrolytic cell
Preliminary results/conclusions:
The equipment based on the water
ionization/electrolysing in order to produce the
HHO gas and which has been made so far for
decreasing the fuel consumption and pollution
are not the final solution. The effects
sometimes positive are due to some
complicated chemical reactions which are
produced (or they should be produced) in the
combustion chamber as a result of captive fire
gases (which resulted from the former
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combustion cycle or captured with the support

of EGR) and mainly due to the different forms
of water which followed the electrolyse gas.
This is the reason why the dry electrolyse gas
does not have significant effects.
The oxy-hydrogen which was produced by
the used generator provides steam and gases
with ammonia smell due to some volumes of
the reactive nitrogen which are in the exhaust
gases. When salt water (NaCl) was introduced
in equation, powerful explosions appeared into
bubbler despite of lack of ignition source
which could explain the phenomenon (note:
into the bubbler is a mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen which is flammable but with the
condition of existence of ignition source).
These explosions destroyed the bubbler. A
possible explanation: it is known that the
gaseous ammonia has sometimes a violent
reaction with the chlorine. In this situation, the
gaseous ammonia inflames and the result is a
fog consisting of ammonium chloride as it can
be seen in the next chemical equations:
2NH3 + 3Cl2 = N2 +6HCl
6NH3 + 6HCl = 6NH4Cl
Another
possibility
to
create
a
supplementary engine torque is forming
ANFO mixtures (ammonium nitrate-fuel oil blasting agents representing the largest
industrial explosive manufactured, in terms of
quantity, in the United States) by nitration of
engine lube oil and the ANFO detonation with
the support of hydrogen produced by the
electrolysing on-board equipment.
195
4.
CONCLUSIONS: POSSIBILITIES
TO DEVELOPE THE ON-BOARD
HYDROGEN SUPPLY EQUIPMENT
TOGETHER WITH SOME ORIGINAL
AUXILIARY INSTALLATIONS
Briefly, the main developing directions for
this area are shown in Table 4.1.
The situations 2, 3, 4 and 8 are the current
on-board hydrogen supply equipment. In this
case A, B, E and G are obtained. The former
HHO supply plants are shown in 1, 3 and 8
cases. These had a lower efficiency to produce
hydrogen but they had high water volumes. In
these situations A, B, C, E, F and G can be
obtained. Nowadays, the situations 2, 3, 6 and
8 are tested. The water injection system
(situation 9) has good results and it can work
with the possibilities 2 ,3 and 6.
The hydrogen cannot be used as a simple
engine fuel only if it is in high volumes which
are impossible to be produced on-board.
Moreover, it is not more efficient than classic
hydrocarbons
(because
of
generation
difficulties) and it is very dangerous in
exploitation. It is unlikely for a distribution
network to be realised soon in order to solve
the problem of hydrogen economy.
As a final conclusion, the fundamental
paradigm (general conception) changing, the
use of nitrogen from the environment air, of
the water and some chemical substances cheap
and abundant as ingredients in the combustion
chamber in order to obtain explosive
substances could ensure a slower and more
efficient transition to electrical economy.
Table 4.1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Possibilities:
The water electrolysing with acid
electrolyte
The water electrolysing with alkaline
electrolyte
The combustion chamber residual EG
use
The EGR (if it exists) exhaust gas use
without bubbling
The EG use by building of EGR type
route without bubbling
Using of a bubbler for the recovered EG
The using of additives or fuel mixtures
or/and lube oil which could be nitrated
The water injection into combustion
chamber
The water and different additives
injection
REFERENCES
1. Apostolescu, N., Chiriac, R., A study of

combustion of hydrogen enriched
gasoline in a spark ignition engine, SAE
Paper 960603, (1996).
2. Conte, E., Boulouchos, K., Influence of
hydrogen rich gas addition on
combustion, pollutant formation and
efficiency of a ICSI engine, SAE Paper
2004-01-0972, (2004).
3. Shinagawa, T., Okomura, T., Effects of
hydrogen addition to SI engine on knock
behavior, SAE Paper 2004-01-1851,
(2004).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
It could be obtained:
Ionized water
Oxygenated water
Nitrogen acids
Ammonia
Nitrogen salts
Hydrocarbon nitrates
Gas hydrogen, gas oxygen HHO (the
name adopted in this situation)
4. Wiseman, G. Proof that On Board Browns

Gas (BG) Generation and Supplementation
Works,
Available:
http://www.eagle(March,
research.com/cms/node/443
2011).
5. Thomas G., Parks G., Potential Roles of
Ammonia in a Hydrogen Economy, A
Study of Issues Related to the Use
Ammonia for On-Board Vehicular
Hydrogen Storage, U.S. Department of
Energy (December, 2006).
6. Mllera I., Cederbaum L., Ionization and
double ionization of small water clusters,
The Journal of Chemical Physics 125,
(November, 2006).
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ASPECTS OF THE POWER BALANCE FOR LASER CUTTING PROCESS

Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTI*, Remus BOBOESCU**,
*Mechanical Faculty, University Politehnica, Timioara, Romania, ** Engineering, Faculty, University
Ioan Slavici, Timioara, Romania
Abstract:.Oxidation of iron in oxygen is an important power source for cutting steel through thermal
processes.For oxygen-assisted laser cutting of steel plates energy to melt the material is given by the
oxidation reaction and the laser beam radiation.It provides a way to assess the contribution to material
melting of two physical phenomena.The material is removed in the molten state.On the basis of the cut
shape are calculated power consumed to start the oxidation reaction and power given by reaction.The
efficiency of the cutting process is expressed as dimensionless fractions.
Keywords: laser oxygen cutting,steel, specific energy.
1. INTRODUCTION
The cutting of materials by a thermal
process can be helped by the presence of
reactive gas which together with material
removal effect support a chemical exotherm
reaction which brings energy to the erosion
front [1],[2]. Using oxygen to cutting by
melting of iron base materials is due to a
favorable conjuncture of situations that make
this possible. Thus the combustion of iron
from steel in oxygen liberates sufficient
calories to compensate heat losses by
conduction, convection and radiation and
heated the reaction products so as to keep the
local temperature of workpiece to iron
ignition.
Temperature for ignition of the reaction should
be close to the melting temperature of the
metal. Also, the melting temperature of the
formed oxides` should be close to the melting
temperature of the metal so that all the reaction
products are liquid and can be removed by the
kinetic effect of the gas as they are formed.
At forming temperature oxides can be,
solid, liquid or gas. For solid oxides forms a
197
layer which prevents contact between oxygen

and metal stops metal burning. This is the case
of alumina is formed on the surface of the
aluminum for thermal cutting of aluminum.
The formation of a reaction product gas, such
as carbon monoxide, is an obstacle. Gas layer
produced adheres to the melt metal surface by
absorption and hinder the access of oxygen.
Contaminate the oxygen which will slow
down the combustion. Liquid oxide formation
is favorable to reaction propagation. They
have a catalytic role. The liquid oxides can be
removed simultaneously with liquid molten
metal. To maintain the oxidation reaction is
important contact between the reactants at the
molecular level.
2. OXIDATION REACTION
Metals and gases that satisfy these
conditions to enable the use of a reactive gas
for machining are limited:
- iron in oxygen:
(1)
2Fe+2O2 = Fe3O4 +270.8 Btu;
- copper in chloro:
2Cu +2 Cl = Cu2Cl2 + 70.8 Btu
(2)
(Cu2Cl2 melts at 420oC);

- tin in chloro:
Sn + 4Cl = SnCl4 + 129.6 Btu
(3)
(SnCl4 is liquid at ambient temperature).
Cutting copper and tin with chloro in the
role of reactive gas may not be made because
chloro is a toxic gas.
In the presence of oxygen and iron from
the steel oxidizes slowly to ambient
temperature. As the temperature increases the
oxidation is accelerated. For temperature of
1300oC
reaction
becomes
quasiinstantaneously. This temperature is called the
ignition temperature.The ignition temperature
depends also on the material. It is known that
over the temperature of1000oC and the
oxidation reaction becomes significant at
temperatures of 1350oC or 1400oC is almost
instantaneous [5] [6] .In some cases it is
considered the temperature of 1200oC[5].
Following iron oxides are formed FeO, Fe2O3,
Fe3O4. All these oxides are formed by a strong
exothermic reaction while reaction is fast. For
each atom of oxygen fixed in the form of iron
oxidation emit 66 calories.
The chemical reactions of oxidation of iron
have the following form: [6]:
(4)
Fe + O FeO + 267 kJ
3Fe + 2O2 Fe3 O4 + 1120kJ
(5)
2 Fe + 1,5O2 Fe2 O3 + 825kJ
(6)
For laser cutting showed that importance has
only formation of FeO. It is estimated that the
temperature of cutting front is between the
1950-2250oC. The oxidation reaction for 1mol
of Fe requires a temperature of 1400oC to
initiate the reaction and the heat to boot
reaction is 275 J/g. It is noted that this is much
lower than that obtained from the chemical
reactions. These values are given relative to
amount expressed in moles of reactants. The
chemical oxidation reaction of iron takes place
with both reactants in excess.
In reality, the quantities of reactants vary
because iron can burn faster than laser source
heat the material.
From the existing alloy elements especially
in alloy steels and stainless steel which give
additional heat at erosion front by oxidation
noted:[6]
Cr + 3O2 2 Cr2 O3 + 1163.67 kJ
(7)
Ni + 1.5O2 NiO + 248 kJ
(8)
3. EXPERIMENTS
In experiments was used a CO2 laser
MAZAC 1500. Maximum average power
emitted is 1500 W. In experiments using
carbon steel sheet cold rolled SR EN 10025
(OL 37 - STAS 500/2, S235), with a thickness
of 3 mm [3], [4].
In the experiments have varied the following
parameters:
-Oxygen pressure pO2 [bar]. Oxygen pressure
is a process parameter that was measured at
the outlet of the gas tank. It has a direct
influence on the gas speed in the cut and as
result in chemical reaction of burning material.
- Average power P[W]. Average power is the
energy emitted by the laser oscillator in a long
time. Average power is directly adjustable on
the machine control.
- Cutting speed v [mm/min]. Cutting speed is
the relative speed of movement between the
laser head and the workpiece. Its influence is
considerable both in general cutting process
and particularly for irradiation conditions.
Cutting speed is adjustable directly on the
machine control.
- Pulse frequency f [Hz]. Pulse frequency is
the number of pulses per unit time. Pulse
frequency is adjustable directly on the machine
control.
- Cycle [%] cycle (or duty cycle) is the ratio
of pulse duration (or pulse time) and total
duration of the between two pulses (period).
Cycle is adjustable directly on a machine
command.
Upper and lower levels influence factors
are given in Table 1.Was measured cut width
on top of workpiece ws [mm] and bottom of
workpiece wi[mm]. The top piece is
considered that direct irradiated by laser beam.
In the calculations was used the average cut
width:
w + wi
wm = s
[mm]
(9)
2
Energy evaluation of laser cutting process was
done by identifying a type power size a
associated with physical phenomenon. Thus,
similar to the average power of the laser beam
material is considered power necessary to melt
the material a power consumed to start
oxidation reaction and power released as a
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result of oxidation. These were calculated by

the ratio of energy and time.
Table 1: Levels of influence factors
influence factor Lower Higher
level
level
Average power
800
1500
P [W]
Cutting speed
1300
3000
v [mm/min]
Cycle
50
85
[%]
Frequency
150
400
f [Hz]
Oxygen
0.8
2
pressure
pO2 [bar]
As a general assumption is considered that the
shape of the cut is kept constant during the
process and the material is removed only in the
molten state at the melting temperature.Cross
section of the cut is considered the shape of a
trapezoid. It neglects the removal of material
as vapors. The process of cutting is uniformly
and stable.
To appreciate the area in which the
oxidation takes place was considered cutting
front surface. This is slightly larger than the
cross-section area through cut. Material
removal in laser cutting process is considered
relative to the cross-section areaof cut.
2. SPECIFIC ENERGY
The specific energy to material removal of
in molten state Q is defined as the ratio of the
linear energy El consumed in the process and
cut cross section area As.
E J
linear energy
= l
Q=
(10)
cut cross sec tion wm e mm 3
199
Where:
e sheet thickness, e= 3mm.
P
[J/mm](11)
- linear energy E l =
v
Specific energy to removing material
characterized cutting process relative to
change of influence factors. Although the
calculations are based on values for a cut
already achieved efficiency helps when you
want to determine the linear energy for other
processes of laser cutting. From the
technological point of view, it is intended
situation that the specific energyf or material
removal is to minimal value.
Minimum specific energy expressed as
minimum energy consumption as a quantity
expressed in J to remove the maximum of
material expressed in mm3.
The reduction in the values specific energy
may be associated with the oxidation reaction
contribution. The oxidation reaction increases
cut cros-section area through without changing
the linear energy.
Figure 1 shows the Pareto diagram for
specific energy Q. Decreased specific energy
Q means lower energy consumption to remove
unit volume of material. It is observed that the
higher effect is the speed, followed by the
power effect. Speed effect is a decreasing
effect and the power is increasing effect.
- L0 the heat required to bring the material to

the melting temperature and to melt the
material to be processed. L0 = 2396 J / g
- cutcross-section area
w + wi
As = s
e = wm e [mm2]
(13)
2
Based on the similar reasoning, the
calculated power required to initiate the
oxidation reaction. is:
energy for preheating
[W]
time
= A f v Lin
Pin =
(14)
- where the cutting front area is:

Figure 1 Pareto chart for specific energy
The following effects are cycle and frequency

efects. It is noted that the oxygen pressure and
its interactions have little effect. Increasing
energy put to workpiece by increasing power
level increase specific energy Q.
It shows that some additional energy is used
for vaporization and not in useful physical
phenomenon of melting material.
3. POWER FOR MELTING AND
OXIDATION
In the following we will analyze the
cutting process in terms of energy, using
experimental results. It is considered that
cutting takes place continuously and the
process is stable. It is characterized by the
following powers:
- P time average power of the laser beam;
- Puuseful power; the power needed to ensure
the material melting;
-Pinthe power needed to provide the
necessary heat to initiate the oxidation
reaction;
- Poutpower resulting from the oxidation
reaction.
The useful power is determined by the
relation:
energy for melting
Pu =
= As v L0 [W](12)
time
where :
- =7.85 g/cm3, density of the material;
Af =
w wi 2
1 ws + wi
2
( s
) + e 2 [mm ] (15)
2
2
2
Heating occurs at the front of erosion. In

order to activate the oxidation reaction is
necessary to heat the material more
than1000oC. Was considered to Lin=550J/g
value.
At the cutting front takes place a heat
release after oxidation:
energy from oxydation
(16)
Pout =
time
= A f v Lout [W]
Lout value was considered: Lout=4600J/g
Figure 2 shows the Pareto chart for useful
power. It is noted that for this highest effect is
speed effect. This effect is increasing effect.
Thus, it is shown that the increase in speed
favors melting and reduces vaporization of the
material. Continuous irradiation given by cycle
favors the melting and discontinuous
irradiation given by frequency favors
vaporization losses of heat by conduction.
Power has significant effects by its
interactions. Highest effects have parameters
that control the interaction time between laser
radiation and material. Oxygen pressure has
little effect.
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Figure 4 shows the Pareto chart for the

power given by the oxidation reaction. It is
noted that the highest effect is the speed effect.
Figure 2 Pareto chart for useful power

power required to initiate the oxidation
reaction.
Figure 4 Pareto chart for the power given by the

oxidation reaction
Hierarchy of factors influence for three powers

considered is similar because the difference
that appears in calculus formula is only for
amount of latent heat.
4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Figure 3 Pareto chart for the power required to

initiate the oxidation reaction
The highest effect is speed effect. This a

increasing effect is. The second effect is the
interaction between the speed and cycle. The
interaction between cycle and oxygen pressure
has high effect.
201
Are defined the following cutting process

yields:
a) efficiency for erosion front 1
P
power for melting
1 =
= u [%]
(17)
average laser power P
The yield for the erosion front shows the
cut obtained by melting with laser beam
irradiation and ignore presence of the
oxidation reaction. Yield 1 can have
supraunitary values just due to oxidation
reactions.
b)
efficiency for initiation of the
oxidation reaction 2
power to i ntiate oxidation Pin
[%] (18)
2 =
=
average laser power
P
In defining for this ratio was considered

that the laser beam have one role that of
initiation the oxidation reaction.
c) overall efficiency of the process 3
power for melting
[%](19)
3 =
between the two effects is reduced compared

to previous cases.
laser power + power from oxidation
The efficiency of the cutting process 3

takes into account the energy given by the
laser beam energy and the oxidation reaction.
Figure 5 shows the Pareto chart for
efficiency e1. It is observed that the speed
effect is the highest.
Figure 6 Pareto chart for initiation of the

oxidation reaction efficiency
Figure 5 Pareto chart for efficiency for erosion

front
This effect is increasing effect. The second

effect is the power effect. This effect is a
decreasing effect. Thus, it shows that
increasing speed has a positive effect for
material melting while increasing power
favoring vaporization. The effects of the
higher are the parameters that control the
irradiation. Under thats are located effect of
oxygen pressure and interactions in which it
participates.
efficiency e2. It is noted that the highest
effects are speed and power effects.The
hierarchy of effects is similar to that for
fraction e1 due to the calculation method.It
shows that the main energy balance is between
power and speed.
efficiency e3.It shows that highest effect is the
speed effect. This effect is a increasing effect.
The second effect is that of power effect. This
effect is a decreasing effect. The difference
Figure 7 Pareto chart for overall efficiency of the

process
We notice the high effects of speed, cycle

and interactions between speed and oxygen
pressure. It shows increasing the oxygen
pressure effect for overall efficiency of laser
cutting process.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Modeling performed on quantities which
characterize energy for laser cutting process
showed that:
- Cutting speed has a high effect on the
analyzed quantities.
On the experimental field studied, cutting
process optimization is possible by increasing
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the cutting speed. This means lower energy

transmitted to the workpiece to get the same
volume of material eroded.
Power and cutting speed provides the main
energy balance of laser cutting process.
REFERENCES
1. J Powell, D Petring, R V Kumar, S O AlMashikhi, A F H Kaplan, and K. T.
Voisey, Laseroxygen cutting of mild
steel: the thermodynamics of the oxidation
reaction J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 42 (2009)
015504 (11pp).
2. Koji Hirano, Remy Fabbro, Experimental
Observation of Hydrodynamics of Melt
Layer and Striation Generation during
Laser Cutting of Steel Physics Procedia 12
(2011) , pp:555564.
203
3.
Valentin Glod, Remus Boboescu

Experimental study on the oxygen flow in
oxygen assisted laser cutting Proceedings
of the 21st International Conference NAVMAR-EDU2009 Editura Academiei Navale
Mircea cel Btrn Constana p: 411-416,
4. Valentin Glod Effects of Oxygen pressure
in Laser Cutting, Metalurgia Internaional
nr. 1/ 2011
5. J.F.Chaussier, A.B. Vannes, La decoupe par
procedes haut energes,Universite de
Bourgogne 2003
6. K. Abdel Ghany, M. Newishy Cutting of
1,2mm thick austenitic stainless steel sheet
using pulsed and CW Nd:YAG laser,
Journal
of
Materials
Processing
Technology 168 (2005) p:438447
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STRUCTURED DESCRIPTIONFOR OXYGEN ASSISTED LASER

CUTTING PROCESS
Mihaela NISTORAN-BOTI*, Remus BOBOESCU**,
Mechanical Faculty, University Politehnica, Timioara, Romania, ** Engineering, Faculty, University
Ioan Slavici, Timioara, Romania
Abstract: Oxygen assisted laser cutting is carried out by penetration of the material followed by
stabilizing and movement of the cutting front. Pulsed irradiation can be expressed as peak power and
ratio spot overlap indepndente sizes.Using a factorial experiment allowed the evaluation of the effects of
varied parameters on the cut width. It followed the correlation between varied parameters and physical
phenomena for laser cutting.
Keywords: laser oxygen cutting, pulse wave regime, spot overlap ratio, cut shape.
1. INTRODUCTION
The oxygen-assisted laser cutting is a
process having a complexity of the physical
phenomena that take place.
From the physical point of view the it is
noted study of individual physical phenomena
such as absorption of laser radiation, material
melting, oxidation reaction, heat losses by
conduction andgas dynamics to cutting front.
From the technological point of view it is
preferred approach as a model of type inputs
(influence factors or varied parameters) output (objective functions sizes directly
measured or calculated on the basis of
measurements).
There are important differences between the
two approaches. Physical exclusive approach
leads to detailed consideration of issues
ignoring the overall context, and technological
approach ignores the basic physical aspects
associated with the variation of parameters.
This paper proposes a rapprochement
between the two approaches. It will consider a
tiered approach to physical phenomena in laser
cutting process. This takes into account
205
grouping of physical phenomena for laser

cutting in the form of steps and associating
variable parameters with sizes that have
physical independent effects.
2. LASER CUTTING STAGES
To estimate the effect of influence factors
controllable the process of cutting is
recommended
sequential
developmental
approach to laser cutting process. The laser
cutting process has three important stages:
- material penetration;
- stabilizing cutting front;
- cutting front propagation;
These steps are shown in the figures 1-3.
In the first stage irradiation conditions
ensure material melting and its penetration by
melting and vaporization. This is expressed by
the intensity of the laser beam and lasermaterial interaction time. In the second stage
oxidation reaction and removal of molten
material creates an unstable cutting front.
Figure 1 Material penetration
Pulsed irradiation is specific of many

technological laser systems. This is a
characteristic design of technological laser
systems allow that peak power to be much
higher that average power. To laser materials
processing submitted advantage stands in the
possibility that in relaxation time to dissipate
heat into material. Pulsed irradiation increases
the number of quantities characterizing the the
irradiation.
Thus, it is necessary to understand the
relationship between them. A simplified
scheme (rectangular pulses) for pulsed
irradiation is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 2 Stabilizing cutting front

Figure 4 Sizes for pulsed irradiation
Figure 3 Propagation of cutting front
In the third stage by adjusting the cutting

speed ensure the cutting front stabilization,
and its movement in the cutting direction.
The advantages of a sequential approach to
laser cutting process are that each parameter
takes effect only at a certain stage. Action of a
parameter is considered in the context of
existing action of other parameters. The last
stage is the laser cutting process in the
development.
3. IRRADIATION CONDITIONS
Period time tc[s], represents a full cycle

repetition pulses composed by pulse time and
pause time between successive pulses. Period
is calculated as the inverse of the frequency of
pulsation.
1
(1)
t c = [s]
f
The pulse time tp[s], is the time in which
the laser light emission takes place. Depending
on the cycle and frequency, the pulse time is
given by the following relationship:
tp =
[s]
(2)
f
Length of the interval between pulses
toff[s], is that time during laser oscillator does
not emit radiation. In relation (2) intervenes
coefficien (cycle or filling ratio for
irradiation), which can be calculated from the
relationship:
tp
(3)
=
= t p f [%]
t p + t off
where:
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1
[s]
(4)
f
For technological equipment used in
experiments directly adjusts cycle and
frequency, pulse duration is a derived quantity
from them. On the other technological systems
laser pulse duration is controlled directly.
Knowledge of two sizes in relations (2), (3) or
(4) defines the pulse irradiation regime used.
The average power P [W] is the power
emitted from laser oscillator in a long time and
is equivalent to the power emitted
continuously.
The peak power Pp[W] represents the
maximum laser power. To a rectangular pulse
shape peak power is related to the duration of
the pulse. The peak power is calculated based
on its relationship with average power.
P
[W]
(5)
Pp =
t p + t off =
Pulse energy Ep [J] is the energy emitted

during the pulse and is calculated as the ratio
of average power and frequency.
P
E p = Pp t p =
[J]
(6)
f
In experiments performed was directly set
the average power and frequency of pulsation,
pulse energy is determined by them.
Understanding how that can be driven
pulse wave irradiation for technological laser
system is a first step for ensuring
controllability of interaction process laser
substance.
Laser beam intensity I[W/cm2] is defined
as the ratio between the peak power and the
laser beam cross-section area.
Pp
Ep
I=
=
[W/cm2]
(7)
2
2
D
D
t p (
)
4
4
D - laser beam focal spot diameter
207
The laser beam intensity present relativity in

definition because variation of the time that
the peak power is kept constant and the
considered surface. To assess the effects of
irradiation, laser beam intensity should be
defined to define relative to the workpiece
surface. It is considered the area of intersection
between the laser beam and workpiece.Laser
beam intensity is not adjusted directly, but can
be evaluated from the experimental conditions.
It is important to evaluate the maximum
intensity of the laser beam.
Laser beam intensity values will show if that
irradiation can cause some physical
phenomenon such as melting, vaporization or
burning.
Linear energy El [J/cm] is the ratio
between the average laser power and cutting
speed:
P
El = [J/cm]
v
(8)
Linear energy is used to describe
irradiation both for continuous CW and the
pulse regime PW. This size ignores the
characteristics of pulsed regime. It will be
useful for characterization of physical
phenomena that are less sensitive to temporal
and spatial differences in irradiation for pulsed
regime. It should be material melting and the
heat affected area of material.
Irradiation in pulsed regime PW produces
spatial differences on the workpiece surface.
Laser spot on the surface of the workpiece is
considered to be circular, and is identified for
his center point or either through one of its
ends.
Regardless of how the laser spot is
identified and his dimensions, spot moving
over a period is given by:
v
d = v t c = [mm]
(9)
f
The movement of the laser spot is shown

in Figure 5. To characterize the spatial
irradiation is introduced as a criterion the way
in which the irradiated laser area by one spot
covers an area irradiated by the previous spot.
Figure 5 Moving of laser spot. D[mm] - diameter

of the spot; d[mm] - moving of spot
Ratio spo (spot overlap) represents the

ratio between difference of spot diameter and
the distance d traveled during a period and the
laser beam diameter.
Dd
[-]
(10)
spo =
D
Depending on the speed and frequency is
obtained the following relation:
v
(11)
1 spo =
D f
Ratio "spo" has values lower than 1. A
value of 1 means there is not displacement.
Successive spots are overlap. A value of 0 for
ratio "spo" means that successive spots are
side by side. Negative values mean that
successive spots acting individually and
distant each other on the piece surface. The
distance between spots is increasing as the
ratio spo is smaller, with negative values.
Relation (11) plays a role in practical
establishment to the cutting speed.
There are cases where when the discussion
is confined to positive values of the ratio "spo"
it is expressed as a percentage.
Parameters that characterize irradiation
plus the laser spot diameter can be grouped so
as to use only two independent quantities:
- Peak power (depending on cycle and
average power);
- Ratio spo (dependent on speed, frequency
and spot diameter).
To express irradiation time differences fpr
one point on piece surface is considered
continuous irradiation model. Thus, a point on
the surface of the material to interact with the

laser beam during the interaction time:
D
(12).
t ic = [s]
v
This is defined as the ratio between the
diameter of the laser beam and speed. It
represents the maximum duration that a point
on the material surface can be irradiated and is
independent of pulse time, duty cycle and
frequency, quantities characterizing the pulsed
regime. During the interaction time several
laser pulses can be produced. To establish a
link between the characteristics of pulsed
regime and interaction time is introduced ratio:
t
r = i c [-]
(13)
tc
The ratio r indicates how many pulsation
periods was included in the time during a point
on the workpiece.surface was seen in the area
of the laser beam. Integer part of the ratio r
(exception value 0) indicates the number of
consecutive pulses radiating a point on the
workpiece surface.
The fractional part of the fraction r
indicates that the differences for irradiation
times for different points on the workpiece
surface are lower than pulse time.
4. EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATION
In the experiments was used a laser with
CO2 with maxim power 2kW of type MAZAK,
the operation were in pulsated regime PW. The
sheet cold rolled OL 37 3mm thick was used
[4] [5]. Cuts were made without completely
separated parts named as cut or kerf. For cuts
performed have been measured cut width at
the top Ls [mm] and at bottom of the
workpiece
Li[mm].
Each
of
these
measurements was the average of three
different measurements equally spaced along
the cut. The cut width Lm[mm] was calculated
as the average between the cut width at the
workpiece top surface (irradiated by the laser
beam) and one at the bottom.
L + Li
Lm = S
[mm]
(14)
2
To describe the shape of the cut was
introduced cut shape ratio given by:
L
R p = 1 i [-]
(15)
LS
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Parameter variation was performed according

to a factorial full factorial design type 25.
Values in central point were: average power
P=1150 W, cutting speed v=2150 [mm/min]
cycle =67.5% frequency f= 275Hz, oxygen
pressure pO2 =1.4 bar.
Figure 6 shows the Pareto chart for top cut
width.Parameters effects and second order and
interactions between them were considered.
The most high is the frequency, it is followed
by the interaction between power and cycle.
Although speed has low effect is noted that the
interaction between speed and power has a
high effect. Thus, the higher effects are the
parameters effects that control the irradiation.
Frequency dependence of top cut width shows
that the pulse time has a great importance. It is
shown that repeated pulses favor evaporation.
The qualitative aspect for possibility of
material penetration is given to the power. It is
noted that there are three interactions of power
in the first three effects. It is shown that
increase irradiation by increasing power,
frequency and cycle has the effect of
decreasing the cut width of the at the top piece
surface by increasing the vaporization. It is
noted that the effect of oxygen pressure is
greater than the interactions effects in which it
participate. The oxygen pressure has a
increasing effect that is less than the
parameters effects that control the irradiation.
209
Figure 6 Pareto chart for top cut width

Figure 7 shows the Pareto chart for bottom
cut width of the piece. It is noted that the
highest effect is the interaction effect between
speed and cycle. Power and its interaction with
the cycle have the following effects.Effect of
oxygen pressure is high by its interaction with
frequency. It is shown that the bottom cut
width is much more dependent on the speed
and oxygen pressure than the top cut width. It
is shown that within five effects are found all
parameters. Effect of oxygen pressure is low
and weaker than the interactions effects in
which it participates. It is shown that by
increasing the pressure of oxygen favors the
the removal of the material in the molten state.
This leads to a decrease for contribution of the
oxidation reaction and thus decrease the
bottom cut width.
show that the time interaction between laser

radiation and material has the most
importance.
Figure 9 shows the Pareto chart for the cut
shape ratio.This shows the deformation of the
kerf. It is shown that the high effect is the
interaction between speed and cycle. It is
noted that interactions have higher effects than
parameters.
Figure 7Pareto chart for bottom cut width

average cut width. It is noted that the highest
effect is the interaction between speed and
cycle.
Figure 9 Pareto chart for cut shape ratio
It is noted that the highest effects contain

all parameters and decreases frequency role in
determining the shape of the cut. For
parameters their own effects is observed that
the higher effectis the power effect. Power
effect of can be directly associated with the
penetration of the material. In this case, this
effect is related to the deformation of the cut.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Figure 8 Pareto chart for average cut width
The second and third effect is the frequency

interactions with power and oxygen pressure.
It is observed so that into the first three effects
are included all parameters. It is noted that the
effects of interactions between parameters are
higher than their parameters effects.It is noted
that more interaction of oxygen pressure have
high and close together effects.It is shown that
pulse time setting by duty cycle and frequency
has a significant effect on the average cut
width. In determining time interaction time
between laser radiation and material also
cutting speed contributes. Pareto diagram
The work was carried out a structured

description of the steps to achieve oxygen
assisted laser cutting. The work was done a
time separation of the laser cutting process
steps.
For evaporation laser cutting elements
physical of cutting front were presented in
[1].Here were identified areas of cutting front.
From the physical point of view irradiation
is expressed by laser beam intensity and time
of interaction between laser radiation and
material.
Sizes that characterize irradiation regime
for pulse wave PW were presented in [2] and
[3]. For pulsed irradiation regime peak power
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is an expression of the intensity of the laser

beam. Interaction time between laser radiation
and material has a continuous component and
a repetitive component. There are differences
between the times of irradiation at different
points on the workpiece surface.
For cuts made on steel plate was put in
evidence the high effects of frequency for top
cut width the piece and the speed for bottom
cut width.
REFERENCES
1.
H.Abakians, M.F.Modest, Evaporative

Cutting of a Semitransparent Body With a
Moving CW Laser, Transaction of the
ASME, Vol. 110 November 1988 p.924930.
211
2. Unitek Miyachi Lasers Understanding

Laser Parameters for Weld Development
Technical Aplication Brief Volume 1 no.3
2003 .
3. Yih-Fong Tzeng Effects of operating
parameters on surface quality for the
pulsed laser welding of zinc-coated steel
Journal
of
Materials
Processing
Technology 100 (2000)pp: 163-170.
4. Valentin Glod, Remus Boboescu,
Experimental study on the oxygen flow in
oxygen assisted laser cutting Proceedings
of the 21st International Conference NAVMAR-EDU2009 Editura Academiei Navale
Mircea cel Btrn Constana p: 411-416.
5. Valentin Glod Effects of Oxygen pressure
in Laser Cutting, Metalurgia Internaional
nr. 1/ 2011.
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WOOD PROCESSING BY LASER TOOLS

Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transilvania University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: Nowadays the laser is used more and more in industrial application. This gains more and more
uses in wood industry. Operations which cannot makes with traditional technology can be made by laser
technology. This paper is a study about laser using in the wood industry. The paper is a synthesis about
scientific literature and papers from this domain. It shows an approach of the processing as wood cutting,
burning and engraving. This study brings together all processing parameters found in literature. Some
particular characteristics of the wood processing by laser are also presented. Advantages and
disadvantages of the laser working are presented, as well. The most used woody species are presented,
too.
Keywords: laser, wood processing, cutting, pyrography, engraving
1. INTRODUCTION
Wood processing by laser is less developed
than other similar areas. The laser machining
for metal working has developed enhanced
because of high power lasers which can cut
high density materials. High costs of
producing laser effect are offset by the reduced
costs due to premature wear of the tool.
In the medical field the laser has imposed,
because it has high accuracy than conventional
processes, but also due to the fact that the side
effects are greatly diminishes. Lasers have
very precise control of the working
parameters.
The advantages listed above do not have
shown interest in woodworking because this
material does not have a density comparable to
metals. The species with the highest density
wood is Lignum-vitae wood (Guajacum
officinale L.). The density of this is 1400kg/m3
213
[12]. Metals can reach to 22570kg/m3 densities

[7], which is the osmium density.
Regarding to the woodworking precision, it
should not be very high due to swelling and
shrinkage by varying moisture content. These
natural phenomena are permanent.
Laser beam machining has several
advantages over conventional methods.
Because it is a non-contact process, laser
beam machining it well suited for advanced
cutting of engineering materials such as
difficult to be cut, brittle materials, electric and
non-electric conductors, and soft and thin
materials [2].
Laser beam machining is a thermal process
and materials with favourable thermal
properties can be successfully processed,
regardless of their mechanical properties.
Laser beam machining is a flexible process
[15].
Other advantages include narrow slot width
(minimum material lost), straight cut edges,
low roughness of cut surfaces, easy integration

with computer numerically controlled (CNC)
machines for cutting complex profiles [18].
By combining the laser beam and the
machine providing motion, in addition to the
applied numerically controlled system, it is
possible to provide for a continual sheet
cutting along the pre-determined contour.
A laser beam is a high intensity beam of
light that can be tightly focused onto a spot
only 0.1...0.2mm in diameter [17].
About researches in this domain, there
were studied more articles about CO2 laser cut
quality from year 1996 till 2011 [17]. This
paper confirm the great interest about laser
using in metal domain and low interest about
other domains that including the wood
engineering.
The laser is use to cutting, etching,
pyrography in the woodworking.
programs, but this time is much less than the

time required for preparing the classical
technology. It done and saves material by
using the laser cutting for intarsia veneers
because it is not necessary that the veneers to
be cut in package.
Cutting photonics is based on the wood
influence of light rays with high power
(106...109 W/cm2) [5], which it heats the
material to the burning temperatures.
The most common lasers, both as
applications and as manufacturing, are that
with gas. The advantage is that the emitted
wavelengths can be determined with precision,
are set up and remain independent of
environmental conditions. These lasers use a
gas mixture of CO2, He and H2 [5].
2. WOOD CUTTING BY LASER

The main reason that laser are used in the
wood industry is the technological flexibility
and speed with which good results are
obtained. Wood processing industry puts
particular emphasis on design. Repeating an
ornament or a shape decreases the value of the
item.
An example of wood cutting by laser beam
is shown in Figure 1.
As a particularity, in the case of the wood
behaves differently depending on the direction
of the cutting plane.
This operation is suitable for intarsia jobs,
where it needs precision cutting for decorative
veneers. This technology is preferred because
of the relatively small thickness of the veneer,
and its low density, it does not require highpower lasers, all thus reducing the processing
costs. The second reason for preferring this
technology is that it presents great flexibility,
being virtually eliminated costs of production
patterns and dies and the processing time,
while increasing the accuracy of execution.
Execution time decreases by eliminating
design and implementation templates and
moulds. The preparation time of manufacture
is not eliminated because execution patterns
and dies is replaced with achieving control
Figure 1: Wood cutting by laser [1].
CO2 lasers dominate this application due to

their good-quality beam combined to high
output power [19].
When using high power lasers, the feed
rate is closer to the industrial speed, this
depends essentially by thickness of wood
pieces, density, moisture content and
adhesives.
Feed rate for beech and spruce is
0.31...0.43m/min and laser power range is
from 150 to 500W [5].
The cut width is 0.1mm, the distance of the
timber from the slot 1.5mm, and the lens focal
length of 12.7cm [5].
About quality of surfaces obtained by laser
cutting there have made a series of
photographs of surfaces by electron
microscopy and then were compared with
photographs of the surfaces cut by
conventional methods. It was thus evident that
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laser cut surfaces are smoother than the

sawing. By sawing, it results cut surface of
beams tracheid. It also results deep traces of
tooth setting, especially of its unevenness. At
the laser cutting, it was observed small damage
of the wood cutting area.
The roughness of the cut surface can be
compared to the milled surface.
The laser cut is a narrow, accurate and
right cut. The edges are straight and sharp. The
width cut decreases with increasing cutting
feed rate and it is higher at the entrance than at
the exit to the material, the difference being
visible to increase the feed rate. By increasing
the density of the wood, the cutting width is
reduced.
Using laser for the wood cutting offers a
number of advantages over conventional
machining process: does not produce sawdust;
provides the ability to cut complex profiles;
surfaces are cut very fine; not cutting forces
acting on the parts clipped; very small width of
cut; no tool wear occurs and there is no
question of their maintenance; the noise is
reduced.
With respect to various other cutting
processes (such as oxy-fuel cutting, plasma
cutting, sawing and punching), its advantages
are numerous, namely, minimal area subjected
to heat, a proper cut profile, minimal
deformation of a work piece, the possibility of
applying high cutting speed and fast adaptation
to changes in manufacturing programs.
The disadvantages using laser for cutting
wood are: cut surfaces are burned, it is
difficult to know the density for calculating the
laser power for cutting because wood is a
heterogeneous material.
Evaluation of laser cut quality bases on:
geometry of cut, surface of cut, burr formation
and characteristics of material in zone of cut.
215
The cut geometry comprises the following:

kerf (kerf profile and kerf width),
perpendicularity and slant tolerance, and
rounding out of the cut edges.
Kerf is an important characteristic of the
laser cutting. That ensures the advantage in
regard to other contour cutting processes. Kerf
profile by laser cutting has form of taper. The
channel effect of a focused beam minimizes
taper of the kerf.
The perpendicularity and slant tolerance
determine the cut quality also.
The side inclination of cut angle increases
along with the sheet thickness, but it decreases
with increasing of the laser power.
The cut edges at the laser beam entrance
side are rounded out due to the Gauss
distribution of radiation intensity over the laser
beam cross-section. The rounding-out of the
edges is very small [17].
About woody species which can be cut by
laser there is no ban. However have to an
attention about the wood density. A low laser
power cannot cut all material thickness and a
high-power of the laser burns the wood.
Studied woody species cut by laser are shown
in Table 2.
3. WOOD COLOURING BY LASER
(PYROGRAPHY)
Wood surfaces treatment has two goals:
increases wood resistance (especially
resistance against the pest attacks) and
dimensional stability;
obtaining the decorations.
These two goals cannot be separate
because they are complementary.
Wood treatment by laser darks the colour
surface. This is one of the reasons that the
laser did not developed in the woodworking.
This drawback will be minimized if the

colouring makes through artistic pyrography.
In a short action at a constant and relatively
low energy laser on wood a charring of the
material decorative shapes occurs.
An example of wood burning by laser is
shown in Figure 2.
A criteria for choosing of the material is its

homogeneity. A homogeneous wood will be
treated uniform; the colour will be without hue
sudden change and properties will be
uniformly distributed.
Woody species funded in literature are
shown in Table 2.
4. WOOD ENGRAVING BY LASERS
Figure 2: Wood burning by laser [6].
For decoration it uses especially CO2 [4]

[14,21] He [4], oxygen and nitrogen [3] lasers.
Colouring of the wood surface is
influenced by the species of wood burned, by
the laser power, the feed rate, the material
thickness and the energy flow density. The
colour varies from pale brown to black. The
colour changes will be more pronounced if
feed rate is reduced.
The carbonized depth of the wood is equal
to the width of tracheid or fibres, i.e.
30...60m [5].
By decreasing the feed rate, the wood has
more time to carbonize itself, it increases the
energy expended per unit length of cut, also.
Increasing the moisture content decreases the
carbonization effect; the excess energy is used
for evaporation of water from the wood.
Wood treating by laser technology is in
laboratory stage due to high costs of
implementation at industrial scale. However
this technology even in the laboratory opens
new perspectives in research phenomena
occurring in wood.
The advantages of wood colouring by laser
are: surfaces can be differently coloured; it can
be obtained images with high resolution.
The disadvantages are: uneven colouring
due to heterogeneity of wood, increases the
surface roughness, the lines are drawn too
strict. The last one will be a disadvantage just
if it wants to make an artistic pyrography.
The laser beam is used to detach a large

proportion of wood, following pre-set patterns.
Sculpture is obtained through repeating this
process for each thin layer successively.
An example of wood engraving is shown in
Figure 3.
It has already shown that the laser
treatment the wood areas are burned, but the
laser can also be used for making ornaments in
relief.
The free carbon formed on the surface can
easily be removed with a jet of air or light
brushing, only faint brown remaining.
MDF is the most used wood material for
engraving. This has the advantage that
consisting of wood fibres (small anatomical
elements), the surface is cleaned against free
carbon very well.
The Q-switched diode-pumped frequencydoubled Nd:YAG green laser can be
successfully used to machine different types of
wood, obtaining decorative drawing and 3D
engraved geometries without burning [10].
The advantages of engraving by laser are:
high work precision, it is eliminated the risk of
fibre pull-out.
The disadvantages are: surfaces are burned,
that will be removed it is necessary; it
increases the number of passes because the
power decreases.
Another aspect is about heterogeneity of
the wood; the laser should be variable power
or a high enough power to cut the maximum
density of the material but, sufficiently low to
does not burn the minimum density area.
Studied woody species engraved by laser are
shown in Table 2.
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Usually just a single machine can do all

these three operations.
Generally, woodworking by lasers has a
number of advantages over the conventional
processing: decreases working time, increases
working precision, can be make complex
operations, for all these operations it is need
just one machine, the operations are
automates.
Generally, the disadvantages are: high
costs of the equipments, high cost for
production of the laser effect.
The production costs can be reduced using
other lasers instead lasers with gas. Qswitched diode-pumped frequency-doubled
Nd:YAG green laser reduces the cost but
increase the working time. It is possible
because wood density is low and a high laser
power is not necessary. The material with high
density can be processed trough more passes.
The parameters for lasers used in wood
industry are shown in Table 1.
Figure 3: Wood engraving by laser [20].
Table 1. Main parameters for woodworking by

laser.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Cutting
Woodworking by laser is a domain

unexploited at the maximum in this moment
and it has some aspects unknown.
Because the relatively costs of production
are high, especially for lasers pumping, they
are very little used in the wood industry.
The woodworking by lasers creates new
prospects in terms of phenomena research that
occur during and after wood processing.
Wood surfaces treatments by laser can be
controlled in small details. It is possible to
study wood burning mechanisms (especially
chemical wood degradation). Also it is
possible to isolate insoluble wood components.
217
Laser
type
Power
Speed
Gas CO2,
He and
H2 [5]
Pyrography
Gas CO2,
He [4],
O2 and
N2 [3]
Engraving
Qswitched
diodepumped
frequencydoubled
Nd:YAG
[10]
106...109 W/cm2 [5]
91500 mm/min
50800
mm/min
In wood industry the lasers are not used

just for woodworking. They are used for:
dimensional and roughness measuring,

marking etc. Among these, the lasers are used
the most at the timber working, where it is
difficult to determine the volume of log. That
because the log shape is irregular.
Table2.Thewoodyspeciesandmaterials
processedbylasers,foundinliterature.
Cutting
Pyrography
Engraving
Beech, Spruce, Douglas,

Particleboards [4]
Black locust [3], Beech
[8,14,16,21,13], Lime [14],
Spruce
[14,16,21],
Ash
[14,16], Scots pine [16], Pine
[13], Maple [9], Sapelli [21],
Moso bamboo [11]
MDF,
Walnut, Mahogany, Chestnut
Oak, Poplar, Pine [10]
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CNC
Lasers.
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Tseng, S., Huang, K., Optimized laser cutting
on light guide plates using grey relational
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(2011)
3. Chen, Y. , Gao, J. , Fan, Y. , Tshabalala, M.
A. , Stark, N. M., Heat-induced chemical and
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Pedagogic (1981)
5. Dogaru, V., Bazele tierii lemnului i a
materialelor lemnoase. Bucureti: Editura
Tehnic (1985)
6. Grathio Labs, Making Wooden Nickels.

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[online].
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7. Gugnin, A. A. , L'vov, S. N. , Mal'ko, P. I.,
Nemchenko, V. F., Starodubov, I. P.,
Electrical and thermal conductivities of
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their alloys with thorium and lanthanum in
a wide temperature range. Soviet Powder
Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics. 11 (1972)
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of beech wood due to CO2 laser irradiation.
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A: Chemistry. 222 (2011)
9. Kubovsky, I. , Kack, F., FT-IR study of
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Technology. 43 (2009)
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Wood engraving by Q-switched diodepumped frequency-doubled Nd:YAG green
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Chiou, C.-R. , Wang, Y.-N. and Tsai M.-J.,
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Experimental investigations of CO2 laser
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Inert gas cutting of titanium sheet with
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AFASES 2014
COLOUR MEASUREMENT USING DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS

Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transilvania University, Braov, Romnia
Abstract: This paper presents an original colour measuring method using an assembly consisting of a
computer system equipped with a scanner. One of the advantages of this method is that one it can
determine the colour on small surfaces just of 1x1pixels using a common equipment. This means that the
errors resulting when measuring the colour on larger surfaces (when actually an average colour of the
surface is assessed) are avoided. Transforming from RGB colour system to CIEL*a*b* system is also
presented. The CIEL*a*b* system was elected because it is the most widely used colour system. A
measuring example is presented.
Keywords: measuring, colour, wood, pyrography, Lazarus, Pascal.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Colour holds an important role in human

life and activity. In nature and science, colour
represents an essential clue for defining
species of plants, animals, minerals etc.
Colour is defined as the property
possessed by an object of producing different
sensations on the eye as a result of the way the
object reflects or emits light [6].
Colour is an important wood property
when evaluating its aesthetically potential and
especially when it is going to be used for
decorative purposes.
The wood colour varies within very large
limits from white for Sycamore (Acer
pseudoplatanus L.) to black for Ebony
(Diospyros ebenum Koenig.) [4]. It is
characteristic for each species. It meets many
hues which vary around a basic value at the
same wood species. Different species have
different base colours.
The colour of the one and the same species
can be uniform or with different nuances. The
221
wood of the species from Romania and,

generally, from the temperate climate area, has
moderate colours as in contrast to the species
in tropical areas.
The colour of wood is an important
parameter, taken into account in several stages
of wood processing, such as timber steaming,
drying and dyeing.
Likewise, the measurement of wood colour
is very important in the pyrography refining
process of wood. To this end the present
research has been conducted.
Colour instrumentation has experienced a
tremendous advancement in technology during
the past 40 years. During this time, the
instruments have become more accurate,
reliable, flexible, smaller, and faster than their
predecessors, at significantly lower cost to the
user.
The most important devices for colour
measurement are:
colorimeter;
spectrocolorimeters;
spectrophotometers;
portables.
Colorimeter is a device of fairly simple
design based upon the visual concepts of
colour. The sample is illuminated at a 45
angle relative to the perpendicular line to the
plane of the mounted sample. The method of
the trichromatic colorimeter allows for the
quick obtaining of the trichromatic
components X, Y and Z.
Spectrocolorimeters are somewhat of a
hybrid instrument which is capable of
providing colorimetric data such as X,Y,Z or
CIEL*a*b* values for various standard
illuminations.
Spectrophotometers provided wavelength
by wavelength measurement and data
collection at each 1nm or lower if is desired.
The spectral method of determining the
trichromatic components is based on the
spectrophotometric raise of the curve of
radiance spectral factors; this is a relatively
laborious method.
Micro-processors
are
capable
of
calculating colour differences, pass/fail, shade
sorting, whiteness, grades of fastness, and
many other shows of colour and appearance. A
colour is expressed through different
intensities of the system basic colours
depending on the chosen colorimetric system.
Many portables do not meet the same
performance specifications as bench-top
models in areas such as spectral resolution,
bandwidth, and large-to-small viewing areas.
The main disadvantage of the measuring
apparatus is that they do not have possibility to
modify measuring area.
It studied measuring wood colour by
means of the CorelDraw program [8]. This
method presents a disadvantage that read data
need transfer to other software for processing.
Another disadvantage is that the surfaces can
be only by 1x1pixels, 2x2pixels and 5x5pixels.
2. MEASURING
METHOD AND APPARATUS
The present study used the computerized

method for measuring the wood colour,
through an original procedure by means of
original software named Colour Manager,
developed in to Lazarus programming
environment [3]. That use Pascal programming
language [2].
Using a PC system can measure the colour
of the scanned surfaces in different
colorimetric systems, such as:
RGB: Red (R); Green (G); Blue (B).
Colour is expressed through values
varying from 0, for black, to 255, for
white, for each component.
hexadecimal code. Colour is expressed
through values varying from 000000
for black, to FFFFFF for white.
Figure 1: Colour characterization through

brightness (L*), chrome or satiation (C*ab) and
hue angle (hab).
The colorimetric system CIEL*a*b*,

defined by the International Commission of
illumination (CIE) in 1976, is widely used in
colorimetry. It is standardised in Romania [9].
Within this system, a colour is featured
through the rectangular proportions L*a*b*
(Figure 1), where:
L* represents the brightness of the
colour. L*= 0 yields black and L*=
100 indicates diffuse white; specular
white may be higher;
a* negative values indicate green while
positive values indicate magenta;
b* negative values indicate blue and
positive values indicate yellow.
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
Using the rectangular coordinates L*, a*

and b*, the chroma (C*ab) and the hue angle
of the colour (hab) with values ranging
between 0 and 360 can be determined,
according to the following relations:
C * ab= (a* 2 +b *2 )1/2
(1)
LaserJet 3055 all-in-one printer, fax, copier,

scanner type for scanning are:
hab= arctg (
The technical characteristics of the

employed computer are:
Processor: Genuine Intel(R) CPU 2140
@ 1.60GHz;
0.99GB of RAM memory;
Video in board;
Hard disk: 80GB;
Monitor: Acer AL1716s.
The technical characteristics of the HP
b
)
*
a
(2)
The colour characterization by means of
the brightness (L*), the chrome (C*ab) and the
hue angle (hab) according to is shown in
Figure 1 [9] , in which the measured sample is
represented as A point of coordinates L*A; a*A,
b*A. The L*A, value (which is the brightness
of the respective sample) is on the L* axis at
the cross-section of this axis with the a*b*
plane where is A point.
The device used for the colour
measurement consisted of a PC-scanner-screen
assembly.
Before starting the measurements, this
assembly was calibrated so the values read by
the PC, for the R, G, B trichromatic
components, to be as close as possible to the
ones given by the colour specimen. The
assembly was calibrated with white standard
specimen. To this end, the colour specimen
have been scanned and the R, G, B values
were determined.
Calibration is made in computer software.
Measured values of the specimen are entered
as a correction factors in calibration group
box. These values are entered separately for
each parameter (R, G or B). This tool is shown
to Figure 3.
The images were scanned by means of a
Pentium 4 computer and a HP LaserJet 3055
all-in-one printer, fax, copier, scanner type.
223
supported file types: JPEG, TIF, BMP,

GIF, PDF, PNG;
Resolution: 1200 ppi, 24-bit full-colour
scanning from letter/A4-size scanner
glass;
Hi-Speed USB 2.0 port and port for
connecting to a 10/100 Base-T network
64-MB RAM.
Figure 2: The Settings tab with

Calibration tool.
It can scan the samples after calibration.

Images need save in to BMP format.
The saved images are open into program.
After image is loaded, the program determines
the dimensions of the image. This is an
important parameter because it defines the

measuring area limits.
Before analysing image, it sets the
diameter of measuring circle from Settings tab.
This is a main advantage of this method
because it can set the surface area. Others
apparatus use for colour measuring, especially
portable apparatus do not have this possibility.
After a point is selected, the computer
defines a circular surface defined by centre in
the selected point and diameter defined by the
specified diameter of measuring point. The
measuring surface shape is similar with
surfaces defined by the other apparatus.
This surface is analysed with computer
pixel by pixel and colour value for each point
is split into three values; for red, green and
blue.
The selected areas are stamped with white
colour. It does not affect the original image
file in any way.
A measurement example is shown in
Figure 3.
Figure 3: Image tab with selected point.
Afterwards, the colour, represented by

RGB system, is converts to XYZ system using
proper formulae [7].
Next step is to convert values from XYZ
system to CIEL*a*b* system. It uses formulae
provided for this the purpose [9].
In the Table tab are shown the measured
data for each pixel. Data recoded in this table
are:
the position of the pixel on X axis;

the position of the pixel on Y axis;
R value in the RGB measuring system;
G value in the RGB measuring system;
B value in the RGB measuring system;
X value in the XYZ measuring system;
Y value in the XYZ measuring system;
Z value in the XYZ measuring system;
L* value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
system;
a* value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
system;
b* value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
system;
C*ab value in the CIEL*a*b*
measuring system;
hab value in the CIEL*a*b* measuring
system.
The software determines the minimum
value, the maximum value, average value and
standard deviation for each parameter, as well.
Average value is calculates by formula
[1].
Figure 4: Table tab with read data.
Standard deviation in calculates by formula

[10].
These values are shown in Table tab, also.
The values can be saved and exported to other
application.
An example of measured data is shown in
Figure 4.
The graphical representation of measured
data variations are shown in the Chart tab. The
224
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
chart has on X axis the measured pixel and on

Y axis the colour values of pixel. Y axis has
values from -100 (for CIEL*a*b* measuring
system) to 255 (for RGB measuring system).
Values for XYZ colour system is not show
for clarity of representation.
The purpose of this representation is to
show the dispersion data. A dispersed
representation means the measuring is failed
(average value is not represent the global
colour).
An
example
of
measured
data
representation is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Chart tab with values representation.
3. CONCLUSIONS
It is made measuring on some wood
samples. It can notice the measured values are
dispersed but still closed (especially for
CIEL*a*b* series). That means the
measurement accuracy is good.
In the most cases it is necessary to
measurement the colour difference of two or
more measurement in same place. For that it
needs to know the exact location of the
225
measurement surface. Usually, it use surface

marking with a pencil, but this method affects
the results. Another method uses a template
from Plexiglas, but this method is expensive
[5]. It needs to make a template for each
sample. The method presented in this paper
does not need any devices or marks. The
coordinates of the points from first measuring
can be saved and they are ready for use to next
measurement session. It saves money and time
and measures are not affected in this case.
This is an easy and accessible method. The
devices used for this purpose is at hand for
every user. A particularly important advantage
of employing this method is that the program
enables the colour measuring for very small
surfaces. This is not possible as regards the use
of the colorimeter, which makes the average of
the colour for a larger surface.
The method has the advantage of being
cheap, it uses available equipments.
This method presents an advantage that
read data do not need transfer to other program
for processing.
Another advantage is that the surfaces can
be larger than 1x1pixels.
The measuring precision is less than
professional apparatus but, it is reasonable for
a material heterogeneous like as wood.
Even if the method is designed to measure
the colour of the wood, it can be used for any
material.
The measurement is influenced by scanner
properties. The scan resolution influence
measurement but not significant because
between pixels are not empty spaces.
Because the colour is a sensation it is
difficult to quantify that.
REFERENCES
1. Brenci, Luminia-Maria, Programarea
calculatoarelor i limbaje de programare n
industria lemnului - Statistic matematic
aplicat, internet i limbajul HTML. Braov:
Editura Universitii Transilvania (2010)
2. Laurenzi, W., Intoducere n programarea
vizual
n
Delphi.
Braov:
Editura
Universitii Transilvania (2012)
3. Lazarus, Homepage. [online]. Available:
http://www.lazarus.freepascal.org/ (January,
2014)
4. Lunguleasa, A., Stiinta lemnului. Braov:
Editura Universitii Transilvania (2001)
5. Millis, M. S., Understanding pyrography,
the photochemistry of scorched decoration.
Pro Ligno. Vol. 9 / No. 4 (2013)
6. Oxford dictionaries, Color: definition of
color in Oxford dictionary (American
English).
[online].
Available:
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definiti
on/american_english/color (March, 2014)
7. Popa, E. , Popa, V., Lemnul de anin, plop,
salcm. Proprieti, colorare (Alder, Poplar,
Robinia Wood. Properties, Coloration).
Braov: Editura Universitii Transilvania
(2004)
8. Popa, E. , Popa, V., Msurarea culorii
lemnului cu ajutorul programului CorelDraw /
Measuring Wood Color by Means of the
CorelDraw Program. Pro Ligno. Vol.4 / No. 2
(2008)
9.
STAS
6880/1-88,
Colorimetrie.
Colorimetrie de reflexie. Noiuni generale.,
Bucuresti: ASRO (1988)
10. , Parametri descriptivi. [online].
Available:
http://statisticasociala.tripod.com/parametri.ht
m
(February,
2014)
226
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AFASES 2014
THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT AND SURFACE TREATMENT ON THE

WEAR RESISTANCE OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
Camelia PITULICE, Ioan GIACOMELLI, Maria STOICANESCU
Transilvania University of Braov, Romania
Abstract: Titanium and titanium alloys are on the full rise in their fields of use and, as a consequence, the
studies related to them enjoy a growing attention. The wear, one of the common applications in practice
can be improved through changes in structure and through the composition and nature of the superficial
layers. This paper examines both the opportunities provided by heat treatments on the structural changes
of the mass of alloy, respectively the surface treatments on the durability in the abrasive friction. Among
the thermal treatments that have been applied there are: hardening and annealing in air atmosphere and
in vacuum installations; the surface treatments is consisted by nitriding and laser pulsed process coating.
Wear tests have established the hierarchy of the efficiency of these processes.
Keywords: titanium, heat treatment, surface treatment, wear, nitriding, resistance
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATION
Titanium alloys with wide applications in
various fields, from manufacturing to
aviation,
electrotechnics,
electronics,
medicine, present multiple structural systems,
possibilities offered by their polymorphism.
Various structural compositions can be
obtained through heat and thermo chemical
treatment operations. In titanium alloys, there
are typically three types of layers, as in the TiAl system (figure 1).
Figure 1. The Ti-Al equilibrium diagram
[1]
227
Also, both in binary alloys of titanium, but

especially in the polynary alloys, more complex
structures can be found through the presence of
intermetallic compounds.
These structures give produce different sets
of extremely different properties.
Various structural aspects may be obtained
both though chemical composition, but also
through heat treatment, treatment that can be
efficient due to allotropic transformation of

titanium: the allotropic form under 882C
with hexagonal compact lattice (h.c.),
respective the allotropic form above this
temperature, with centered cubic volume lattice
(c.c.v.). The alloying elements, extremely
numerous in the case of titanium, may cause
stabilization for phase Al, Ge, C, N, O, Ca) or
for phase (V, Mo, Cr, Si, Mn) as in figure 2.
Figure 2. The Ti-X equilibrium diagram for alphagene (a) and betagene (b) alloy elements
[2]
In addition, the alloying elements form, as range of values to the alloy in equilibrium or
it has been shown, defined TimXn type heat-treated, according to the quantitative ratio
compounds and out of balance phases (through of them.
thermal treatments) such as:
the phase: supersaturated in
1. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
betagene elements solid solution with deformed
hexagonal lattice;
For the experimental tests, it has been
the phase: the martensitic solid chosen the Ti6Al4V titanium alloy, which can
solution with rhombic lattice;
be found in applications from many areas. The
the sem phase: supersaturated solid standardized
and
the
experimentally
solution;
determined
chemical
compositions
are
the phase: solid solution with provided in table 1.
hexagonal lattice.
Each of these phases, with their own
properties, imprints features included in a wide
Table 1. The chemical composition for Ti6Al4V titanium alloy
No.
1
2
Values
after
AS9100
ISO 14001
measured
Chemical composition [%]

Al
Fe
Ti
Residual
elements
5,56,75
3,54,5
0,4
0,08
0,05
0,2
0,015
rest
0,4
6,23
4,14
0,2
0,02
0,02
0,19
0,003
rest
<0,4
228
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A large number of specimens for the

wear tests have been produced from the
material with the composition given above,
delivered by the supplier in the form of a 20
mm diameter bar. These were distributed in
three for each type of treatment. The

treatments
applied,
the
technological
parameters as well as some mechanical
properties obtained are shown in table 2.
Table 2. Treatments applied to the samples for wear tests [3]

No. Kinds of The treatment applied
material
1
2
Delivery status
Hardening in the
furnace with
controlled atmosphere
Hardening in vacuum
3
4
5
6
7
Ti6Al4V
Hardening and
annealing
Hardening in vacuum
and annealing
Hardening, annealing
and nitriding
Hardening, annealing
and nitriding
The technological parameters

Temp. Time Quenching
medium
[C]
[min]
850
60
water
1020
90
500
Hardness Resilience
[HRC]
KCU
[J / cm2]
42,56
55,30
53,46
36,58
56,56
37,17
60
nitrogen
ventilated
air
54,63
40,42
500
30
air
58,13
46,33
520
240
air
540
240
air
844,56
[HV 0,3]
881,06
[HV 0,3]
The samples that had been taken were

tested for resistance to wear. It was used a
TRIBOMETER device with a SUBTRONIC
229
25
TAYLOR
HOBSON
PRECISION
component, to determine the profile of the
wear surface (figure 3).
a)
b)
Figure 3. The tribometer device to determinate the wear resistance:
a) the test facility; b) connecting the tribometer to a PC
The tests were carried out by pressing a
sphere with a diameter of 6 mm on the surface
of the sample, with a force of 10N, a linear
speed of 10cm/s and a stop after 5000 laps.
The wear rate is provided directly after
measuring the surface of the wear trace with
the help of the tribometer surface analyser, the
specialized software is the one that provides

the test results.
In table 3, there are presented the
average wear rates of the samples with
different structures, coming from the heat
treatments previously applied.
Table 3. The wear rate

No.
Kinds of
material
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ti6Al4V
The treatment applied
Delivery status
Hardening in the furnace
with controlled atmosphere
Hardening in vacuum
Hardening and annealing
Hardening in vacuum and
annealing
Hardening, annealing and
nitriding
Hardening, annealing and
nitriding
During the series of trials, there have

also been done the measurements of the
volumes of material lost through wear, at
230
The metallographic The wear rate

structure of
[10-6 cm3/ Nm]
samples
+
0,934
++
0,561
+ x+
+TimXn+
+x+
0,729
0,472
0,314
nitrogen
0,522
nitrogen
0,336
different periods of time. The test conditions

were the same as above. The table 4 and figure
4 show this aspect of the wear process.
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Table 4. The volume losses during the trials
Time [min]
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Sample in
delivery
status
0,05553838
0,1319666
0,2070887
0,3082072
0,3866197
0,4385598
0,4730372
The lost volume, [10-6 mm3]

Sample hardened
Sample hardened
from 850C,
annealed to
from 850C
500C, 60 min
0,04801529
0,07312854
0,115608
0,1475726
0,1999108
0,1818821
0,2079159
0,2743207
0,3643489
0,3383027
0,3898323
0,3658791
0,3924167
0,4068844
Sample hardened
from 850C,
annealed to
500C, 120 min
0,06000434
0,1824015
0,150185
0,1758861
0,2352871
0,2675284
0,3590557
Figure 4. The variation of loss wear volume in the samples analyzed

The above mentioned ideas prove that
there are notable differences in wear
resistance, depending on the treatment.
Based on the sample values in asannealed (delivery) status, there can be
obtained significant increases of them,
determined by the metallographic structure.
An increase of the hardness and the
decrease of the wear rate can be achieved
231
through the hardening; the annealing can be

achieved through the precipitation of phase;
the hardness further increases with favorable
effects on durability. Good results can also be
obtained through thermo chemical treatment
(respective nitriding). In all the analyzed
variants, the resilience is being kept relatively
high, with good effects on shock resistance.
2. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The
experimental
tests
have
demonstrated the capability of the titanium
alloys to respond to the heat treatments
through structural changes. This layout allows
modifications of certain mechanic features
depending on the necessities.
It has been proven that there is a
significant correlation among the structure, the
mechanic properties and the wear resistance.
Also, it has been demonstrated that
there are advantages of vacuum heat treatment,
especially after annealing, over the one in air
atmosphere or atmosphere controlled.
The
nitriding
thermo
chemical
treatment proved to be more effective at
540C, when the diffusing layer proved to be
more consistent.
232
[1] Dumitrescu, C., erban, R., Metalurgie

fizic i tratamente termice, Ed. Fair Partners,
Bucureti, vol. II, 2001
[2] Ftu, S., Tudoran, P., Studiul materialelor
metalice. Tratamente termice. Oeluri aliate.
Aliaje neferoase. Materiale noi, Vol. II,
Editura Libris, Braov, 1997, pag. 74-75, 8082, 99-111
[3] Pitulice, C., Giacomelli, I., Stoicnescu,
M., Studii privind modificri structurale n
aliaje de titan prin tratamente termice,
susinut la sesiunea tiinific a ASTR
[4] Pitulice, C., Veeleanu A., Giacomelli, I.,
Influena
tratamentului
termic
asupra
biocompatibilitii aliajului Ti6Al4V, Cercetri
metalurgice i de noi materiale, Institutul de
Cercetri metalurgice, Camera de comer i
industrie a municipiului Bucureti i
Universitatea Transilvania Braov, vol. XXII,
nr. 1, 2014
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ESEM AND X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRA OF TITANIUM ALLOY IN

DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL STATUS
Camelia PITULICE, Adriana ZARA, Nicoleta TORODOC, George VASILE
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF BRASOV
Abstract : Upon Ti6Al4V titanium alloy there were effectuated different heat treatment operations. The
results obtained were tested by numerous processes such as optical microscopy, mechanical and
technological attempts, and also ESEM - Enviromental Scanning Electron Microscopy investigation and
X-ray analysis , respectively. The latter are the objectiv of this paper. Trough these observations there
has been highlighted a series of aspects regarding the composition and internal structure of the alloy in
different states obtained by heat treatment . There has been also establish the proportion between the
structural phases. These analyzes come to complete the data necessary for an accurate assessment of the
influence of thermal treatment concerning use characteristics. Thus, it can be chosen the structural state
according to practical necessites. There are presented in this paper, some of this investigations.
Keywords: titanium alloy, metallographic structure, hardening and tempering, ESEM- Enviromental
Scanning Electron Microscopy , X-ray spectra.
1. INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloys, they benefit from
numerous
advantages
concerning
the
properties, as compared with other metallic
materials, such as low density (about 4.5
g/cm3),
high
refractoriness,
corrosion
resistance, good weldability, mechanical
properties appreciable. Meanwhile, the two
allotropes Ti compact hexagonal lattice and
Ti with volume centered cubic lattice,
offers them application availability of many
heat treatment operations. [1, 3]. Among the
addition elements of titanium, the most

common
are
aluminum,
vanadium,
molybdenum, chromium. The titanium alloys,
with properties that can appear in a wide
range of value found accordingly and varied
utility such as in aeronautics, marine,
chemical energy, chemical industry, in
medical prostheses, etc.[2].
For the
present research it has been chosen Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy whose chemical composition is
given in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the alloy Ti6Al4V

Sort of
alloy
Chemical composition, [%]

Al
Fe
233
Ti

Ti6Al4V
6,23
4,14
0,20
0,02
0,02
2. APPLIED THERMAL TREATMENTS

From the above composition of semi-finished,
there were made attemps specimens required.
0,19
The heating temperature was set to 850

C, found in the stability domain of the
phase. Maintanance duration it was
determined so that to be realized both, the
temperature uniformity on section and also
the development time needed to make
hardening from 850C
+"+
rest
These were subjected to heat treatments given

in Table 2.
Table 2. Thermal treatments applied titanium alloy Ti6Al4V

Nr.
Applied Treatments
Temp.
Time
Cooling
crt.
[C]
[min]
Medium
1
Delivery status
2
Hardening
850
60
ap
3
Tempering (aging)
500
60
ap
iniial +
0,003
Hardness
[HRC]
42,56
53,46
54,63
Resilience
[KCU]
55,30
36,58
40,42
structural changes. Considering the increase

in hardness after heating at 500 C
subsequent hardening, it appears that this
operation is actually an artificial aging.
Successively the samples treated, they had
structures such as:
aging at 500C
in which: - " - has a martensitic structure

with a rhombic chrystalline lattice;
+TimXn+ [2]
- TimXn - an intermetallic phase which

precipitates during cooling and maintaining
from 500 C.
3. THE RESULTS OF ANALYSIS BY ESEM AND SPECTRAL X

Enviromental Scanning Electron the samples and structure. Investigations
Microscope - ESEM - is a method for revealed
the
following:
investigating of surfaces studied micro and - For sample in delivery status. Figure 1
nano scale. On the analyzed area it is sent
shows the micrograph of the existence of
an electron beam that scans an certain area; two main constituents, one with an aspect
it will generate more signals, which received compact and another with a cvasilamelar
and processed generates information aspect, a mixture of + .
regarding on the chemical composition of
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Figure 1. Micrograph alloy Ti6Al4V in delivery status obtained by ESEM .

The emission spectrum of compact phase of
solid solution , identifies an content of
titanium and aluminum. In the lamellar
phase was identified among titanium and
aluminum also vanadium in addition rate of

3.25%. The X-ray emission spectra for these
two constituents and the chemical
composition are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Element
Al
Ti
V
Total
Percent by
weight
Wt [%]
7.91
92.09
0
100
Figure 2. The X-ray emission spectrum of the compact phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Delivery status.
.
235
Element
Al
Ti
V
Total
Percent by
weight
Wt [%]
6.92
89.82
3.25
100
Figure 3. Ray emission spectrum in the lamellar phase.

According to program ImageJ analysis
resulted a 62% proportion of compact phase
and 38% lamellar phase. - for the sample
water hardening from 850 C. For this case
also there have been effectuated ESEM
analysis and X-ray emission spectrum.
Metallographic structure (fig. 4) reveals o
radical change compared with the previous ,

the two constituents being more accurate
delimited. The compact phase of solid
solution
reduced
quantitatively;
the
constituent on mechanic
mixture type
gained an acicular aspect with a higher
share.
Figure 4. ESEM micrograph for Ti6Al4V alloy, hardened in water at 850 C.

This is composed of a mixture of
phases "+ + TimXn. Changing the
quantitatively report between constituents, as
well as finely dispersed structure and
236
qualitatively different from the original

mixture phases ( acicular phase ) explains
the differences measured of some
mechanical properties.
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Element
Al
Ti
V
Total
Percent by
weight
Wt [%]
7.37
92.63
0.00
100
Figure 5. X-ray emission spectrum in the compact phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Hardening in water
from 850 C.
Element
Al
Ti
V
Total
Percent by
weight
Wt [%]
6.94
90.97
2.09
100
Figure 6. X-ray emission spectrum in the acicular phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Hardening in water
from 850 C.
The quantitatively report of constituents in was shown this heating , by its effects is an
this state is 38,6% compact phase and 61,4% aging ; more specifically this is an artificial
acicular phase : - for sample hardening from aging, which place the alloy in second
850 C and aging at 500 C. After hardening stadium of this process. During the heating
from 850C effectuated with a higher speed occurs an complete process of precipitation
in water, on some samples it has been of a secondary phaseTimXn .
applied a one hour reheating at 500 C. As
237
Figure 7. ESEM image of Ti6Al4V alloy, water hardened from 850 C and aged at 500 C.
Emission spectrum
phase found the presence
aluminum components
Emission spectrum of
of the compact
of titanium and
(see Figure 8).
the mechanical
mixture with acicular aspect indicates also

the presence in a proportion of 4.81% of
vanadium (Figure 9).
Percent by
Element
weight
Wt [%]
AlK
8.36
TiK
91.64
VK
0.00
Total
100
Figure 8. Emission spectrum in the compact phase. Ti6Al4V alloy. Tempering and aging at
850 C to 500 C
Percent by
weight
Element
Wt [%]
AlK
7.06
TiK
88.12
VK
4.81
Total
100
Figure 9. Emission spectrum in the RX acicular phase . Ti6Al4V alloy. tempering and aging
at 850 C to 500 C.
In this case, the quantitatively report of
constituents is 65.5% compact phase and
34.5% acicular phase .
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4. CONCLUSIONS
Thermal treatments aim to change some
physical-mechanical characteristics in order
to obtain the necessary properties for further
processing or use. These properties are
determined by the structural composition of
alloy and the quantitatively report of the
phases.
Experimental attempts of the present work
were able to produce significant changes in
the structural aspect of Ti6Al4V alloy,
supported also by mechanical properties
(density, resilience).
Through investigations effectuated
by
electron microscopy and X-ray it was
revealed internal structure of the alloy in
three different status, refering to the size and
shape of the grains, the nature of the phases
of the structure, their reciprocally
arrangement also quantitatively report of
phases.
All this is fully consistent both with the
sequence of thermal operations but also with
performed properties. Also, it is concluded
that in the case of the present alloys and
thermal parameters used, the heating
subsequently hardening could be enclose in
239
the artificial aging. The temperature of 500

C places the alloy in stage II of the aging
process.
5. REFERENCES
1. Collings, EW, Boyer, R., Welsch, G.,
Materials properties handbook. Titanium
Alloys, ASM International, pp. 3-170, 483609,
(1994).aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
aaa
2. Dumitrescu, C., Serban, R., Physical
metallurgy and heat treatment, Ed. Fair
Partners, Bucharest, vol. II, (2001).
3. Fatu, S., Tudoran, P., Study of metallic
materials. Thermal treatments. Alloy steels.
Alloys. New Materials, Vol. II, Ed. Libris,
Braov, pp. 74-75, 80-82, 99-111, (1997).
4. Pitulice, C., - Studies and research on
biocompatible materials used in prosthetics,
Thesis - Transilvania University of Brasov,
(2013).
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EVALUATION OF STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES

OF SOME NEW POLYMER-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES
FOR AEROSPACE AND DEFENCE APPLICATIONS
Fulga TANAS, Mdlina ZNOAG, Raluca DARIE
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Iai, Romnia
Paper dedicated to the 65th anniversary of the

Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of Romanian Academy, Iai, Romnia
Abstract: This paper presents the effects of three different types of layered silicates, namely bentonite
(Btn), Montmorillonite K10 (K10) and Nanomer I.30P (I.30P), on the performance of some new hybrid
materials based on a commercial polypropylene. The study evaluated the dependence of mechanical
properties on the clay nature and particle size. Low volume additions (5%) of clay nanoparticles have
influenced differently the interfacial adhesion between matrix and filler, yielding in modified stress-strain
properties. Experimental data indicated that Btn and I.30P acted as reinforcing fillers, whereas K10
behaved as a plasticizer.
Keywords: polymer-clay nanocomposites, mechanical properties, interfacial adhesion
1. INTRODUCTION
Starting from the Toyota Research Group
first polymer-clay nanocomposite, the
improvement of properties of this new class of
materials intended for structural applications
was demonstrated. They rapidly enjoyed a
spectacular success in military and commercial
aircraft equipment, the automotive industry
and even sporting goods and health care
products.
Polymer-clay nanocomposites have been
considered as matrices for fiber-reinforced
composites for aerospace components, since
the aerospace industry requires lightweight
materials with high strength and stiffness,
among other qualities. These enhanced
polymer systems provide opportunities to
address material limitations in advanced
system concepts: impact resistance, control
241
over the coefficient of thermal expansion,

enhanced fire retardancy, superior barrier
properties against gas and vapor transmission
(for military rations in defence industry, for
barrier liners in storage tanks and fuel lines for
cryogenic fuels in aerospace systems),
suppression of microcracking and increased
modulus, enhanced scratch resistance and
ballistic performance, etc. [1-3]. The use of
such composites as structural materials in both
commercial and general aviation aircraft has
been increasing, primarily because of the
advantages composites offer over metals (e.g.,
lower weight, better fatigue performance,
corrosion resistance, tailorable mechanical
properties, better design flexibility, lower
assembly costs) [3]. While most of the Airbus
A 380 fuselage is aluminum, composite
materials comprise more than 20% of its
airframe. Boeing 787 Dreamliner is 80%
composite by volume and each 787 contains

approximately 35 short tons of carbon fiber
reinforced plastics (CFRPs), made with 23
tons of carbon fiber.
Ongoing research and studies have shown
that, in general, polymer-clay nanocomposites
exhibit great improvement in mechanical
properties, such as strength and stiffness,
compared to pure polymers upon addition of
minimal amount of nanosize clay particles.
Since the use of nanoscale fillers in polymers
has granted the possibility to design new
materials
with
significantly
improved
performance and multifunctionality, numerous
polymers have been investigated: polypropylene, polyethylene, polystryrene, polycaprolactone, polyimides, polycarbonates,
poly(ethylene oxide) and epoxydic resins [2].
Polypropylene (PP) is one of the most
widely used polyolefins and one of the most
interesting thermoplastic materials due to its
low cost, low density, high heat distortion
temperature, processability and extraordinary
versatility in terms of tailored properties and
applications [4].
Huge consumption of polypropylene in hitech industries motivates the scientific
community to find new approaches to improve
mechanical properties of this polymer, so they
don`t negatively affect other required
performance properties like impact resistance,
controlled crystallinity, toughness and
shrinkage. In order to improve polypropylene
competitiveness in engineering applications, it
is desirable to increase dimensional stability,
heat distortion temperature, stiffness, strength,
barrier properties, and impact resistance
without sacrificing the processability.
Nowadays, clay nanoparticles play a key
role in improving the mechanical, surface and
barrier properties of PP. The most commonly
used clays are from the smectite mineral
group, such as monmorillonite (MMT),
hectorite and saponite [5]. Montmorillonite
belongs to the layered silicates nanoclays
class, consisting of nanoparticles with
anisotropic, plate-like, high aspect-ratio
morphology, which leads to an improved
permeation barrier. Using montmorillonite, the
matrix polymer is expected to display
increased dimensional stability at low
reinforcement loading, characteristic that
makes it useful in aerospace and automotive

industry. MMT has the widest acceptability for
use in polymer-clay nanocomposites because
of its availability, well known intercalation
and/or exfoliation chemistry, high surface area
and high surface reactivity. The layer aspect
ratio can be in the range 1000 in well
dispersed state without breaking of layers
(although, during preparation process of
nanocomposite, the breaking of clay layers
into small plates occurs and the aspect ratio
decreases to about 300-500) and surface area
is about 750 m2/g [6].
Despite of its advantages, MMT is
incompatible with polymers, since it is a
hydrophilic compound, as all nanoclays from
its class. Therefore, it is recommendable to use
organically modified clays in order to improve
the matrix-filler compatibility which strongly
affects the interface adhesion properties of
nanocomposites. Even more, a compatibilizing
agent, such as maleic anhydride grafted
polypropylene (PP-g-MA), in the case of PPclay nanocomposites, may be used during
preparation [7,8].
Melt intercalation by twin-screw extrusion
is the main method to obtain polymer-clay
nanocomposites. The success of the exfoliation
by melt blending is associated with the
presence of strong interactions between clay
and polymer chains, as well as the diffusion of
polymeric chains among clay layers. The
process efficiency depends on the temperature,
processing time, and screw shear profile.
Moderate processing intervals, low process
temperature, and medium shear rates were
proven to be the best experimental conditions
to obtain the dispersion of the clay in
exfoliated and intercalated structures. Meltmixing or compounding is the preferred
processing method in the case of PP-clay
nanocomposites because it is generally more
attractive than solution preparation (or, in
other cases, in situ polymerization), due to the
better commercial feasibility and lower costs
[9,10].
This paper presents a study on the variation
of mechanical properties of a series of new
polypropylene-clay hybrid nanocomposites
obtained by the melt compounding technique,
starting from a commercial grade PP and using
three different types of nanoclays, namely:
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bentonite (Btn), a Romanian native clay from

Valea Chioarului (Maramures), containing
70% MMT; Montmorillonite K10 (K10);
Nanomer I.30P (I.30P), an organically
modified MMT. The use of the Romanian
native bentonite as filler for hybrid composites
was investigated as a viable alternate option to
other clays, because it is less expensive than
commercial
MMT.
The
comparative
evaluation of these new nanocomposites was
performed in order to estimate their
competitiveness and to envisage the range of
applications.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Materials. The polypropylene used in
experiments was an isotactic polypropylene
(Malen-PF 401), a product supplied by
Petrochemia Plock S.A. Poland. Polymer has a
melt temperature of 170C; decomposition
temperature range 250430C, Vicat softening
point 148C; melt flow index (2.16 kg/230C)
2.43.2 g/10min; volatile matter 0.3%wt.;
isotactic index 95%.
Commercial additive agents, viz. Nabentonite, Montmorillonite K10 and Nanomer
I.30P were used as received.
Na-Bentonite was provided by S.C. Mateo
S.R.L. It was collected at the site Valea
Chioarului (Maramures County, Romania)
[11]. Main characteristics of bentonite:
powder, light cream colored, specific surface
area = 25-30 m2/g; apparent specific weight =
260-300 g/L; particle size 9-20m.
Montmorillonite K10 is a sodium montmorillonite (MMT) clay, with a high-purity
grade, supplied by Sigma Aldrich Co. (USA).
Main characteristics: specific surface area of
220270 m2/g; white powder; bulk density =
300-370g/L; particle size 5-10 m.
243
Nanomer I.30P is an organically modified

montmorillonite, was donated by Nanocor
Inc., USA. Main characteristics: natural
montmorillonite
(MMT)
modified
by
octadecylamine (70-75% montmorillonite and
25-30% octadecylamine), white powder;
density 1.7 g/cm3; mean dry particle size 10-25
m, specific surface area of 9.51 m2/g and
interlayer distance 2.10 nm.
2.2 Hybrid nanocomposites preparation
2.2.1 Melt processing. The hybrid
organic-inorganic composite samples with
different clay types, added in the same amount
(5%), were prepared by melt mixing in a
HAAKE RHEOCORD 9000 mixer (equipped
with two internal roller mixers and a capacity
of mixing chamber of 48.3 cm3; fill factor 0.8).
Before compounding, PP and clays were
thoroughly dispersed in acetone for 1 h and
dried, first in air and then at 80C in a vacuum
oven for 24 h to remove moisture and to
enable uniform distribution of PP pellets and
clay particles, which will subsequently
influence the nanocomposites homogeneity.
Samples composition is listed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Composition of the nanocomposite samples
Sample
Clay
PP
PP-Btn Bentonite
PP-MMTMontmorillonite
K10
PP-I.30P Nanomer I.30P
Clay
Composition, %
particle
PP
Clay
size, m
100
9-20
95
5
5-10
95
5
15-25
95
Processing parameters were chosen as to

minimize possible degradation of the matrix
polymer and the inorganic filler. The mixing
temperature was maintained at 190C, the
rotor speed was set at 100 rpm and the time
was 7 min. After processing, samples were
removed from the mixer and cooled down to
room temperature.
2.2.2 Test samples preparation. For the

mechanical tests, composites were cut into
small chips or granules, which were then
dried. In order to prepare films of desirable
dimensions, the composite chips were pressed
between Teflon sheets (12 MPa at 200C for 5
min) in a laboratory heated press. The samples
were then cooled in the press to room
temperature. Films with thickness of about 1.0
mm were obtained. Specimens were finally cut
in the usual dumb bell shape.
2.2.3 Mechanical testing. Tensile measurements, tensile strength, = F/A0 vs.
elongation (%) = (l - l0)/l0, were performed at
room temperature using a tensile test machine
TIRA-TEST 2200 Germany, according to
ASTM D-638-08. Measurements were made to
a crosshead speed of 10 mm/min. Bone-shaped
test specimens were cut from a single test bar
using a hydraulic knife along the same
direction. Five specimens of each sample were
tested to establish testing reproducibility and
average values are given with the standard
deviations. The deviation of the data around
mean values was less than 5%.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Influence of the clay nature on the
stress-strain relationship in nanocomposites. Mechanical properties of polymer-clay
nanocomposites can be altered by various
factors: properties of the polymer matrix, clay

particle size and morphology (anisotropic,
platelet-like, high aspect-ratio), particle
loading and distribution, interfacial adhesion
between clay and matrix, etc. Mechanical
properties of hybrid composites are strongly
related to the interfacial adhesion between clay
particles and matrix, as known. The
interactions in the polypropyleneclay systems
are responsible for significant changes in
mechanical properties. A strong interfacial
adhesion leads to high tensile strength and low
elongation, whereas a weak interfacial
adhesion leads to low strength and relatively
high elongation [12]. Table 2 shows
experimental data obtained for some
mechanical properties of the hybrid
composites.
It was observed that the clay nature had
critical effects on the mechanical properties of
samples. Of primary importance for our study
are Youngs modulus, strength at the yield
point and tensile strength.
The Youngs modulus (elastic modulus) of
a claypolymer composite is generally
determined by the elastic properties of its
components (filler and matrix), particle
loading and aspect ratio [13]. As known, the
elastic modulus is a stiffness parameter which
governs by the size and amount of the
dispersed phase. In the light of the fact that the
Table 2. Mechanical properties of the nanocomposites samples

SAMPLE
PP
95PP/5 Btn
95PP/5 K10
95PP/5 I.30P
Young modulus
(MPa)
1512
2198
1159
2146
Yield strength
(MPa)
31.97
30.35
18.21
28.27
inorganic particles are rigid and have a much

higher stiness than the thermoplastic matrix,
the composite modulus can be readily
improved by adding either micro- or
nanoparticles. In our case, the Youngs
modulus, determined from the slope of the
initial elastic region, was 1512 MPa for neat
PP, whereas its values for PP-Btn and PPI.30P nanocomposites increased with 42-45%
upon addition of 5% clay, as compared to pure
Elongation
at yield (%)
5.06
3.96
8.69
3.61
Tensile
strength (MPa)
26.11
27.83
18.00
26.43
Elongation
at break (%)
8.20
5.06
10.77
4.29
polymer matrix. At the same time, it was

observed that Youngs modulus for samples
with K10 decreased with approx. 25%.
This variation depends mainly on the
microstructure and the interface morphology
of the polymer-clay composites (including the
interfacial bonding, the form, size and spatial
distribution of the clay particles into the
matrix, as well as the thickness of the
interface) [14]. When there is a poor binding
between the matrix and clay, the composite
becomes brittle because the applied load may
not be transferred to the clay [15]. Therefore,
considering the nature of clays, it is obvious
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that I.30P had a beneficial effect on the

nanocomposites elastic modulus than K10, due
to the presence of the aliphatic segments
(belonging to the organic modifier, octadecylammonium) in its structure which acts as a
compatibilizing agent. An interesting behavior
was recorded for the Romanian native
bentonite: at the same clay content, the
corresponding nanocomposite samples showed
the highest value of Youngs modulus. As Btn
is not organically modified and despite the low
polarity of PP, we presume that its
strengthening effect, as result of adhesion
forces at the interface, may be exclusively due
to its particular composition and particle size,
as well as particles distribution in the matrix as
resulted from processing.
On the other hand, the yield strength of the
PP-Btn nanocomposites decreased about 5%,
12% for PP-I.30P and 43% for PP-K10,
respectively, compared with neat PP.
Concerning the tensile strength, values slightly
increased for PP-Btn (6.6%) and PP-I.30P
(1.2%), but for PP-K10 the tensile strength
registered a dramatic decrease of about 31%.
The strength of nanocomposites relies on
the effectiveness of stress transfer between
matrix and filler [13]. Factors like particlesmatrix interfacial bonding strength and particle
loading, as well as particle size, significantly
affect the composite stress-strain behavior. For
well-bonded particles, the applied stress can be
efficiently transferred to the particles in the
matrix, which clearly improves the strength
(Btn and I.30P). However, for poorly bonded
particles (K10), the strength decrease occurs
upon adding particles because the adhesion is
still weak at the interface, despite the increase
of the interfacial layer volume on the expenses
of the overall matrix volume. This explains
data we obtained for all our PP-clay
nanocomposites.
245
Nanoclay particles are stiff materials with

no elongation properties; therefore, their
addition can lower composites elongation [16].
The elongation at yield for PP-Btn and PPI.30P decreased, as expected, with approx.
22% and 28.5%, respectively, whilst for PPK10 increased with 55%. Concerning the
elongation at break, samples PP-Btn and PPI.30P displayed a decrease of 38% and 48%,
respectively, but samples PP-K10 showed an
increase of 31%. This behavior of hybrid
composites, consistent with data for elastic
modulus and upholding our hypothesis, was
induced by the stiffness of clays and caused by
the clay-polymer interface adhesion.
A geometric model to correlate the
interfacial adhesion and the fracture
mechanism (Figure 1) is already available [17]
and it takes into consideration the voids
formation and their evolution during stress.
Figure 1. A geometric model

that correlates the interfacial adhesion and the
voids formation mechanism
(D=particle diameter; =interfacial layer thickness)
It has been shown [17] that clay particles

can facilitate the development of microvoids
and activate dilatational yielding in the
deformed zone close to the fracture surface. It
is generally agreed that for toughening to
occur in rigid filler systems, the particles must
debond from the matrix, creating voids around
the particles and allowing the interparticle
ligaments to deform plastically [18]. The voids
reduce the macroscopic plastic resistance of
the material, and thereby potentially increase

the fracture strain and the overall toughness.
Ideally, the voids are not likely to form
immediately upon application of stress as this
may reduce the elastic modulus.
A schematic illustration of the fracture
mechanism in PP-clay nanocomposites is
presented in Figure 2 [19]. For samples with
poor interfacial adhesion (Figure 2a), the
cracks start from the pole of the filler surface
and form a huge number of microvoids
between the filler and matrix.
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of fracture

mechanism in polymer-clay composites with
(a) poor and (b) good interfacial adhesion
The microvoids are dragged along the

direction of the stress. This fracture
mechanism leads to a low tensile strength and
relatively high elongation (PP-K10). On the
other hand, in samples with good interfacial
adhesion (Figure 2b), the cracks start from the
equator of the filler and develop in the matrix
or along the interface. Such fracture
mechanism leads to a high tensile strength and
low elongation (PP-Btn and PP-I.30P).
Experimental data presented herein are
consistent with the theoretical model, with a
special mention for PP-Btn samples that
proved to have the best mechanical properties
in the series. Further confirmation will be
obtained by comparative SEM analysis which
is currently underway.
3.2 Effect of particle size on the stressstrain relationship in nanocomposites. The
effect of particle size on the nanocomposites
mechanical properties has recently attracted
much attention. The particles restrict the
mobility and deformation of the matrix by
introducing a mechanical restraint. The
restriction in polymeric molecular diffusion in
the presence of solid particles occurs because
of an effective attraction potential between
segments of the chain and the repulsive
potential that the polymer is subjected to when
it is close to solid particles. The degree of the
particle restriction depends on the properties of

the filler and matrix [20].
Interfacial interaction strongly influences
properties of polymer composites. In PP-clay
composites only van der Waals forces act
between polymer and filler. They are,
however, sufficient to attach the polymer to
the filler. Adsorption of the polymer on the
filler surface leads to the formation of an
interphase in which molecules have decreased
mobility. The existence of the interphase is
proved by the increased composite viscosity
with increasing specific surface area of the
filler and by the similarly changing yield stress
and strength (see Table 2). The effect of
interaction depends on the size of the
contacting surfaces (specific surface area of
the filler) and the interaction strength. Smaller
particles have larger surface area, leading to
increased yield stress. Differences in the
strength of the interaction are less significant
than that of the specific surface area [18]. Two
important structural phenomena must be
considered: (1) small particles tend to form
aggregates, which deteriorate properties; for
particles having specific surface area over
5m2/g, the aggregation tendency becomes
significant; (2) orientation of anisotropic
particles determines their reinforcing effect.
Despite some assumptions of conventional
micromechanics for rigid clay systems (e.g.,
the zero thickness assumption for interfaces),
numerous studies have offered mathematical
support for models which include the interface
effect by taking into account an interphase
region between the matrix and particles [21],
such as the self-consistent scheme based on a
particle-interphase-matrix three-phase unit
cell model [22].
As recorded in many other studies, the
stress-strain relationship in nanocomposites
significantly exceeds classical micromechanics
predictions. Another possible explanation,
apart from the contribution of the interphase,
might be considered the natural trend of
particles to aggregate. Therefore, in some
systems, the primary nanoparticles aggregation
(resulted from particles preparation prior to
melt mixing in the presence of the matrix
polymer) rather than polymernanoparticle
interactions at the interface is mainly
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responsible for the observed reinforcement

effect [23].
For the series of PP-clay nanocomposites
we studied, the experimental data obtained for
clays with different particle size, presented in
Table 2, are consistent with theories available
in the literature [24]. First observation is the
opposite effect of K10 platelet-shape
nanoparticles, compared with the other clays,
despite its low value of particle size (5-10 m)
and narrow size distribution. The micrometric
dimensions of particles are given by the
primary agglomeration, but the smaller the
particle size, the thicker the interphase layer on
the expenses of the total volume of matrix, the
component that actually contributes to energy
adsorption. Therefore, the sample had a lower
resistance and the deformation increased by
55% at yield and by 31% at break. For Btn (920 m) and I.30P (15-25 m) containing
samples, the clay particles had a reinforcing
effect, although their particle size is higher and
have a wider size distribution. By this, the
secondary aggregation (caused by composite
preparation) occurs in a lower measure.
Both the larger (I.30P) and the smaller
(K10) particles had a negative effect on the
stress-strain relationship due to the presence of
large individual particles (I.30P) or
agglomerates (K10), which act as stressconcentrators that trigger the fracture
mechanisms. The effect in the K10 containing
samples was the result of particlematrix
debonding and plastic stretch of the
interparticle ligaments [25]. Composites made
with smaller particles would exhibit a larger
reduction in the amount of deformable matrix
because, at certain filler content, the interfacial
area between filler and polymer is larger. This
causes the composites made with K10 to
exhibit lower fracture resistance (18 MPa) than
those made with larger particles, I.30P (26.43
247
MPa), or medium size particles, Btn (27.83

MPa), regardless of the presence of the
primary agglomerates. This effect depends on
the compatibility at the fillermatrix interface,
which determines the thickness and the
mobility of the interphase layer.
3. CONCLUSIONS
This study is focused on the comparative
evaluation of mechanical properties of a series
of new PP-based nanocomposites, prepared by
melt mixing method, using as fillers three
different types of clay, in order to establish the
level of competitiveness of a Romanian native
bentonite to be used as an alternative to
commercially available clays.
Experimental results proved that clay
addition strongly affects the stress-strain
dependence in the new composites. Thus, it
was found that Youngs modulus and tensile
strength increased, whilst elongation at yield
and break decreased for composites with Btn
and I.30P. For composites with K10, Youngs
modulus and stress at break decreased, while
elongation at yield and break increased.
Therefore, K10 acted more as a plasticizer, in
opposition with Btn and I.30P which
effectively reinforced the matrix. The best
results were obtained for samples containing
Btn, the natural unmodified filler having an
average particle size and size distribution.
For rigid clay systems, delamination of the
clay layers occurs and results in a moderately
increased toughness. Hence, it was suggested
that extensive matrix shear yielding, activated
by full debonding of the clay-matrix
interfaces, leads to improvements in
toughness. The relationship between the
toughness of composites and the particle size
becomes a competition of two effects: (1) a
negative stress concentrating effect of particles
nucleating agents. Polymer Bulletin.

63(6) (2009).
5. Olad, A. Polymer/Clay Nanocomposites. In B. Reddy, Advances in Diverse
Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites, InTech Open. Available:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/adv
ances-in-diverse-industrialapplications-of-nanocomposites/
polymerclay-nanocomposites (March
2014).
6. Pavlidou, S., Papaspyrides, C.D. A
review on polymer-layered silicate
nanocomposites. Progress in Polymer
Science. 32 (2008).
7. Paul, D.R., Robeson, L.M. Polymer
nanotechnology:
Nanocomposites.
Polymer. 49 (2008).
8. Prez, M.A., Rivas, B.L., Rodrguez,
S.M., Maldonado, ., Venegas, C.
Polypropylene/clay nanocomposites.
Synthesis and characterization. Journal
of the Chilean Chemical Society. 55
(2010).
9. Sinha, R.S., Okamoto, M. Polymerlayered silicate nanocomposites: a
review from preparation to processing.
Progress in Polymer Science. 28
(2003).
10. Lertwimolnun, W., Vergnes, B.
Influence of compatibilizer and
processing conditions on the dispersion
of nanoclay in a polypropylene matrix.
Polymer. 46 (2005).
11. Humelnicu, D., Olariu, R.I., Arsene,
C., Bertescu, M., Burghele, B.D. A
comparative study on the removal of
uranyl ions from artificially enriched
radioactive waters using clays from
Romania. Analele tiinifice ale
Universitii Al. I. Cuza Iai.
Geologie. LVI (2010).
12. Dibaei, A.H., Abdouss, M., Angaji,
M.T., Haji, A. Surface and mechanical
properties
of
polypropylene/clay
nanocomposites. Chemical Industry &
Chemical Engineering Quarterly. 19(3)
(2013).
13. Fu, S.Y., Feng, X.Q., Lauke, B., Mai,
Y.W. Effects of particle size,
particle/matrix interface adhesion and
particle loading on mechanical
that increases with larger particles and

agglomerates, and (2) a reduction in the
amount of deformable polymer matrix that
dominates in composites with smaller
particles. However, due to the low polarity of
PP, it is difficult to obtain nanocomposites
with homogeneous dispersion of the silicates
at the nanometer level inside the polymer.
Organoclay containing layered silicates
modified by nonpolar long alkyl groups are
still relatively more polar than PP and may act
as compatibilizing agents between matrix and
clay particles.
Considering this study results, we have
concluded that enhancement in mechanical
properties might be achieved through two
approaches
used
simultaneously:
(a)
optimization of processing parameters, the
kinetic criterion being of major importance for
clay layers debonding; (b) enhancement of the
compatibility of the matrix-filler system by
using both the organically modified clays and
the modified PP, namely maleic anhydride
grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA), as matrix
compatibilizing agent. This will be the subject
of an upcoming study.
REFERENCES
1. Bokhari, W., Srivastava, D. PolymerClay Nano-composite materials for
Thermal/Radiation shielding and Load
Bearing Structural Applications in
Aerospace/Defence.
Available:http://www.caneus.org/mater
ials/downloads/A5-A6%20Final%20
Report.pdf (March, 2014).
2. Bayar, S., Delale, F., Liaw, B. M.
Effect of temperature on mechanical
properties of nanoclay reinforced
polymeric nanocomposites Part I:
Experimental results. Journal of
Aerospace Engineering. 26 (2013).
3. Dinca, I., Ban, C., Stefan, A., Pelin G.
Nanocomposites as advanced materials
for aerospace industry. INCAS Bulletin.
4(4) (2012).
4. Ghugare, S.V., Govindaiah, P.,
Avadhani, C.V. Polypropylene/organoclay
nanocomposites
containing
248
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

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AFASES 2014
properties of particulatepolymer
composites. Composites: Part B. 39
(2008).
14. Ghugare, S.V., Govindaiah, P.,
Avadhani, C.V. Polypropylene-organoclay
nanocomposites
containing
nucleating agents. Polymer Bulletin. 63
(2009).
15. Bikiaris, D.N., Vassiliou, A., Pavlidou,
E., Karayannidis, G.P. Compatibilization of PP-g-MA copolymer on
iPP/SiO2 nanocomposites prepared by
melt mixing. European Polymer
Journal. 41 (2005).
16. Selver, E., Adanur, S. Processing and
property relationship of polypropylene
monofilaments containing nanoclay.
Journal of Industrial Textiles. 40
(2010).
17. Lazzeri,
A.,
Bucknall,
C.B.
Applications of a dilatational yielding
model to rubber-toughened polymers.
Polymer. 36 (1995).
18. Pukanszky, B. Particulate filled
polypropylene composites. In J.
Karger-Kocsis, Polypropylene: An A-Z
Reference,
Dordrecht:
Kluwer
Publishers (1999).
19. Fang, Z., Hu, Q. Influence of
interfacial adhesion on stress-strain
properties of highly filled polyethylene. Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie. 265 (1999).
249
20. Drozdov, A.D., Dorfmann, A. The

stressstrain response and ultimate
strength
of
filled
elastomers.
Computational Material Science. 21
(2001).
21. Dasari, A., Yu, Z.Z., Mai, Y.-W.
Transcrystalline regions in the vicinity
of
nanofillers
in
polyamide-6.
Macromolecules. 40 (2007).
22. Colombini,
D.,
Hassander, H.,
Karlsson,
O.J.,
Maurer,
F.H.J.
Influence of the particle size and
particle size ratio on the morphology
and viscoelastic properties of bimodal
hard/soft latex blends. Macromolecules. 37 (2004).
23. Dorigato, A., Dzenis, Y., Pegoretti, A.
Filler aggregation as a reinforcement
mechanism in polymer nanocomposites. Mechanics of Materials. 61
(2013).
24. Lazzeri, A., Thio, Y.S., Cohen, R.E.
Volume strain measurements on
CaCO3/polypropylene
particulate
composites: the effect of particle size.
Journal of Applied Polymer Science.
91 (2004).
25. Thio, Y.S., Argon, A.S., Cohen, R.E.,
Weinberg, M. Toughening of isotactic
polypropylene with CaCO3 particles.
Polymer. 43 (2002).
250
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WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMPRESSOR
Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE*
*Department of Electrical, Power Systems and Aerospace Engineering, University of Craiova,
Craiova, Romania
Abstract: The paper deals with an aircraft jet engine with cooling fluid injection in its compressor, meant
to temporarily increase its thrust, treated as controlled object. The author has established systems
motion equations, consecutive to the new gas-dynamic and fluid mechanics conditions. Using the
equation system, the author has obtained engines new structure matrix description, as well as its transfer
function. A study concerning its time behavior, for two different fluids, was eventually performed (about
its speed, combustor temperature and thrust) and some conclusions were presented. The paper is useful
for students and researchers in their jet engine automation studies and may be improved by considering
the flight regime influence, where possible.
Keywords: engine, control, cooling, injection, compressor, thrust augmentation, step response.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the aircraft jet engines thrust
increasing methods consists of fluid injection
in the front of its compressor. The phenomena
are described in [3,4,5] and thermodynamically explained and grounded in [5].
From the practical point of view, the
aircraft engine may be overboosted using
afterburning systems or alternative thrust
augmentation methods. The afterburning is the
most efficient thrust augmentation method, but
in the same time, it is the most expensive-one,
because of its fuel consumption increasing, as
well as because of its mandatory constructive
modifications and automatic control schemes
implementation. Meanwhile, the afterburning
isnt an appropriate thrust augmentation
system for turboprop engines, nor for twin-jet
turbofan engines. Especially for turboprops,
the lack of air and the presence of the propeller
251
make impossible the afterburning adapting as

well as a high flight speed achieving.
For these propulsion systems, alternative
thrust augmentation methods are: a) fluid
injection into the engines compressor; b) fluid
injection into the engines combustor. Both
these methods are meant to increase the
exhaust nozzle enthalpy fall, by reducing the
turbine enthalpy fall, consecutive to a smaller
compressor mechanical work necessity.
The first method consists of the injection of
a special volatile fluid (water, ammonia,
methanol, water-methanol mixture etc) into the
front of the engines axial compressor. During
the air compression evolution the temperature
grows; the injected fluid vaporizes itself and
extracts an important part of the resulted heat,
which cools the compressed air and grows its
mass air flow rate, keeping constant the
volume flow rate. The extraction of that heat
from the compressed air transforms the
adiabatic (isentropic) compression evolution

into a polytropic one and determines a
mechanical work necessity decreasing.
It results an important thrust augmentation,
caused by both the mass airflow increasing
and the exhaust nozzle burned gases speed
increasing.
2. THERMODYNAMIC EFFECTS OF
THE FLUID INJECTION
2.1 Compression evolution.
The heat
extraction through the fluid injection
transforms the adiabatic compression evolution into a polytropic one, the polytropic
exponent being smaller than 1.4 (which is the
adiabatic exponent for air, denoted as k ). The
greater the injected fluid flow rate m& l is, the
lower the polytropic exponent is, tending to 1
(which corresponds to the ideal isothermic
evolution), as figure 1 shows.
The curve in figure 1 was obtained
applying the following algorithm [5]. Firstly,
one considers the irreversible adiabatic air
evolution in the compressor as a polytropic
one, which leads to
k 1
k
( )
i1* c
= i1*
k 1 a
c
k a 1
a 1
a
( )
1 , (1)
where i1* is the air specific enthalpy in the front

of the compressor, c compressors pressure
ratio, c compressors randament, a polytropic exponent of the equivalent evolution.
This non-linear equations solving gives the
equivalent n value.
The injected fluid may extract the heat
(2)
Qi = m& l r f ,
where r f is fluids vaporization latent heat,
which means, for the air flow rate m& a , that
Q
m&
(3)
qi = i = l r f
m& a m& a
and the specific mechanical work of the
compressor diminishes exactly with this value.
Consequently, the new polytropic evolution
(by ai exponent) should have the same
mechanical work value, so
a
c
a 1
a 1
a
( )
i1
ai
c
ai 1 i
a 1
ai ai
1 =
ci i 1 , (4)
ai 1
k 1
ai 1
c k 1
ai 1 = i
1
qi (5)
c
( )
( )
( )
where ci is the new compressors pressure

ratio (when the fluid injection is active)
ai
a 1
a 1 a
ai 1
. (6)
ci = 1 + i
c a 1
ai a 1
From Eqs. (5) and (6) one obtains the

relation between m& i and ai
( )
k 1
k
( )
c
a 1 a
= i
c
ai a 1
a 1
a
( )
m& r f
1 + l
m& a i1
(7)
which is the reason of the graphics in figure 1.

The determined value for ai , used by the
formula (6) leads to the new value of ci , so
one can obtain the new operation line position
on the compressor characteristic.
2.2 Flow rate. Most of the nowadays
operational jet engines have critical flow in
their turbines [5], so the flow parameter
m& g T3
remains constant even if one uses the

p3
fluid injection, where m& g is the burned gas
flow rate, T3 gas temperature before the
ai
1.4
1.35
ma=10 kg/s
1.3
*c=6
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
.
ml
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 [kg/s]
Figure 1. Polytropic exponent with respect to the

injected fluid flow rate
252
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SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
turbine, p3 gas pressure before the turbine,

proportional to the air pressure after the
compressor p3 = CA p2 . Consequently, the
air/gases flow rate through the engine must
satisfy it, as follows
m& g T3
p3
m& a T3
CA p2
m& ai T3
CA p2i
(8)
becomes proportional to m& a

m& ai =
1.3
1.25
Fi
F
1.15
(9)
The burned gases flow rate becomes, if one

considers the fuel flow rate m& c ,
m& gi = m& ai + m& l + m& c .
(10)
3. ENGINES PERFORMANCES
Engines thrust will, obviously, grow (as

figure 2 shows), both because of the flow rate
m& gi increasing and the specific thrust Fspi
increasing
Fi = m& gi C5i m& ai V = m& ai g C5i V ,
(11)
where C5i exhaust gases velocity, V airspeed, g gases mass fraction.

Assuming that the fluid injection is used at
low flight speed (only for short time periods
during the aircraft take-off maneuver), one can
neglect the V term, so it results
c
Fi = m& ai g C5i = m& ai Fspi = m& a i Fspi . (11)
c
If the injected fluid is pure (distilled) water
its flow rate being at most 4% of the air flow
rate, engines performances (thrust and
specific fuel consumption) versus water flow
253
cspi
csp
1.1
.
ml
.
ma
1.05
1
1.35
1.2
so the air flow rate with fluid injection m& ai

c
m& a i
c
1.4
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Figure 2. Engines performances with respect to

the injected fluid flow rate
rate fraction are presented in figure 2 [5]. One

can observe that for an injected water fraction
m&
l = l 0.04 , engines thrust increases up to
m& a
40%, which is a real success of the method.
Specific fuel consumption grows too, but
moderately, no more than 8%, because of the
T2 temperature, which decreases and engines
fuel system has to compensate this loss by
supplementary fuel injection, in order to
restore the requested T3 burners temperature.
If the injection fluid is a combustible
substance, such as methanol, or a watermethanol mixture, T2 temperatures decreasing and the supplementary need for fuel are
partly compensated by the fluids burning,
which brings its own heat into the engines
combustor; consequently, the supplementary
fuel injection becomes much smaller than
when the injected fluid is pure water.
The described thrust augmentation method
is very effective when the engine operates at
high atmospheric temperatures (more than 25
o
C), low atmospheric pressures and low
humidity (because it facilitates the injected

fluids vaporizing).
One of the methods disadvantage is
related to the possibility of air intakes and
compressors blades icing, as well as to the
suction of ice lumps into the compressor.
Fluid injection running time is the one who
limits the fluid necessary mass to be boarded,
so, one has to optimize the on-board fluid
supplies, according to the aircraft take-off
needs and the atmospheric conditions.
4. ENGINES NEW MOTION
EQUATIONS
Engines mathematical model consists of:

- engines spool motion equation;
- compressors and turbines characteristics;
- combustors energy equation;
- air/gases flow rates equation.
These equations are studied in [8] for a
basic engine; a matrix description is also given
[A] (u ) = (b) ,
(12)
where [A] is engines matrix, (u ) output
parameters vector and (b ) input parameters
vector:
T1s + 1
k
2n
A= 0
0
k 5n
k1T 3
k 2T 3
0
0
k1 p 2
k2 p2
1
k 4T 3
k5T 3
k3 p 2
k4 p2
k5 p 2
k 4T 4
0
k1 p 4
0
k3 p 4
k4 p4
0
injected fluid (pure water); b) combustible

injected fluid (methanol).
One can observe that the flow rate equation
is the same for both of these cases, the difference being given by the other equations.
4.1 Flow rate equation. The exhaust gases
flow rate is given by Eq. (10), where the fuel
flow rate is the smallest and can be neglected
m& gi p3 ,T3 = m& ai p2 ,n + m& l .
(16)
T4*
p*2
p*4 ,
Assuming that p3 = CA p2 ,CA = const. ,

m& g
m& g i
m& a
T3
i CA i p2 +

p2 0
p2 0
T3 0
m& ai
n = m& l ,

(18)
n 0
or
p20 m& gi
m& ai p2
0
( )

m&
CA ai
p
0
2
p2

p +
0 20
T30 m& g i T3
n0 m& ai
m& ai T3 T3
m& ai n
0
0
0
0
(m& l )0 m& l
m& l
=
= l
.
(m& l )0
m& ai (m& l )0
( )
( )
n =
0 0
( )0
(14)
bT = 0 0 0 0 k5QcQc .
(15)
The involved co-efficient are used with their
expressions, described in [8].
Based on previous chapters thermodynamic considerations, one can affirm that the
fluid injection has influence on the compressors characteristics, as well as on the air/gases
flow rate balance along the engine.
Consequently, one has to modify the equations
involving the compressors pressure ratio, the
pressure and temperature behind the
compressor, the temperature behind the
engines combustor, as well as the equation of
flow rates continuity.
One has to study two cases: a) neutral
( )
The above equation should be linearised,

using the finite differences method, in order to
be used into the mathematical model
m& g i
m&
m&
p3 + g i T3 = ai p2 +
p
p
T
2 0
3 0
3 0
m& ai
n + m& l .
+
(17)
(13)
u T = n T3*
Assuming the formal annotation X =
(19)
X
X0

k2/ n n k2/T 3T3 + k2/ p 2 p2 = l m& l ;
(20)
one can observe that the second line in matrix
[A] should be replaced by the new values of
the co-efficient. Meanwhile, one has to
complete the second element in the input
vector (b) with the term in the right member of
Eq. (20).
4.2 Combustors energy equation. The
fifth equation in the mathematical model is
based on the combustors energy equation,
254
.
mc
.
ml
.
mc
n
T3*
Aircraft
jet engine
.
ml
a)
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA
a1s+a0
u
1
ms+m
b1s+b0
b)

SLOVAK REPUBLIC
Figure 3. Aircraft jet engine as controlled system (object)

AFASES 2014
which may have different forms, according to

the injected fluids nature:
m& g i c p g T3 m& ai c pa T2 = m& c CA Pc + m& l CA Pl ,
to 1, the value of the co-efficient of m& c , so it

may be neglected. Consequently, the abovedetermined equation may be re-written as
(21)
specific isobar heat of the
k5n n + k5/T 3T3 + k5/ p 2 p2 = m& c

(26)
and the last line in matrix [A] should be
appropriate restored.
where c p g ,c pa
burned gases and air (assumed as equal),

CA burning process perfection co-efficient,
Pc , Pl chemical energy of the fuel,
respectively of the injected fluid.
Meanwhile, the term T2 should be expressed with respect to p2
T
T
T2 = 2 c = 2 c p2 , (22)

p
c 0
c 0 2 0
T2
or as
p20 T2 c
= p2 .
T2 0 c 0 p2 0
(23)
a) If the in jected fluid is a neutral-one ,

the term m& l CA Pl becomes null. Consequently,
Eq. (21) becomes
m& g i c pT3 m& ai c pT2 = m& c CA Pc .
(24)
b) If the in jected fluid is a combustibleone, the Eq. (21) must be entirely considered.
Consequently, the quantity m& l CA Pl adds a
new term to Eq. (25) and modifies the coefficient of m& c , so the right member of the
above-mentioned equation becomes
m&
m& c T T20
1 Pl l0 m& c l0 p 30
m& l =
Pc m& c
&
m
P
c
CA
c
0
0
/
/
= k5c m& c k5l m& l .
(27)
The fifth lines new form is
k 5 n n + k 5/ T 3 T 3 + k 5/ p 2 p 2 = k 5/ c m& c k 5/ l m& l
, (28)
so, the mathematical model should be
completed. If the second line is multiplied by
Considering Eqs. (16), (17), (18) and (23),
k5/l
one obtains from (24)
, then added to the fifth line, one obtains
l
c p m& a0 m& l0 T30

c p T30 T20 n0 m& a
T3 for this one the form
n+
m& c0 CA Pc
m& c0 CA Pc n 0
/ k5/l
/ k5/l

k2 n
+
+
+
k
n
k
k
5n
5T 3 T3 +
c p T3 T2 p2 m& c p m& a m& l
2T 3
l
a
0
0
0
0
0
l
&
&
m
P
m
P
c0 CA c
c0 CA c
p2 0
k/
& c .(29)
+ k 2/ p 2 5l + k5 p 2 p2 = k5/c m

l
&
m
l
0
m& l .
p20 2 c p2 = m& c
p
The [A]-matrix, as well as the (b)-vector
&
m
c0 CA Pc
c 0 2 0
should be modified in appropriate modes, with
(25) respect to the injected fluid nature.
One can observe that the co-efficient
5. SYSTEMS QUALITY
m& l0
m& c0 CA Pc
of the injected fluid flow rate
& l has a very small value comparing

parameter m
255
Jet engines behavior, as controlled object

(system), should be studied for the new
conditions. Systems quality consists of
engines step response (its time behavior for

step input or inputs).
An aircraft engine with compressor fluid
injection can be represented, as controlled
object, by a system with two inputs (fuel flow
rate and injected fluid flow rate) and more
outputs (engine speed, combustor temperature,
thrust etc), as figure 3.a shows.
Following the algorithm described in
[6,7,8], each one of the outputs u can be
expressed with respect to the above-mentionned inputs, as formally shown in figure 3.b.
As main outputs were considered the next
three: a) engines speed non-dimensional
parameter n ; b) engines combustor tempera-
the same response of the combustor temperature parameter and figure 6 contains engines
thrust behavior for the same conditions.
The case of the injection of a neutral fluid
(pure water) into the compressor brings next
mathematical model modifications
1
n (s ) =
1.283 m& c 0.092m& l ,
1.6348 s + 4.5158
ture parameter T3 ; c) engines total thrust
(0.089 s + 0.315)m& l ,
(35)
depicted with dash lines in figures 4, 5 and 6.
The case of the injection of a combustible
fluid (methanol) into the compressor brings
similar mathematical model modifications, as
follows
1
n (s ) =
1.43 m& c 0.184m& l ,
2.161s + 4.7973
parameter F .
One has chosen, for a quantitative study, a
VK-1A-type jet engine, with constant area
exhaust nozzle, having in mind only the engine
as possible controlled object, without its
control systems (without the speed controller
and the temperature limiter).
Output parameters expressions for the
VK-1A basic engine are
1.2606
(30)
n (s ) =
m& c ,
2.0859s + 5.1015
1.3799 s + 2.3888
(31)
T3 (s ) =
m& c ,
2.0859s + 5.1015
1.3762 s + 4.762
(32)
F (s ) =
m& c ,
2.0859s + 5.1015
depicted with continuous lines for step
responses in figures 4, 5 and 6.
Figure 4 shows the engines speed
parameters step response, while figure 5 shows
T3 (s ) =
(33)
1
(1.474 s + 2.748)m& c
1.6348 s + 4.5158
(0.047 s + 0.034)m& l ,
(34)
1
(1.385 s + 4.516 )m& c
F (s ) =
1.6348 s + 4.5158
T3 (s ) =
(36)
1
(1.816 s + 2.467 )m& c
2.161s + 4.7973
(0.053s + 0.047)m& l ,
(37)
1
(1.584 s + 6.317 )m& c
F (s ) =
2.161s + 4.7973
(0.113s + 0.803)m& l ,
(38)
depicted with dash-dot lines in figures 4, 5, 6.
0.35
injection of
neutral fluid
injection of
combustible fluid
0.3
0.25
0.2
basic engine
0.15
0.1
0.05
t [s]
0
Figure 4. Engines speed parameter step response
256
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T3*
0.9
0.8
0.8
injection of
neutral fluid
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
injection of
neutral fluid
0.5
0.5
0.4
injection of
combustible fluid
0.4
0.3
0.3
injection of
combustible fluid
basic engine
0.2
0.2
basic engine
0.1
0.1
0
t [s]
0
t [s]
0
0
Figure 5. Engines combustor temperature

parameter step response
Figure 6. Engines total thrust parameter step

response
6. CONCLUSIONS
Cooling fluid injection into the jet engines

compressor determines gas-dynamic and
performance modifications, injected fluids
nature having a very important contribution.
As the technical literature shows, the
described method of thrust augmentation is a
very effective one, especially for turboprops,
thrust increasing being significant; meanwhile,
the specific fuel consumption has a moderate
growing (under 15%), definitely acceptable
because of the thrust augmentation advantages.
Gas-dynamic changes entail both jet
engines mathematical model changes, as well
as performances improvements.
Mathematical models equation were
modified because of the air/gases flow rates
balance changes, as well as because of the new
energy balance of the combustor, when a
combustible cooling fluid is involved.
Whatever the cooling fluid were, engines
speed is less influenced (as figure 4 shows),
small n parameters increasing being
observed, especially when the cooling injected
fluid is a combustible-one (obviously, because
its supplementary contribution to the engines
257
combustors burning process and supplementary heat transfer).

From the temperatures parameter behavior
point of view (see figure 5), when the injected
cooling fluid is a neutral one (e.g. distilled
water), one can observe the same trend as for
the basic engine, but also a significant growing
of T3 parameters value. This is the consequence of the air mass flow rate growing,
followed by a supplementary fuel injection.
When the cooling injected fluid is a combustible-one, the initial temperature growing is
nearly the same (as for a neutral fluid), but,
because of its own heat input, the necessary
fuel injection is less than before, so the
temperatures parameter tends to restore the
basic engines behavior.
From the thrust-parameter point of view,
whatever the injected cooling fluid were,
thrust is growing. As figure 6 shows, the
combustible cooling fluid injection gives the
most significant thrust increase, that because
both of air flow rate increase and the specific
thrust increase (due to the supplementary heat
input). Neutral cooling fluid injection assures
thrust increase too, but moderate.
From the engines time constant point of

view, this value remains nearly the same;
whatever the method were, stabilization time
values are kept around (2.53.0) sec.
One has performed the study for an engine
VK-1A-type, for sea level conditions. This
study could be extended for other flight
conditions (low altitude and take-off air
speed), given that this thrust augmentation
method is useful for airplanes (aircraft)
taking-off, being a restore thrust method
(when the atmospheric temperature exceeds a
conventionally determined critical value for
each engine).
REFERENCES
1. Berbente, C., Constantinescu, N. V. Gases

Dynamics, vol. I, II. Politehnica University
in Bucharest Inprint (1985).
2. Hill, P. G., Peterson, C. Mechanics and
Thermodinamics of Propulsion. Addison Wesley Publications, New York (1993).
3. Ispas, St. The Turbo-Jet Engine. Technica

Publishing House (1985).
4. Mattingly, J. D. Elements of gas turbine
propulsion. McGraw-Hill, New York
(1996).
5. Pimsner, V. Air-breathing Jet Engines.
Processes and Characteristics, Bucharest,
Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing (1983).
6. Stoenciu, D. Aircraft Engine Automation.
Aircraft Engines as Controlled Objects.
Bucharest, Military Technical Academy
Inprint (1977).
7. Stoicescu, M., Rotaru, C. Turbo-Jet
Engines. Characteristics and Control
Methods. Bucharest, Military Technical
Academy Inprint (1999).
8. Tudosie, A. N. Aerospace Propulsion
Systems Automation. University of Craiova
Inprint (2005).
9. Tudosie, A. Aircraft Gas-Turbine Engines
Control Based on the Fuel Injection
Control. In Max Mulder Aeronautics and
astronautics. Intech Open Acces Publisher
(2011).
258
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WITH COOLING FLUID INJECTION INTO ITS COMBUSTOR
Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE*
*Department of Electrical, Power Systems and Aerospace Engineering, University of Craiova,
Craiova, Romania
Abstract: The paper deals with an aircraft jet engine with cooling fluid injection into the rear part of its
combustor, meant to temporarily increase its thrust, treated as controlled object. The author has
established systems motion equations, consecutive to the new gas-dynamic and fluid mechanics
conditions. Using the equation system, the author has obtained engines new structure matrix description,
as well as its transfer functions. A study concerning its time behavior was performed (about its speed,
combustor temperature and thrust) and some conclusions were presented, comparing to other cooling
fluid injection methods results. The paper is useful for students and researchers in their jet engine
automation studies and may be improved by considering the flight regime influence.
Keywords: engine, cooling fluid, injection, combustor, thrust augmentation, flow rate.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the aircraft jet engines thrust
increasing methods consists of fluid injection
in the rear part of its combustor, in the mixing
area. The phenomena are described in [3,4,5]
and thermo-dynamically explained and
grounded in [5].
The aircraft engine may be overboosted
using afterburning systems or alternative thrust
augmentation methods. The afterburning is the
most efficient thrust augmentation method, but
in the same time, it is the most expensive-one,
because of its fuel consumption increasing, as
well as because of its mandatory constructive
modifications and automatic control schemes
implementation. Meanwhile, the afterburning
isnt an appropriate thrust augmentation
system for turboprop engines, nor for twin-jet
turbofan engines in their outer jet. Especially
259
for turboprops, the lack of air and the presence

of the propeller make impossible the
afterburning adapting as well as a high flight
speed achieving.
For these propulsion systems, alternative
thrust augmentation methods are: a) fluid
injection into the engines compressor [5,10];
b) fluid injection into the engines combustor,
in its rear part (as figure 1 shows). Both these
methods are meant to increase the exhaust
nozzle enthalpy fall, by reducing the turbine
enthalpy fall, consecutive to a smaller
compressor mechanical work necessity.
The first method was described in [5] and
engines new mathematical model was
determined and studied in [10].
The second method is the subject of this
paper, which intends to establish the new
mathematical model of the engine, as well as
to study engines time behavior (by studying
mc
swirl
burning can
fuel injector
combustor
cooling fluid ramp
fuel
air
burned gases
air
mg
burned gases
air
cooling
fluid
ma
ml
Figure 1. Aircraft jet engines combustor with cooling fluid injection facility
the step response of the engine concerning its

speed, temperature and thrust).
In both of the above-mentioned cases, it
results an important thrust augmentation,
caused by both the mass airflow increasing
and the exhaust nozzle burned gases speed
increasing, until 60% for the first method and
until 25% for the second method, corresponding to a cooling fluid flow rate fraction of
5% of the engines air flow rate. Figure 2
shows thrust and specific fuel consumption
growing percentages with respect to the
injected fuel fraction. Fuel consumption is
bigger than in the case studied in [10] (that
means in the case of cooling fluid injection
into the engines compressor).
One can observe that engines performances are a little smaller than in the first
case, but this method offers some advantages,
such as constructive simplicity, the elimination
of the icing possibilities, as well as the
elimination of the blades corrosion. A major
disadvantage is that an uncontrolled fluid
injection could obstruct an appropriate burning
deployment and it could even extinguish the
combustors flame; that is the reason why the
1.3
1.25
2. THERMODYNAMIC EFFECTS OF
THE FLUID INJECTION
2.1 Flow rate balance. The fluid injection
brings into the combustor (and into the general
flow) an extra flow rate m& l .
Most of the nowadays operational jet
engines have critical flow in their turbines [5],
remains conp3
stant even if one uses the fluid injection, where
m& g is the burned gases flow rate, T3 gas
so the flow parameter
1.15
1.1
csp i
csp
1.05
1
m& g T3
temperature before the turbine, p3 gas pressure before the turbine, proportional to the air
pressure after the compressor p3 = CA p2 .
Fi
F
1.2
injection is done at the rear part of the burner

can, near its wall, in order to assure a
supplementary cooling of the burners wall
and, meanwhile, to facilitate the mixing of the
burned gases with the vaporized cooling fluid.
In most of the practical situations the used
cooling fluid is the water, which means a
neutral fluid, the injection of a combustible
fluid being unnecessary, even prohibited.
In some situations an air flow rate by-passing is necessary (see figure 3), when the
compressors air flow rate exceeds the
necessary, in order to prevent an unstable
engine operation (stall).
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
.
ml
.
ma
0.50
Figure 2. Engines performances with respect to

the injected fluid flow rate
260
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The greater the injected fluid flow rate m& l ,

the less the compressor air flow m& a rate must
be and it leads to an important pressure
increasing (both p2 and p3 ); meanwhile, the
operating regime becomes closer to the stall
limit, which is an undesirable phenomenon.
Consequently, the burned gases flow rate must
keep its value and becomes
swirl
mc
fuel, which is a supplementary propulsion

system, offering its own thrust.
Obviously, as long as the extracted m& ap air
flow rate value depends on the cooling fluid
flow rate m& l value, the presence of an
appropriate fuel control system for this new
combustor is compulsory, in order to correlate
the fuel flow rate injection to the air flow rate.
Meanwhile, the main fuel flow rate control
burning can
fuel injector
combustor
cooling fluid ramp
fuel
ma
air
burned gases
air
burned gases
air
.
m
by-pass air
ap
mgp
cooling
fluid
exhaust
nozzle
air
ml
burned gases
fuel
Figure 3. Jet engines combustor with cooling fluid injection, air by-pass and supplementary combustor
m& g = m& ai + m& l + m& c ,
supplementary combustor
(1)
where m& ai is the new air flow rate value,

smaller than the initial value m& a .
In order to avoid unstable regimes, even
when the cooling fluid injection is operational,
a combined thrust augmentation method can
be implemented. This method is meant to keep
constant the compressors air flow rate and,
meanwhile, to extract (by-pass) an air flow
rate m& ap before the engines combustor, in
order to keep the flow rate balance
m& gp = m& a m& ap + m& l + m& c m& g .
(2)
The extracted air flow rate is not a loss for

the system; it can be used into another
combustor (an external, independent, supplementary combustor), provided with its own
exhaust nozzle and separately supplied with
261
system must be reset for the new conditions.

The flow rate balance must be kept in both
of situations, without cooling fluid injection
(basic engine) or with cooling fluid injection.
For the basic engine
g +1
g 2 g 1
,
cr
Rg g + 1
while for the engine with fluid injection
m& g = A3 /
m& gp = A3 /
cr
p3
T3
p3
T3
(3)
gp +1
gp 2 gp 1
,
Rgp gp + 1
(4)
/
where is the flow rate co-efficient, A3cr
turbines stator critical area, g , gp adiabatic exponents of the burned gases, Rg , Rgp
gas constants of the burned gases (for both

situations).
Considering the formal annotation for flow
rate fractions (with respect to the m& a air flow
m&
rate) as x = x , from Eqs. (2), (3) and (4)
m& a
one obtains
gp +1
2 gp 1
1 ap (1 + l + c )
Rg gp + 1
=
,
g +1
(1 ci )
Rgp
2 g 1
g + 1
(5)
where c ,ci fuel flow rate fractions for the
basic engine, respectively for the engine with
cooling fluid injection (determined as
1
),
min L stoechiometric
c =
CAmin L
minimum air value for 1 kg of fuel, CA air
excess co-efficient in engines combustor,
ap extracted air flow fraction and
l injected fluid fraction.

Assuming that burned gases properties are
nearly the same for both of situations, the right
member in Eq. (5) becomes equal to 1, so
(6)
ci = c l + ap (1 + l ) .
2.2 Main combustors energy balance.
Energy balance equation for the combustor
must be written in both situations (without and
with cooling fluid injection).
For the basic engine the equation is
m& ai2 + m& c ( CA Pci + ic ) = m& g i3 = m& a (1 + c )i3 ,
(7)
while for the engine with fluid injection
(8)
m& ai i2 + m& ci ( CA Pci + ic ) + m& l il = m& gpi3i .
Given the formulas (1), (2) and (6), after
dividing Eqs. (7) and (8) by m& a , one obtains
i2 + c ( CA Pci + ic ) = (1 + c )i3 ,
specific enthalpy, Pci fuels chemical energy,

CA combustors burning perfection coefficient.
Assuming that burned gases enthalpy must
remain constant and, meanwhile, assuming
that fuels enthalpy is very small, negligible
compared to fuels chemical energy (Pci ) and
that burning perfection co-efficient ( CA )
remains constant (with or without cooling fluid
injection), from the above-determined
equation one can express the fluid injection
fraction as

1
1
i3i i2
l =
1 +
i3 il CAmin L
CA Pci + il
(11)
.
CAmin L
Eqs. (6) and (11) may determine the
extracted air fraction, with respect to the
injected cooling fluid fraction.
3. ENGINES NEW MOTION

EQUATIONS
Engines mathematical model consists of:
- engines spool motion equation;
- compressors and turbines characteristics;
- combustors energy equation;
- air/gases flow rates equation.
These equations are studied in [8] for a
basic engine; a matrix description is also given
[A] (u ) = (b) ,
(12)
where [A] is engines matrix, (u ) output
parameters vector and (b ) input parameters
vector:
T1s + 1
k
2n
A= 0
0
k 5n
1
k 4T 3
k5T 3
k3 p 2
k4 p2
k5 p 2
u = n
specific enthalpy, i2 ,i3 ,i3i air/burned gases
k1 p 2
k2 p2
k 4T 4
0
k1 p 4
0
k3 p 4
k4 p4
0
(13)
(14)
bT = 0 0 0 0 k5QcQc .
(15)
i2 + ci ( CA Pci + ic ) + l il = 1 ap + l + c i3i
where ic ,il are fuels and injected liquids
0
0
p*4 ,
(9)
(10)
k1T 3
k 2T 3
T3*
T4*
p*2
The involved co-efficient are used with their

expressions, described in [8].
Based on previous chapter thermodynamic
considerations, one can affirm that the fluid
262
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injection has influence on the air/gases flow

rate balance along the engine, as well as on the
energy balance in the engines combustor.
Consequently, one has to modify the equations
involving the temperature behind the engines
combustor, as well as the equation of flow
rates continuity.
One has to neglect the new propulsion
system (supplementary combustor), which
operates together with the basic engine,
because it has no influence above the
mathematical model; it may only be
considered as a thrust augmentation factor and
it must be included, if possible, only in the
global thrust calculation.
3.1 Flow rate equation. The exhaust gases
flow rate is given by Eq. (10), where the fuel
flow rate is the smallest and can be neglected
m& gi p3 ,T3 = m& ai p2 ,n + m& l .
(16)
( )
The above equation should be linearised,

using the finite differences method, in order to
be used into the mathematical model
m& g i
m&
m&
p3 + g i T3 = ai p2 +
p
p
T
2 0
3 0
3 0
m& ai
n + m& l .
+
(17)
n 0
T30 m& g i T3
n0 m& ai
m& ai T3 T3
m& ai n
0
0
0
0
(m& l )0 m& l
m& l
=
= l
.
(m& l )0
m& ai (m& l )0
( )
( )
n =
0 0
( )0
Assuming the formal annotation X =
(19)
X
X0

k2/ n n k2/T 3T3 + k2/ p 2 p2 = l m& l ;
(20)
one can observe that the second line in matrix

[A] should be replaced by the new values of
the co-efficient. Meanwhile, one has to
complete the second element in the input
vector (b) with the term in the right member of
Eq. (20).
3.2 Combustors energy equation.
The
fifth equation in the mathematical model is
based on the combustors energy equation,
which may have different forms, according to
the injected fluids nature:
m& g i c p g T3 m& ai c pa T2 = m& c CA Pc + m& l CA Pl ,
where c p g ,c pa
(21)
specific isobar heat of the
burned gases and air (assumed as equal),

CA burning process perfection co-efficient,
Pc , Pl chemical energy of the fuel,
respectively of the injected fluid.
Assuming that p3 = CA p2 ,CA = const. ,

Meanwhile, the term T2 should be expres m& g
m& g i
m& a
T3 sed with respect to p2
i CA i p2 +
p
T
p2 0
2 0
3 0
T
T
T2 = 2 c = 2 c p2 , (22)

p
m& ai
c 0
c 0 2 0
n = m& l ,

(18)
0
p2 0 T2 c
or as
T2 = p2 .
(23)
p
p20 m& gi
m& ai p2
T
2
c
2
0
0
0
or
CA +
m& ai p2
p
p
The
cooling
fluid,
which
is
injected
into
2
2
0
0
0
0
the rear part of the combustor is a neutral-one
and doesnt participate at the burning reaction
( )
263
.
mc
.
ml
.
mc
n
T3*
Aircraft
jet engine
a1s+a0
.
ml
b1s+b0
a)
ms+m
b)
Figure 4. Aircraft jet engine as controlled system (object)
(as flammable substance). Consequently,

Eq. (21) becomes
m& gi c pT3 m& ai c pT2 = m& c CA Pc .
(24)
Considering Eqs. (16), (17), (18) and (23),
one obtains from (24)
c p T30 T20 n0 m& a
c p m& a0 m& l0 T30
n
T3
+
m& c0 CA Pc n 0
m& c0 CA Pc
c p T3 T2 p2
0
0
0
+
&
m
P
c0 CA c
m& a c p m& a0 m& l0
p m& P
c0 CA ci
2 0
outputs (engine speed, combustor temperature,

thrust etc), as figure 4.a shows.
Following the algorithm described in
[6,7,8], each one of the outputs u can be
expressed with respect to the above-mentionned inputs, as formally shown in figure 4.b.
As main outputs the next three were
considered: a) engines speed non-dimensional
parameter n ; b) engines combustor temperature parameter T3 ; c) engines thrust para-
meter F .
One has chosen, for a quantitative study, a

m& l0
2
c
VK-1A-type jet engine, with constant area
p20 p2 = m& c
m& l
p
&
m
P
c
CA
ci
exhaust nozzle, having in mind only the engine
c 0 2 0
0
(25) as possible controlled object, without its
One can observe that the co-efficient control systems (without the speed controller
and the temperature limiter). Its flight regime
m& l0
of the injected fluid flow rate is conventionally chosen as stationary
m& c0 CA Pci
(airspeed V=0) at sea level (altitude H=0).
Output parameters expressions for the
& l has a very small value comparing
parameter m
VK-1A basic engine are
to 1, the value of the co-efficient of m& c , so it
1.2606
(30)
n (s ) =
m& c ,
may be neglected. Consequently, the above2.0859s + 5.1015
determined equation may be re-written as
1.3799 s + 2.3888
/
/
(31)
(
)
s
T
=
m& c ,
3
k5n n + k5T 3T3 + k5 p 2 p2 = m& c
(26)
2.0859s + 5.1015
and the last line in matrix [A] should be
1.3762 s + 4.762
(32)
F (s ) =
m& c ,
appropriate restored.
2.0859s + 5.1015
The [A]-matrix, as well as the (b)-vector
should be modified in appropriate modes, with depicted with dashed lines for step responses
in figures 5, 6 and 7.
respect to the injected fluid nature.
Figure 5 shows the engines speed parameters step response, while figure 6 shows the
4. SYSTEMS QUALITY
same response of the combustor temperature
Jet engines behavior, as controlled object parameter and figure 7 contains engines thrust
(system), should be studied for the new behavior for the same conditions.
The case of the injection of a neutral
conditions. Systems quality consists of
engines step response (its time behavior for cooling fluid (water) into the rear part of the
engines combustor brings next mathematical
step input or inputs).
An aircraft engine with combustor fluid model modifications
1
injection can be represented, as controlled
n (s ) =
1.411 m& c 0.167 m& l ,
2.3761s + 4.817
object, by a system with two inputs (fuel flow
rate and injected fluid flow rate) and more
(33)
264
0.35
T3*
0.9
fluid injection into
the engine's compressor
0.3
0.8

0.7
0.25
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.4
0.15
basic
engine

the engine's combustor
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.05
t [s]
0
Figure 5. Engines speed parameter

step response
0.7
0.6
basic
engine
0.4
0.3

0.2
0.1
t [s]
0
0
Figure 7. Engines thrust parameter step response

1
T3 (s ) =
1
(1.8732 s + 2.847)m& c
2.3761s + 4.817
&l
(0.0823 s + 0.0764)m
F(s ) =
(34)
1
(1.583 s + 5.167 )m& c
2.3761s + 4.817
&l
(0.0834 s + 0.4725)m
t [s]
0
Figure 6. Engines combustor temperature

parameter step response
0.5
0.1
0
basic
engine

(35)
In order to realize a comparison between the
performances of the fluid injection thrust
augmentation methods, the results of the
compressor fluid injection method in [10] were
taken and inserted into the diagrams in figures
5, 7 and 7 (dash-dot lines).
5. CONCLUSIONS
Cooling fluid injection into the jet engines
combustor determines gas-dynamic modifycations and performances improvement.
265
As the technical literature shows, the

described method of thrust augmentation
through fluid injection into the combustor is a
very effective one, especially for high altitudes
flights, thrust increasing being significant
(until 25%, as figure 2 shows); meanwhile, the
specific fuel consumption has a moderate
growing (under 15%), definitely acceptable
because of the thrust augmentation advantages.
Gas-dynamic changes have as consequences both jet engines mathematical model
changes, as well as performances improvements.
Mathematical models equation was
modified because of the air/gases flow rates
balance changes, as well as because of the new
energy balance of the combustor, when a
combustible cooling fluid is involved. In order
to keep the engine stable, a small air flow rate
is extracted before the combustor and used
into a supplementary combustor (with its own
exhaust nozzle, which operates as an auxiliary
propulsion system).
Whatever the cooling fluid injection
method were, engines speed is less influenced
(as figure 5 shows), small n parameters
increasing being observed. Moreover, the
injection into the combustor involves less
speed modifications than the injection into the
compressor, but one has observed, in this case,
a small response time growing (about 0.5 s),
which means that the engine has become
somewhat slower than the basic engine. The
injection into the compressor makes the engine
a little, but insignificant, faster, from the
response time point of view.
From the temperatures parameter behavior

point of view (see figure 6), whatever the
injection method were, one can observe the
same trend as for the basic engine. However, a
significant growing of T3 parameters value
is observed when the injection is used, as a
consequence of the supplementary fuel
injection, in order to compensate the air
exceeding flow rate, so the temperatures
parameter tends to restore the basic engines
behavior.
From the thrust-parameter point of view,
whatever the injection method is, thrust
presents moderate increase (because of the
neutral injected fluids, which doesnt assure
supplementary heat input and the thrust
augmentation is realized by the air flow and
gases speed increase). As figure 7 shows,
thrust augmentation is more rapid when the
compressor injection is used, but the growing
percentage is comparable for both of the used
methods.
Engines time constant is about 15% bigger
than for the basic engine; whatever the method
were, stabilization time values are kept around
(2.53.5) sec, which is acceptable from the
practical point of view.
One has performed the study for an engine
VK-1A-type, for sea level conditions. This
study could be extended for other flight
conditions (low altitude and take-off air speed,
as well as for high altitudes and cruise air
speed), given that the combustor fluid
injection thrust augmentation method is useful
for airplanes (aircraft) both for taking-off and
for medium-high altitude thrust restore.
REFERENCES
1. Berbente, C., Constantinescu, N. V. Gases
Dynamics, vol. I, II. Politehnica University
in Bucharest Inprint (1985).
2. Hill, P. G., Peterson, C. Mechanics and
Thermodinamics of Propulsion. Addison Wesley Publications, New York (1993).
3. Ispas, St. The Turbo-Jet Engine. Technica
Publishing House (1985).
4. Mattingly, J. D. Elements of gas turbine
propulsion. McGraw-Hill, New York
(1996).
5. Pimsner, V. Air-breathing Jet Engines.
Processes and Characteristics, Bucharest,
Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing (1983).
6. Stoenciu, D. Aircraft Engine Automation.
Aircraft Engines as Controlled Objects.
Bucharest, Military Technical Academy
Inprint (1977).
7. Stoicescu, M., Rotaru, C. Turbo-Jet
Engines. Characteristics and Control
Methods. Bucharest, Military Technical
Academy Inprint (1999).
8. Tudosie, A. N. Aerospace Propulsion
Systems Automation. University of Craiova
Inprint (2005).
9. Tudosie, A. Aircraft Gas-Turbine Engines
Control Based on the Fuel Injection
Control. In Max Mulder Aeronautics and
astronautics. Intech Open Acces Publisher
(2011).
10. Tudosie, A. Mathematical Model For A Jet
Engine With Cooling Fluid Injection Into
Its Compressor. Proceedings of International Conference of Scientific Paper
Scientific Research and Education in
AirForce AFASES 2014.
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COMPLEX TEXTILE STRUCTURES AS REINFORCEMENT

FOR ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Mdlina ZNOAG, Fulga TANAS
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Iai, Romnia
Paper dedicated to the 65th anniversary of the
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of Romanian Academy, Iai, Romnia.
Abstract: Fiber reinforced composites were primary developed for aerospace and defense applications.
High performance materials were designed and obtained exploiting the fibers high strength-to-weight
ratio. The well known complex textile structures used as reinforcements for advanced composites are 2D
and 3D woven fabrics and nonwoven fiber mats, but the knitted fabrics (weft knitted structures, as well as
warp knitted) are of high interest in last decades due to their properties and development potential. There
are three main types of 3D knitted structures: multiaxial fabrics (multilayer), knitted fabrics with spatial
geometry (spatial fashioned) and sandwich/spacer fabrics. Their characteristics and applications are
summarized herein.
Keywords: fiber reinforced composites, 3D knitted structures, aerospace applications
1. INTRODUCTION
The history of textiles can be traced back
to the prehistoric times. Current applications
of textiles have crossed many barriers and
reached limits beyond expectations. Fields like
sports and leisure, healthcare and wellness,
energy generation and storage, electronics and
IT, automotive and aerospace, just to give a
few examples, are using hi-tech textile
reinforced
composite
materials.
Fiber
reinforced composites were primary developed
for aerospace and defense applications. In
these
industries,
high
performance
considerations overbalance cost efficiency
criteria. High performance materials were,
therefore, designed and obtained exploiting the
fibers high strength-to-weight ratio. Textile
reinforced composites proved to be
267
competitive materials due to certain

advantages, in addition to their strength (given
by the fiber/yarn structure) and unity and
ability to transmit strains (ensured by the
polymeric matrix):
controlled anisotropy (due to textile
reinforcement) - their structure can be
designed so that fibers are oriented in
preferential directions, depending on the
maximum strain;
textile reinforcements allow to obtain
composites with a better weight-to-strength
ratio in comparison with steel and other classic
materials used for such applications;
textiles maintain their integrity and behavior
under extreme conditions: they are not susceptible to corrosion in outdoor applications,
display dimensional stability under significant
temperature gradient, are not sensitive to electromagnetic fields;

these composites have an improved fatigue
resistance.
Advanced composites based on technical
textiles can be found in many industrial
applications as storage and transport structures
(tanks, pipes, hoses, etc.) [1]. The automotive
industry uses them for car frames and other
automobile parts (manifold, wheels), whilst in
aeronautics composites developed from the 1st
level to 2nd level applications (it refers to
structural elements) [2] and the future aircraft
trend is to build them using exclusively
composites. One application of great interest
nowadays is the energy production
management, especially when it comes to
wind energy (wind mills) [3]. Sport equipment
industry is employing high amounts of textile
reinforced composites in the production of
sporting goods and protective equipment
(helmets, etc.). An interesting application is in
civil buildings, as walls reinforcement, aiming
to obtain strengthened structures with reduced
thickness and, subsequently, low production
costs [4].
2. COMPLEX TEXTILE STRUCTURES
2.1 Types of complex textile structures.
An introduction in complex textile
structures used as reinforcement in advanced
composites has to take into account two basic
criteria: (1) textiles geometry (structure) and
(2) the processing [5].
Considering the significant dimension of
the textile material and its specific geometry
[6], it is possible to define such structures as:
unidimensional (non-axial roving yarns),
bidimensional (monoaxial chopped strand
mats; non-axial sheets; biaxial plain
weave; triaxial triaxial weave; multiaxial)
and tridimensional (liniar element 3D solid
braiding, multiple weave, triaxial and
multiaxial 3D weave; plane element
laminates, beams, honeycombs). In this
classification, the preset fibers directions used
in the material structure was also allowed for.
Depending on their architecture [7], textile
reinforcements can be assorted into 4 groups,
as follows: discrete, continuous, with plane

and spatial geometry, as presented in Scheme
1. The textile component may be represented
by short fibers, filaments or yarns, fabrics or
complex structures, continuous or not, with
(un)controlled orientation.
Scheme 1. Classification of textile reinforcements

according to their architecture
In terms of technology, all specific

processes from textile industries may be used
to produce complex structures, but, due to
their chacracteristics and the material
geometry that results, they lead to
different behavior and recommend materials
for various applications. The main production
processes employed in textile reinforcements
are weaving, braiding, knitting and nonwovens production. Other processes, such as
filament winding and poltrusion, which
process filaments, are also applied. The
selection of a specific technological process
takes into account its architectural capabilities,
the material characteristics and behavior
(dimensional stability, mechanic strength,
drapability and formability, etc.), as well as its
suitability for the composite processing and
application.
2.2 Fibers used for complex textile
structures. Textile reinforcements are using
high performance fibers such as glass,
carbon/graphite,
aromatic
polyamides
(aramides Kevlar), polyesters (HM/HT
PES), ceramic fibers, boron and silicon carbide
fibers, etc. They have superior mechanical
characteristics, as presented in Table 1, so that
can meet the specific demands of advanced
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composite applications. Their high bending

rigidity and other properties that affect the
knitting process must be taken into
consideration when designing a knitted
structure as reinforcement for composite
materials [2].
Table 1. Main characteristics of fibers used in
textile reinforcements
Fiber
Carbon
Boron
E-glass
S-glass
Kevlar 29
Kevlar 49
Relative
density
(g/cm3)
2.0
2.6
2.5
2.6
1.44
1.45
Young`s
modulus
(GPa)
400
400
70
84
60
60
Tensile
strength
(GPa)
2.0-2.5
3.4
1.5-2.0
4.6
2.7
2.7
Glass fibers (yarns, rovings) are the most

common high performance fibers used to
reinforce composite materials. They are
characterized by hardness, resistance to
chemical agents, stability and inertness, low
weight and processability [4]. There are more
types of glass fibers depending on their
chemical composition: E-glass, with good
strength and high electrical resistivity, most
common in composite materials; S-glass, with
high tensile strength, used mainly in military
applications; and C-glass, characterized by
chemical stability and corrosion resistance.
The glass fibers possess high strength, low
elongation, high bending rigidity and
brittleness. It was shown that glass fibers can
resist when bent around the needle hook and,
therefore, can be processed through knitting
[8,9]. Due to their brittleness and low
resistance to friction, the glass yarns are easily
damaged, thus affecting the knitting process
and, subsequently, the real strength of the
reinforcement. Therefore, it is required to
identify optimal processing parameters prior to
269
knitting glass fibers. The fabric density and the

amount of damaged fibers strongly affect the
performance of the final composite. So, a high
fiber fraction volume is mandatory for
advanced composite materials.
2.3 Knitted fabrics. The most used
composite reinforcements are 2D and 3D
woven fabrics and nonwoven fiber materials,
but the knitted fabrics (weft knitted structures,
as well as warp knitted) are of high interest in
last decades due to their properties and
development potential. The main advantages
of knitted fabrics for composite reinforcement
are:
they allow knitted fabrics with complex
tridimensional shapes;
it is possible to improve the fabric handling
and plastic injection during composite
processing;
of
acceptable
processability
high
performance fibers (glass, aramid, PES HT or
HM);
short intervals of production;
controlled anisotropy (yarn in-laid under
preferential angles).
Compared to other textiles (woven,
braiding, non-crimp materials), knitted fabrics
display lower values for in-plane strength and
stiffness. Another issue limiting their use is the
low volume fraction, due to their specific
geometry of knitted stitches, characterized by
areas without yarns.
Mechanical properties are controlled by
fabric structure and characteristics, yarn
properties and process parameters. Using float
stitches and in-laid straight yarns placed under
certain angles it is possible to improve
material characteristics by controlling its
structure. Stitch density also affects the tensile
behavior and fabric stiffness. Yarns influence
the material behavior, their properties being
transferred to the final structure. The bending
strength and rigidity of the knitted fabrics

essentially depend on the process specific
parameters, considering that high performance
fibers are rigid and, therefore, they must be
processed carefully. The use of in-laid straight
yarns eliminates the problem of fiber damage
and also increases the volume fraction [4].
Warp knitted fabrics (Figure 1) are
resistant to runs and relatively easy to sew.
Among their advantages, there are higher
productivity rates than weaving, the variety of
fabric constructions, large working widths and
low stress rate on the yarn (that enable it for
rigid fibers such as glass, aramide and carbon),
etc.
Figure 1. A warp knitted structure
Stitch-bonding is a special form of warp

knitting and is commonly used for the
production of composite materials and
technical textiles (Figure 2). It is an efficient
process and one of the most modern ways to
create textiles reinforced composite materials
for industrial use. The advantages of the stitchbonding process include high transverse
stability and resistance to tearing, low stretch
that enables an enhanced transfer of yarn
properties, as well as high productivity rate
and the scope it offers for functional design of
textiles, such as fiber-reinforced plastics [10].
Figure 2. Illustration of a stitch-bonded fabric
Weft knitting is commonly used for

garments, such as socks or T-shirts, because
the resulting materials may fit shapes. This
structure (Figure 3) makes the material elastic
whatever the fiber.
Figure 3. Example of a carbon-Kevlar

weft-knitted structure
This feature may be of great use in order to

produce composite reinforcements for
different aircraft parts, such as cabin
equipment. Still, these techniques have some
disadvantages: (1) there are almost no finite
element models to predict the behavior of the
knitted materials; (2) the elasticity of the
preform does not allow the manufacturing of
high-performance parts. Weft knits are
produced with circular and flat machines and
most types of yarns can be used, it is even
possible to mix different yarns in various areas
using the intarsia technique (for instance, it is
possible to knit a Kevlar zone inside a carbon
part to bring cutting resistance) [11].
3. TRIDIMENSIONAL KNITTED
STRUCTURES
Knitted fabrics can easily achieve 3D
architectures due to their high extensibility and
formability that allow complex shapes. This is
the reason why the knitted fabrics are regarded
as a viable option for preforms for advanced
composite materials [4].
The main advantages of the 3D knitted
structures are, as follows:
fabrics high formability due especially to
their drapability;
shapes high complexity and wide variety;
the use of the already existing technology,
without major modifications;
good impact resistance.
Specific properties of these textile
structures are given by their complexity.
Knitted 3D performs are currently under study
and the development of these fabrics, yet at
laboratory stage, still needs a significant input
from the R&D community in terms of
improving their characteristics, developing upgraded production protocols (for example,
impregnation with resin yields in an uneven
behavior of the composite due to fibers
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migration in stitches), as well as prediction

models.
There are three main types of 3D knitted
structures: multiaxial fabrics (multilayer),
knitted fabrics with spatial geometry (spatial
fashioned) and sandwich/spacer fabrics.
3.1 Multiaxial fabrics (multilayer). The
multiaxial fabrics are characterized by
multiple layers of yarns arranged under certain
angles that are finally assembled into knitted
fabrics (Figure 4). These fabrics are produced
on special warp knitting machines using glass
or carbon fibers for layers.
The different layers in the multiaxial warp
knitted fabrics are independent and the yarns
are fed under preset angles corresponding to
the directions requiring higher strength during
use, criterion imposed by the application.
strength is higher than that of wovens

(probably due to the shifting of yarn layers
under force and bunch together to resist
tearing). Multiaxial fabrics are used mainly as
composites reinforcement (HM or HT polymer
filaments, such as polyester, nylon and PEEK,
and glass, aramid or carbon fibers/yarns)
[12,13].
3.2 Spatial fashioned knitted fabrics. The
spatial fashioning of the knitted fabrics is
based on the need to produce fabrics with
complex shapes that are similar to the final
product shape. Even if a certain degree of
spatial geometry can be obtained by using
modules of structures with different patterns or
by dynamic stitch length, this technique is the
only one that allows textile component parts of
great variety in shape and diverse degrees of
complexity [4]. Spatial fashioned knitting (also
known as flechage) is based on two different
types of knitting courses, on all working
needles and on a variable number of needles,
determining zones with different geometry.
Areas with the highest amount of stitches will
have, in the end, a spatial geometry (Figure 5A
and B) [14].
Figure 4. Typical multiaxial knitted structure

(carbon and polyester yarns)
The layers are connected within the knitted

fabric, by the means of pillars or tricot
stitches. By using warp knitting techniques in
conjunction with fiber placement concepts,
multilayer structures containing straight and
relatively uncrimped fibers stacked in the
required orientations can be produced. The
warp knitting technology is best suited for this
kind of structures with in-laid yarns. These
fabrics have excellent dimensional stability
and outstanding in-plane shear resistance in all
directions, show higher elastic modulus
compared to woven fabrics, and their tear
271
Figure 5. Spatial fashioned knitted fabrics:

A sphere; B disc; C - jersey fabric with warp
and weft yarns inserted in the structure
One issue connected to the use of preforms

made of fashioned fabrics refers to their
relatively low strength which can be improved
by inserting both warp and weft yarns within
the structure (Figure 5C). Apart from
increasing the fabric strength, this technique
also improves the volume fraction of the
material, with beneficial effects on the

properties of the final composites.
3.3 Sandwich/spacer fabrics. A sandwich
or a spacer structure is a 3D assembly made of
two separate fabrics, interconnected through
simple yarns or knitted layers. The fabric
thickness is determined by length of the
connecting yarns/layers [4].
When produced on warp machines, these
fabrics are known as spacers and thickness
depends on the distance between two
consecutive layers (spacer distance). An
interesting application of such spacer fabrics
are the textile reinforced concrete panels is
used in buildings.
In the case of weft knitting, the fabrics are
known as sandwich structures. The connection
can be generated through yarns fed on both
beds or by knitted layers. In the first case,
there are limitations in terms of shape
complexity and fabric thickness. The second
approach implies to separately knit the two
beds and, at a certain point, to stop and knit the
connection layer only on selected needles [4].
Examples are given in Figure 6.
models, it it possible nowadays to obtain

advanced composites with outstanding
properties using complex textile structures as
reinforcement.
Knitted fabrics are well known for their
applications in the field of technical textiles,
including composite materials with polymer
matrices. Both weft and warp knitting
technologies can be used to produce such
reinforcements. Warp knitted fabrics are best
suited for structures with in-laid straight yarns
(multiaxial fabrics), whilst weft knitted ones
allow
structures
with
tridimensional
architecture, used as preforms for advanced
composite materials. The complex 3D textile
systems are being used mostly in defense and
aerospace applications (for example, glider
wings), where they can effectively replace
conventional materials.
A better understanding of the mechanism
of fibers reinforcement in composite materials
enables the design and production of new high
performance textile-based composites for a
wide range of applications. Technology
optimization will yield in reduced production
costs, while geometrical modeling and
predictive calculations of the physical and
structural properties of textile complex
structures will result in preforms with tailored
properties.
REFERENCES
Figure 6. Spacer fabric made of glass fibers (a) and

a sandwich structure (b)
3. CONCLUSION
By
combining
textile
processing
techniques
with
advanced
materials
characterization methods and prediction
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Handbook. New York: Marcel Dekker,
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STUDYING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMATICS AND HAZARDS

WITH HELP OF INFORMATICS APPLICATIONS (SEPHIA)
Bogdan CIORUA*, Mirela COMAN**, Andrei-Alin CIORUA*
*Faculty of Science, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
**Faculty of Mineral Resources and Environment, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: During recent decades the stirring up of the processes of globalization, practically in all
spheres of present day civilization, has aggravated and brought numerous problems resulting from
nature-society interactions. To overcome these problems, it is necessary to develop and adopt new
concepts and techniques to study and evaluate the changes occurring on the earth ecosystem. For this,
application of information technology via Environmental Information Systems is the best option. Much
more, understanding this complexity through interactive applications will develop new strategies and
ideas to manage and protect ecosystem. This paper deals with new and interactive approach to process,
analysis and synthesis of environmental systems using various models and IT applications, so we could
underline that environmental science and technology are therefore a vital component of productive
knowledge and thus a high priority for the mankind sustainable fraternity with nature. Since years,
environmental scientists and computer experts are working on different and innovative computer-based
modeling techniques to study the environmental problematic and hazards system and to provide the
maximum accuracy in decision making or in elaborating sustainable strategies of community
development. This kind of innovative techniques, some of them exemplified in the present paper
(GeoGebra, AutoCAD, G.S. Surfer, ArcView GIS etc), can become the answer to question in those cases
where the early warning, maximum accuracy in prediction and emergency is taken in account.
Keywords: Environmental Informatics, IT applications, innovative
1. INTRODUCTION
The modern society (information society)
in accordance with the actual changes and
preocupations in the environment domain has
provided various types of informatics
resources (tools, methodologies, procedures)
to manage and support the ideas and actions
related to the environmental issues.
Population grows over time as well as the
modern technology implication in everyday
life. Informatics become essential for all the
275
fields related to technology and environment

protection. Informatics resources are becoming
nowadays more and more important for
environmental management, planning and
decision-making. An exhaustive analysis of
the environmental hazards in terms of
physical, chemical, biological, geological,
hydro-meteorological processes and their
interactions is becoming critical, and not so
extraordinary maded without the support
offered by the environmental information
systems (EISs) and environmental informatics.
ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Renewable Energy and Environment
2. ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATICS
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Nowadays, significant efforts are required
to analyze relevant data and environment
information, simulate related processes,
evaluate resulting impacts or scenarios and
generate viable decision alternatives.
The informatics resources developed in the
last 3-4 decades have enabled and help us to
investigate the complex interactions between
the natural systems and engineered ecosystem,
and also to search for sustainable strategies for
a harmonious development.
In figure 1 are mentioned the general steps
necessary to define, analyse and solve the
problems related to obtaining environmental
information with help of EISs.
The advent of the informatics systems had

affected the access of the public to large and
diverse environmental databases.
Collecting,
storing
and
retrieving
environmental data performed thanks to
database techniques, make the processing of
environmental data to the field of modeling
very interesting: data are used to generate
information, and information to generate
knowledge. Figure 2 present in this sense the
specific steps for obtaining adequate
environmental knowledge starting from
environmental data.
Fig. 2. Specific steps for obtaining adequate

environmental knowledge using EISs
Fig. 1. Specific steps for developing EISs and

obtaining environmental information
There can be mentioned a few important

scientific contributions in the domain of
informatics applied to environmental sciences
(knowed as Environmental Informatics) as:
traditional mathematical simulation
models - tools for the forecasting of
environmental phenomena;
optimization techniques - used in the
field of environmental pollution control
and management;
environmental evaluation applications;
modeling systems for different
environment study regimes.
All the resources presented above are used
for
defining
environmental
problems,
archiving and processing environmental data
with obtaining environmental information and
adequate enviromatics knowledge.
As we mentioned above, the techniques

developed in the environmental informatics
field are implemented and find their
incarnation in an array of different software
tools, platforms and environments (data
storage software, data processing software,
end-user applications etc).
The main tools that facilitate the
environmental data storage are databases,
which contains scientific the results of
observing (monitoring) natural phenomena.
Environmental data that are stored in
environmental database are different from
other data because they have a specific
attribute: spatio-temporallity.
Figure 3 illustrate a specific way for
getting information and knowledge (data
output - maps and reports) using EISs from
data that are spatio-temporally referenced
(data input).
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Fig. 3. A specific way for getting information and

knowledge using common environmental infointeractive applications or EISs
This particularity give a different meaning

and let us to define Environmental Informatics
and Environmental Information Systems by
the expression "info-diversity in ecological
diversity".
Figure 4 illustrate according to the last 3-4
decades the perception related to development
timeline phases of the info-diversity resources
considered to be an integrated part of the
Environmental Informatics.
phase (growth) were improvement measures

and strategies are necessary.
The traditional environmental systems models, technologies, methodologies and
applications - have been challenged by the
difficulties in handling dynamic and uncertain
features of real-world environmental systems.
Conditions for environmental management
will keep changing with time, demanding
periodically updated decision support.
Advance in information technology area
has been in extraordinarily rapid pace. There
will be continuous attempt to apply new
techniques and tools to environmental
management, also to use the environmental
informatics resources associated with artificial
intelligence techniques to promote the longterm viability of the environmental informatics
and connected applications in everyday's
environmental-society problems.
Fig. 4. Environmental Informatics - delimited by

the technology-time scale
As we observe Environmental Infornatics

delimited by the technology (software
development) and time scale is still in the 2nd
277
Fig. 5. The perspective of getting multidisciplinary

information using as EISs the GIS products
Figure 5 introduce a new methodology

perspective of getting multidisciplinary
information (as multi-thematic maps) using for
example the GIS products as an EIS.
The magnitude universe of informational
activities, many forms of expression, diversity
of instruments and information environment
technologies have produced major changes in
the way people communicate, learn, do
business, solve various problems and to relate
to others and the environment. With the recent
vision we have formatted and gained from
studying the multi-disciplinary area of
Environmental Informatics and Environmental
Information Systems, we consider that in near
future in all the countries are imperious
necessary
informatics
systems
for
environmental research and protection.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Information
and
communications
technologies have produced unprecedented
changes in society in all its aspects.
Nowadays,
Artificial
Intelligence
via
interactive computational applications plays a
specific and well defined role in all areas or
activity
domains:
production,
service,
management, monitoring, research, public
involvement in decision making, and in almost
all countries.
Environmental systems are based on the
above considerations binding instruments in
environmental science, can be defined as a
collection of packet data and information,
described by a series of specific indicators
relevant for studying, monitoring and
exhaustive exploration of the field and
environmental issues.
As a conclusion, it can be said that modern
data analysis methods are useful tools in
environmental informatics and environmental
statistics. Good methods are understandable
for the environmental scientists and at the
same time reliable, robust and helpful for
discovering important relationships in the data.
In cooperation between environmental
scientists and information scientists, what
makes the relationship flourish is the
knowledge of both sides about their field and

efficient communication concerning the
specific needs of a certain problem and the
properties of the methods. Without these
ingredients, the results of cooperation projects
may not be satisfactory.
REFERENCES
1. Avouris, N. M., Page, B. (1995)
Environmental Informatics: Methodology
and Applications of Environmental
Information Processing, Kluwer Academic,
Dordrecht, Boston
2. Checkland, P. and Holwell, S. (1998)
Information, Systems and Information
System -Making Sense of the Field, John
Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester
3. Ciorua, B., Coman, M. (2011) A forey in
modern scientific research of the
environment. From SIM to Environmental
Informatics, Ecoterra no. 29/2011
4. Coman, M., Ciorua, B. (2011) The
evolution, definition and role of EIS in the
development of environmental protection
strategies, Ecoterra no. 27/2011
5. Gunter,
O.
(1998)
Environmental
Information Systems, Springer, Berlin
6. Page, B. (1996): Environmental Informatics
- Towards a new Discipline in Applied
Computer Science for Environmental
Protection and Research, Pennsylvania
State University, Malvern, London
7. Page, B., Hilty, L. M. (1995). Trends in
Environmental Information Processing. In
Brunnstein, K., and Raubold (Eds.).
Applications
and
Impacts.
IFIP
Transactions A-52, Amsterdam
8. Porter, J. H. and Callahan, J. T. (1994)
Circumventing a Dilemma: Historical
Approaches to Data Sharing in Ecological
Research, In Environmental Information
Management and Analysis: Ecosystem to
global Scale (Eds. Michener, W. K., Brunt,
J. W. and Stafford, S. G.), Taylor &
Francis, London
9. Tomlinson, R. F. (1970) Environment
Information
Systems,
International
Geographical Union, Ottawa, Canada.
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THE IDEA OF IMPLEMENTING A MATHEMATICS PLATFORM FOR

ANDROID DEVICES WITH HELP OF APP INVENTOR
Bogdan CIORUA*, Mirela COMAN**
*Faculty of Science, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
**Faculty of Mineral Resources and Environment, North University Center Baia Mare, Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: App Inventor for the Android platform is a powerful visual and drag-and-drop tool that lets
anyone build and design games and other mobile apps with 2D graphics and animation, create
multimedia quizzes and guides, design complex apps that control robots, apps that inform and educate or
learn computer sciences - with no programming experience required. App Inventor is freely available for
anyone to use, runs online and is accessible from any browser, so the users can design the app interface
using a web-based graphical user interface builder only by piecing together blocks like in a puzzle.
In this paperwork we try to give some basic ideas of how everyone using App Inventor could build a
specific mathematic application similar to Microsoft Mathematics v. 4.0 - a very powerful software that
provides a set of mathematical tools that help students get school work done quickly and easily.
Keywords: Environmental Informatics, IT applications, innovative
1. INTRODUCTION
People have been doing personal
computing since the 1980s, but todays mobile
applications are making computing personal as
never before [3]. Today, we carry computers
with us constantly, as smart-phones and pads
and the new devices that are regularly
emerging.
More significantly, todays personal
computing is increasingly about us: where we
live, where we work, who our friends are,
what we buy, what we like, whom we talk
with, and what we talk about. This personal
computing is linked to global data services and
information sources in a way that
fundamentally transforms our experience and
our perception of our world.
279
Fig. 1. Android devices - using perspectives
Our consumer culture gives us all sorts of

opportunities for entertainment, pleasure and
sometimes even learning. The high-tech
objects (cell phones, tablet computers, TVs,
etc) that we use today to consume
entertainment and information are black boxes
to most of us [3]. In other words, most people
cant create the apps that run on these gadgets.
What if we could change that? What if we
could take creative control of our everyday
gadgets, like cell phones?
magical-sounding names such as waterfall

model, spiral model, and agile development.
These all refer to the same thing: logical steps
that developers and programmers use to move
an idea from a dream to a fully functional
program [2,6].
2. APP INVENTOR FOR ANDROID BACKGROUND AND MAIN ISSUES
Fig. 3. The development process of every apps clarifying the Design Idea
When App Inventor software was created

at Google, the team who did this work was
motivated by the vision that mobile computing
could be personal computing technology that
anyone can actually personalize, by creating
applications for personal use, with no
programming experience required [1].
When it comes to the developer tool App

Inventor and even the mobile operating system
Android, it is difficult to talk about history,
given that this history is still rather young.
Since Android was first released in
October 2008, the Linux-based operating
system for different mobile devices that was
initiated by the Open Handset Alliance (OHA)
and marketed by Google has developed from a
niche product to a market leader [4,5].
App Inventor for the Android platform is a
blocks language for mobile phones and a
powerful visual and drag-and-drop tool that
lets anyone build and design games and other
mobile apps with 2D graphics and animation,
create custom multimedia quizzes, design
complex apps that control robots or
communicate with the web, build apps that
inform and educate or learn computer sciences
- with no programming experince required
[9,10].
Fig. 2. App Inventor for the Android platform
Even if App Inventor is still a beta system

under development - Google team is working
to make it more powerful and easier to use there is already a growing community of App
Inventor users of all ages who are exploring
and experiencing what its like to make
applications for themselves [10,12].
Design processes help take your awesome
ideas and make them reality. There is nothing
mysterious about a design process, although
frequently developers give them fearsome and
Fig. 4. The Design view for App Inventor
280
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The Design window should appear in your

browser once you enter the name of your app
and click OK. The Design window is where
you begin creating how app will look, the user
interface (UI)[12].
Fig. 5. App Inventor - the Palette of components
Accessing the Blocks Editor is realized

with Open the Blocks Editor button near the
top right corner of the Design window [11,13].
Accessing the Emulator is realized with the
New emulator button at the top of the Blocks
Editor window. This will open an emulation of
an Android device. Back in the Blocks Editor,
with the Connect to Device... button we can
establish the connection with the app and also
be able to see the project in the emulator.
Fig. 6. Microsoft Mathematics - specific apps
Our results working with App Inventor

were determined in accordance with our skills,
our determination and our interest in graphics,
animation and educational software.

With an application like Microsoft
Mathematics for android students can learn to
solve equations step-by-step while gaining a
better understanding of fundamental concepts
in algebra, calculus, geometry, text
recognition, trigonometry, physics, and much
more [8].
281
Fig. 7. Results - different types of apps integrated

into educational mathematics platform
We present a few results that could be

develop by any students even if they have no
programming experience like most of us
everyday entertainment and information
consumers. As you can see is possible to
represent, in an interesting way (design,
animation), different types of mathematics
fundamental concepts (like in the first
emulator image), formulas, equation and
triangle solver apps, and much more:
App Inventor Works - Standard version 5 different apps: Calculator, Formulas,
Equation Solver, Geometry Solver and
Unit Converter.
App Inventor Works - Advanced - 5
different apps: Glossary, Financial
Calculus, Statistics, Grapher (2D) and
Surfer (3D geometry creator).
Fig. 8. Geometry Solver and Unit Converter
All the apps are based on various palette of

components (basic, media, animation, social,
sensor, screen arrangement etc) and blocks
(definition, text, list, math, logic, control,
color) which facilitate the project design and
functionality.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Information and communications tools and
methodologies have produced unprecedented
changes in our society in all its aspects, but
especially in mobile devices environment.
According to this trend, in the present
workpaper, we try to help everyone who use
App Inventor for Android and are interested in
mathematics to develop specific educational
applications.
REFERENCES
1. Burnette E., Hello Android: introducing
Google mobile development platform, The
Pragmatic Bookshelf, USA, 2010
2. Kirk A., Data Visualization: a successful
design process, Packt Publishing Ltd., UK,
2012
3. Kloss, Jorg H., Android Apps with App
Inventor: the fast and easy way to build
android apps, Pearson Education Inc.,
USA, 2012
4. Marinacci J., Building Mobile Applications
with Java, O'Reilly Media Inc., Canada,
2012
5. Mednieks Z., Dornin L., Nakamura M.,
Programming Android, O'Reilly Media
Inc., Canada, 2011
6. Segaran T., Beautiful Data - the stories
behind elegant data solutions, O'Reilly
Media Inc., Canada, 2009
7. Steele
J.,
Iliinsky
N.,
Beautiful
Visualization - looking at data through the
eyes of experts, O'Reilly Media Inc.,
Canada, 2010
8. Svirin A., 1300 Math Formulas, The
Pragmatic Bookshelf, USA, 2004
9. Tyler J., App Inventor for Android: build
your own apps - no experience required!,
John Wiley Ltd., USA, 2011
10.
Wolber D., Abelson H., Spertus E.,
Looney L., App Inventor - create your own
Android apps, O'Reilly Media, Inc.,
Canada, 2011
11.
http://appinventor.mit.edu
12.
www.appinventor.org
13.
www.it-ebooks.info
282
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ECONOMICS CONSIDERATION ON WOODEN BIOMASS

CONSUMPTION
Tatiana GRU *, Aurel LUNGULEASA **
*Wood Engineering Faculty, Transylvania University, Brasov, Romania, ** Wood Engineering Faculty,
Transylvania University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: Energy is the important element that ensures the economic and social development level in the
world. According to the research made in this field a lot of researches are orientated to the development
of the alternative source of energy. The importance to ensure the necessary energy will be observed from
the moment when will start to exhaust the fossil combustible. This paper describes the efficiency use of
the fossil combustible and renewable source of energy (SRE) on Romanian energetically market. The
accessibility of the renewable energy source in the world directed the economical and social increase in
the developing state. Energy is a source that generates the progress of the state. The main objectives of
the paper are the accessibility of the energetically source in Romania and the fuel consumption for
heating. Important obtained results in the research describes the biomass (pellets, briquettes and wood)
as an accessibility solid combustible for producing energy in the world, being widely spread and the
cheapest on the energetically market.
Keywords: biomass, combustible produce, energy, fuels, heat
1. INTRODUCTION
In present all researches in Romania and
Europe try to exploit the alternative field in
energy production and bringing a lot of new
scientifically date about the renewable source
of energy, especially about the production of
energy from the biomass. Energy represents an
important point for all the developing
countries because energy offers comfort on
social and economical plan.
In this moment, main energetically source
are the fossil fuels like oil, coal, natural gas,
nuclear energy and a low percent from the
SRE (Source of Renewable Energy)
contributes in European Union (EU) with
about 10% to the energy production in 2010.
According to statistics, the field of the energy
production from fossil combustible will touch
the peak point in 2020, after which the chart of
283
availability will decrease [6, 12]. The

importance to research the energetically
market in the SRE production has a significant
and actual role for the population. Countries
like Germany, Finland and Sweden ensure
30% for their energy consumption from the
SRE production and especially from biomass.
In the 2006, the biomass contribution to the
production of the energy in EU was about 86.6
Mtoe (Millions tone equivalent oil) from
firewood, briquettes and pellets [19]. The
prognoses show that the biomass will cover
60% from the total energy consumption
compare with others SRE, with a production of
190-200 PJ/an (1J=1015 PJ) [3].
In present, firewood is the principal energy
source for producing energy for about 2
billons of people in rural areas and provides
more than 14 % from the all energy
consumption in the world, comparable with
coal (12%), gas (15%) and electricity (14%)

[1, 2, 6]. A major problem with which a lot of
researches are confronting is that the
consumers use all kinds of thermal furnaces
with lower yield for producing energy heat
[15].
In the last years according to researches,
there were recorded significant increases in
imports of the fossil combustible (natural gas)
in EU, which were used to produce heat
energy. In the energetically field, there were
made a lot of research about the efficiency of
the thermal furnaces [5, 7, 9, 10, 16, 18]. The
thermal furnace in present has a yield of 92%
for natural gas use and 85-90% for biomass
fuel use.
The amount of released heat from the
biomass is influenced by a series of factors as
moisture content from the material that
absorbs energy in the burning process, the
volatile substance, the chemical composition
(C, H, O and N) etc.
In Serbia, there are found about 40.9 % of
the consumers that use renewable combustible
as firewood, briquettes and pellets to produce
heat [7]. In Romania the major parts of the
consumer use firewood for heating in the rural
areas, but these thermal furnaces have a lower
yield about 10-15% or natural gas with a
higher yield of 90%. The biomass in Romania
is the most used combustible in the rural areas.
An important aspect in the use of wooden
biomass to produce heat is that that biomass is
an ecologically material with lower CO2
emission in the burning process. The
exploitation of the SRE in the entire world can
ensure the necessary energy for life and to
contribute to the environment protection.
The paper presents a theoretical and
experimental research based on a study made
to determine the most accessible fuel for
producing the heat. The energetically market
in Romania knows a lot of combustible
materials. In the process of the determination
which is the best combustible for heating
process were taken in consideration the
ecologically aspects and the economical ones.
The main objectives of the paper consist in
highlighting the most effective and
ecologically solid combustible to produce
thermal energy (heat) for the housing and the
cost for this energy. The motivation of the
necessity of this research occurs from the

aspects of the highest costs on the fossil
combustible which increased five times since
2000 and in the future it expects to still
increase and the availability of them will
decrease.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
2.1. Materials.
Investigating
the
energetically market were founded a lot of
materials which can be used in thermal furnace
as ecologically combustible. These materials
are firewood, briquettes and pellets from
different kinds of species. The pellets/
briquettes are obtained from the forest waste
and are considerate energetically products
which are used to produce heat in residential
and industrial buildings [20].
Species
Willow
Beech
Spruce
Poplar
Ash
Beech
Willow
Spruce
Straw
Beech
Willow
Pit coal
Natural
gas
Table 1.
Chemical characteristics of the solid fuels
Energetically characteristic, %
C
H
O
N
A
Firewood
51.7 6.1 41.1 0.9
0.48
49.9 8.2 37.1 0.7
0.5
49.1 9.2 38.9 0.6
0.32
49.1 9.2 38.9 0.6
0.32
50.7 8.0 37.5 0.6
0.51
Briquettes
50.2 8.1 37.1 0.7
0.41
51.8 6.1 41.1 0.9
0.72
49.9 8.2 38.1 0.6
0.5
45.6 5.8 42.4 0.5
5.7
Pellets
50.2 8.1 37.1 0.6
0.5
51.7 6.1 41.1 0.9
0.48
Fossils combustible
65.9 4.6 23.0 0.7
1.2
75
25
In this paper where analysed five

energetically species. The raw materials were
taken from Willow (Salix alba L.), Spruce
(Picea abies Karrsten.), Beech (Fagus
sylvatica L.), Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) and
Poplar (Populus tremula L.), (Table 1) species.
The results were compared with the fossils
combustible as gas and pit coal. These species
are considerate as energetically species
because they have higher calorific power,
quickly grow and are widely spread in Europe.
284
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The raw materials were analysed in laboratory

to investigate the calorific power of the
species.
The chemical composition (Table 1) of the
materials is considerate as another important
energetically characteristic that are described
in others scientifically papers [17, 21]. These
elements are presented in different quantity in
all kind of combustible materials.
2.2. Method. Experimental method used
consists of the determination of the calorific
power of wood species and briquettes/pellets
with the calorimeter with explosive burning
OXY-1C [8]. The amount of the moisture
content was determinate through the drying
method with the laboratory oven at the
temperature of 103oC.
Economical aspects were made on the
Romanian energetically market taking in
consideration the cost of the combustible
displayed by the suppliers.
2.3. Case study. The economically parts
were made for a house with a surface of 100
m2 and the ceiling height is 2.65 m. It is a
house for a family with four members. The
obtained results from experimental research
there were studied in theoretical way. In
account were taken the necessary of heat (1)
for the houses surface, the quantity of
combustible consumption (2) for this surface
[13] and was determinate the kWh cost for
every type of combustible.
(1)
where:
Q Necessary of heating, in W;
QT Released heat flux through transmission,
in W;
Qi Thermal load for heating the interior air,
in W;
285
A Sum of the additions of the affected

thermal flux released through transmission, in
%.
(2)
where:
B - Consumption of combustible, in kg/h;
Q - Necessary of heating, in W;
Ci Lower calorific power, in kJ/kg.
In case, the consumer wants to replace the
existing heating system it is necessary to
determinate what elements need to be replaced
(pipe, valves, thermal furnace, accessories,
etc). These elements need to be described in a
draft plan. The main aspect in this part is to
determinate the economical ones like the
investment costs, maintenance costs and how
much costs the thermal furnace for different
kinds of combustible.
The chosen combustible materials were
selected from the energetically market in
Romania. These species present energetically
character with higher calorific power and there
are most used materials to produce briquettes
and pellets [11, 14, 18].
The heat amount released by biomass
described by Kausley et al [15] in their
research is calculated like sum of heat released
by the elements that compound the burning
process: like time of burning, the heat of flame
released and temperature of ignition. The
obtained experimental results yield the Lower
Calorific Power (LCP) that was used in
accounting process. In practice wood materials
present the higher calorific power that cannot
be used effectively. This amount of heat in the
burning process is evaporated with formed
volatile substance through the chimney.
The
moisture
content
used
for
determination was 20% for wood and 10% for
pellets and briquettes. The moisture degree in
the material is an important element from
which depends the amount of heat released in
a burning process. These are the limit of the
moisture contents for the sold combustible
materials by the suppliers. The calorific power
resulted in the experimental research (Figure 1
and 2) are determinate for moisture content of
20% for wood samples and 10% for briquettes
and pellets samples. An analysis of the
received results shows that the briquettes and
pellets have a higher calorific power in
compare with the wood sample. The pellets
have calorific power about
18,299 kJ/kg
(4.685 kWh/kg) and briquettes about 16,868
kJ/kg (4.227 kWh/kg) at the moisture content
of 10%. The compare fossil combustibles have
a LCP of 35,500 kJ/m3 (9.861 kWh/m3) for gas
and 29,000 kJ/kg (8.055 kWh/kg) for pit coal.
The experimental results are described in

table 2. The Beech specie (11.63 kJ/cm3) like
firewood presents a bigger energy density than
the Willow specie (11.56 kJ/cm3). An
appreciable energy density was obtained for
the Spruce (11.78 kJ/cm3) and Ash (12.91
kJ/cm3) species. The highest energy density
from all the SRE combustible materials has the
Spruce briquettes (13.47 kJ/cm3)The burning
rate means the degree of maintenance of the
heat released from the woody species in the
burning process. Taking in consideration this
aspect the biggest burning rate presents the
Beech (0.392 kJ/min) and Willow (0.351
kJ/min) species. Compare firewood with the
briquettes and pellets sample, the biggest
burning rate present the Beech (0.428 kJ/min)
and Spruce (0.435 kJ/min) briquettes. This is
way a lot of products have 70% percent Beech
sawdust and 30% Spruce sawdust. From the
pellets materials the biggest burning rate
presents Willow (0.419 kJ/min) pellets. This
aspect is important when consumers want to
heat a house and to maintain it, and to have a
lower combustible consumption.
Figure 2.
Lower calorific power of the briquettes and pellets,
kJ/kg
Beech
Willow
Pit coal
Natural
gas
286
Burning time,
min
Energy density,
kJ/cm3
Beech
Willow
Spruce
Straw
Firewood
0.639 0.75
28
0.683 0.81
25
0.546 0.77
28
0.539 0.69
29
0.618 0.85
31
Briquettes
0.634 0.54
25
0.645 0.65
29
0.681 0.78
27
0.632 0.72
27
Pellets
0.560 0.45
26
0.580 0.56
28
Fossil combustible
1.0
1.30
42
1.0
0.717 38
Burning rate,
kJ/min
Willow
Beech
Spruce
Poplar
Ash
Density, g/cm3
Figure 1.
Lower calorific power of wood species, kJ/kg
Mass, g
Species
Table 2.
Energetically characteristics of the solid fuel
0.351
0.392
0.308
0.285
0.303
11.56
11.63
11.78
10.55
12.91
0.428
0.374
0.435
0.362
9.11
10.94
13.47
11.14
0.398
0.419
8.32
10.41
0.692
0.921
37.83
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Firewood
Briquette
Pellet
Coal
Gas
0.04
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.3
Price /kWh
0.009
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.03
108
324
287
4700
2700
955
The necessary heat for 100 m from the

accounted procedure results 18.2 kW in the
winter season for about 100 days (Table 3).
Considering this heat necessary is
determinate the consumption of the
combustible in thermal furnace for different
kind of fuels. The producing necessary energy
from firewood consumes about 700 kg by the
wooden thermal installation with a yield of
80%. The briquettes and pellets installation
will consume in cold season about 550-650 kg
with a yield of 85-90%. From the lasts research
[4] and taking in account the investment cost,
the pellets are the expensive fuels for
producing heat than firewood.
Maintenance
costs, /year
Current
repairs, /year
955
108
1800
0.3
432
1800
0.5
97.2
4700
0.98
Total costs,
10800
1000
Energy
consumption,
kWh/year
Annual cost
for energy,
/year
2700
Gas
1.1
Coal
1.2
Unit price,
/kg; /m3
Cost thermal
furnace,
Pellets
18.2
Briquettes
Firewood
100
Heat
necessary, kW
Surface, mp
Table 3.
The account of the necessary of the heat and
consumption of the combustible
Consumption of: kg/h
Table 4.
Cost of the solid combustible in Romania
1000
In present the energetically market of the

SRE will encourage the consumers through the
governmental programs to orient to the
alternative source of energy because these are
ecologically and cheap fuels that can be used
by everyone. From the 2007 in European
Union is accessible a lot of grant programs for
producing energy from the alternative source
of energy, and till 2020 is trying to reduce the
noxious emissions comparative with the 1990
and to increase the effectiveness of the
alternative energy [17].
Combustible
110
110
110
110
40
45
45
45
45
25
The costs of the combustible materials

displayed by the Romanian suppliers (Table 4)
were used to determinate the cost for a kg or
m3 of combustible. In this case the energy
consumption for a year will be 10,800 kWh.
According to this the cheapest fuel for heating
the house is firewood (97.2 euro/year) (Table
4). The expensive fuels are the briquettes and
pellets and natural gas for heating the house.
These are because of two aspects. One is
because the thermal installation is expensive
and another one is because the costs of the
material. Analysing the maintenance costs and
the investment costs the firewood furnace with
higher yields are not so cheap. Costs of
amortization will achieve evident in a longer
period of time from 7 to 10 years.
The energy represented by heat touch

about 50% from the final energy consumption
in a lot of developing countries [20]. Biomass
will became a priority in energy producing
from the moment when the fossil combustible
will decrease.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The necessity to ensure the quantity of heat
in the cold season is an important factor and
from the results it is evident that biomass
products are the cheapest combustible.
Important aspect results in this paper that
firewood is a cheap form to produce energy
and save about thrice compares with the gas
form. Combustion with solid biomass is the
most important sector for bio energy
production, being the efficiency in the heat
production process.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is supported by the Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources
Development (SOP HRD), ID134378 financed
from the European Social Fund and by the
Romanian Government.
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6. Demibras A.. Biorefineries-for biomass

upgrading facilities. London: Publishing
Springer. (2010).
7. Glavonjic, D.B.. Consumption of Wood
Fuels in Households in Serbia Present
state and possible contribution to the
climate change mitigation. Thermal
Science. 15 (3) (2011).
8. Griu, T., Lunguleasa, A.. Salix a renewable
source of energy. The 14th Intenetional
Conference of AFASES. May, Brasov
(2012).
9. Guerra-Santin, O., Itard, L.. The effect of
energy performance regulations on energy
consumption. Energy Efficiency. 5 (2012).
10. Guerra-Santin, O.. Occupant behaviour in
energy efficient dwellings: evidence of a
rebound effect. J Hous and the Built
Environ. (2012).
11. Gunther, B., Gebauer, K., Barkowski, R.,
Rosenthal, M., Bues, C.-T.. Calorific value
of selected wood species and wood
products. European Journal of Wood and
Wood Products. 70 (5) ( 2012).
12. IEA. International Energy Agency
Bioenergy Project Development and
Biomass Supply. IEA ORG. [online].
Available:http://www.iea.org/weo/2007.as
p (January, 2012).
13. Ilina, M., Berbecaru, D., Stan, G.,
Georgescu, M., Popescu, M., Cocora, O.,
Hera, D., Gabreanu, R., Iordache, F.,
Brandabur, C., Stanescu, D.P., Antonescu,
N., Caluianu, V., Draganescu, T.,
Ivanescu, G., Craciun, M., Dabela, G.,
Frunzulica, R., Toropoc, M.S., Beldiman,
M., Costachel, A., Cimpoia, A.. Heating
Handbook. Bucharest: Artecno Publising
House (2002).
14. Karp, A., Hanley, S.J., Trybush, S.O.,
Macalpine, W., Pei, M., Shield, I.. Genetic
Improvement of willow for bioenergy and
bio fuels. Journal of Interative Plant
Biology. 53(2) (2011).
15. Kausley, B.S., Pandit, A.B.. Modelling of
solid fuels stoves. Fuel. 89 (2010).
16. Kim, E., Barle, S.. The energy
consumption of Paris and its supply areas
from the eighteenth century to the present.
Reg Environ Change. 12 (2012).
17. Li, J., Yang, W., Blasiak, W., Ponzio, A..
Volumetric combustion of biomass for
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CO2 and NOx reduction in coal-fired

EU27. London: Publishing Springer.
boilers. Fuel. 102 (2012).
(2011).
18. Lunguleasa, A., Panayotov, P.. Ecological 20. Serrano, C., Portero, H., Monedero, E..
briquette obtained from wooden biomass.
Pine chips combustion in a 50 kW
Journal Recent. 9 (1) (2008).
domestic biomass boiler. Fuel. 111 (2013).
19. Panoutsou, C.. Solid Biofuels for Energy 21. Stolarski, J.M., Szczukowski, S.,
Supply of solid biofuels: Potential
Tworkowski, J., Krzyzaniak, M.. Cost of
Feedstock, Cost and sustainability issues in
heat energy generation from willow
biomass. Renewable Energy. 59 (2013).
289
290
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HYGROSCOPICITY OF CHIPBOARD VERSUS SOLID WOOD

Aurel LUNGULEASA
Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transylvania University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The paper presents some aspects referring to water absorbtion and thickness swelling for solid
wood and chipboard (with and without melamine film for protection). There is made a comparison
between the two wooden materials in terms of hygroscopicity. A similar methodology was used in order
to obtain all results in the same conditions. Also, it was taken into account that wood has a different
swelling in tangential and radial direction and in the case of film covered chipboard the large swelling
was near the cuts and very small to the center of the specimen. Results have showed that swelling of
covered chipboard was lower than on solid wood.
Keywords: higroscopicity, chipboard, composite, solid wood, swelling
1. INTRODUCTION
Hygroscopicity of solid wood and other
wooden products as chipboard is an important
property because in the range of saturation
moisture content the dimensional changes
(swelling and shrinkage) are produced.
Beyond of certain limit of moisture content
(fiber saturation point, FSP) and certain time
the woody semi-product will be destroyed.
When water mass that is absorbed in woody
products will be reported to its initial mass the
phenomenon can be name the water absorption
and is specific for wooden panels as
chipboard, fiberboard, plywood, laminated
wood and so on. The same term is for solid
wood [1, 2, 3]. Consequently, the water
absorption, specific for both solid wood and
boards, is calculated with the next relationship
(Eq. 1):
mi m f
(1)
100 [%]
Aw =
mi
Where there are: Aw water absortion, in %;

mi - initial mass of wooden sample before
291
immersion, in g; mf final mass of wooden

sample after immersion in water, in g.
More important from the point of view of
hygroscopicity is thickness swelling, for solid
wood and wooden panels, even is a
consequence of the first phenomenon, but only
in the range of bound water from wood (up to
FSP). This hygroscopical property has name
the thickness swelling and is determined on
the base of initial and final wooden
dimensions, as follow (Eq. 2):
t t
(2)
t = f i 100 [%] ,
ti
Where there are:

t- thickness swelling, in %;
tf is final thickness if woody sample, in mm;
ti initial thickness of woody sample, in mm.
The wooden boards as chipboards,
fiberboards, laminated products and plywood
present different properties of hygroscopicity
related to solid wood, usually higher because
of destroying of wooden integrity in particles
or sheets. Behavior related to water of wooden
materials could hardly be changed because of
adhesive quantity and type. Therefore when

there are used phenol-formaldehyde adhesive
the hygroscopic properties will be improved,
because these adhesives are themselves to
water resistant and a part of these will
penetrate superficial area of wooden products.
In this way it can say that wooden boards with
phenol-formaldehyde adhesive will be use in
medium with great air humidity as plywood
for constructions. Even mechanical strengths
are higher but also the cost prices in this case
are higher.
For chipboard the both properties of
hygroscopicity depend also if their surfaces are
covered or not with protection films. Therefore
for comparison it must took samples with
protection film and others without protection
films. The samples for solid wood used for
comparison will have different values of
higroscopicity on radial and tangential
directions, reason for what it should determine
the both properties on radial and tangential
directions and after that, it made the average of
these values.
Also, because the wooden specie
influences very much the hygroscopical
properties of boards in the work-paper it
should use only beech specie both for solid
wood and for wooden panels (chipboard with
and without film coating).
The main objective of this paper is to find
out how water or high humidity affects the
swelling and water absorbtion properties of
solid wood (in the tangential and radial
direction) and non-covered or melamine
covered chipboard (in thickness), in order to
use them corespondingly.
2. METHODIC AND MATERIALS
Before of actually experiments all wooden
samples were conditioned into atmosphere
with constant parameters up to all samples
reached a constant moisture constant about 10
%. Form of all wooden samples were
prismatic, the samples from solid wood having
dimension 1002020 mm and the samples
from chipboard having 505018 mm (Fig 1).
These different dimenssion are adopted for
obtaining a similar outside surfaces for both
categories of the sample types, namely about
292
86 - 88 cm2, the delection from both type of

samples being only 2,3 % [4], respectively in
resonable limits.
Wooden samples were introduced grouped
(5 pieces) into water down to about 2 cm
under superior level of liquid, for a time of 2
hours and a constant temperature 18 0C [5, 6].
Before immersion of wooden samples it
should make the next determinations:
For wooden panel (chipboard with and
without coated films), there are determined
the initial mass with 0.1 g accuracy and
initial thickness of all samples with 0.01
mm acuracy;
Fig 1. Form and dimensions of woody samples: afor solid wood; b-for chipboards; R-radial; Tgtangential; t-thickness of panel boards
For all solid wood samples there are

determined the initial mass, with the same
accuracy 0.1 g;
For all solid wood samples the dimensions
on radial and tangential directions are
determined with an accuracy of 0.01 mm;
For water it must carry out and keeping the
temperature to regime one (temperature 18
0
C, PH neutral, cleaness and without
carbonates etc).
The same determinations referring to wooden
samples were make after testing, namely in the
moment of sample evacuation from water.
Also it keep into account the water adsorbent
to sample surfaces that might to eliminate by
low pressing with absorbent paper. Time of
weighing and measuring must be very short
because water can be rapidly evaporated. For
covered panels with decorative and protection
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films it keeps into account that the thickness of

wooden samples after immersion will be better
in outside zone and the lowest in the middle
zone of sample, determining both values of
thicknesses. Therefore if the solid wood is use
two specific relationships are necessary.
Results of hygroscopical tests was

centralized in a lot of tables separated for each
type of sample (solid wood and chipboard).
Table 1
Hygroscopical results for solid wood
On the base of measurements that are made for

each type of wooden products it may realize a
lot of tables, from what it can extract water
absorption and thickness swelling as an
medium value for entire testing, as it sees for
instance in the Table 1 for uncovered
chipboard or in the Table 2 for solid wood.
tt =
tr =
t ft t it
t it
t fr t ir
t ir
N Mass, g
mi
mf
32,6
33,3
32,4
32,9
32,8
32,9
31,6
32,3
30,2
30,9
Mean
100
[%]
(3)
100
[%]
Thickness,
mm
ri/rf
ti/tf
tr
tt
Aw,
%
, %
19,7
20,0
19,8
20,1
19,9
20,1
19,8
20,1
19,7
19,9
1.
5
1.
5
1.
0
1.
5
1.
0
2.
4
2.
4
2.
3
2.
3
2.
4
2.4
1.95
4.6
1.95
3.3
1.65
2.2
1.94
2.3
1.70
2.5
1.83
20,4
20,9
20,4
20,9
20,4
20,9
20,4
20,9
20,9
21.8
Where there are: tt is swelling coefficient of

solid wood on tangential direction, in %; tr is
swelling coefficient of solid wood on radial
direction, in %; tfr, tft final thickness of solid
wood on radial and tangential direction after
imersion, in mm; tir, tit initial thickness of
solid wood on radial and tangential direction
before imersion, in mm;
Keeping into consideration that chipboard
has not radial and tangential direction, in order
to make a good comparision between solid
wood and chipboard there was take a medium
value of radial and tangential values, namely:
t =
tr + tt
2
(4)
N
o
1
2
3
4
5
For solid wood there is a radial and tangential

swelling, reason for what for obtaining the
thickness swelling it may do the average of
above values from Table 2.
Because there were made a lot of tests for
each type of wooden products after finishing
of tests it takes data from many tests and put
together in the centralized Table 3, for
obtaining the main tendency parameter as
arithmetic average of these.
Table 3.
Hygroscopicity for different wooden materials
No. Assortments
1
2
3
293
Table 2
Hygroscopical results for composites
t,
Mass, g
Thickness, mm Aw,
%
%
mf
ti
tf
mi
32.2 62.2 17.3 22.2
93.1 28.3
32.3 62.0 17.2 22.4
91.9 30.2
32.3 62.8 17.4 22.4
94.4 28.7
32.4 63.0 17.4 22.2
94.4 27.5
34.1 64.3 17.2 21.8
88.5 26.7
---------------92.4 28.2
Solid wood
Melamine
chipboard
Chipboard
Aw,
%
2.5
9.1
t %
1.8
(1.0+3.7)/2=2.3
92.4
28.2
On the base of these value it may do two

graphs for visualizing the tendency of wooden
products, as it sees in Fig 2 for water
absorption and Fig 3 for thickness swelling.
melamine-coated
chipboards are superior
even than solid wood.
Additionally, in the paper, several
measurements were made on water absorption
and thickness swelling of wood-plastic
composite. The results (water absorption of
0.3% and 0.2% thickness swelling) showed
that this compound is different from the other
two materials taken into consideration in the
paper. There are no terms of comparison
between these types of materials related
higroscopicity.
4. CONCLUSION
Fig 2. Water absorption for woody materials
It can observe from Table 3 that the best

lower water absortion are for solid wood (with
2.5%), the next being melamine-covered
chipboard (with 9.1%) and the lowest water
absortion is for non-covered chipboard, with
92.4 %.
Fig 3. Swelling of woody materials
The same considerations are exposed in Fig 3

related to thickness swelling for different types
of wooden materials. As general rule, the
classification is the same as for the water
absorption, namely: on the first place is solid
wood with 1.8 %, on the second place is
melamine-covered chipboard with 2.3% on
average and last position remains to noncovered chipboard with 28.2 %.
Refering to thickness swelling of
melamine-covered chipboard it has two
different values, namely in the middle of
sample with 1.0% (obtaining the first place,
before the solid wood that has 1.8%) and the
thickness swelling on the edge with 3.7%
(placing the melamine-covered chipboard on
the second place). Therefore it can conclude
that in terms of thickness swelling, the
294
Study about hygroscopicity of wooden

products as agglomerate wooden products
versus solid wood was a constant problems of
researches from all countries all over of world
for finding certain methods for improving this
property, the last frontier being the obtaining
of wooden products without higroscopicity.
Nearby of these two materials the wooden
material from plastics and wood fiber is taken
in consideration for what hygroscopical
properties are very low, about inexistent.
From experimental studies it can observe
that the melamine-covered wooden panels
have a low higroscopicity related to uncovered boards and even related to solid wood.
From this point of view a good covered board
is better than solid wood as timber could be,
beside other currently features of these boards
as low cost, broad dimensions, uniform
thickness and plainly.
All studies made in the paper about
higroscopy of woody materials have the aim of
water absortion and thickness swelling, in
order to use them corespondingly.
REFERENCES
1. Kollmann, F., Cot W., Principles of wood
science and technology. I Solid wood,
Springer Heidelberg, New York (1968).
2. Rimbu I. Wood technology, vol II,
Technical Print House, Bucharest (1980).
3. A. Lunguleasa, Wood physics and
mechanics, Transylvania University Press,
Brasov (2007).
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4. A. Lunguleasa, Study and contribution

about chipboard manufacturing with high
adessive surface, Ph. Doctoral Thesis,
Transylvania University, Brasov (1999).
5. Wood Fuels Handbook, Biomass Trade
Center,
Available:
http://nuke.
biomasstrade
centres.eu/Portals/0/D2.1.1
%20%20wood%20fuels%20handbook_btc_
en.pdf, (January, 2013).
6. P. Bekhta, P. Niemz, J. Sedliacik Effect of
pre-pressing of veneer on the glueability
and properties of veneer-based products.
Eur J Wood Wood Prod 70(1-3):99-106
(2012).
295
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UTILIZATION OF TECHNICAL INNOVATION ON A NEW PRODUCT

Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania, Manufacturing Engineering Department.
Abstract: This paper aims to show the role of innovation capitalizing on a new technical product, which
can lead to modernization and economic development. We analyzed the essential characteristics of the
new product, given its origin and manifestation of a technical and economic context.Also this paper aims
to shed light on the degree of implementation for each phase of said sequence which will depend on the
specific product and the state of its complexity. Last was ultimately leads to awareness by companies,
customer feedback from bringing useful suggestions on this basis were identified opportunities
Keywords: technical product, production process, product development flow.
1. INTRODUCTION
It capitalized on the technical product
concept again, which is materialized as a
prototype.
Verifying a technical product is used in
consumer testing. Determined the essential
characteristics of the new product, prepare
samples produced in small quantities to
consumers targeted testing to obtain feedback
from them.
Constructive and technical refinement
phase, the development of product and
production process, is developed the new
product execution documentation: technical
specifications, drawings, formulas, patterns
and instructions. The new product is
experienced pilot or test stations, depending on
the nature of the product.[1]
.
Sales market are experimental tests
performed to determine product acceptance by
customers.
Thus the new product is launched into
production on a calendar scheduling appropriate
marketing.
297
2. ANALYSES
One of the essential foundations for
creating a successful new product over the
long term is to identify technological trends
from an early stage and to exploit the
opportunities that new technologies offer for
product innovations.
However, factors such as the hugely
dynamic nature of technological progress
make it increasingly difficult for the new
product
to
comprehensively
identify
technology-related opportunities and to
harness them in a goal-oriented manner.
A key prerequisite for successful
technology development therefore lies in the
ability of an organization to rapidly and
efficiently align the requirements of the market
with the potential offered by new technologies
and to integrate the results in its own products
and processes.
A fundamental contribution to the
development and design of technical products
were teachers and Wolfgang Gerhard Pahl
Beitz, whose book serves worldwide as basic
manual for students and researchers. In their
systematic conception, definition of technical

objects is decomposed into four successive
phases:[2]
definition phase function: allows to
specify the functionality you need to ensure
their subject and achieve functional modeling
needs;
conceptual definition phase: specify
what physical principles will be used to ensure
functional requirements;
physico-morphological
definition
phase one takes the natural and organic
elements necessary to achieve physical
principles retained;
detailed definition phase: describes the
interactions between component parts of the
product and how to produce the parts.
In an ideal situation, each stage may be
carried out as independent as possible of the
next stage, in order to ensure the freedom of
action in each level.
In a newer edition of their book [3],
Pahl and Beitz, propose a more advanced
procedure, under which the development and
design of technical systems and technical
products consists of 5 phases:
clarifying and defining theme (design)
is proposing the product is - clear theme,
elaborate list of requirements, the result of this
phase is a list of requirements (design
specifications);
development
principle
solution:
determining
the
structure
functions,
identifying working principles and working
structures, combining the choice of concepts.
The result of this step is a solution in principle
(a concept);
building
structure
development:
Preliminary form design, material selection
and
calculation,
choosing
preliminary
configurations, refining and improving
configuration. The result of this phase is a
configuration or conformation (layout)
preliminary;
finalizing the structure construction:
eliminating weaknesses, errors control for the
influence of disturbances and minimal costs,
preparing preliminary list of parts and
production and assembly documents. Result
phase: configuration (conformation) final;
preparing documents for production
and exploitation: they develop detailed
drawings, parts lists, instructions for

manufacturing, assembly, transport and
operation, check all documents. The result of
steps:
production
of
the
product
documentation.
In the 2007 edition, the process is
completed with a final phase: marketing. With
the introduction of market life cycle begins
(commercial) product.[4]
The application rate for each phase of
said sequence will depend on the specific
product, the state of its complexity and the
degree of departure from its predecessors.
The methods and organizational
solutions developed in the technology and
tehnical innovation unit to improve and
synchronize
research,
innovation
and
technology development processes have been
shown success in the tehnical fields: products
whose technology development capabilities
have been properly organized achieve higher
growth, increased profitability and an
enhanced competitive edge.
Marketclient
(socioeconomic
requirements)
Harnessing
innovative
ideas for new
technical
product
The idea of
new product /
new product
development
/ Year
Environment;
resource
protection
Figura 1. Criteria for growth of innovative

development of a new product
Identification and evaluation of
significant risks should be done with
consideration of internal factors and external
factors.
The innovation must be widely adopted
in order to self-sustain. When a technology
goes through a major transformation phase and
yields a successful innovation then it becomes
a great learning experience, not only for the
parent industry but for other industries as well.
Big innovations are generally the outcome of
intra- and interdisciplinary networking among
technological sectors along with combination
of implicit and explicit knowledge.
Stages
298
Activities
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2. THE TEXT OF THE PAPER

- Fundamental
Research
- The idea and theme for a

new product. Clarifying and
elucidating the basis.
Production
Planning /
new
technical
product /
Marketing
- Industrial
research
(applied)
- Development concepts,
studies, methods,
procedures, technical and
- Experimental economic analyzes, plans,
Development / diagrams, documents on
Technology
products and technologies.
- Technology
Transfer
- Recovery
results
- Design, implementation,
testing prototype / prototype
plant pilot.Validation / pilot
plant.
Market /
Marketing
Research /
Finding
innovative
ideas
The idea of
product /
Prototype /
Industrial
Design /
Simulation
- Advice and technical

assistance. Development
documentation for technical
and economic analysis.
Dissemination of
information.
Figure 3. - The flow of new technical

development new product
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The result of this stage is the idea of the
product, which is subject to the assessment
process in order to develop new useful
products.
- Design number zero.

Preparation Manufacturing.
Implementation, testing and
certificate number zero.
Start manufacturing.
Figure 2. Steps and key activities capitalize

innovative new technical products.
The company acknowledges a problem,
feedback from customer brings it useful
suggestions on this basis are idendificate
opportunities.
Further,
creative
teams
intervene to support businesses in the process
of identifying the idea.
299
The suggestions and information received

from market leading on the initiative of
finding a new idea. The processes used in this
study are more exploratory and less customer
driven than the typical, tehnical innovation.
Utilization of tehnical innovation on a new
product will always be a high risk undertaking,
but much can be learned about effective new
product management from a review of the
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
experiences in past new product projects and

in other companies.
The impetus for all the projects in this
study comes from the convergence of
developing technologies, various contextual or
environmental factors and a new product
champion or visionary.
The economic efficiency of investments
allocated technology international transfer is
dependent, first, the essential features of any
investment (profit, time, risk), plus specific
elements of the cross-border nature of
international investment.
It is necessary to use efficiency indicators
to highlight all possible correlations.
Construction of indicators system requires
careful work to identify and quantify all
resources allocated or consumed and the types
of effects generated.

Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian
Government under the contract number
POSDRU/ID134378.
REFERENCES
1
Constantin, R., Ioan, D., F., Anton, H.,
Alexandru, M., Dan, C., B., Fundamentals of
management innovation and technological
transfer, Bucharest, 2012.
2
Pahl,
G.,
Beitz,
W.,
Konstruktionslehre, Springer Verlag, 1977.
3
Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Engineering
Design A Systematic Approach 3rd Ed.,
Springer-Verlag, London Limited 2007.
Translation from the German Language:
Konstruktionslehre, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2003.
4
Gerhard
P.,
Konstruktionslehre.
Grundlagen
erfolgreicher
Produktentwicklung.
Methoden
und
Anwendung. 7 Aufl., Springer, Berlin, 2007.
300
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MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS TO SUPPORT FLEXIBLE

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT IN ECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENT
Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania, Manufacturing Engineering Department.
Abstract: Information and management concepts has focused on how available knowledge is exploited to
improve organizational performance especially in flexible manufacturing systems or activities. There is
limited information on how concepts acquired during flexible manufacturing systems development can be
utilized the product life cycle to provide decision support. Existing management systems knowledge do
not seem to provide information on well-known manufacturing constraints and product attributes
identified during product development. Some flexible manufacturing systems do not provide the means of
identify and utilise tacit knowledge which have a major impact on some flexible manufacturing systems
development process. An organized transfer of knowledge from previous systems will no doubt enhance
the management quality, efficiency, cost and time to market of new flexible manufacturing system in
economical field. The study shows that has developed a knowledge management framework to support
flexible manufacturing systems development in economic environment.
Keywords: Management concepts, Product development, Framework, flexible manufacturing system
1. INTRODUCTION
enable the conversion of explicit to implicit

knowledge a process of internalisation.[1]
To improve an effective knowledge

management of flexible manufacturing systems the
strategy is that realize the benefit in order to
support decision-making process and thereby
remain sustainable in economic field.
Management concept has increasingly
become sought; however, many organisations are
still unable to develop and improve knowledge to
enhance economic performance.
Knowledge is fragmented, sometimes
difficult to locate and therefore to improve or to
share. There is a need therefore to develop decision
support systems to improve, store, share and
capture data, information and knowledge. Decision
support systems is enable the transformation of
tacit to implicit knowledge to be shared and
improved for decision making. They will also
301
2. ANALYSES
Consequently knowledge and experiences

are sometimes poorly documented and therefore
are not available for reinstate in future projects. In
figure 1 shows the concept of
knowledge
regarding flexible maufacturing system derived
from theory, information and experience and,
which is important in nature and could be
described as successfully applied knowledge.
When a company are checked flexible
manufacturing systems are implemented available
information theory and applied knowledge
experience so lead to a guaranteed success.
Learning
about
management
concepts
Information about
flexible
manufactur
ing system
Wisdom
Management
concepts
ensure its use in existing and future flexible

manufacturing system.
4. Utilisation; how the knowledge
identified, captured and formalised can be
integrated into products and decisions, and
applied in other flexible manufacturing
system.[2]
Flexible
manufacturing
system and design
information.
Product
disposal
information.
Expe-rience
in economic
field
Theory
regarding
quality
management
Figure 1. Knowledge derived from theory,

information and experience to develop
economic field.
When experimental data are classified
as premium items, they are shaped so that they
become available.
When rules or heuristics are applied to
information, knowledge is then created as
actionable information for producing some
benefit value. The knowledge that is created
and shared amongst organisational members
can be categorized into two typical forms of
knowledgetacit and explicit [1].
Knowledge in product development
environment is considered to consist of four
activities.[1]
1. Identification; the identification of
knowledge required to develop new flexible
manufacturing systems, including product
specifications, process, tooling and material
capabilities.
2. Capture; how the knowledge is
captured stored and retrieved.
3. Formalise and present; how
knowledge can be formalized and presented to
Information
product
flexible
manufacturing
system.
Product
manufacturing
information.
Operation
information in
flexible
manufacturing
system.
Figure 2 . Information and

knowledge framework in product life
cycle
In figure 2 shows the concepts about
information and knowledge management
framework for a flexible manufacturing
system life cycle by showing all the sources
and information about the product can be
derived.
Each of the phases has data and
knowledge that describe the characteristics of
that stage in the product life cycle.
Such information are useful to the
product
and
manufacture
flexible
manufacturing system and also to the customer
who would need a full understanding of
product attributes to enable optimal design,
manufacture and guaranteed production
performance.
Also an flexible manufacturing system
would be made aware of all relevant
information including data on product
functionality, durability, efficiency, energy
302
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requirement, while the industries will product

specification and requirements, mode of
operation, value added, cost price, delivery
due date, maintenance requirements. The sales
department working in collaboration with the
design and production department will also
establish that they can deliver what has been
promised to the institution within the due date.
This will involve material requirement
planning, supplier management, production
scheduling
and
planning,
outsourcing
requirement, quality assurance. An order is
confirmed only when there is an contract
established between customer and the
enterprise.
All the product information
or
discerned elements, are patterned in a certain
way, that data is transformed into information.
As rules or heuristics are applied to product,
knowledge is then created as actionable
information for producing some benefit value.
All the process involves the
identification, capture, formalisation and
presentation of knowledge and its utilization,
support effective decision making within a
flexible manufacturing system and product
development environment.
Extraordinarily,
however,
the
development of project to support flexible
manufacturing system, has barely intersected
with studies on commercial new product
development, which consider the comparable
problem of achieving efficiency whilst
attaining consumer satisfaction.
Engineers engaging in new product
development bring to their work the formal
and articulated expertise of their disciplines
that have been socially constructed through
time by particular professional or academic
communities. [3] Mohrman et al., explains that
an organisation striving to derive competitive
advantage from knowledge management needs
303
to understand which elements of the

organisations processes affects its ability to
acquire, create and apply knowledge.[3]
Knowledge helps to achieve improved
business performance through product and
process, and in this sense knowledge can be
classified not only from the knowledge type
(tacit and explicit) but also from the
knowledge domain (product related and
process related) [4].
Using this definition, knowledge has
four classifications:
- Tacit-product related; know-how
(human brain)
- Tacit-process related; human
capability (human brain and culture),
- Explicit-product related; knowledge
base (knowledge repository),
- Explicit-process related; workflow
(workflow system).
Data
Information
Knowledge
Formalise knowledge in
order to utilize in future
flexible manufacturing
system development.
Figure 3. Formalise interactions
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In this paper has developed a knowledgebased management in flexible manufacturing
system that adapts knowledge management
concepts into product development where the
major objectives were to provide decision
support to help economic field, according the
utilisation of best-know knowledge, minimise
costs, achieve quality assurance and shorten
time to product. Product development
activities must be structured in such a way that
any engineering decisions taken are based on
proven knowledge and experience. Any failure
to apply knowledge and experience could
result in product and process redesign, which
would be seen as non-value process and waste
of valuable resource. There is a need for a
knowledge-based framework to support
flexible manufacturing system development,
which includes a knowledge-based system
developed from an organisations knowledge
and past experience captured in a database.
This process involves the identification,
capture, formalisation and presentation of
knowledge and its utilisation to support
effective decision making within a product
development environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Development (SOP HRD), financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian
Government under the contract number
POSDRU/ID134378.
REFERENCES
1
Chike, F., O., Alan, H., Knowledge
management to support product development
in cold roll-forming environment, 2011.
2
Polanyi, M., The tacit dimension.
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London , 1996.
3
Mohrman,
SA.,
Finegold,
D.,
Mohrman, AM., An empirical model of the
organization knowledge system in new product
development firms. J Eng Technol. Manag
20(12):738, 2003.
4
Ahna, JH., Chang, SG., Assessing the
contribution of knowledge to business
performance: the KP3 methodology. Decis
Support Syst 36(2004):4034162007, 2004.
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QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPLIED THROUGH QFD METHOD

Ramona PAKOCS
Romania, Transylvania University of Brasov, Engineering and Management Department,
ramona.pakocs@unitbv.ro
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is based on the analysis between the interests of the company and
customers requirements achieved by using QFD method.
I have started with a few notions related to the method in order to understand exactly how it applies
continuing with a brief overview of the company, and finally the proper analysis and conclusions about
this.
Keywords: quality, improvement, performance, product, control.
1. INTRODUCTION
This study represents a national and
international
concern
about
quality
management for companies. For this, an
analysis was made using the QFD method for
the company S.C. BETA S.R.L., where the
following six basic steps were emphasized:
identifying customers needs, identifying
technical needs, the relationship between
customers needs and technical needs,
competitive assessment and sales key points,
assessment of the technical needs of
competing product and services, setting targets
and selecting the technical needs that are to be
modified in the process.
2. QFD METHODOLOGY
QFD concept is a methodology for
systematizing the information obtained from
the user in order to get / to define the
characteristics of the product / service, market
adaptation.
QFD objectives provide information on
aspects of the product / improvement service.
305
The objective is to achieve a design

quality of an excellence product / service by
transforming customers needs into quality of
product characteristics, without omissions or
unnecessary items. [1]
The QFD method is based on the
House of Quality a set of matrices used to
link the voice of the customer and technical
requirements of a product, process control
plans and manufacturing operations. [3]
3. CASE STUDY USING QFD METHOD
AT S.C. BETA S.R.L.
SC. BETA SRL., is a Romanian
company, having the legal form of a limited
liability company.
The main activity of the company is
providing translation and interpretation
services from and into any language, under the
best conditions.
The company works both locally and
nationally, based on cooperation agreements
with other leading companies in the same
industry. The need for concluding such
agreements with other companies in the same
field comes due to the fact that in Braov there
are no authorized translators for strange

languages (Flemish, Japanese, Arabic,
Swedish, etc..).
The companys activity is of about 3000 pages
translated per month, and references from our
customers from various areas including
national and international companies represent
the companys business card.
Map of processes at S.C. BETA S.R.L.
ANALYSIS AND
IMPROVEMENT
3.1. The current situation of S.C. BETA

S.R.L.
Establish
the policy
and
objectives
Currently the company does not have

documents showing irregularities concerning
deadlines. [2]
Reasons for non compliance with deadlines are
related to the following aspects:
- large volume of work;
- incorrect communication of the real
time to the customer;
- stress at work;
- emergencies.
Providing
resources
and
organization
SMC
planning
Figure 1. Management processes
The aim of the process is to avoid

delaying the works from the time agreed with
the client.
Relatio
nship
with
custom
ers
Strengths that the company owns are:

- Provides application of the Hague
Apostille;
- The company collaborates with
national translators for translating
documents into strange languages
(Chinese, Arabic, Swedish, etc.).
- Tutoring at reasonable prices;
- Emergencies are not a problem;
- No work is refused.
Provi
ding
servic
es
Servi
ces
after
delive
ry
Tracking
customer
satisfactio
Complain
ts
handling
Figure 2. Processes of value creation
Domestic
suppliers
Weaknesses of the company:
- disagreements between the time set for

making the work and their delivery
time;
- duties from the job description do not
always correspond to the tasks that
employees have;
- some complaints about quality.
SUPPLY
External
suppliers
3.2. Process mapping for S.C. BETA

S.R.L.
Analysis and improvement
Figure. 3. Support processes
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Process sheet at S.C. BETA S.R.L.
Delays;
Economic indicators.
Service name: performing services.

Relationship with customers
SERVICE
Translations
Interpretations
Tutoring
INPUTS
ACTIVITY
OUTPUTS
Marketing
study;
- Rebates;
-Offers for
customers;
- Taking
orders
(works)
from
customer;
- Translatin
g works;
- Correctio
n;
- Deliverin
g works;
- Made by
telephone, at
the request
of customers;
- Choosing
the translator
for the
required
language;
- Documents
are
interpreted;
- Payment is
made by the
customer.
- Deliveri
ng
works;
- Promoti
on;
- Participa
tion to
national
fairs.
-Offers to
existing
customers
and
potential
customers.
-Through
advertisin
g.
Individually/
in groups;
-At the office
or address of
the customer.
Customer orientation is an important point

for the success and for maintaining S.C. BETA
S.R.L. on the market.
The company focuses on customers
orientation, identification and analysis of their
needs, transposed in products and services on
the progress of the interaction with customers,
with the aim of developing and maintaining
long-term and economically advantageous
relationships.
This procedure aims to highlight the
relationship with customers, customers
requirements definition, broadening the
portfolio of customers, customer satisfaction,
efficient document translation process, feedback from customers.
In translation department work translators
who translate documents by taking into
consideration the deadline and quality of work.
In customer department, the companys PR
responsible has the following responsibilities:
taking orders, recording and distributing
documents to translators, respecting deadline
of works, cash responsible, complaints
handling.
In
management
department
duties
correspond to the general manager who has to
role of organizing business activities through
regulations and internal order, establishing
company strategies aimed to proper
functioning of the company.
In order to make translations, translators
must be registered on the website of the
Ministry of Justice; this gives them the right to
make translations on their own name being
responsible for each document translated.
Addressing
customer
requiremen
ts by the
company.
-Certificate
of
linguistic
competence
Table 1. Process sheet at S.C. BETA

S.R.L.
Responsible person: the secretary-PR
Performance Indicators:
- Customers satisfaction;
- Number of complaints;
307
The company operates by internal

regulations that are set by the manager of the
company; they all aim proper function within
the company. [2]
These regulations contain information on
how the documents should be saved, time,
quality of works, tasks that each employee has.
Order note is a reference document that is
prepared for a specific number of pages (over
100 pages) and contains translation company
data and customer data, term, number of pages
and language it must be translated into. This
document represents an additional certainty
regarding the order.
Workflow consists of:
Identification;
Translation;
Requirements definition;
Drafting contracts;
Settlement;
Satisfaction assessment.
Proper analysis:
The analysis begins by studying the
process - customer relationship.
Currently the company does not have
documents showing irregularities concerning
time-limits.
Reasons for not complying with deadlines
are related to following aspects:
The big volume of work;
Incorrect communication of the
real time to the customer;
Stress at work;
Emergencies.
All these irregularities are due to company
policy "no work is refused, emergencies are
not a problem." Responsible for all these is the
general manager.
The aim is to avoid delaying the works as
regards the time agreed with the customer. For
this it was proposed to apply the method
"Demings Wheel" as follows:
Registrations
Registration / update of customer

database;
Registration of accounting documents;
Registration of customer requirements;
Registration of order notes.
1. PLAN
3. ACT
2. DO
4.CHECK
Deviations
The main deviation in this company is the
lack of effective communication. The message
is often distorted due to the fact that messages
are not transmitted properly.
Figure. 4. Improvement - Deming's wheel

method [4]
1. PLAN
Improving product performance process
Process subject to improvement is the

process of time achievement so as to meet the
deadlines set by the order.
We want to improve this process because
we dont want disagreements between the time
set for carrying out the works and the delivery
time. It often happens to fail to comply with
the time set because of the large volume of
work, the emergencies that have priority and
wrong estimation of the execution time.
308
Respect the
time allocated
to each
department;
Consider a
higher period
of time for the
works that are
not "urgent";
"Emergencies"
remain a
priority;
Record orders
in the database;
2. DO
Interior
regulations
on
departments
Incentives/
penalties;
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After applying this method significant

improvements resulted on how to perform
works and timely completion. Streamlining
this process entailed not only an ease of
process, but also a better relationship between
employees and the company thus leading to
satisfying customer needs.
4. CHECK
3. ACT
Application of
internal order
regulations on
Departments.
9 Incentives:
Bonus by the
end of the
month;
Team-building;
Flexible
schedule.
Evaluation
of actual
results;
Comparing
these results
with the
targets set
in previous
planning.
Quality assessment by using the EFQM

system of S.C. BETA S.R.L.
Orientation to employees
The company puts forward the employees
potential through the experience gained in the
field, studies and documents that certify their
training.
Issues examined:
9 Punishment:
Overtime;
Not giving any

incentive;
Compliance
with the time
allocated to
each
department;
Record orders
in the database;
the way human resources are

planned and improved;
the way employees skills are
developed;
the way employees are involved
in setting goals and evaluating
results;
the way employees are involved in
improvement actions;
the way they deal with safety and
health at work.
In order to relax and develop relationships
between employees, the company organizes
monthly team-building and different events.
"Emergencies"
remained a
priority.
Table 2. Improvement through the method

of Demings Wheel - details
309
Next we made QFD matrix that

highlights the correspondence between
customer requirements and business
interests:
CS
MC
4
SC
C
EN
IMS
3
Company
interests
MC
SC
EN
IMS
IIT
MPC
PC
26
23 17 19
20
21
14
Requirements
LP
Q
STW
TOTAL
3. CONCLUSIONS
IIT
IMPROVING
CS
Marking way as regards the analysis for the

company S.C. BETA S.R.L.:
- very important
1 = 5 p
- important
1=4p
- less important
1 = 3 p
- not important
1=1p
Marking way in the analysis for the
competing company S.C. ALFA S.R.L.
1 = less important
2
3
4 = very important
Table 3. QFD matrix- Correspondence

between customer requirements and business
interests
Were:
CS - customer satisfaction;
MC - maintain clients;
SC - signing contracts;
C - complaints;
EN - expanding nationally;
IMS - increasing market share;
IIT - increase in turnover;
LP - low prices;
Q - quality;
STW - Short- time working;
P - privacy;
MPC - market position of the company;
PC - prestige company.
Following the analysis made using QFD, a

correlation has been achieved, between
customer requirements and business interests.
From QFD matrix we have found that the
most important criteria for the company S.C
BETA S.R.L. are customer satisfaction and
maintaining it. Competitor, S.C. ALFA S.R.L.,
besides customer satisfaction focuses on
broadening the database (signing agreements).
The company wants to improve the criteria
listed in the table in order to be able to achieve
its objectives on everything related to service
quality, improving customer relationships and
possible national expansion.
REFERENCES
1. Ciurea, Sorin; Nicolae, Dragulanescu,
(1995),
Total
Quality
Management,
Economica Publishing House, Brasov,
Romania.
2. Company data S.C. BETA S.R.L.
3. Deaconescu, Tudor. (1998), Fundamentals
of engineering quality, Transilvania eds.,
Brasov, Romania.
4.Popescu,
Maria.
(2011),
Quality
Management, Transilvania eds., Brasov,
Romania.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partially supported by the
strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137070
(2014) of the Ministry of National Education,
Romania, co-financed by the European Social
Fund Investing in People, within the Sectoral
Development 2007-2013.
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RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK TYPE ANALYSIS SPECIFIC TO

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN INDUSTRIAL PROFILE COMPANIES
Ramona PAKOCS, Noura Barbu LUPULESCU
Romania, Transylvania University of Brasov, Engineering and Management Department,
ramona.pakocs@unitbv.ro
nouras@unitbv.ro
Abstract: Before being marketed, any product has been conceived, designed, manufactured, based on
schemes, drawings protected against internal and external theft of intellectual copyright or by documents
/ certificates / patents. After being marketed, the product becomes the source for copying, denigration etc.
All these actions are risk sources. Risk management helps us identify, analyze and treat the specific risks
of intellectual property. To overcome these specific risks of intellectual property it is necessary and
obligatory to make an analysis of the types of risks within industrial profile companies in order to
minimize the possible disastrous effects in research and production activities.
Keywords: creation, product risk, protection, analysis, identification, minimization.
1. INTRODUCTION
In accordance with ISO / IEC Guide
73:2002, risk can be defined as the
combination of the probability of an event to
happen and its consequences. [3]
In the industrial profile companies in all
types of activities, there are events and
consequences that could generate opportunities
for gain or threats leading to loss.
Although in most cases are taken into
account only the negative consequences of
risk, risk management includes both positive
and negative aspects of risk, and methods of
prevention and reduction of its effects.
Adverse effects of the different types of
intellectual property risks in the industrial
profile companies can be disastrous, but the
application of an efficient risk management,
aims to identifying factors that could affect the
proper functioning of the organization.
311
2. RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK

ANALYSIS OF SPECIFIC TYPES OF
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RISKS
2.1. Risk management
In the general context of management,
knowledge, risk management is the systematic
approach to risk within an organization,
understanding by organization the broad sense
of the term as defined by international
standards in quality. Considering, however, the
management as an "art" when the risk
management can be defined as "Art of
keeping uncertainty under control." [1]
Risk management is a key component of
strategic management of any organization,
ensuring effective management of potential
opportunities and adverse effects of different
types of risks.
By risk management process the
organization consistently applies policies,
procedures and practices for the identification,

analysis and treatment of risk. [2]
In the category of intellectual property
risks, internal / external risk factors that can
act are mainly represented by:
-
failure to supervise the market, (A)

cession, licensing contracts and, in
general, transfer of rights agreements,
and contracts with employees wrongly
drawn or negotiated, (B)
unfair competition acts from the
company towards the competing
market or from competing market
towards the company, (C)
undervaluation or overvaluation of
negotiable intangible assets that can
lead to large losses in either the
percentage of participation in the joint
venture contracts or the failure to sign
them (D)
infringement (piracy) of copyright by
the company against competing market
either by representatives or individuals
from competing market towards the
company, (E)
counterfeit of trademark or products /
services, (F)
counterfeit of patented inventions, (G)
counterfeit of industrial design, etc.,
(H) as follows in Figure 1:
2.2. Analysis of the specific risk of

intellectual property
From studying the sources of risk in the
strategy of industrial profile companies,
intellectual property they be divided into the
following important types of risk:
Risks of conception / creation;
Specific assumed IP production
risks;
Marketing risks;
Management risks;
Social risks. [2]
In industrial engineering we can express
each risk by the following formulas:
R=PxC
(1)
R=FxC
(2)
Or
Where:
P Is the probability of a negative event to
happen.
C - Is the consequence of occurrence of
that event.
H
G
A
RISKFACTORS
OFIP
B
C
F
E
Figure 1. Risk Factors of IP
F - Is the frequency with which the event

can happen.
Both relations are equivalent and will be
expressed by value units divided by time units:
USD / year USD / month etc.
Risk management at the company level is
designed to identify potential events that may
affect the organization.
Risk management process in the company
consists in seven related components that are
integrated into the general management of the
organization and are represented in the
following diagram: [1]
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state companies, but avoided for unknown

reasons. [2]
Setting
Goals
Risk
assessment
Risk
response
Monitoring
Information and
Communication
Risk
identificatio
Control of
activities
Figure 2. Risk management process at the

company level
To demonstrate the need to implement a
management strategy for the prevention of risk
in intellectual property, we will analyze a case
study on the risks of conception / creation.
For reasons of confidentiality the company
was named S.C. ALFA S.A., then changing its
name to S.C. BETA S.A.
2.3. Case study on the analysis of
conception / creation risk and noncontractual abuse at S.C. ALFA S.A.
This
case
study
approaches
the
development and extent of the rights on the
scientific engineering work on the route
"project - patented invention - technical work"
as a result of revocation of a patented
invention.
Analysis of the case study is made based
on the expertise in industrial property, namely
on the patent no. 79533 of 26.04.1982 Hydraulic control block (Figure 3), Holder:
the company S.C. ALFA S.A. and provides
solutions that can be applied within large
companies in machinery industry, formerly
313
Figure 3. Hydraulic clutch subject of

patent no. 79 533 - Hydraulic control block
It was analyzed step by step the protection
evolution of the invention subject, and the
transition from paid protection under special
law to unpaid protection as a result of the
general law, as it follows:
18.06.1956 Decree no. 321 on

copyright
30.10.1974 Law No. 62 on

inventions and innovations
PERIOD OF PAID
PROTECTION
21.09.1981 Beginning of the protection

period regarding the patent no. 79533. Filing
date of the patent.
01.04.1983The period covered by

the lawsuit no. 8/1995
31.03.1987- at this time there is no

one agreement on the payment way.
Between 01.04.1983 - 2002, the invention

is applied by S.C. ALFA S.A., either as
general assembly (Figure 4) or as spare parts.
PERIOD OF UNPAID
PROTECTION
21.09.1988 - The final date the

invention object was protected by
Patent under Law no. 62/74.
22.09.1988 -The date the invention
object was not longer protected by
law no. 62/74 on inventions and
innovations.
Neither the provision imposed by law no.

64/91 on invention patent, on partly of totally
unpaid rewards. Revocation is due to nonpayment of fees for maintenance in force.
Inventors were not announced. Revocation is
enforced.
21.01.1992 - Entry into force of the
Law no. 64/1991 on patents. Repeal
of Law no. 62/1974 on inventions
and innovations.
24.06.1996 - Entry into force of the
Law no. 8/March 14, 1996 on
Copyright and Related Rights
(promulgated on 21/09/1996. Entry
into force was made 90 days after
its publication in the Official
Gazette. No. 60 on March 26,
1996). Repeal Decree no. 321/56 on
copyright.
On 09.21.1981 the company ALFA S.A.
requires OSIM urgent patenting of an
invention that the authors, two engineers had
designed and then assigned under law No. 62
of 1974 on inventions and innovations. Under
the law, it was assigned the patent, not the
right to use the object of the patent.
Until 01/04/1983, inventors are paid
according to the law in force then.
Figure 4. Three of ALFAs lathes patented

under no. 79533 of 26.4.1982 - Hydraulic
control block.
From 31.03.1987, S.C. ALFA S.A., now,
S.C. BETA S.A. has not paid taxes to OSIM
the invention being cancelled.
S.C. BETA S.A. did not announce
inventors that it was no longer interested in
paying annual taxes for maintaining invention
protection. From this time there is no
agreement on payment.
However S.C. BETA S.A. continues to
apply the former invention. Financial rights of
inventors have NOT been negotiated between
the inventor and the unit that applied the
invention. The unit had to notify because,
according to Article 41/L64-91 The holder
may waive, in whole or in part, the patent,
based on a written statement filed with the
State Office for Inventions and Trademarks. In
case of inventions referred to in art. 5
paragraph 1 a) and paragraph 2 and the
inventions assigned according to art. 5
paragraph 1 b) the patent holder is obliged to
notify the inventor about his waiver intention,
upon the request of the inventor; the holder is
required to transfer his patent rights."
Therefore, it is an illegal usage.
S.C. BETA S.A. stood on the provision
of art. 41/L64-91 "Invention or part thereof,
whose protection was waived, can be freely
exploited by third parties." But prevalence
was made illegal because it cannot be taken
from the context of the whole article 41.
Without settling accounts with inventors,
fraudulently applying Part 4 of art. 41/L.64-91,
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S.C. BETA S.A. still applies the technical

work, former invention. As a result, the
inventors summon to court S.C. BETA S.A.,
this time for failure to comply with the
Supreme Court decision to stop producing the
invention object, and for additional damage.
For this second period S.C. BETA S.A. has
not concluded a license agreement or
assignment with the holders of the rights.
Defendants lawyers invoked the statute of
limitations, according to Decree no. 167/58,
[*** 58] recognizing that there is a right to
claim, but just to show that it is prescribed.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The most important aspects and conclusions
analyzed are:
1. A first issue concerns the validity of the
patent and, related to this, to whom belongs
the duty to inform on the progress of the
invention, and thus of the operation as a result
of the holders payment obligation to the
inventor under the contract, the legal
provisions related to the monies dues, and the
transfer of the right over the patent from
holder to the inventor.
2. A second issue relates to the forfeiture of
holders rights due to non-payment of annual
fees to maintain the patent in force
3. A third issue is that the author of the work
enjoys rights throughout his life.
4. A fourth issue related to this case is the
exclusive right of exploitation of the patent
and work.
5. The author has the right to patrimonial
repair in case of using his work without right.
6. Sixthly, copyright is exercised over
scientific works: plans, drawings, i.e. projects
and scientific documentation. The employed
author of a work is the owner of his creation
and has the exclusive right to exploit it.
315
7. As long as the scientific work has the

character of an invention, it is not protected by
Law no. 8/1996, only by Law no. 64/91. When
the novelty feature disappears, the scientific
work will be protected under Law no. 8/1996.
8. If the holder is no longer interested in
applying the invention, he must notify both the
inventor to take it and OSIM. Exploitation of
an invention in case of article 5, b) / L.64-91
without a contract is a counterfeit.
REFERENCES
1. Brsan- Pipu, N., Popescu I., Risk
Management.Concepts.Methods. Applications.
Braov: "Transilvania" Publishing House
(2003).
2. Fntn, R.S., Research on integrated
quality - risk management of technical economic intellectual property, PhD Thesis,
"Transilvania" University. Brasov Faculty of
Technological Engineering (2008).
3. Patriche C. F., Research on integrated
quality risk management in technical and
economic restructuring of companies, PhD
Thesis, "Transilvania" University of Brasov,
Brasov (2007).
4. Law no. 64 from October 11, 1991
(*(republished) *) on patents *) ISSUER:
PARLIAMENT; Published in Official Gazette
no. 541 of August 8, 2007.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partially supported by the
strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137070
(2014) of the Ministry of National Education,
Romania, co-financed by the European Social
Fund Investing in People, within the Sectoral
Development 2007-2013.
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INVESTIGATION OF SWEEP APPLIED TO ROTATING AXIAL

CASCADES AND NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF FLOW
Irina Carmen ANDREI
"ElieCarafoli"NationalInstituteforAerospaceResearchINCAS,Bucharest,Romania
Abstract: This paper presents an original approach regarding the application of sweep to rotating blade
cascades. The justification for swept blades is given by its consequence, i.e. a reduction of local velocity
(usually from supersonic/ transonic to subsonic regimes) such that the losses due to shock waves and/or
boundary layer displacement and/or followed by reattachment are minimized. As study cases were
considered a cascade blade, as well as forward and backward sweep of span-wise cross sections. The
RANS model was used to describe the flow and a comparative study was conducted by using four
turbulence models, i.e. Spalart-Allmaras, k-, k- and Reynolds Stress RST models. The CFD analysis
was done with the FLUENT solver, with the settings for 2D case, implicit equations and double precision.
The convergence was monitored such that the residuals should be minimized. The results of the numerical
simulations of the flow are expressed as the distributions of Mach number (in relative flow, since it is a
rotational frame), static pressure, static temperature and entropy, which have been presented
comparatively, for each turbulence model and sweep study case, corresponding to the design rotational
speed of 275 [m/s].
Keywords: aerodynamics, rotating axial blade cascades, sweep, numerical simulation, CFD analysis.
MSC2010: _________
1. INTRODUCTION
The design of the modern aircraft
engines is targeted to the achievement of
new standards for performance and
reliability, as well as the satisfying of the
environmental friendly demands, i.e. tough
limitsforaircraftnoiseandemissionslevel.
Among the assets of the propulsion
technology that produce a quieter engine
are the advanced aerodynamics together
withcompositefans.Highspeedflowattip
blade, in particular for large diameter fans,
is responsible for noise and blade loss
induced by the occurrence of shock waves,
317
boundary layer separation and/ or re

attachment.
On the other hand, high blade
loading enables a more compact
construction of compressors and fan, and
therefore weight reduction; nevertheless,
thehigherthebladeloading,thehigherthe
rotational speed and the velocities at tip
blade.Thesoundlevelofthejetenginescan
bereducedbythenewdesignofthelarger
fan blades; as larger fans turn slower than
the smaller ones, then the velocity of air is
reducedandthereforethenoiseislowered.
Butlargerfansinvolvelargerdiametersand
thevelocityatbladetipcanbetransonicup
ENGINEERING SCIENCES: Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, It&C
to supersonic unless the rotational speed

diminishes.
The engine thrust can be increased
withlarger compressor pressureratiosand
morestages.
By the design of highly loaded
cascades, the number of the compressor
stages is reduced, as well as the parts
weight. The fewer the compressor stages,
then fewer parts and fewer costs. On the
otherhand,byloweringtheflowvelocityat
tip blade from supersonic to transonic
and/or subsonic, blade loss due to shock
waves, boundary layer separation and /or
reattachmentcanbesignificantlyreduced.
Therefore, the use of sweep to the
design of blades for the axial flow
compressor and fan is advantageous for
reducing noise level and blade loss, and
hence performance improvement via
optimizedconstruction.
2. BASICS OF BLADE STACKING
2.1 Justification for th e use of sweep to
transonic cascades
Blade sweep has been used in transonic
compressor design with the intent of reducing
shock losses, analogous to the use of swept
wings in external aerodynamic applications.
Under certain circumstances it is beneficial to
align the blade leading and/or trailing edges
LE/ TE more closely with the local flow
direction. Sweep and dihedral define the
stacking line modifications (which are also
referred as 3D stacking, [5]) do change the
blade surface, such that the blade edges are
aligned more closely to the local direction of
flow. The3Dstackingisimportantforboth
technology manufacturing reasons (with
regardtotheflowofmechanicaloperations
that allows to obtaining the blade surface)
andfunctional,sinceitinfluencesthemulti
staged axial flow compressors cascades
throughflowpattern,withinbladetipareas
andatoffdesignregimesinahigherextent.
FromCFDandexperimenthasbeenshown
thatthemovementoftheboundarylayerat
blade tip has a large influence upon the
rotor flow pattern. For instance, no matter
thatatthedesignregimethereverseflowis
absent (i.e. the design regime free of local
stall),withthedecayoftheflowcoefficient
at offdesign regimes, the tip blade area
(wherein the boundary layer has been
detached) becomes larger. The use of 3D
stacking has been the source of a large
number of experimental and numerical
investigations over recent years, and
consequentlyitcameuptheneedtodefine
carefully the conventions. Considering an
axis placed on the LE/ TE lines, Zerolift
airfoil axis or any other particular shape
and airfoil movement, can generate the 3D
stacking. In Fig. 1 are explained the sweep
anddihedralmovements.
Both the dihedral & sweep have been
introducedandusedfortherotor3Dblade
design into the core compressors for the
RollsRoyce Trent family engines and Joint
Engine Alliance of the GE & PW for the
GP7000series.
According to Gallimore [9-10],
Neubert and Weingold [13], Golub, Rawls and
Russell [11], theory would suggest that the
reduction in shock losses would be achieved
by either positive or negative sweep, but tests
of various transonic rotors demonstrate the
advantage of positive sweep in achieving both
improved efficiency and flow range.
(a)- sweep
(b)- dihedral
Fig. 1- Basic stacking line modifications, [5]
Near the hub the positive sweep

reduces the region of low axial velocity
towards the TE while the negative sweep
causes a separation to occur. The positive
sweep near the hub moves the front part of the
suction surface into a higher-pressure region,
which reduces the effective incidence and peak
velocity along the airfoil chord at the expense
of increasing the blade force near the trailing
edge. A similar trend is observed near the rotor
tip while the opposite trend is observed at midheight. Positively swept end-wall sections
increase the leading edge blade force and
reduce the trailing edge blade force near mid-
318
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height. The negative sweep leads to the

creating of favorable conditions for boundary
layer separation. The positive dihedral reduces
the hub corner and tip clearance losses, leading
to a fuller velocity profile near the end-walls,
but at the expense of increasing the losses near
the mid-height region. The use of positive
dihedral has been calculated to be beneficial
for both fixed and free ends of blades. It
provides a method of introducing a rapid
reduction in blade force local to the end-walls
and
alleviates
high
suction
surface
deceleration rates in these regions at the
expense of increased blade force at mid-span.
2.2 Sw ept blade constructions and study
cases
Blade loss and noise level are
significantly lowered by using the airfoil
sweep into 3D line stacking, since the velocity
at tip blade is reduced, which means
construction optimization for performance
improvement.
With respect to the aircrafts flight
direction and the air velocity at inlet, the
sweep movements are Forward FWD Sweep
(i.e. positive sweep) and Backward BCK
Sweep (i.e. negative sweep), as indicated in
fig. 1. With referrence to the axial flow
compressor blade, there are 5 significant blade
spanwise sections, equally distanced located,
as follows: blade hub B, midspan M, blade tip
V, and BM at bottom half midspan, MV at
top half midspan. Constructions of positive
and negative swept blades with respect to the
study case rotor blade and swept rotor blade
are compared in fig. 2.
(a)- forward sweep
(b)- backward sweep
(c)- combination of
(d)- combination of
FWD & BCK sweep
FWD & BCK sweep
Fig. 2- Constructions of swept blades, [1]
Note that the solutions obtained by the author

after applng various sweep angles at different
blade span-wise cross sections, are very
similar with actual fan blade constructions;
e.g. fig. 2-c is likewise the fan blade of the GE
Unducted Fan UDF engine, and fig. 2-d
features the fan blades of the PW&GE
GP7200, GEnX and RR Trent 1000 engines.
The span-wise distributions of the sweep angle
for each case are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Values of the sweep angle
Blade
cross
section
Case #1
Case #2
Case #3
Case #4
B
Bottom
0
0
0
0
BM
5
-5
5
6
M
Midspan
7
-7
2
3
MV
V
Top
5
-5
-7
-6
0
0
-18
-3
3. MATHEMATICAL SUPPORT
3.1 Flow model
The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes RANS
equations system (1) has been used for
modeling the main flow.
319
U
t F Q
(1)
T
t G S
The vectors U (2) and T (3) contain the

conservative variables:

U V
(2)
E
The turbulent kynetic energy k and the

turbulentdissipation definethevectorT.
k
T
(3)

The flux vector F (4):
V
t
V V pI
F
(4)
HV t T V
The source vector Q (5):
0
Q f
fV qv
The source term S (6):
S
S k
S
The viscous flux G (7):
t
k
kV
t
k
k
k
3.2 Turbulence models
In purpose of closing the equations

system, one has to include a turbulence model
also; for a thorough analysis, there have been
considered four turbulence models: SpalartAllmaras,
,
and RST model.
4. NUMERICAL RESULTS
In this paper a 2D study has been carried out;

there has been considered the reference blade
[1], defined by NACA 65(20)10 airfoils,
customized blade span-wisely for the specific
conditions of a rotating cascade.
(a)- no sweep effect
(5)
(b)- forward sweep

(c)- backward sweep
Fig. 3 Computational grid
The RANS model, unllike the NavierStokes

model,containswithintheexpressionofthe
fluxF(4)thetensorofthetotalstresses t
(8)andtheeffectiveviscosity ef (9),which
The airfoil at mid-span has been considered

for the 2D study, as well as the boundary
conditions and other limitations due to the
neighboring cascades and the given geometry
of a multi-staged axial-compressor, [1].
There have been computed the solutions (i.e.
the flow parameters) of the RANS model in
association with the turbulence models, for the
mid-span airfoil, without sweep effect (fig. 3a) and with forward sweep (fig. 3-b) and
backward sweep (fig. 3-c) respectively. The
convergence of the solutions has been
monitored for different values of the rotational
speed, i.e. 0, 100, 200 and 275 [m/s].
replacesthemolecularviscosity .
2
t 2 t d t VI
3
ef t
(a)- Spalart-Allmaras
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
More details about the RANS model

and CFD techniques are provided in the papers
of Fletcher [3], Chung [4], Hirsch [5],
Berbente [6] and others [7, 8].
(b)-
(d)- RST
(c)Fig. 4 Mach number of the relative flow,
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/ Spalart-Allmaras,
,
and RST
turbulence models/ no sweep effects
,
and RST
/ Spalart-Allmaras,
(b)-
(d)- RST
Fig. 5 Entropy distributions,
/ Spalart-Allmaras,
,
and RST
(c)-
As one can notice from figs. 4-7, the numerical

results and the computational accuracy are
influenced in greater extent by the turbulence
model. For the cascades of multistage
turbomachinery, the Spalart-Allmaras model it
is convenient to use due to its fast convergence
velocity and it is simpler, since it is described
by one equation. The
turbulence model
is rather suited to capture wall-effects, while
for the main flow the other models are more
accurate. The more equations used to describe
the turbulence model, the greater the number
of iterations to achieve a convenient
computational accuracy.
(d)- RST
(c)Fig. 7 Temperature distributions,
/ Spalart-Allmaras,
,
and RST
For the study case, the results obtained by
using the Spalart-Allmaras SA turbulence
model are in accordance with experimental
data; the highest percent of recommendations
that can be found in literature [14-32] points
out that for the flow in (axial) cascades the
Spalart-Allmaras model is the best option to
describe the turbulence.
Table 2 The number of iterations necessary
for obtaining the convergence
Turbulence
model
S-A
RST
(b)-
Number of iterations
Forward
Backward
No-sweep
sweep
sweep
3160
2781
4072
2923
2348
4255
5115
5172
4020
3308
2339
4972
In the following, there are highlighted

the effects of both forward and backward
sweep of the study case airfoil; a thorough
computational analysis was performed, after
considering four turbulence models.
(b)-
(d)- RST
(c)Fig. 6 Pressure distributions,
321
The results depicted in figs. 8-11 refer

to the computations carried on with the
Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model.
(b)- forward sweep

(c)- backward sweep
Fig. 8 Effect of sweep on Mach number
(b)- forward sweep

(c)- backward sweep
Fig. 9 Effect of sweep on static pressure
(b)- forward sweep

(c)- backward sweep
Fig. 10 Effect of sweep on static temperature
(b)- forward sweep

(c)- backward sweep
Fig. 11 Effect of sweep on entropy
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a thorough

investigation regarding the application of
sweep to rotating axial blade cascades.
The author develops an original

approach with regard to the obtaining of swept
blade constructions, as derivatives of a basic
cascade blade configuration.
As study cases were considered
cascade blades, with forward and backward
sweep versus no-sweep configurations.
The RANS model was used to describe
the flow and a comparative study was
conducted by using four turbulence models,
i.e. Spalart-Allmaras S-A,
,
and
Reynolds Stress RST models. The CFD
analysis was done with the FLUENT solver,
with the settings for 2D case, implicit
equations and double precision. The
convergence was monitored such that the
residuals should be minimized; the number of
iterations required for obtaining the
convergence is listed in Table 2.
The results of the numerical
simulations of the flow are expressed as the
distributions of Mach number (in relative flow,
since it is a rotational frame), static pressure,
static temperature and entropy, which have
been presented comparatively, for each
turbulence model and sweep study case,
corresponding to the design rotational speed of
275 [m/s]. In accordance with the experiment
and literature [14-32], it came out that the
Spalart-Allmaras model represents a good
option for modeling the turbulence within
blade cascades.
In figs. 8-11 it has been shown the
effect of forward and backward sweep versus
no-sweep, for the flow parameters, such as the
relative Mach number, static pressure, static
temperature and entropy.
Concluding remarks:
Forward sweep allows to reduce the local
velocity at blade tip and expands the area
downstream the airfoil such that the losses
are minimized (which is beneficial for
obtaining uniform flow at the next stage
cascade inlet), since the variation of the
entropy is the least; thus, the optimization
of blade cascades with minimum losses is
enabled.
S-A turbulence model is more suited for
the CFD analysis of cascades.
the solution is obtained faster for forward
swept blade, while far much greater
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number of iterations are required for

backward swept blade.
Combinations of forward and backward
sweep can be used for highly loaded wide
span fan blades, fig. 2-c, 2-d, [1].
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AN APPLICATION TO Mastroianni OPERATORS
Cristina Sanda CISMAIU
Abstract. A new linear positive operator is defined and studied resorting to the method of
Mastroianni 2 , 3.
2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 41A36, 41A25
Key words: Mastroianni operator, Szasz Mirakjan operator, approximation properties.
(iii).
1. Introduction
n ,c x
that 1
k
Motiveted by the Mastroianni s operators

2 , 3 which were studied by O. Agratini,
(iv).
n ,c nN
, c 0 of real valued functions
x 0,
x 0,
n ,c
c
x nc ln
n ,c x ,
1 c
(v). lim x
r
n ,c
B. Della Vechia 1, we consider the sequence
is completely monotone, so
k
n ,c
x 0,
r N0 .
defined on 0, +) as
Let
c
n ,c x
1 c
ncx
, c 0, x 0, n N
These functions satisfy the following

conditions, for each n N and c 0 :
(i).
(ii).
n ,c 0 1,
E2 0, : f C 0,
We define the operator
Ln ,c : E2 0, C 0, as
n ,c C 0, ,
325
f x
1 x2
be the space endowed with the norm
f x
f sup
,
x
0
which is a Banach
2
1 x
space.
lim
Ln,c
f ; x pn,k ,c x f
k
with
n
k 0
(1.1)
k
1 x nc ln
k
k
n ,c x
1 x n ,c x
1 c
pn , k ,c x
.(1.2)
k!
k!
k
Because
k
ncx ln

c
1 c
p
x
x
n ,c x exp ncx ln
(
)
n , k ,c
n ,c
1,
k!
1 c
k 0
k 0
2. Main results
these operators preserve constant functions.

Our aim is to find some approximation
properties.
Lemma 1. The moments of the operators

Ln ,c f ; x for er x x r , r 0,1, 2 , x 0
are given as
Ln ,c e0 ; x 1,
Ln ,c e1 ; x
Ln ,c e2 ; x
n , c 0
n
n ,c 0
n
e1 x cx ln
e2 x
c
,
1 c
n , c 0
n
(2.1)
e1 x x 2 c 2 ln 2
Proof. By a simple computation it can easily

be verified the identities of the lemma.
Theorem 2.1. If c c n , n then
lim Ln , c n f f uniformly on compact subsets

n
of 0, for any f E2 0, .
Indeed,
taking
c
x
c
c ln
.
1 c n
1 c
Remark.
converge
operators
If c the
to
classical
Sn f ; x e
k 0
c c n , n
according to the well-known BohmannKorovkin theorem, relations of the lemma

guarantee that lim Ln , c n f f uniformly on
n
compact subsets of 0, .
326
nx
nx
operators (1.1)
Szasz-Mirakjan
k
f , x 0 .
k!
n
Applying a classical result due to Shisha O.

and Mond B. 4 we obtain the pointwise
estimate
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Ln ,c f ; x f x 1 1 Ln ,c
e xe ; x f , , x 0
2
with
Ln ,c e1 xe0 ; x x 2 (1 2
2
n 0
n 0
n 0
x
n
n
n2
c
c
c
c
) x ln
.
x 2 (1 2c ln
c 2 ln 2
n 1 c
1 c
1 c
These operators admitte a generalization of Durrmeyer type, because

k
c
c
nc ln
ncx
nxc ln
1 c c
1 c
p
x
dx
dx
0 n,k
0
k!
k!
1 c
c
0 x 1 c
k
ncx
dx
k
ncx
nc ln
1 k ! c
1
1 c
dx
k
c
k!
c 0 1 c
nc ln
nc ln
1 c
1 c
The Durrmeyer type operator asociated with the operator (1.1)-(1.2) become:
DLn ,c f ; x nc ln
pn ,k ,c x pn ,k ,c t f t dt .
1 c k 0
0
For these operators we have
327
DLn , c e0 ; x 1,
k
nct ln
n ,c t
c
1 c
DLn , c e1 ; x nc ln
t dt
pn ,k x
1 c k 0
k!
0
c
nc ln
c
1 c
p
x
nc ln
n ,k
1 c k 0
k!
n ,c t dt
k 1
nc ln
k 1!
c
1 c
p
x
nc ln
n ,k
k 2
1 c k 0
k!
nc ln
1 c
nc ln
1 c
k 1
p x
n ,k
c
c
nc ln
nc ln
1 c
1 c
1
1
1
x
nLn ,c e1 ; x
.
c
c
c
nc ln
nc ln
nc ln
1 c
1 c
1 c
k 0
k 1 p x
n , k ,c
k 0
nct ln
n ,c t
c
1 c
DLn , c e2 ; x nc ln
p
x
t 2 dt
n ,k
k!
1 c k 0
nc ln
c
1 c
nc ln
pn ,k x
k!
1 c k 0
k 2
n ,c t dt
nc ln
k 2 ! nc ln c
c
c
1
p
x
nc ln
n,k
k 3
k!
1 c k 0
1 c
nc
ln
1 c
1
2
k 1 k 2 p x
c k 0
nc ln
c
1
4x
2
x2
.
2
c
c
nc ln
1 c nc ln 1 c
n , k ,c
p x
k 0
n,k
k 2 k 1
nc ln
1 c
n L e ; x 3nL e ; x 2
2
nc ln
c
1
n ,c
n ,c
References
If c c n , n then
1. O. Agratini, B. Della Vechia, Mastroianni

operators revisited, Facta Universitatis (Nis),
Ser. Math. Inform. 19 (2004), 53-63.
lim DLn , c n f f , f E2 0,
n
uniformly on compact subsets of
0, .
328
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2. G. Mastroianni, Su un operatore lineare e

positivo, Rend. Acc. Sc. Fis. Mat., Napoli (4)
46 (1979), 161-176.
3. G. Mastroianni, Su una classe di operatori
e positivi, Rend. Acc. Sc. Fis. Mat., Napoli (4)
48 (1980), 217-235.
329
4.O. Shisha, B. Mond, The degree of

convergence of linear positive operators,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 60 (1968), 11961200.
330
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THE EQUATION OF DISPERSION AND THE DISPLACEMENT

VECTOR IN THE SYMMETRIC CASE
Mihaela DUMITRACHE, Camelia GHELDIU
Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Pitesti, Piteti, Romania,
Abstract: In this paper we study the propagation of the symmetric Lamb waves and we find the
equation of dispersion and the equations of the displacement vector in the symmetric case.
Keywords: 35L05, 35L10, 35P30.
1. INTRODUCTION
find the equation of dispersion and the

equations of the displacement vector.
In this paper we consider an elastic,

isotropic, continuous and homogeneous
medium and we study the propagation of the
Lamb waves through it. Using the results from
[1], [2] and [3], we obtain the equation of
dispersion and the equations of the
displacement vector in the symmetric case.
2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Figura 1: The symmetric Lamb waves
In the following we consider the normal

guided Lamb waves. These waves appear in a
plate of thickness 2h comparable with the
wavelength, due to coupling between the
components longitudinal L and the transverse
components of the wave TV. Thus, two types
of wave Lamb can be produced, but, in this
parer, we study just the symmetric waves
which are depicted in Figure 1, where for each
side of the middle of the plate, the longitudinal
components are equal and the transverse
components are opposite.
We assume homogeneous and isotropic
elastic plate bounded by two parallel planes
located at a short distance 2h, and we want to
3. PROBLEM SOLUTION
331
In the article [1] we started from the

equation of the displacement vector u for a
material point
(1)
where is a scalar potential and is a

vectorial potential. In expression (1) the two
potentials should verify the following two
equations of wave
1 2
2 2 2 0,
(2)
v L t
tan qh
4k 2 pq
,
2
tan ph
q2 k 2
where v L is the phase velocity of the

longitudinal waves and
1 2
2
0,
vT t 2
2
(3)
where vT is the phase velocity of the

longitudinal waves.
The scalar and the vectorial potentials are
trigonometric functions of time t, with the
same frequency . However, they can be
expressed as follows, with the wave number k:
0 x2 eit kx ,
1
(4)
0 j x2 eit kx , j 1, 2,3.
1
The equation of
following relation:
dispersion
tan qh
4k 2 pq
2
tan ph
q2 k 2
with 0 and
has
the
2
vL2
k ,
2
q
2
2
vT2
k ,
2
(6)
and the constant angle can take the values 0
depending on the type of symmetry of

2
the wave.
Further, using the results from [3], we
know that we have three regions with respect
to the phase velocity. So, we write the
equation of dispersion (5) and the equations of
the displacement vector for each subdomain of
wave number k taking into account the type of
values that can be taken the constants p and q,
for the case 0 ( the symmetric case) .
and
The first case is for k
cos qh
2k 2
cos
u1 qA cos qx2 2
px
2
k q 2 cos ph
cos t kx1 ,
2 pq cos qh
sin
u2 kA sin qx2 2
px
2
k q 2 cos ph
sin t kx1 .
(8)
. We
vL
vT
have p an imaginar number, i.e. p ip and q
a real number, so the dispersion equation has
the form:
The second case is for
tan qh
4k 2 pq
,
tan ph q 2 k 2 2
, where the constants

2
p and q are defined as follows:
2
and the equations of the displacement vector

are:
(5)
(7)
(9)

are:
2k 2 cos qh
u1 qA cos qx2 2
cosh px2
2
k q cosh ph
cos t kx1 ,
2 pq cos qh
u2 kA sin qx2 2
sinh px2
2
k q cosh ph
sin t kx1 .
(10)
tan qh
4k 2 pq
tan ph q 2 k 2 2
. We have p and
vL
q real numbers, so the dispersion equation is
k . We have
v L vT
p and q imaginare numbers, i.e. p ip and
q iq , so the dispersion equation is
The third case is for
(11)

are the following form:
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u1 qA cosh qx2
cosh qh
2k 2
2
2
k q cosh ph
cosh px2 cos t kx1 ,

u2 kA sinh qx2
2 pq cosh qh
k 2 q 2 cosh ph
sinh px2 cos t kx1 ,
(12)
where A is a constant factor.
3. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we use the symmetric Lamb

waves in an elastic, isotropic, continuous and
homogeneous medium and we find the
equation of dispersion and the equations of the
displacement vector for every subdomain of
the wave number k in the symmetric case.
REFERENCES
High1. Dumitrache, M., Gheldiu C,

frequency waves. The equation of the
displacement vector. The Proceedings of
the International Session of 15-th
Scientific Papers Scientific Research and
Education in the Air Force, AFASES
2013, 23-25 mai Braov, ISSN, ISSN-L
2247- 3173, pg. 329-332.
2. Dumitrache, M., Gheldiu C, High
frequency waves and the equation of
dispersion.
International
Scientific
Conference Mathematics & IT: Research
and Education (MITRE-2013) Chisinau,
August 18-22, 2013, at the Moldova State
University
(MSU),
Faculty
of
Mathematics and Computer Science.
3. Dumitrache, M., Gheldiu C, The curve of
dispersion in the plane , k , Buletin
tiinific-Universitatea din Piteti, Seria

Matematic i Informatic, Nr. 19 (2013).
333
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BUILDING A HYBRID SECURE SOCKET LAYER PROTOCOL

Gabriela MOGOS*
*Facultad de Informatica y Electronica, Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba,
Ecuador
Abstract: Randomness is an essential resource for cryptography and random number generators
are, at the same time, very important for the most cryptographic systems. Using these weak random
values may lead to vulnerabilities of the systems, causing the adversary to easily break the system, as
demonstrated by breaking the implementation of Secure Socket Layer.
This paper presents a hybrid Secure Socket Layer that includes together a Quantum Random
Number Generator (QRNG), to generate the random numbers, and, an Elliptical Curve Cryptography
(ECC) algorithm, to encrypt the data.
Keywords: asymmetric cryptosystems, quantum random numbers, Secure Socket Layer.
MSC2010: 81P45, 94A15.
1. INTRODUCTION
Secure Socket Layer uses a combination of
public key and symmetric-key encryption.
Symmetric-key encryption is much faster than
public-key
encryption,
but
public-key
encryption provides better authentication
techniques.
The Secure Socket Layer handshake
allows the server to authenticate itself to the
client using public-key techniques, then allows
the client and the server to cooperate in the
creation of symmetric keys used for rapid
encryption, decryption, and tamper detection
during the session that follows.
In our paper, we present a theoretical
demonstration of how to improve the security
of Secure Socket Layer protocol by replacing
Random Number Generator with Quantum
Random Number Generator and the Rivest,
Shamir, Adleman (RSA) cryptographic
335
algorithm, currently used, with Elliptic Curve

Cryptography (ECC) algorithm.
In first part of paper, we present Random
Number Generator (RNG) and Quantum
Random Number Generator (QRNG), and,
advantages of using QRNG in generating a
sequence of true random bits.
To motivate the need for replacing the RSA
cryptosystem (existing in SSL 3.0) with ECC
cryptosystem, in the second part of the paper,
we present a comparative analysis of those
cryptosystems and in the last part, we present
the hybrid Secure Socket Layer protocol.
2. HYBRID SECURE SOCKET LAYER
PROTOCOL
2.1 Random Number Generators vs.
Quantum Random Number Generators.
Random numbers seem to be of an ever
increasing importance in cryptography,
various stochastic numerical simulations and

calculations, statistical research, various
randomized or stochastic algorithms, etc. and
the need for them is spanning a wide range of
fields from engineering to physics to
bioinformatics.
The applications usually put constraints on
properties of input random numbers
(probability distribution, bias, correlation,
entropy, determinism, sequence repeatability,
etc.).
Random number generators based on
quantum physics are true random number
generators as quantum physical phenomena
are intrinsically random.
Our paper is based on the study done by
researchers [11] from the Joint Quantum
Institute (JQI), in partnership with European
quantum information scientists, who have
found a method of producing a certifiably
random string of numbers based on
fundamental principles of quantum mechanics.
They report their results in the 15 April
2010 issue of Nature [12].
What is the rationale for that quantum
randomness is a better form of randomness
than, classic randomness?
Quantum hardware random number
generators produce sequences of numbers that
are not predictable, and therefore provide the
greatest security when used to encrypt data.
Three principal types of quantum
indeterminism underlying to realize a QRNG:
(i) The indeterminacy of individual
outcomes of single events as proposed by
Born and Dirac;
(ii) Quantum complementarity (due to the
use of conjugate variables), as put forward by
Heisenberg, Pauli and Bohr;
(iii)Value indefiniteness due to Bell, Kochen
& Specker, and Greenberger, Horne &
Zeilinger).
A simple design for a QRNG is based on a
construction with a photon source, a 50/50
beam-splitter and two identical single photon
detectors. This construction ensures a random
and balanced probability of detection of the
photon at each detector.
Meanwhile, commercial Quantum Random
Number Generators have already appeared on
the market. In 2001, ID Quantique [3]
introduced the first commercial quantum
random number generator, which generated a

strong interest.
Seeing that, the Quantum Random Number
Generator is ideal for applications requiring
very high rates of true random numbers, our
aim is to replace existing the classic Random
Number Generator (RNG) used by Secure
Socket Layer protocols, with quantum one
(QRNG).
Figure 1. Connect a Quantum Random

Number Generator to a computer
The Quantum Random Number Generator

is used for cryptographic purposes and other
applications requiring the highest levels of
security and randomness properties.
device connects to a computer via PCI or USB
interface.
Advantages of Quantum Random Number
Generator on Secure Socket Layer:
offers the best option for strong security in the
long term, especially if the technologies are
based on the use of algorithms. Photons and
entangled photons of the sort used in quantum
cryptography and communication have a form
of tamper evidence and protection built into
the technology at the level of quantummechanical processes. At the moment, it is
widely believed that this technology cannot be
defeated.
Quantum Random Number Generators
(QRNGs)
have
the
advantage
over
conventional randomness sources of being
invulnerable to environmental perturbations
and of allowing live status verification.
Quantum Random Number Generator
(QRNG) can generate truly random numbers
from the fundamentally probabilistic nature of
quantum processes.
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Generating large numbers using QRNG,

lead to a "chain reaction" of improving the
security SSL protocol.
generating random numbers with QRNG in

ClientHello and ServerHello Components
1
part of random numbers are used to obtain
Master Secret
server's private key is used to protect the

session keys.
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)
algorithm [5] relies on the difficulty of
solving the Elliptic Curve Discrete
Logarithm Problem (ECDLP) in much the
same way that RSA depends on the
difficulty of factoring the product of two
large primes. The best known method for
solving ECDLP is fully exponential,
whereas the factoring problem is subexponential.
Starting from the data set [1], we have
realized a comparative analysis between these
two algorithms:
Master Secret is used to generate Key Material
3
Encryption Keys
2.2 Elliptical Curve Cryptography

(ECC) vs. Rivest, Shamir, Adleman (RSA)
cryptosystem.
Every Secure Socket Layer connection
begins with a handshake, during which the two
parties communicate their capabilities to the
other side, perform authentication, and agree
on their session keys. The session keys are
then used to encrypt the rest of the
conversation, possibly spanning multiple
connections. They are deleted afterwards. The
goal of the key exchange phase is to enable the
two parties to negotiate the keys securely, to
prevent anyone else from learning these keys.
Several key exchange mechanisms exist,
but, at the moment, by far the most commonly
used one is based on RSA [9], where the
337
Figure 2. Comparative analysis RSA/ECC
Advantage of Elliptic Curve Cryptography

on Secure Socket Layer:
- ECC
is
an
emerging
public-key
cryptosystem that offers equivalent security
with smaller keys sizes.
- Augments end to end encryption for data in
flight by helping to maintain data privacy and
prevent data leakage of sensitive information
particularly when providing the next
generation of security level requirements.
- We can reduce the transmission cost during
handshake.
- Can be used to implement encryption on
small, mobile devices with limited resources in
terms of power, CPU and memory.
- Can be used for large web servers to
handling many encrypted sessions.
2.3 Secure Socket Layer a hybrid

protocol
Speculating weaknesses of the current SSL
version 3.0, we propose an improvement of it
in terms of performance, security and space
requirements.
In the following we present our reasons to
replace the classical random number generator
currently used by Secure Socket Layer
protocol with quantum random generator, and,
RSA algorithm with ECC.
better than the classic Secure Socket Layer

protocol.
This theoretical study is part of a larger
project [13] that we will be developed by
Facultad de Informatica y Electronica,
Riobamba, Ecuador.
This work was financed from Secretara de
Educacin Superior, Ciencia, Tecnologa e
Innovacin (SENESCYT) of Ecuador, through
Prometeo project.
REFERENCES
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the protocol
I. Replace the Random Number Generator

(RNG) with quantum one (QRNG) - the
obtained key is very safe and we can get an
increase of the number of bits that should be a
cryptographically secure random number.
Due to indeterminism (Bohr and
Heisenberg) and exclusion principles (Pauli)
from quantum physics, the opportunity of
attackers to "guess" the numbers is zero, which
makes the generated numbers to be truly
random. Since the data will be encrypted using
asymmetric cryptographic algorithms, key size
is essential in ensuring the security and
integrity of encrypted information.
II. Replace RSA cryptographic algorithm
with ECC algorithm - we will provide the
same security protocol, however, the smaller
key sizes lead to faster processing, which is
very useful to implementing encryption on
small, mobile devices with limited resources in
terms of power, CPU and memory.
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We can conclude that the Hybrid Secure
Socket Layer can offer security advantages
over conventional alternatives, can be used for
large web servers that will be handling many
encrypted sessions and its performances are
1. Kancheti S., Comparative Study of Elliptic

Curve Cryptography and RSA in
Constrained Environment, (2010).
2. Lofberg J., Yalmip: A toolbox for
modeling and optimization in MATLAB.
3. http://www.idquantique.com
4. Navascues M., Pironio S., and Acin A..
Bounding the set of quantum correlations,
Physical Review Letters, 98:010401,
(2007).
5. NIST,
Recommendation
for
Key
Management Part 1: General (Revised).
National Institute of Standards and
Technology. NIST Special Publication
800-57, (2007).
6. Pironio S., Navascues M., Acin A.,
Convergent relaxations of polynomial
optimization
problems
with
noncommuting variables, arXiv:0903.4368,
(2009).
7. Pironio S., Acin A., Brunner N., Gisin M.,
Massar S., and Scarani V., Deviceindependent quantum key distribution
secure against collective attacks, New
Journal of Physics, 11:045021, (2009).
8. In the second edition of Numerical Recipes
in C: The Art of Scientific Computing
(Cambridge University Press, 1992), p.
277. Chapter 7 includes a thorough (and
sobering) discussion of random number
generation.
9. Rivest R.L., Shamir A., & Adleman, L., A
Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures
and Public-Key Cryptosystem, Retrieved
from
http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.
pdf , (1978).
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10. Sturm J.F., SeDuMi, a MATLAB toolbox

for optimization over symmetric cones,
http://sedumi.mcmaster.ca.
11. http://jqi.umd.edu/sites/default/files/newsl
etters/feb_2010_newsletter.pdf.
12. Pironio S., Acn A., Massar S., Boyer A.
de la Giroday, Matsukevich D. N., Maunz
P., Olmschenk S., Hayes D., Luo L.,
Manning T. A. & Monroe C., Random
339
numbers certified by Bell's theorem,

Nature, 2010; 464 (7291): 1021 DOI:
10.1038/nature09008.
13. Mogos G., Radu Gh., Hybrid Secure
Socket Layer protocol, Review of the Air
Force Academy, Vol. XII, No. 2(26), pp.
/2014,
http://www.afahc.ro/revista/Nr_2_2014/91
_MOGOS_RADU.pdf.
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ON THE MAX PARETO

POWER SERIES DISTRIBUTION
Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU
TheHenri Coanda Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: This paper presents a new distribution wich unitary treated through the family of the power
series distributions, resulting in a new distribution which we called a Max Pareto power series
(MaxParPS) distribution. Some properties and reliability characteristics (e.g. survival function, hazard
rate) are studied. It also shows that in some conditions a Poisson limit theorem for this type of
distribution takes place.
Keywords: distribution of the maximum, limit theorem, Pareto distribution, power series distribution.
MSC2010: 60K10, 62N05.
1. INTRODUCTION
Together the most common reliability
distributions (exponential, Erlang, Weibull),
there was also Pareto distribution which has
applications not only in the economy (e.g.
income of the population), but also to the
study of lifetime of the systems k of n , as well
as in field of quality assurance [5].
Pareto at the end XIXth century, formulated
the principle of 80/20, of the unbalanced
distributions, which postulates that 80% of the
effects are generated by 20% of the cases.
This is the reason for introducing this new
class of MaxParPS distribution with the aim of
study the probability behavior of the most
complicated processes.
The methodology and techniques of
working are presented and analyzed in [2],
which allows the study of the distribution of
the maximum of a random sample of size Z of
the statistical population that has Pareto
341
distribution. Random variable (r.v.) Z has a

distribution that is part of the power series
distributions class (PSD, [1]).
The general problem of determining the
distribution of the maximum and minimum of
a random sequence will was solved by
Louzada et al. in [3], with working tool of the
generate function composing of the number of
the r.v. of sequence with the survival function
of the r.v. components of the sequence.
Instead, in this paper is approached, in a
unitary manner, the distribution of the
maximum of a sequence of independent Pareto
distributed r.v. through the PSD class,
distribution enjoyed by the number of the r.v.
of the sequence.
The case of the minim was analyzed in [4]
when it was discussed about the lifetime Min
Pareto power series (MinParPS) distribution.
2. THE MAXPARPS DISTRIBUTION
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We consider the r.v. X i ~ Par ( , ) ,

, 0 , where X i i 1 are independent and
identically distributed random variables
(i.i.d.r.v.), with the distribution function (d.f.)
F X i ( x) FPar ( x) 1 , x and the

(p.d.f.)
Consequence 2.2. P.d.f. of the r.v. U Par

is characterized by the relationship:

A
x
,
(2.2)
u Par ( x)
x 1 A( )
for any x .
Also,
we
note
by
U Par maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N , where the r.v.
N PSD , [1,2].
Proposition 2.2. Hazard rate of the r.v.

U Par is given by:
u Par ( x)
hU Par ( x)
1 U Par ( x)
probability
density

f X i ( x) f Par ( x)
x 1
function
, x.
Proposition 2.1.
If
r.v.
U Par maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N , where X i i 1
are i.i.d.r.v., X i ~ Par ( , ) , , 0 and
with
N PSD ,
a n n
, n 1,2,..., (0, ), 0 ,
P ( N n)
A( )
r.v. X i i 1 and N being independent, then the
d.f. of the r.v. U Par is given by:

A
x
U Par ( x)
, x .
(2.1)
A( )
We note that r.v. U Par following the
MaxParPS distribution of parameters , and
by U Par ~ MaxParPS ( , , ) .
Consquence 2.1. The survival function of

the r.v. U Par is the following:

A( ) A
x
SU Par ( x)
, x .
A( )
342
A
x
, x .

x 1 A( ) A
x
Proposition 2.3. If X i i 1 is a sequence

of independent Pareto distributed r.v.,
nonnegative, absolutely continous type, with
FPar
and
N PSD ,
the
d.f.
P ( N n)
sequence
A( )
a n n
, n 1,2,..., a n n1
a
A( )
of nonnegative real number,
an n ,
(0, ), 0 , then:
n1
lim U Par ( x) FPar ( x) k , x ,
where k min n N , a n 0 .
Proof: By applying the lHospital rule k time, we have:
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A
x
lim U Par ( x) lim

A( )
0
0
k
0
0
...
lim
( k )
1 A
x
x
A( k ) ( )

1 k !a
k
x
k!ak
n1
where z f Par ( x)FPar ( x) n1 is the p.d.f. of the

r.v. maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N . By applying the
mean of the relationship (2.4), the relationship
(2.3) is obtained.

1 , x .
x
th
Consequence 2.3. The
r
moments,
r N,
r 1
of
the
r.v.
U Par ~ MaxParPS ( , , ) is the following:
r
EU Par
, (2.3)
a n n
E maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N r
n1 A( )
where p.d.f. of the r.v. maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N is
given
by
n 1
f maxX 1 , X 2 ,..., X N ( x) zf Par ( x)FPar ( x) .
Proof: It is known that the distribution
function of the maximum of a sample of size
N n which has the d.f. FPar is
U n ( x) FPar ( x) n .
With total probability formula, a d.f. of the
maximum of a sequence of i.i.d.r.v. in a
random number, has the expression:
U Par ( x) U n ( x) P( N n)
n1
By determining the derivative of the

latter relation in connection with x , we obtain:
u Par ( x)
(2.4)
n f Par ( x)FPar ( x) n1 P ( N n)
n
FPar ( x) P( N n)
3. POISSON LIMIT THEOREM FOR

MAXPARPS DISTRIBUTION
The study of special cases of distributions

MaxParPS is necessary for this section
because we want to study under what
conditions the Max-Pareto-Binomial zero
truncated
(MaxParB)
distribution,
respectively,
Max-Pareto-Poisson
zero
truncated
(MaxParP)
distribution
are
approximate.
The d.f. of the MaxParB is defined by
(2.1),
where
N ~ Binom * (n, p ) PSD, n 1,2,...,
p (0,1)
and A( ) (1 ) n 1 ,
p
, namely:
1 p
n
1 p (1 p ) n
x
U ParB ( x)
, (2.5)
1 (1 p ) n
for any x .
the
n1
343
where
A r.v. which admits the d.f. according to

relationship (2.5), is denoted by
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U ParB ~ MaxParB( , , n, p ) ,
, 0 ,
n 1,2,..., and p (0,1) .
P.d.f. of the r.v. U ParB is defined
according to the relationship (2.2), so that :
n 1

np 1 p
u ParB ( x)
x 1 1 (1 p ) n
(2.6)
for any x .
At the same time, the
MaxParP
distribution is characterized by the d.f. defined
by
the
relationship
(2.1),
where
N ~ Poisson * ( ) PSD, 0
and
A( ) e 1 , with :
U ParP ( x)
1 e
, x .
(2.7)
, x .
(2.8)
D.f. of (2.7) characterizes the distribution

of
the
r.v.
will
we
note
thus:
U ParP ~ MaxParP( , , ) , , , 0 .
Under the above conditions, takes place the
following result:
r.v.
n
p 0
n
p 0
pn
lim 1 p e
n
x
p 0
lim p n
n
x
p 0

e x
we have the following final limit:
lim U ParB ( x)
n
p 0
x 1 1 e
lim (1 p ) n lim (1 p ) 1 / p
and p.d.f.. according to the relationship (2.2):
u ParP ( x)
Proof. By calculating separately two

elementary limits:
e x
where U ParB (x) , respectively U ParP (x) ,

x
are
d.f.
of
the
r.v.
respectively
U ParB ~ MaxParB( , , n, p ) ,
U ParP ~ MaxParP( , , ) , defined by the
relationship (2.5) and (2.7).
and

e x
lim U ParB ( x) U ParP ( x), x ,
n
p 0
Theorem 3.1. (Poisson Limit Theorem) If

U ParB ~ MaxParB( , , n, p ) , with
n and p 0 such that n p , 0 ,
then:
344
1 p (1 p) n
x
lim
n
1 (1 p ) n
p 0

e x
1 e
U ParP ( x), x .
Remark 3.1. Poisson limit theorem for the

distribution MaxParPS is confirmed visually
of the plot in Figure 1, where they are
presented p.d.f. of the MaxParB and MaxParP
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distributions for the following parameters:

1 , n 20 , 10 and p 1 / 2 .
REFERENCES
Probability density
1. Johnson, N.L., Kemp, A.W. Kotz, S.
1 0.04
MaxParB 1 1 20 x
2
MaxParP( 1 1 10 x)
0.02
10
20
30
40
50
Fig.1. P.d.f. of the MaxParB and MaxParP

distributions
(2005) .Univariate Discrete Distribution,

New Jersey.
2. Leahu, A., Munteanu, B. Gh., Cataranciuc
S. (2013). On the lifetime as the maximum
or minimum of the sample with power series
distributed size, Romai J., Vol. 9, No.2, 119
-128 .
3. Louzada, F., Bereta, M. P.E., Franco,
M.A.P. (2012). On the Distribution of the
60
Minimum or Maximium of a Random
Number of i.i.d. Lifetime Random Variables,
Applied Mathematics, 3, 4(2012), p. 350353.
4. Munteanu, B. Gh. (2014). Distribuia
duratei de viat Min-Pareto, Conferina
tiinific Internaional Modelare
matematic, optimizare i tehnologii
informaionale, MMOTI 2014, Chiinau, p.
147-153 .
5. *** http://www.e-birouvirtual.ro/node/3813
(aprilie 2014).
345
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USER AUTHENTICATION TO A WEB SITE USING FINGERPRINTS

Mihai Lica PURA
Faculty of Military Electronic and Information Systems, Military Technical Academy, Bucharest,
Romania
Abstract: Nowadays, authenticated access to web sites becomes more and more important. Usernames
and passwords are one of the easiest ways to accomplish it. But a more secure approach is to use
biometrics. This article presents a very simple modality to use fingerprints to control the access to a web
site. The client component of the proposed architecture is an ActiveX control that communicates with the
fingerprint reader and sends data back to the web server. The server component is an ISAPI Server that
processes the requests of the client regarding authentication and does or does not grant access to the web
site. The ActiveX is integrated in the web page with the help of Java Script.
Keywords: web site authentication, biometrics, fingerprint
1. INTRODUCTION
Since its creation, Word Wide Web
(WWW) has continued to grow and to impact
the everyday life of people ([1]). News, mail,
banking, storage, and so on, are all provided as
web services through some web sites. But such
important services can be used with
confidence only if they also provide the
necessary security. The five most important
security
objectives
are
authentication,
confidentiality, integrity, non-repudiation, and
availability. For the web servers and for the
communication between the client applications
and the web servers, all these objectives (web
server
authentication
by
the
user,
confidentiality and integrity of the exchanged
data, availability of the server) were addressed
and accomplished mainly by using Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI) and cryptographic
operations through protocols like TLS
(Trusted Layer Security) or SSL (Secure
347
Sockets Layer) ([2]). But so far, authentication

of the users is still mostly based on credentials
of type username and password.
While this type of authentication can
assure the needed confidence, still it has some
disadvantages that can drastically diminish the
provided security. In this article we present the
use of biometrics to provide authentication to
critical web sites like the one described above,
with the purpose of eliminating the
disadvantages of using passwords. The idea is
not new. But the solutions that can be found
are only a few ([3, 4, 5]), and all of them are
proprietary solutions. This means that they are
not free, and that they have to be integrated in
the web site that will use them, which is not
always easy to do. So we have proposed to
develop an open source web site authentication
solution based on fingerprints, and to use it to
provide authentication add-ons to the most
common CMSs (Content Management
Framework) that are used for publishing web
content, like Joomla, Silverstipe and Drupal, in

order to simplify their use and to ease their
spreading.
The rest of the paper is organized as
follows. In the second section we present the
disadvantages of using password based
authentication, the advantages of using
biometrics and the architecture of our
authentication solution. The third section gives
some implementation details for the
components of our solution. The last section
contains the conclusions and our future work
directions.
2. THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AUTHENTICATION SYSTEM
We will start by presenting the
disadvantages of using username/password
pairs for user authentication. The first obvious
disadvantage is the fact that the password has
to be remembered by the user, because writing
it down would be insecure, so the users tend to
choose easy to remember strings of characters
that can be guessed by attackers or can be
subject to dictionary attacks. One solution to
this problem would be the use of password
management applications ([6]), but few people
have the necessary knowledge and training to
manage and use this kind of software. Also,
many of such applications have been proved
error prone, so using them is not necessary the
best choice.
The second disadvantage of using
usernames and passwords is the fact that any
person who knows the username and the
password of a user can authenticate to the web
server. For the legitimate user it is difficult to
realize that someone else has the password,
until unwanted operations are already
performed by the malicious part, when, of
course, it is too late. Countermeasures to this
issue exist. They consist in enforcing a
password change policy by the web server,
and/or the use of user activity logs. Changing
the password on a regular basis will assure that
if a malicious part has entered in the
possession of a password, it will not have time
to use it. Also, by consulting the activity log
for his own account, the legitimate user can
see if someone else has successfully
authenticated to the server from a different

location, or at a different moment of time. Of
course, this means that the legitimate user has
to keep track of the IP she uses, and of the
times it has authenticated to the server. But
most of the users are not trained to perform
these actions, or they neglect them because of
the extra operations involved.
The use of biometrics in general and of
fingerprints in particular addresses both of
these problems. First of all, the user does not
have to remember anything that is to be kept
secret. A username is still being used, but it is
public information. Second, only the
legitimate user will be authenticated to the
web server, because no one else can have her
biometric data.
We will now continue with the
presentation of our proposed authentication
framework. In a typical scenario for accessing
a web site there are two components: the web
server and the client application. The client
component is usually a web browser and it
runs on the client machine, which is the
personal computer of any user who wants to
access the web site. The server component
runs on a remote machine and answers the
clients requests. For an authenticated access
to a web site, the client, prior to accessing the
web pages served by the server, needs to
transmit to the server a secret only knew by
the two of them, that uniquely identifies her.
Typically, this secret is a username-password
pair. Based on the clients identity established
in this way by the web server, the server
knows what pages the client is entitled to
request.
The password is entered by the client in a
text box of the sign up page and then
transmitted to the server as any other
information from a web form. But when using
fingerprints, we need one more component.
That is because the fingerprint reader has to be
accessed by the web page to get the
information it generates about the fingerprint
that it has scanned. This component has to run
on the client machine, because the fingerprint
reader is attached to it, but also needs to
communicate with the server to send the
credentials of the client who wants to
authenticate.
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In conclusion, the proposed authentication

framework has three components: the web
server, the web page that runs in a browser and
the client application accessing the fingerprints
reader. We will present all these components
in the following sections.
2.1 The Ac tiveX client component. The
technology that we have chosen to create the
client side component responsible of accessing
the fingerprints reader is ActiveX. Presenting
the ActiveX technology and the development
of ActiveX components is out of the scope of
this paper. For more information on this please
see ([7]).
We have defined a single method for our
ActiveX component. This method displays a
modal window. The window has an edit box
component for entering the username, a label
for displaying the error or the success
messages and three buttons. One of the buttons
is for exiting. The other two buttons
correspond to the two actions necessary for a
biometric authentication. The first step is the
enrollment of the user. For this we have settled
the Enroll button. This operation is only
required to be taken one time, and one time
only. That is at the registration of the user.
Then, every time the user wants to
authenticate, he has to use the Verify button.
In the enroll operation, the fingerprints
reader gets a template of the users fingerprint
that will be store in the database of the server.
Then, each time the authentication process
takes place, the fingerprint taken by the reader
is verified against the template stored in the
database. If they match, the user is
authenticated with the entered username. If
they do not match, the verification fails. After
performing verification, the modal window
returns 0 or 1, depending on the success of the
operation (0 if verification failed and 1 if it
was successful). The script that uses this
349
ActiveX will use the result to grant access to

the web site or not.
2.2 The web page.
To use this ActiveX component, it has to
be placed on the login page of the target web
site. This is done by using the HTML tag
object.
Here is an example:
<object
id="BioAuthCtrl"
name="BC"
classid="clsid:9F1EAE3D-C2E8-4171-BB80D62B91F5B0FE"
height="300"
VIEWASTEXT style="width: 530px">
</object>
After this, the object can be used in the
JavaScript from the page through its name,
BC in our example.
Let us presume that we have associated a
function f() with the onclick event for a sign up
button on a login web page of a web site. To
use our ActiveX for fingerprint authentication,
the JavaScript code would be:
function f(){
var x=BC.enroll();
if(x == 1)
// grant access to the site
if(x==0)
// forbid access to site
}
2.3 The server component.
The server
side component was build using ISAPI Server
technology (Internet Server Application
Programming Interface). The communication
between
the
two
components
was
implemented
using
CGatwayInterface
implementation of the WinInet API provided in
[8]. Presenting the ISAPI Server technology

and its programming is out of the scope of this
paper. For further information please consult
[9].
The ISAPI Server we have implemented
can process the following three requests:
storeTemplate, saveTemp and performVerify.
The prototypes of the three requests are
provided below, using a hypothetical example
for the URL of the target web site:
http://my.site.com/BioAuthServer.dll?saveTem
p&template=string_template_part1&usern
ame=string_username
http://my.site.com/BioAuthServer.dll?perform
Verify&template=string_template_part2&u
sername=string_username
http://my.site.com/BioAuthServer.dll?storeTem
plate&template=string_template&usernam
e=string_username
The storeTemplate request saves the
template of the users fingerprint in the
database of the server, associating it with the
corresponding username, also sent by the
client. It is used in the user enrollment phase.
The other two requests, saveTemp and
performVerify, are used in the user
authentication phase. The verification process
has been broken into two parts. This was
necessary because of the maximum data length
that can be transmitted in a WinInet
communication, which is 1024 kilobytes. The
fingerprints data necessary for verification
against the template exceed this maximum
size. That is why the data are sent in two parts:
saveTemp request sends the first 1024
kilobytes of the fingerprints data, and
performVerify sends the last kilobytes of it.
When handling a performVerify request, the
web server concatenates the two parts of the
data of the fingerprint and performs
verification. It then answers to the client
telling it if the verification was successful or
not.
3. IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS
To simplify our implementation, the

database of the users fingerprints templates
was constructed as a directory of files. At the
enrollment phase, a file is created for each
user, using the corresponding username sent
by the client. This file contains the template of
the fingerprint received from the fingerprint
reader.
When the saveTemp request is performed,
the ISAPI Server saves the first part of the
fingerprints template as a temporary file. If
storeTemplate request follows, the final
template file is build from the temporary file
and the second part of the template. When
performVerify request is performed, the
username passed to the server is used to search
for the file that stores the respective template.
If the file does not exist, the verification fails.
If the file exists, it is opened and the template
is read from it. Then the template received
from the client is verified against the template
stored by the web server. If they match, the
verification is successful. Otherwise, the
verification fails.
One thing that we have to have in mind is
that these three requests are in form of strings.
This means that the templates (that are binary
data) are first serialized by the client ActiveX
and only after that they are sent to the server as
HTTP requests. At the server side the
deserialization takes place, obtaining the
binary data.
To protect the data exchanged between the
client and the web server, the serialized
fingerprints data are first encrypted with a
session key previously computed by the two
parts. To eliminate the possibility of reply
attacks, the salted encryption is used. Of
course, at the server side decryption is
performed prior to any other processing.
Because of the fact that encrypted data is
binary data, it is encoded as a BASE64 string.
The use of HTTPS is also highly
recommended.
The ActiveX component needs to have
access to the local resources of the computer
the web browser is running on. Only this way
it will be able to communicate with the
fingerprints reader. To authenticate the
ActiveX component to the user, it will be
digitally signed. This way the user will be able
to check if the application that tries to access
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the fingerprints reader is really the one used in

the web server authentication process.
So far we did not mention anything about
the biometric specific functions. We will skip
this information because these functions are
highly dependent to the fingerprint reader. But,
generally, these functions are part of an API
that comes together with the driver of the
reader. The important thing is that it is very
easy to configure the ActiveX component to
use the fingerprints reader desired by the user.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have presented a web site
authentication
framework
based
on
fingerprints. We have described the need for
an alternative to classical password based
authentication, at least regarding critical web
sites like the ones used for e-banking, and email. We also highlighted the advantages of
using biometric credentials in general, and
fingerprints in particular.
The presented framework has some
drawbacks that we intend to solve in the near
future. The most obvious one is the fact that
the templates database is primitive. This
aspect can be improved by using a relational
database server, like Microsoft SQL Server, or
MySQL.
Regarding
human-computer
interaction, the ActiveX window must be split
in two separate windows: one for the
enrollment phase, and one for the verification
phase. The two operations have total separate
flows, so the separation of the windows is
necessary.
Another possible improvement is the
replacement of the ISAPI Server with an
ISAPI Filter. This way the configuration of the
authentication process at the server level will
be easier to make.
351
After addressing all these aspects, we will

develop fingerprint authentication add-ons for
the most used web content CMSs, like Joomla,
Silverstripe and Drupal, and we will make
them available on the corresponding web
pages of these tools. This way, fingerprint
authentication will be easy to add to any web
site created with one of them.
We would like to thank to engineer Florin
Panta who participated to the implementation
of the presented framework by the work he has
done for his diploma paper.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Tim
Berners-Lee,
Information
Management: A Proposal, CERN, 1989,
[online].
Available:
http://info.cern.ch/Proposal.html (February
2014).
The Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Protocol Version 1.2 RFC 5246, [online].
Available:
http://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc5246/
(February 2014).
BIO-Key, WEB-KEY, [online]. Available:
http://www.biokey.com/products/overview-2/web-key
(February 2014).
Plurilock Security Solutions Inc.,
FINGERPASS,
[online].
Available:
http://plurilock.com/products/fingerpass
(February 2014).
DigitalPersona,
DIGITALPERSONA
ONLINE,
[online].
Available:
http://www.digitalpersona.com/Authenticat
ion-Solutions/DigitalPersonaOnline/DigitalPersona-Online/ (February
2014).
6. Gaw, Shirley, Edward W. Felten, Password

management
strategies
for
online
accounts, Proceedings of the second
symposium on Usable privacy and
security, ACM, 2006.
7. Kedar Gore, A Complete Web ActiveX
Control,
[online].
Available:
http://geekduo.com/geekduo/2011/11/acomplete-web-activex-control-part-i/
(February 2014).
8. Steve Zimmerman, Designing ActiveX

Components Part II: Implementing
Internet Communication with WinInet,
Microsoft Interactive Developer, 1997.
9. The ISAPI Developers Site, [online].
Available:
http://www.genusa.com/isapi/isapitut.htm
(March 2014).
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IDENTITY-BASED CHRYPTOGRAPHY: FROM PROPOSALS TO

EVERYDAY USE
Mihai Lica PURA, Victor Valeriu PATRICIU
Faculty of Military Electronic and Information Systems, Military Technical Academy, Bucharest,
Romania
Abstract: Since the invention of public key cryptographic algorithms, researchers have also proposed
what will later be known as identity based cryptography: the use of identities as public keys. Over the
years, different identity based encryption and signature algorithms were developed, making possible what
others only predicted some 30 years ago. This paper is a survey over what identity based cryptography is,
what advantages it has over classical PKI, what success stories of its use already exists, and on how can
one benefit from it, in different civilian and even military scenarios. The purpose of the paper is to set a
background for latter research on developing an identity base cryptographic scheme for military use.
Keywords: identity based encryption, identity based cryptography, public key cryptography
1. INTRODUCTION
Identity-based cryptography is a particular
case of public key cryptography that in certain
conditions
offers
implementation
and
utilization advantages, without reducing the
security degree. In a conventional public key
security scheme, the generation of the two
keys (the private key and the public key) starts
from an unpredictable randomly chose large
number. This leads to two random keys
mathematically bounded. Given the random
character of the public key, it cannot be given
as is to the interested users because it would be
very difficult to store and to use. That is why
the certificates are use to bind the key to the
user and to the issuing certification authority.
The necessity of the certificates determines,
prior to any communication, the need to search
for the qualified certificate of the person
someone would like to securely communicate
353
with and to validate this certificate in order to

make sure that it belongs to the other party.
But what if the public key can be chosen?
This is the determinant characteristic of
identity-based cryptography (IBC): the public
key is no longer random, but a piece of
information regarding the identity of the user
([1]). For example, the whole name, the e-mail
address or the home address can all be use as a
public key. The chosen information should
comply with some rules like: the information
should be uniquely bound to a user, the
information should be bound in such a way
that the users cannot later deny, and, of course,
this information should be publicly available.
In this paper we will present the general
problematic of identity based cryptography,
with an emphasis on its possible applications,
especially in military organizations. The rest
of the paper is organized as follows. The
second section presents the mathematical
backgrounds of identity based cryptography.
In the third section the current state of the art

of IBC is described, based on the published
RFCs. The fourth section presents the costs of
using such schemes, demonstrating the
superiority of IBC over classical PKI. The fifth
section discuses the security of the IBC
schemes, taking into consideration the possible
attacks and countermeasures. The sixth section
presents some possible applications of IBC,
and also the military relevance of such
schemes. The last section contains some
conclusions and future work directions.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF IDENTITYBASED CRYPTOGRAPHY
The
users
of
an
identity-based
cryptography scheme can derive their public
key starting from the value of an identity
element, which, most of the time, is an ASCII
value ([1]). After the public key is chosen, the
corresponding private key must be generated.
If a user could generate they own private key
for the public key they have chosen, then they
could generate the private key for any other
user of the same security scheme, because the
public keys are public. If this would happen,
the security would be compromised. That is
why the private key can only be generated by a
specially designated key generation centre
(KGC). The KGC has also a pair of keys: a
public and a private one. Starting from the
identity of a user (which is also the users
public key) and using its private key, the KGC
computes the private key of every user.
From a mathematical point of view,
identity-based cryptography is a particular
form of pairing based cryptography. The IBC
cryptosystem is build based on pairing
between elements of a group to a second
group. The pairing can be regarded also as a
mapping from elements from the first group to
elements from the second group. This way, a
hard problem in one group is reduced to an
easier problem in the other.
An identity-based cryptographic scheme
consists out of four algorithms ([2]):
Setup algorithm is run only one time
by the KGC. In this step the private and public
key pair of the KGC is created along with the
others parameters of the scheme.
Key generation algorithm is run by the

KGC for every user that asks for its private
key. The result is the private key of this user
and it is transmitted to it.
Encryption algorithm uses the identity
of a node (its public key) to encrypt a message
for this node.
Decryption step is performed at the
receiving node: using its private key the node
decrypts the encrypted message and obtains
the clear message.
Besides these four algorithms, others
aspects should be taken into consideration.
When a user asks for a private key, the KGC
must authenticate the user to be sure that they
are not impersonating another one in order to
find out they private key. If the authentication
succeeds, the private key must be transmitted
to the user on a secure channel in order to
avoid eavesdropping by a malicious user ([3]).
Such secure side channels can be Bluetooth of
Infrared channels.
We will now present the advantages of IBC
schemes. The first and the most obvious
advantage of this security scheme is that the
users can securely communicate by encrypting
and/or signing messages without the prior need
of exchanging public keys through the
exchange of certificates ([4]). This way, there
is no longer need for a certificate distribution
infrastructure (PKI). Another advantage is that
if the certificates are no longer needed, the
certificate validation step is also missing
because there is no need to check if the public
key really belongs to the user by checking the
signature of the certification authority ([4]).
This is an important advantage because the
validation of the users certificate would imply
the validation of the whole certificate path.
IBC
schemes
have
also
some
disadvantages. We will briefly present them in
the following paragraphs.
The main disadvantage of the scheme is
that the KGC knows (can compute) the private
keys of all de users ([5]). If it is compromised,
the security of communications can be
questioned. This means that the users should
trust the KGC that their keys will not be made
available to others. This disadvantage can be
eliminated in many manners. If all the users
are known prior to the start of the
communication and no other user will be
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joining after, than the KGC is no longer

needed. If there is no need for a private key
revocation mechanism than the KGC can be
destroyed and the private keys of the users will
be safe. Another way of solving this problem
is to replace a centralized KGC with several
KGC in such a way that all are needed to
participate in order to generate private keys
([5]).
3. CURRENT STATE OF THE ART IN
THE FIELD
In this moment there are over 400 scientific
publications on IBC. IBC mathematics is
being standardized in IEEE 1363.3 (6). The
interest of the Internet Community in this
matter and thus the belief of the specialists in
identity-based cryptography can be also seen
from the RFCs published. The total number of
RFCs that handle aspects of identity-based
cryptography is four.
The first one dates from August 1995 and
proposes An identity-based Cryptographic
Protocol for Authenticated Key Exchange
(RFC1824) ([7]). The authors of this RFC
describe the basic mechanisms and functions
of an identity-based system for the secure
authenticated exchange of cryptographic keys,
the generation of signatures, and the authentic
distribution of public key.
The second RFC is named Identity-based
cryptography
standard
(IBCS)
#1:
supersingular curve implementations of the BF
and BB1 cryptosystems (RFC5091) ([8]). It
was published in December 2007 and was a
proposal for an Identity-Based Cryptographic
Standard (IBCS#1). It describes the algorithms
that implement two kinds of identity-based
encryption: Boneh-Franklin (BF) and BonehBoyen (BB1).
355
The third RFC is Identity-Based

Encryption Architecture and Supporting Data
Structures (RFC5408) ([9]) and it was
published in January 2009 and describes a
security architecture required to implement
identity-based encryption and defines the data
structures that can be used to implement the
technology.
The forth RFC Using the Boneh-Franklin
and Boneh-Boyen Identity-Based Encryption
Algorithms with the Cryptographic Message
Syntax (CMS) (RFC5409) ([10]) was
published in January 2009. It describes the
conventions
for
using
identity-based
encryption algorithms (BF and BB1) in the
Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) to
encrypt content encryption keys. It also
defines the object identifiers (OIDs) and the
convention for encoding a recipients identity.
By analyzing these RFCs one can see that
although identity-based encryption was not
shown that much attention, lately it became a
relative debated subject. It is interesting to
observe that the last three RFCs was published
by employees of Voltage Security, a
corporation that has implemented and now
offers security solutions based on identitybased encryption. These identity-based
encryption solutions focus on information
encryption for e-mails, files, documents and
databases.
Another corporation that invested into
identity-based cryptography is Gemalto which
developed the first smartcard implementation
of
identity-based
encryption.
The
implementation is based on the BonehFranklin algorithm. From the advantages of
this new solution the most important aspects
are that the encryption of the confidential
messages is more secure, more user-friendly
and more manageable by large corporations
and telecom operators. Of course, the
smartcard solution was developed in

collaboration with Voltage. The advantages
that identity-based encryption brings to the
smartcards are: more protection for the private
keys, strong authentication for the end-users,
and simplicity of the encryption process for
users and also for telecom operators.
4. COSTS CONSIDERATION
Ferris Research conducted an analysis of
IBC at the end of 2008 and observes that the
interest for identity-based cryptosystems is
growing. Ferris looked on the cost of the
security solution proposed by Voltage and
concluded that the total cost of ownership of a
typical identity-based cryptographic system is
one third of a typical public key system. In the
same research other interesting results
emerged. We will briefly present some of them
([11]).
The infrastructure required by an identitybased encryption system is far simpler than the
one needed by a PKI solution. This means that
fewer servers are required and the installations
are much easier. The operating costs of the
Voltage IBC system were one-fifth of those of
public key systems, and the users of identitybased encryption systems were more
productive that the users of typical
cryptographic systems.
These consideration suggest that identity
based cryptography is a good candidate for
extending its use because not only that it leads
to higher profit for the providing companies,
but it also determines higher productivity for
the users. We believe that this win-win
situation will conduct to a high spread f IBC
cryptosystems. The only difficulty so far is the
lack of regulations on this matter.
5. SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS
Boneh and Franklin gave the first formal
definition of security for identity-based
encryption ([12, 13]). In an attack defined by
them, the malicious user can choose the target
identity in an adaptive manner, based on the
master public key and any other keys that they
had already obtained. These schemes are
called fully secure. Another notion was

introduced by Canetti. It is called selectiveidentity security because it requires for the
malicious user to specify the target identity in
advanced, before the master public key is
published. This last scheme is considered
weaker by the research community ([13]).
Based on these definitions of security as
countermeasures for different kinds of attacks,
the researchers proposed satisfying identitybased encryption schemes.
Another way to formalize notions of
security for the cryptographic schemes in
general
and
for
the
identity-based
cryptography in particular is considering the
combinations between various security goals
and possible attack models ([13, 14]). There
are four essential security goals and three
important attacks that should be taken into
consideration:
The security goals are: one-wayness,
indistinguishability, semantic security and
non-malleability.
The attack models are: chosen plaintext
attack, non-adaptive chosen cipher text attack
and adaptive chosen cipher text attack.
From the relations between all these
security objectives and attack models raise
different security scenarios that were studied
by the researchers.
If the algorithms are implemented on
cryptographic devices there are a number of
specific attacks like the power analysis attack
([15]). This kind of attack consists in two
phases: data acquisition phase and data
analysis phase. In the first phase the attacker
collects data of the power consumption of the
devices while it operates. The second phase
consists in analyzing the collected data in
order to retrieve secret information. Another
attack specific when using cryptographic
devices is fault attack ([15]). In this attack the
malicious user disrupts in some way the
normal execution of the device in order to
obtain faulty output.
An aspect more closely related to the
identity-based cryptography is the efficient
implementation of pairings ([16, 17]). This is
important both from the point of view of
security (pairing being a central part of
identity-based related algorithms) and
applications (pairing should be efficiently
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computable on resource constrained devices).

Attackers can adapt the used attacks to pairing
([15]). Research showed that it is possible to
obtain important information this way, but has
also showed specific countermeasures.
Researchers have also highlight some open
problems is this field: curve parameterization
attacks, special point attacks and high-order
power attacks. They were called open
problems because they were not sufficiently
researched or were not researched at all. So
their real destructive potential is unknown.
6. APPLICATIONS OF IBC
6.1 General applications.
From a
practical and scientific point of view, there are
some special applications of identity-based
cryptography. The most common one is the
identity-based encryption. All of the previous
examples were based on it. The possible
applications of identity-based encryption
would have to be in domains that can profit
out of its advantages over public key systems
and do not mind or can overcome the
disadvantages. The most obvious systems that
can be secure with the help of identity-based
encryption are the systems in with
communication are based on identity. In an email system the messages target a single
recipient. The e-mail address is unique and its
owner should be the only one that receives the
message. So, using it as a public key in an
identity-based encryption scheme would be a
natural thing to do. The message is sent
directly (the sender does not have to look for
or validate the certificate of the recipient) the
software does the encryption in a user
transparent manner. The same discussion can
be applied to GSM communication systems.
The telephone number of each user is unique
357
in the whole world. So it can be used as a

public key in order to reach end-to-end user
security. The solution implementation would
naturally dress the existing infrastructure. All
the communication between devices can be
encrypted this way too, using as public key the
IP address of the device.
Relatively recently researchers showed that
identity-based cryptography can also be used
for e-signature in a scheme based on errorcorrecting codes, thus providing means for
identification ([18]).
There is another application that takes
identity-based encryption one step further:
Fuzzy Identity-based Encryption ([19]). The
idea is to replace the identity ASCII value used
as public keys with a set of descriptive
attributes (of a certain biometric: fingerprint,
iris, voice, face, etc). This attributes are used
as a public key in order to encrypt messages
for the respective user. The main difference of
this solution is that the private key is derived
from that biometric too. The error-tolerance
property of Fuzzy-Identity-based encryption
allows for a private key (derived from a
measurement of the same biometric) to decrypt
that message even if it was encrypted with a
slightly different measurement of the
biometric.
Another interesting concept is attributebased encryption ([20]). In this scheme the
users keys and the cipher text are labeled with
sets of descriptive attributes. So a particular
key can decrypt a particular cipher text only if
the attributes of the key match the attributes of
the cipher text. This attributes take the form of
an access structure that specifies what type of
text the key can decrypt. From the attributebased encryption point of view, identity-based
encryption is only a particular case.
6.2 Military relevan ce. Identity-based
cryptography is a new emerging technology
that promises to reduce costs and overhead

time and to provide security in a more natural
way (for the users). Benefits of IBC - high
system usability, highly scalable architecture,
low operational impact, fully stateless
operation- are all very important in military
applications. Military communications can
also benefit from it, if used in proper
scenarios,
where
its
few
important
disadvantages can be cancelled.
Here is an enumeration of other possible
military applications of identity based
cryptosystems.
Encryption applications using hybrid
(symmetric-asymmetric) schemes but without
the complex aspects of PKI.
E-Signature schemes without huge
problems
of
certificates
generation,
distribution, revocation (no CRLs), validation
([4]).
Possible mixing cryptography schemes
and biometric attributes, in so-called
biocryptography ([19]).
Large applications in MANETs,
where
dynamic
coalition-forming
environments are very envisaged in future
military networking; in this case, for example,
two Trusted Authorities from different
coalition forces may wish to (temporarily or
permanently) generate a common set of public
parameters and a common master secret, and
to issue new private keys to all entities under
their joint command only for this context
([21]).
Identity-based cryptography can be
used to enable strong security with reduced
bandwidth consumption and latency, because
the security associations between nodes can be
established without the need to exchange any
other information ([22]).
The advantages of identity-based
cryptography can be combined with methods
of assuring compatibility with current public
key infrastructures (like IB-mRSA IdentityBased-Mediated RSA). This way, one can
assure interoperability without decreasing
security ([23]).
If
the
initial
identity-based
cryptosystem is enriched with a hierarchical
approach to KGC problem, than the new
cryptosystem will comply with the hierarchical
characteristics of the military organization. An
advantage is that in this way the key escrow is

allowed at different levels ([21]).
Several key agreement protocols based
on identity-based cryptography had been
developed and can be successfully used to
secure communications.
ID-based group signature schemes can
be relatively easy converted into Group
Signature schemes.
Zero knowledge proof of identity:
proving your identity not with a piece of
information you have (for example by sending
a password to a server), but with prove of your
knowledge ([24]).
7. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have made a general
introduction in identity based cryptographys
problematic. We have presented the key
differences between it and classical PKI,
highlighting its advantages and disadvantages.
Based on these considerations, we have given
a non exhaustive list with possible applications
of IBC.
Researching over these aspects, made
possible to better understand in which
scenarios the user could really benefit from
using an identity based cryptosystem, and not
a classical PKI scheme. So based on this
survey we will continue our work by
researching over the use of IBC schemes in the
communication inside the Romanian army, as
a backup or even as an alternative to the PKI
infrastructure proposed and implemented so
far.
REFERENCES
1. Adi Shamir, Identity-Based Cryptosystems
and Signatures Schemes, Advances in
Cryptology: Proceedings of CRYPTO84,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 7:4753, 1984.
2. Shane Balfe, Kent D. Boklan, Zev
Klagsbrun, Kenneth G. Paterson, Key
Refreshing in Identity-Based Cryptography
and its Applications in MANETS,
Proceedings
of
the
Military
358
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Communications Conference MILCOM

07, 2007.
3. Leonardo B. Oliviera, Diego Aranha,
Eduardo Morais, Felipe Daguano, Julio
Lopez, Ricardo Dahab, TinyTate: IdentityBased Encryption for Sensor Networks,
[online].
Available:
http://eprint.iacr.org/2007/020.pdf (2007).
4. Sherman S.M. Chow, Certificateless
Encryption, Identity-Based Cryptography,
IOS Press, pp. 207-225, 2009.
5. Antoine Joux, Introduction to IdentityBased Cryptography, Identity- Based
Cryptography, IOS Press, 2009.
6. IEEE 1363.3 Standard, [online]. Available:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1363/IBC/in
dex.html (2006).
7.
RFC
1824,
[online].
Available:
http://ietfreport.isoc.org/idref/rfc1824/
(1995).
8.
RFC
5091,
[online].
Available:
http://www.rfc-editor.org/pipermail/rfcdist/2007-December/001834.html (2007).
9.
RFC
5408,
[online].
Available:
http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5408/ (2009).
10. RFC 5409, [online]. Available:
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc5409.txt (2009).
11. Ferris Research, Report 586 The total
Cost of Ownership for Voltage IdentityBased Encryption Solution, [online].
Available:
http://www.ferris.com/2006/05/30/thetotal-cost-of-ownership-for-voltageidentity-based-encryption-solutions/
(2006).
12. Dan Boneh, Matthew K. Franklin, IdentityBased Encryption from the Weil Pairing,
Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of
CRYPTO 01, 2001.
13. Dan Boneh, Xavier Boyen, Efficient
Selective
Identity-Based
Encryption
Without Random Oracles, Advances in
359
Cryptology (EUROCRYPT 2004), Lecture

Notes in Computer Science, vol. 3027,
Springer, 2004.
14. David Galindo, Marina Gavrilova, Osvaldo
Gervasi, Vipin Kumar, Chih Jeng Tan,
David Taniar, Antonio Lagana, Youngsong
Mun, Hyunseung Choo, A Separation
Between Selective and Full-Identity
Security Notions for Identity-Based
Encryption, Proceedings of ICCSA
International Conference on Computer
Science and its Applications, Lecture
Notes for Computer Science, vol. 3982,
Springer, pp. 318-326, 2006.
15. Claire Whelan, Dan Page, Frederik
Vercauteren, Michael Scott, William
Marnane, Implementation Attacks and
Countermeasures,
Identity-Based
Cryptography, IOS Press, pp. 226-243,
2009.
16. Darrel Hankerson, Alfred Menezes,
Michael Scott, Software Implementation of
Pairings, Identity-Based Cryptography,
IOS Press, pp. 188-206, 2009.
17. Maurice Keller, Robert Ronan, Andrew
Byrne, Colin Murphy, William Marnane,
Hardware Implementation of Pairings,
Identity-Based Cryptography, IOS Press,
pp. 207-225, 2009.
18. Pierre-Louis Cayrel, Philippe Gaborit,
Marc Girault, Identity-Based Identification
and Signature Schemes using Error
Correcting
Codes,
Identity-Based
Cryptography, IOS Press, pp. 207-225,
2009.
19. Amit Sahai, Brent Waters, Fuzzy IdentityBased Encryption, [online]. Available:
http://eprint.iacr.org (2004).
20. Amit Sahai, Brent Waters, Steve Lu,
Attribute-Based Encryption, IdentityBased Cryptography, IOS Press, pp. 156168, 2009.
21. Shushan Zhao, Application of IdentityBased Cryptography in Mobile Ad Hoc

Networks,
ACM
Transactions
on
Computational Logic, 2007.
22. D. W. Carman, G. H. Cirincione, IdentityBased Ramdom Key Predistribution for
Army MANETS, [online]. Available:
http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/ (2004).
23. Dan Boneh, Xuhua Ding, Gene Tsudik,

Identity-Based Mediated RSA, Dow Jones
& Company, Inc., 2002.
24. Jonathan Katz, Rafail Ostrovsky, Michael
O. Rabin, Identity-Based Zero-Knowledge,
Security in Communication Networks,
Lecture Notes for Computer Science, vol.
3352, Springer, pp. 180-192, 2002.
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AN ASYMPTOTIC PROPERTY OF THE MERGING ALGORITHM

Paul VASILIU
Faculty of Marine Engineering, Mircea cel Btrn Naval Academy, Constanta, Romania
Abstract: This paper focuses on the study of the asymptotic behavior of the medium number of
comparisons from the merging algorithm on two sorted arrays, depending on the total length of the
resulting array obtained by merging. This paper presents a program written in C++ that supports the
theoretical result that was obtained.
Keywords: arrays, data analysis, merging, sorting.
MSC2010: 26A03, 26A06.
1. INTRODUCTION
from W. The minimum value between vi and

w j is written to the resulting array, X. In the
Let it be the following merging function

written in C++:
void merge(int *v,int *w,int *x,int p,int q)
{
int i,j,k;
i=j=k=0;
while(i<p && j<q){
if (v[i]<w[j]){
x[k++]=v[i++];
}
else
x[k++]=w[j++];
}
while (i<p)
x[k++]=v[i++];
while (j<q)
x[k++]=w[j++];
merging algorithm, one of the V or W arrays is

iterated first and the elements of the other one
are written to the X array.
Let it be the sorted array in an ascending

order X x1 , x2 , , xn with n p q
Let it be the following arrays sorted in

ascending order V v1, v2 , , v p
and
W w1 , w2 , , wq . The result of the merging

operation of two arrays sorted in ascending or
descending order, V and W, is a new array, X,
that contains all the elements from V and W
sorted in ascending or descending order. The
algorithm of merging two arrays is well known.
The algorithm consists of iterating through the V
and W arrays and comparing each current
element vi from V with the current element w j
361
elements, obtained by merging the V and W

arrays. Let it be C , the medium number of
comparisons, defined by the total number of
comparison divided by the number of possible
arrays V and W. The [1] and [2] papers present
the limits of the medium required number of
comparisons, C , depending on the lengths, p
and q of the V and W arrays. In this paper we
will prove that the medium number of
comparison required for obtaining the X array
sorted in ascending order can be approximated
with n 2 . It must be mentioned that this
number does not depend on the lengths of V or
W arrays.
The obtained result is validated with a
program written in C++ language.
element from V and then there are i

comparisons required;
2. Compute the number of possible arrays
V for which xi is the greatest element from V ;
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for all the possible
choices of xi ;
4. Compute the value of C .
If x1 is the greatest element from V , than
2. FINDING THE C NUMBER
might be an element from V . For both these

possible arrays, 2 comparisons are needed for
each array, ( x2 with x1 and x2 with x2 or
The operation of merging the V and W

arrays involves comparing the elements of these
arrays and updating the X array. Also, for
merging, one array will be iterated first.
Obviously,
the
total
number
of
comparisons required for building the X array
is equal to n m , where m is the number of
remained elements from the array that was not
iterated. The minimum number of comparisons
equals to the minimum value between p and q
in the following case: if all the elements of the
array with the smallest number of elements, are
smaller than all the elements from the array with
more elements that the first one. If the elements
with the greatest values from V and W will be
the greatest elements from X array, then the
number of comparisons is equal to p q 1 .
Without reducing the generality we will
suppose that the V array will be iterated first. In
the end, we will double the value of the number
of comparisons by including the case when W
will be iterated first.
It is clear that the greatest element from
V will influence the value of C . Let it be the
final array sorted in ascending order, with n
elements
X x1 , x2 , , xn ,
with
x1 x2 xn . In order to compute C , we
have to follow the next steps:
1. It is assumed that xi is the greatest
there is an array V x1 , with no element
that precede x1 , which means that only one

comparison is needed, (1 211 ).
If x2 is the greatest element from V , than
there are two possible array that contain this
element: V x2 and V x1 , x2 , where x1
with x3 ), in total 4 comparisons, ( 2 221 ).

If x3 is the greatest element from V , then
there are 2 possible values that can exists in V :
x1 and/or x2 . In this case there are 4 possible
V arrays with x3 , being the greatest element,
V x3 ,
V x1 , x3
with
x1 x3 ,
V x2 , x3 with x2 x3 , V x1 , x2 , x3 with
x1 x2 x3 or x2 x1 x3 . For each of the

four arrays, 3 comparisons are needed, ( x3 wit
x1 , x3 with x2 and x3 with x3 or with x4 ),
which makes a total of 12 comparisons,
( 3 231 ).
In general, if xi is the greatest element from
V , there are i 1 possible elements that can
precede it and that can be elements of V . The
number of subsets with i 1 elements is equal
to 2i 1 , so there are 2i1 V arrays with xi
being the greatest element. The total number of
comparisons equals to i 2i 1 .
Because we supposed that the V array will
be first iterated, this implies that i n 1 .
Suppose by contradiction that i n , W could
be iterated first because the greatest element
from X is now in V .
From the above considerations it follows that
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the total number of comparisons required for

iterating first the V array, and then W is equal
to:
n 1
i 2i 1
(1)
i 1
The total number of possible V arrays is equal

to:
n 1
2i 1 2n1 1
(2)
i 1
By symmetry, supposing that W is iterated first,

and after that V , it follows that the number of
comparisons equals:
n 1
i 2i 1
(3)
2n 2
(10)
2n 2
From the equality:
2n 2
(11)
0
lim n
n 2 2
results that for values of n big enough, C can
be approximate with n 2 .
The above chart of the function
2 x 2
,x0,
x 1
and
y ( x) x
2 2
1
proves that the approximation is
y (1)
ln 2
very good for values of n 10 .
C n2
i 1
4.5
and the number of possible arrays W equals to:
2i 1 2n1 1
(4)
3.5
x
i 1
y=(2*x-2)/(2 -2)
n 1
This leads to a total number of comparisons

equal to:
n 1
n 1
2 i 2i 1 i 2i
i 1
(5)
and the total number of possible arrays V and

W is equal to:
(6)
From the equality:
x n 1 1
1 x x x
(7)
x 1
which occurs for x 1 , through derivation, and
then multiplication with x and substitution of x
with 2 we have the following equality:
2
n 1
i 2i n 2 2 n 2
2
1.5
1
0.5
i 1
2 2n 1 1 2n 2
3
2.5
(8)
i 1
The medium number of comparisons becomes:

n 2 2n 2
C
(9)
2n 2
By processing (9), we obtain:
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10
Ox
15
20
Figure 1. The optimal value of n
2.1. A VERIFICATION OF THE

THEORETICAL RESULT
This
theoretical
result
can
be
experimentally checked with the following C++
program :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <malloc.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int * aloc(int n)
{
int *p;
p=(int *)malloc(n*sizeof(int));
return p;
}
void sort_ascending(int *v,int n)
{
int i,j,temp;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++){
if(v[i]>v[j]){
temp=v[i];
v[i]=v[j];
v[j]=temp;
}}}
void gen(int *v,int n)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
v[i]=rand();
}
int interclas(int *v,int *w,int *x,int p,int q)
{
int i,j,k,ncomp;
ncomp=i=j=k=0;
while(i<p && j<q){
ncomp++;
if (v[i]<w[j])
x[k++]=v[i++];
else
x[k++]=w[j++];
}
while (i<p)
x[k++]=v[i++];
while (j<q)
x[k++]=w[j++];
return ncomp;
}
int main()
{
int p,q,*V,*W,*X,nc;
printf(" Size of V = ");
scanf("%d",&p);
printf(" Size of W = ");
scanf("%d",&q);
V=aloc(p);
W=aloc(q);
X=aloc(p+q);
gen(V,p);
gen(W,q);
sort_ascending(V,p);
sort_ascending(W,q);
nc=interclas(V,W,X,p,q);
printf(" C = %d\n",nc);
getch();}
The input of the program are: size p and
of the arrays
W w1, w2 ,, wq
V v1, v2 , , v p
and
respectively. The program
random generate the arrays, ascending sort the

arrays, merge the arrays and generate
X x1 , x2 , , xn array with n p q
components. Are counted comparisons.
An example is:
Size of V = 78
Size of W = 67
C = 143
In the above example p 78 , q 67 ,
n p q 78 67 145 . The medium number
of
comparisons
is
equal
with:
n 2 145 2 143 .
3. CONCLUSIONS
In papers [1, 2] is determined the medium

number of comparisons needed for merging
the
arrays
V v1, v2 , , v p
and
W w1, w2 ,, wq . This number depends on

the lengths, p and q, of these two arrays. In the
presented paper we proved that the medium
number of comparisons can be computed
depending on the sum of the length of these two
arrays n p q . Moreover, we showed that
for n 10 , the medium number of
comparisons can be approximated with n 2 .
REFERENCES
1.
Dijkstra, E. W., Some beautiful arguments

using mathematical induction. Acta
Informatica 13(1982).
2. Knuth, D. E. The Art of Computer
Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and
Searching. Addison Wesley (1973).
364
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SOCIAL ROBOT IN ATTENTIONAL THERAPIES

Paulina VLEZ*, Antonio FERREIRO**
*Faculty of Computer and Electronics, Politecnic University of Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador,
** Faculty of Health Sciences, National University of Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador
Abstract: This paper describes how social robots can be used in philological therapies to improve the
attentional capacities of children. A social robot is a powerful tool especially if the users are children. A
social robot can be a playful tool, as a toy, but can direct some activities and gain the child interest in it.
Keywords: social robot, assistive robot, social interface, attention deficit, therapeutic, behavioral
interventions.
MSC2010: 97C20,97C30,97C40,97C60.
1. INTRODUCTION
have in order to develop the robot social

abilities that can help the child.
A social robot is able to interact with

humans and also is able to help humans to do
some task. In this respect there are many social
robots that have been developed to help
children to increase their social capacities.
Using a social robot is possible to help in a
physiological way children, especially to
stimulate their attentions in school years. It is
possible to use a social robot as part of
psychological therapies as a complementary
tool. In order to reach the goal of this research
is necessary define Attention Deficit and
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD
consist in persistent patterns of inattention
and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity, which
are severe and common in children in school
years in it age and level of development [1].
There are different test that help to
measure the attention capacity, so it is possible
to establish the necessary parameters and
characteristics that the social robot need to
365
2. ROBOT AS A FRIEND?
In our days the robots are common, there are
presents I almost every industry and also in
almost every daily activities. Robots were
tools to do some task that were hard for the
men to do it, to reduce the time in productions
processes and to do some works in dangerous
environment. But, in the last years robots has
been introduce not only as a tool to do hard
jobs, but also as a tool to interact, collaborate
and assist humans been. The main idea was
and is in this days is create a robot able to
communicate and interact with people until
specific task has been accomplish.
A robot that is able to interact with humans
been is define as a Social Robot. To talk
about social robot is necessary to include some
concepts such as: embodiment, social
environment, and the capacity to reach it social
goals [2]. A robot can be social depending on
aspects such as: it physical body, level of

intelligence and behavior.
To interact with people, a robot needs to
have a social intelligent, and also it body need
to have a body design according with the goal
of the interaction (body conception)[3]. To
have a robot with body is important, but most
important is that it body have some specific
characteristic that can help the users to build a
mental model that help them recognize the
robot as a partner in the interaction process.
A social robot needs to have an
anthropomorphic body, which means to have a
body with human characteristics as head with
face, arms, or hands. This body is necessary to
have sensors so it can feel the environment,
and will enable the robot interaction [4].
Talk about a social robot is talk about a
robot that is able to interact with people in a
common environment that could be
deterministic or non-deterministic. In social
robot area is possible to talk about assistive
robots and collaborative robots. An assistive
robot help people to do some task, assist
people in their activities, in other aspect, a
collaborative robots can participate with
human doing some task together.
If the robot is able to assist people to do
some task and also is able to interact with
people at the same time, is possible to define
two kinds of classification, Socially Interactive
Robot and Socially Assitive Robots [5, 17].
These kinds of robot use the interaction and
also provide assistance by combine its skills.
2.1 Embodiment and Antropomorphi ze.
To create a social robot is necessary creating a
physical body with specific characteristics.
This process, give a body to the robot is called
Embodiment [6]. The embodiment of the robot
implies to give to the robot physical
similarities with human, this means that the
robot body will have some humans
characteristics and functionalities; this process
is called Anthropomorphize [7].
When the embodiment is given to the robot
is necessary measure the empathy level of the
robot with the user. Mori in his Uncanny
Valley theory has define a curve, in this curve
is possible to see that the empathy will
decrease until the similarity with the human
been is been reaching [8].
2.2 Robot as a Friend? Is it possible that a

robot be a friend with a human been? As a
machine that has been given a social
intelligent and a friendly body, is possible to
use it as a toy. A child has the enough
imagination to play whit it toys and convert
them in his friend, establishing a relationship
with his toys. This give as the idea that for the
children is possible to establish a friendship
and confidence with a social robot. This is an
advantage that can be useful in rder to use a
robot in attentional therapies with children in
school age.
There are some factors that has to be
consider, in order to reach a good orientated
anthropomorphize and they are the elicited
agent knowledge, the effectance motivation
and the socially motivation [9].
3. ATTENTION DEFICIT AND
HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
Attention is an important process when
children are in school age, because it can help
them to retain and acquisition of essential
knowledge and to process the information.
Also is important in order to develop their
personality and socialization.
Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) consist on persistent pattern
of inattention and/or hyperactivity and
impulsivity, which are more severe than
expected in children in school years [1].
The causes are unknown, "many children
with ADHD show no evidence of structural
damage to the central nervous system.
Contrastingly,
children
with
known
neurological disorders caused by brain injury
do not have attention deficit disorder and
hyperactivity "[1, 15]
Children with attentional deficit are expose
to stressful events and has problems with their
families [15].
4. ROBOTS IN ATTENTIONAL
THERAPIES
A social robot can be used as a tool that is
able to reach the child interest as a toy. This
characteristic can be useful in order to use the
robot as a tool assist in the attentional
therapies with children in school age, which
366
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means between 7 and 12 years old. The

process of increase the volume of care and
attention span becomes voluntary in school
age [10].
Attentional problems are persistent and
occur frequently associated with other early
problems and its triggers as aggressive, shy
and cognitive deficits that require t be attended
by special education [11].
A social robot can be used in attentional
therapy by development of a physiological
model and the evaluation of the complex
interaction model [12]. This to things can
create a robot as a powerful tool in to be use in
the therapy.
The goal if the social robot is to accelerate
the result of the child therapy, been used as a
complementary tool, and to work with the
psychology. To reach the goal, a social
assistive robot will be used, combining at the
same time the characteristics of a social
interface, define by Breatzel [16].
4.1 The Robot. The social robot needs to
have some specific characteristic to reach the
interaction whit the child. This is called peerto-peer interaction skills, and the characteristic
are: [13, 15].
- Express and/or perceive emotions.
- Communicate with high level dialogue.
- Learn/recognize models of the agents.
- Establish / maintain social relationships.
- Use natural cues (gaze, gestures).
- Exhibit distinctive personality and
character.
- May learn / develop social competencies.
To define the robot personality is

possible to create a computational model that
describes how the robot will answer to the
environmental stimuli. This model will
establish time answer, levels of task
accomplish and times in collaborative task [9].
4.3 Robot in the therapy. The social robot
will work together with the psychology. It is
possible to do the therapy in groups and also
have an individual therapy. The activities will
be focus in reinforce the child attitude by
dialogs that encourage the child when he/she
do some task in the correct way [15].
A social robot, also needs to have verbal

and nonverbal behaviors, this means that the
robot should be able to express it emotions
with it body language, facial gestures, dialogs
and sounds [14].
1. Sadoc, B., Sadoc, V., Kaplan and

Sadocks Synopsis of Psychiatry.
Behavioral Science/Clinical Psychiatry.
Phyladelphia (2003).
2. Duffy, B., Rooney, C., OHare, G.,
ODonoghue, R. What is a Social Robot?
367
5. CONCLUSIONS
A social robot with an orientated skills
and behaviors can be useful in attentional
therapies with children in school age. The
child imagination allows establishing a
friendship between the robot, and the child and
this help in the therapy because the confidence
is gained and makes easier the interactions and
the reach of the task.
The robot will assist the psychology work,
and will guide the task of the child with
friendly dialogs, facial and body gestures.
This research is the beginning of the
project that has the collaboration of a primary
school, where the attentional capacities of the
children will be test and them an attentional
therapies will be accomplish in order to
measure the level of improve in each child.
REFERENCES
Source. [online]. Available:

http://www.csi.ucd.ie/prism/publications/p
ub1999/AICS99Duf.pdf (March, 2014).
3. Dautenhahn, K., Getting to Know each
other Artificial social intelligence for
autonomous robots. Robotics and
Autonomous systems. Issue (1995).
4. Ishiguro, H., Kanda, T., Hirano,T., Eaton,
D., Interactive Robots as Social Partners
an Peer Tutos for Children: A field Tria.
Human-Computer
Interaction.
Issue
(2004).
5. Feil-Seifer, D., Mataric, M., Defining
Socially Assistive Robotics. Procedings of
the IEEE, 9th International Conference on
Rehabilitation Robotics. Issue (2005).
6. Bartneck, Ch., Forlizzi, J. A DesignCentred Framework for Social HumanRobot Interaction. Proceedings of the RoMan2004. Issue (2004).
7. Duffy, B. Anthropomorphism and the
social robot. Robotics and Autonomous
Systems 42. Issue (2003).
8. Mori, M. The Uncanny Valley. Energy.
Issue (1970).
9. Epley, N., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J. On
Seeing Human: A Three-Factor Theory of
Anthropomorphism. Psychological
Review. Issue (2007).
10. Luria, A. Atencin y memoria. Barcelona:
Kairos (1984).
11. De la Barra, F., Toledo, V., Rodrguez, J.
Estudio de salud mental en dos cohortes
de nios escolares de Santiago Occidente.
III: predictores tempranos de problemas

conductuales y cognitivos. Revista
Chilena de Neuropsiquiatra. Issue
(2003).
12. Scassellati, B. Imitation and Mechanism
of Joint Attention: A Developmental
Structure for Building Social Skills on a
Humanoid Robot. Source. [online].
Available:
http://groups.csail.mit.edu/lbr/humanoidrobotics-group/cog/cogpublications/springer-final-scaz.pdf
(March, 2014).
13. Fong, T., Nourbakhsh, I., Dautenhan, K.
A Survey of socially interactive robots.
Robotics and Autonomous Systems 42.
Issue (2003).
14. Yan, R., Peng Tee, K., Chua, Y, Huang,
Z., Li, H. An Attention-Directed Robot for
Social Telepresence. The 1st International
Conference on Human-Agent Interaction.
Issue (2013).
15. Velez, P. Ferreiro, A. Social Robotic in
Therapies to Improve Children's
Attentional Capacities. Review of the Air
Force Accademy, Vol. XII, No.
2(26)/2014, pp. 101-108,
http://www.afahc.ro/revista/Nr_2_2014/10
1_VLEZ_FERREIRO.pdf.
16. Breazeal, C., Toward sociable robots.
Robotics and Autonomous Systems. Issue
(2003).
368
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ANALYSIS OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES USED FOR

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT. APPLICABILITY AND
IMPLICATIONS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
Arina CIUREA*, Anior NEDELCU**
Transilvania University of Brasov, Universitii Street 1, Braov 500068, Romnia,
arina.ciurea@gmail.com, a.nedelcu@unitbv.ro
Keywords: management, quality, total quality management, brainstorming, benchmarking.
The concept of quality in education

Applying the concept of total quality
management in the educational system is
completely normal because, exactly as in other
social and economic domains, this sector tries
to identify the most efficient methods in order
to successfully get along with the continuous
changes. Moreover, people who work in the
educational system use the concept of total
quality management to predict the possible
problems that can occur in the future and to
develop solutions for them. When we try to
answer the concept of quality we have to
answer two fundamental questions. The first
one is: Which is the product? The second one
is: Who are the clients? Both questions can be
applied in the case of education.
Giving a definition for education is not
easy at all. There are many possible assertions
or answers regarding this subject but none of
them can be considered as the definition of
education. In many cases people tend to think
that the students or pupils reflect the quality
of the educational institution where they study.
This statement is wrong. The quality in
education, treated as added value, has to
happen at any level and it has to be underlined
369
that it represents the basis of a national quality

management.
The quality of education is mostly
conditioned by the quality of the human
resources, namely by the professional quality
of the teachers. The minimum requirements to
ensure the quality of teachers exist. The role of
motivating and encouraging the maintenance
of this professional quality, as well as its
intelligent and efficient usage, is reflected in
the institutional framework.
There are many personal qualities which a
professor should have. His professional role
supposes to accomplish several interconnected
roles: he is an expert in the teaching-learning
act, a motivating agent, a leader in relation
with the group of pupils-students, a counsellor,
a role model, a reflexive professional, a
manager. [7]
1. Total quality management. Theory
and principles.
Starting with these premises, it can be said
that TQM is not something imposed. This
concept does only determine the things to be
correctly done from the very beginning. It can
be also used to check if during their
MANAGEMENT
implementation the process was undergone

correctly or in a wrong direction. Education
and professional development should be a
priority of the policies of programs in each
country. These should be strongly connected
with the policies of qualitative formation and
with the completion of employment. [2]
Objective
Continuous Improvement
Customer
Focus
Principles
Process
Improvement
Total
Involvement
Leadership
Education and
Supportive structure
Training
Rewards and
Communications
recognition
Elements
Fig. 1 The TQM system and its

components
In order to identify and creatively solve the

problems that appear in education there must
be used some techniques and quality
instruments. TQM allows the common use of a
large variety of instruments and techniques,
which support the implementation of its basic
concepts. The idea behind these instruments
and techniques can also be used in the service
industry but also in education. Nowadays, on
the educational market, it is often asked the
question: Which are the factors that influence
the fact that an institution is different from
another? The curriculum is basically the same.
It is about the added value that gives
authenticity features to an institution.
Quality
management
(QM)
Total quality
management
(TQM)
To search for this added value is not an

easy thing. It demands a close attention, a
detailed market research and analysis. This can
be done using instruments developed on a
basis of principles.
Brainstorming represents an ideal TQM
instrument. It is an intuitive and efficient
method, which has as goal the common
generation of ideas, within a group. The
number of ideas has to be as numerous as
possible in order to find the best solution to a
problem. This solution can be a combination
of two or more generated ideas. This technique
is easy to use, it appeals to the creativity of the
team and it gives the members the possibility
to create a multitude of ideas in an original and
quick way.
Benchmarking is a systematic process
which includes the fact that an organization
has certain information about another
organization and uses them in order to identify
solutions for its own development. In
education benchmarking can be used as a
method of professional improvement of the
teaching-staff. Teachers, as well as the
administrative staff, can simply visit other
institutions to see how they run the institution
and to discover the best practices, which match
with their target, and then try to develop them.
The Ishikawa diagram is a technique that
has also been named cause and effect or
fish bone. This technique gives the team the
possibility to make graphic representations of
all factors that affect the problem or the
desired effect. The representation can be very
well done using a brainstorming session. The
goal is to make a list of all factors that affect
the quality of a process and then to represent
the relationship between them.
Quality
assurance
Quality
control
Inspection
Fig. 2 The hierarchy of quality
Fig. 3 Ishikawa diagram
370
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Force field analysis is a useful tool to

study the situations that require changes. It is
based on the idea that exist 2 forces that
influence the change, one is causing the
change the other one is against it.
The process diagram is providing
information about the environment where the
process take place and about the control
measures.
The logic scheme helps to identify the
process steps and record the progress, decision
taken and required activities. The logic scheme
is part of continuous improvement process and
they are a simple method to treat an issue with
criticism.
Pareto analysis known as 80/20 rules it
is important. If 80% of the problems can be
identified they can be solved through a quality
improved process. In principle, the Pareto
graph pays attention to most urgent issues that
a team or an organization can have.
The career evolution map also called
the graphic representation of career of a
student provides information about milestones
and potential roadblocks within high school or
universities years. Every turning point can be a
potential issue generated by the different
perceptions and can conclude to errors,
misunderstandings even failures.
2. Applying TQM into teaching and
learning process
Totals Quality Management TQM
concept was introduced in 1940 by Dr.
Edwards Deming. The customized elements of
Total Quality Management are: continuous
improvement and applying to all
organization, and all processes involved
strengthen the feedback loop. Applying TQM
principle of continuous improvement of
teaching
quality
requires
a
good
understanding. Schauerman and Peachy [3]
371
and Heverly [1] detailed some possible

roadblocks of implementing TQM while
teaching:
capability of educational institution to treat
the student as client / beneficiary;
different approaches of educational
institution covering the same disciplinary
and teaching expertise;
different
TQM
approaches
within
educational institutions and recognition
systems;
costs of forming as specialist into TQM
applicability
Acknowledge the importance of TQM
concept into improving the quality within
educational institute, thru this study I wanted
to identify which are the key characteristics to
achieve the objectives. We assumed that the
implementation of certain aspects of the TQM
techniques into educational process will
generate not only resource savings but and
greater satisfaction and achievement of the
student learning. This study has the following
objectives:
1. Understand / gets familiar with
particularities of school organizational culture
and education especially those linked with
total quality management.
2. Study the implementation techniques
of TQM principles into educational institutions
during teaching and learning processes
3. Analyze the institutional profile based
on teachers perception regarding quality
indicators that influence the quality of
education.
4. Identify
the
negative
factors
influencing quality factors and identify the
strategies/solutions that ensure process quality
in schools
Research
methods,
techniques
and
instruments:
1) Needs analysis (affinities diagram,
matrix diagram, tree diagram) ;
MANAGEMENT
2) Educational policy documents study

(this investigation method including:
a) Reference studies in education
b) Documents and policies related to
high school stage in Romania, various reports
c) Specific legislation analysis e.g.
Intermediary report of task force:
Improvement in teacher and
trainers training. Implementation of
learning curriculum. Educational
and professional training [8],
Report of education state of art [9].
3) Interview
4) Comparative study (schools, high
schools, etc.);
5) Statistic methods
Needs analysis is a relevant instrument
in educational management, related level of
educational process and as well related school
institution and educational system.
In the frame of needs, it was applied the model
of setting the objectives following the needs in
education study. This model refers to the fact
that general goals are initiated at macro-social
level and these ones are applied then in each
educational step or profile, school institution,
area of expertise, adjusted based on needs and
possibilities, taking into account range of
needs and related group interests. It was
concluded that educational need and as well
global options related volume and resources
distribution way at micro-social level are not
equally distributed and within the same
respect, in educational units, due to the fact
needs are not the same no matter where or
when assessed.
Starting from theory and using
practical
research
methods,
different
organizational structures were analyzed
(school control forums, schools, high schools,
etc.) to reveal the role of social players
involved in educational process, as well as the
quality in quality education management. The
conclusion is that the main factors influencing
quality of educational process are:
A. too many changes within too short
in a very big
timeframe
extent
B. schools directors are not elected
based
on
pedagogical
and
management skills, but considering
C.
D.
E.
F.
political criteria
in a very big
extent
too aggressive competition for high
scores between students
equally
school directors and inspectors not
so interested in co-operation and
having the common goals related
ensuring the quality in schools
in a small extent
evaluation
not
carried
out
considering
the
performance
standards known by students
in a small extent
not a direct connection between
success in school and success in
in a big extent
Fig. 4 Factors influencing quality of

educational process
Based on analysis, it comes that the
instrument most often used for qualitative
determination is inspection and evaluation
sheet related level of the group, which reflects
the quality of teaching process. Internal audit
is the most often used instrument for quality
evaluation at institutional level.
3. Conclusions
This study summarizes the theoretical
base of TQM concept and tools.
Implementation of quality models inspired by
TQM, that have an obvious transformational
tendency, as result of a process of reflection
and personal and institutional learning will be
very difficult and will generate distrust and
uncertainty.
Diversity extreme and contradictory
nature of the concept of quality represents the
last but not the least important characteristic of
quality culture identified.
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The contradictory nature of the concept

it is highlighted by some different point of
view of teachers on one side and students and
their parents on the other side. We can observe
already to students and their parents a more
tangible trend : they demand that in school the
students to get a more practical education, with
better applicability into the latter professional
and social life while teachers insist on skills
and general competencies development
(learning, guidance in society, etc.).
In the traditional learning system, many
students do not succeed to learn and more
importantly they fail to access on to the
highest level offered by the system. As an
alternative thru TQM the student is planning,
learning, checking, revising than testing.
1) Plan 2) Learn (Do) 3) Check
4) Revision 5) Test
Ensuring the optimum resources and
needs ratio represent one of the most important
problem of education quality within current
educational system. How to build an internal
guidance system to make sure that the
educational institute is accomplish its
functions in an efficient way?
REFERENCES
1. Heverly, Mary Ann. "Applying Total
Quality to the Teaching/Learning Process."
Paper presented at the 34th Annual Forum of
the Association for Institutional Research,
373
May 29-June 1, 1994, New Orleans, LA. (ED

373 847)
2. EDWARD, S (Third edition published in
2002), Total Quality Management in
Education
3. Schauerman, S., and Peachy, B. "Strategies
for Implementation: The El Camino College
Total
Quality
Management
Story."
Community College Journal of Research and
Practice, 1994, 18(4) 345-358.
4. IOSIFESCU, . (2004), Relaia intre cultura
organizaional i proiectele de cooperare
european. Bucureti: Agenia Naional
pentru Programe Comunitare n Domeniul
Educaiei i Formrii Profesionale
5. Managementul i cultura calitii la nivelul
unitii colare (2005). Bucureti: Institutul de
tiine ale Educaiei www.ise.ro
6. MIROIU, A. i alii. (1998), Invmantul
romanesc azi. Studiu de diagnoz. Iai:
Polirom
7. NICOLA, I. (2003). Tratat de pedagogie
colar. Bucureti: Aramis.
8. Raport intermediar al grupului de lucru :
mbuntirea formrii profesorilor i a
formatorilor.
(2010).
Implementarea
programului de lucru . Educaie & formare
profesional 2010. Bucureti: MECTS
9. Raportul Starea nvmntului . (2007).
MECTS
MANAGEMENT
374
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
VEHICLE DAMAGE PROFIT DECREASE FACTOR FOR THE

ROMANIAN INSURANCE MARKET
Gherasim Solovestru DOMIDE*, Alexandru DOMIDE**,
* Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania, ** Rocredit Broker, Baia Mare, Romania
Abstract: Present paper aims to highlight the evolution of damage into the Romanian insurance
market between 2007 and 2013. Damage is the unfavorable final result insurer which is part of an
insurance contract.
By analyzing claims rate for the Romanian insurance market in the period to which we refer
have found that the percentage of car damages were between 81 and 89% of the total general insurance
compensations paid. In comparison to the amount of insurance underwritten premiums, we found that for
some insurance classes the damage value is greater than the value of subscriptions. The vehicle damages
decreased the insurance market profits that where brought by other classes.
Keywords: insurers, insurance payments, gross written premiums, claims paid
1. INTRODUCTION
The Insurance contract may have as a
finality to pay higher or lower damages
depending on insured amount and on the size
of the damage. On the insurance market
damages are compensation or indemnity paid
for loss suffered as a result of an injury or
breach of an contract or of a legal duties
committed by another person. The damage
produced by same cause must be compensated
only once. The size of the damage vary
between different classes. The nominal
375
damages are insignificant values. Real

damages are compensation for actual injuries.
Damages are divided into two types: general
and special damages. General damages
intended to compensate the defendant loss to
the extent that this can be done with the funds,
and special damages are damages for which
the plaintiff has to prove that he had suffered
in a particular case. [1]
Regarding our work we will be
referring in particular to goods and properties
damages and also to car damages.
MANAGEMENT
2. INSURANCE CLAIMS EVOLUTION INTO

THE ROMANIAN INSURANCE MARKET
FOR GENERAL INSURANCE
Goods and properties insurance products

are made for more than one risk. The most
complete insurance policies type are the All risk
type. These insurances are required especially for
bank guarantees and credit insurance policies. In
case of bank loans it is required a better risk
coverage as possible. The best selling auto
insurance policies from the insurance market are
the following: Motor Hull type, MTPL, CMR and
Cargo. Of these MTPL insurance is mandatory for
all vehicles registered in the country, it is also
compulsory for vehicles and motorcycles
registered at local authorities. insured sums for
MTPL insurance are predetermined by the rules of
the Financial Supervision Authority. Since 2007
the year of accession to the European Union, these
amounts have been increasing, until 2012.
1st,
2008
the
Starting
January
compensation limit for damage was 150,000 euros
and the limit of indemnity for bodily injury and
death was 750,000 euros. Starting January 1st, 2009
the compensation limit for damage was 300,000
euros and the limit of indemnity for bodily injury
and death was 1.5 million euro. Starting January 1st
, 2010 the compensation limit for damage was
500,000 euros and the limit of indemnity for bodily
injury and death was 2.5 million euro. Starting
January 1st, 2011 the compensation limit for
damage was 750,000 euros and the limit of
indemnity for bodily injury and death was 3.5
million euro. Starting January 1st, 2009 the
compensation limit for damage was 1 million euro
and the limit of indemnity for bodily injury and
death was 5 million euro.
Same compensation limits mentioned
above, are valid the for 2014. We mentioned these
upper limits as they have a great importance for the
damage payments, especially for personal injuries
and death. In most cases are required from the
insurers, compensations payment at the maximum
amount. Romanian insurers propose several
variants of loses compensation offers, most of the
times they are not accepted by the customer and
then the compensation shall be determined in
court.
Motor Hull insurance, CMR and CARGO

are voluntary insurance. The insured amounts are
established based on vehicle value and the value of
transported goods is well specified in the transport
documents. The occurrence of damage is much
easier. The vehicles reparation is made on repair
estimates, the compensation and allowances are
paid based for these. No repairs are made without
the advice and consent of the insurer. For CMR
and CARGO insurance the depreciation of
transported goods is easy and correctly evaluated.
Compared to MTPL insurance, cases that reach
court are very few.
In Table 1.1 is shown the evolution of
amounts of MTPL policies from 2007 to 2013.
The Table 2 summarizes the insurance
premiums written by insurers in the period 20072013 for general insurance, general insurance
claims paid and claims paid for auto.
Figure 1
Evolution of compensation limits for property
damage, bodily injury and death for MTPL
policies in Romania during 2007-2013
The Evolution of property damage, bodily

injury and death compensation limits, for MTPL
insurance policies in Romania during 2007-2013.
It is noticed that damage to motor insurance has a
very high value compared to the total damage from
general insurance. During the entire analyzed
period the auto insurance damage where having
values greater than 80% of the total insurance
damage market in Romania.
Figure 2 Total motor claims evolution

during 2007 to 2013
376
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
3. LIFE INSURANCES
As it was observed from the Romanian
insurance markets evolution in the analyzed
period, life insurance is not a strong point for the
Romanian financial market. Throughout 20072013 this element did not exceed 10% of the total
market.
Regarding the life insurance claims rate it
is known to be low. This fact allows to the life
insurance companies to capitalize more and more
in time. The ransom of life insurance policies
before the term is penalized with substantial
reduction from the insurance allowance.
Most life insurance payments and
redemption redraw, where made before the term,
during 2007 2013 had a minimum ranged
between 11.76% in 2008 and a maximum value of
16.63%, in , 2012. Their evolution, in figures is
presented in Table 3.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In other EU countries insurers are using
outsourcing services for claims regulation like
independent evaluators.In Romania the insurer has
the monopole and entirely decision for damages
made on MTPL insurance policies. On voluntary
insurance policies over 90% of car damage are
377
regulated by the insurer's own staff. Insurance

companies with low turnover successfully use
outsourcing for claims liquidation.
For insurance policies whose insured
assets are vehicle the damages had very high
values throughout the analyzed period. It has
affected the profitability of the insurance market.
First measure that requires for auto insurance
profitability is increasing the tariffs. Currently in
Romania there are 11 insurance companies that are
licensed to practice MTPL insurance.
Insurance brokers sell MTPL policies
through specialized rates comparators sites. From
the analysis of several insurance offers for the
same types of vehicles we found to exist very
different rates. In some cases the MTPL insurance
rates are double for the same compensation limit.
This does not happen and Motor Hull type
insurance policies. This fact shows that some
insurance companies are using unsustainable tariff
rates. They do this to increase sales and market
share at the expense of the entire insurance market
profitability
REFERENCES
(1) Bennett, C., Insurance Dictionary, translation
by Daniela Moroianu, Trei Publishing house,
Bucharest, 2002, ISBN 973-8291-26-7
(2) Insurance Supervisory Commission Annual
Report, 2007-2012, ISSN 1841-7256
(3) INSURANCE PROFILE Magazine, 2007 2014 collection ISSN 1841-740X
(4) www.1asig .ro
(5) www.asfromania.ro
(6) www.csa-isc.ro
(7) www.daune-auto.ro
(8) www.unsar.ro
(9) www.unsicar.ro
MANAGEMENT
Table 1
Evolution of compensation limits for property damage, bodily injury and death for MTPL policies in
Romania during 2007-2013
Indicator / Year
Compensation
limits for
material
damage (Euro)
Compensation
limits for
injury and
death (Euro)
2007
100.000
2008
150.000
2009
300.000
2010
500.000
2011
750.000
2012
1.000.000
2013
1.000.000
350.000
750.000
1.500.000
2.500.000
3.000.000
5.000.000
5.000.000
Source: Authors data procession, information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012.
Table 2
Evolution of general insurance underwritten premiums and insurance compensations for car insurance for
the Romanian insurance market in the period between 2007 and 2013
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Non Life
Insurance
premiums
(thousand
lei )
5.726.752
7.068.174
7.241.584
6.639.733
6.083.943
6.454.395
6.637.648
Total
claims
3.090.977
4.143.706
5.178.480
4.797.561
4.194.673
4.453.718
4.198.252
Total motor
claims
2.527.046
3.713.643
4.487.086
4.136.792
3.643.275
3.809.847
3.687.000
Motor Hull
Claims
1.688.726
2.455.510
2.893.841
2.506.558
1.986.086
1.947.134
1.762.000
838.319
1.258.133
1.593.245
1.630.275
1.657.186
1.862.712
1.925.000
MTPL
Claims
Source: Authors data procession, information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012. For 2013 we
used information provided by FSA press releases on insurance market evolution to 31.12.2013.
378
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Table 3
Evolution of life insurance premiums and insurance claims for life insurance on the insurance market in
Romania in the period 2007 2013
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Life Insurance
premiums
(thousand lei )
1.449.037
1.868.113
1.628.162
1.665.669
1.738.367
1.802.519
1.653.555
Total Claims
and
redemptions
187.698
248.023
271.923
288.397
299.855
242.932
219.856
(thousand lei )
Source: Authors' processes of information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012. For 2013 we used
information provided by FSA press releases on insurance market evolution to 31.12.2013.
Table 4
Evolution of insurers and brokers who regulates auto damage in Romania in 2007-2013
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Insurance companies that underwrite

car insurance
35
32
31
30
31
30
31
Insurance brokers that do claims

regulations
16
15
21
16
19
16
23
Source: Authors' data procession, information provided by the ISC annual reports from 2007-2012. For 2013 we
used information provided by FSA press releases on insurance market evolution to 31.12.2013.
379
MANAGEMENT
380
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
AUTOREGRESSIVE MODELS USED IN THE STUDY OF

LABOR MARKET
Constantin Dugulean*, Steliana Busuioceanu**
*Faculty of Economic Science and Business Administration, University Transilvania, Brasov, Romania
** Faculty of Economic Science and Business Administration, University Transilvania, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The macroeconomic management implies the knowledge of correlations between the
macroeconomic indicators and their influence factors. An objective of macroeconomic management is the
efficient use of labour force. The paper analyses significant aspects of increasing efficiency of labour
force use by emphasising some timing correlations between different macroeconomic indicators, relevant
for the labour market. The analysed indicators are participation rate, unemployment rate and activity
rate. The econometric analysis supposes elaboration of an autoregressive model, estimation of
parameters, studying of Granger causality, stationarity testing, analysis impulse/response, determination
of lag length and other operations. The analysed period is 1990-2013.
Keywords: labour market, participation rate, autoregressive model, econometric model
1. INTRODUCTION
On short term the economic activity
depends on the demand. At microeconomic
level, to maximise the profit, the economic
agents are concerned to satisfy better possible
the demand, as a premise of their financial
stability. Also, an important concern is the
promotion of products to increase demand and
attract new customers.
At the macroeconomic level, aggregate
demand increases real GDP and the economy
moves toward expansion. Aggregate demand
growth is considering its most important
component: private consumption of goods and
services.
The mood of the population, monetary
policy, fiscal policy and the state of the global
economy are among the factors that can
influence private consumption.
381
Private consumption depends primarily on

disposable income. In general, an increase in
disposable income determines the movement
to the right of aggregate demand curve, and as
a result, causes a stimulation of overall
economic activity.
In this context, income from jobs, salaries
and income of people operating on their own
play a fundamental role, being the largest part
of the disposable income. The size of this type
of income depends on how the labour market
works. Labour market status is an important
indicator of the state of the economy.
An increase in unemployment and a
decrease in labour income is a sign of
worsening state of the economy, as the
reduction of unemployment and labour income
growth is a sign of its recovery.
Careful monitoring of the state of the
labour market, necessary and possible, may
MANAGEMENT
provide the driving factors in a short time, the

information needed for decision making of
economic policy.
In the medium and long term, attention
must focus equally also on the terms of the
offer. Job creation through investment,
modernization of manufacturing technologies,
development of distribution networks,
production
management
improvement
activities are capable to ensure a better
possible employment of labour resources.
2. THEORETICAL BASES
Theoretical foundation of this work is the
neoclassical model of the labor market.
Theoretical aspects of the neoclassical model
of the labor market are analyzed by Abel, AB,
Bernanke, BS (2001) "Macroeconomics"
Blanchard O. (2006), "Macroeconomics"
Mankiw NG (1994), "Macroeconomis" and
others.
The way to form the occupation, how
wages are determined, the conditions giving
the existence of a permanent unemployment,
how the state finances unemployment benefits,
factors affecting supply and demand for labour
are neoclasic model features of the labour
market.
The classical labor market theory is the
foundation of many other econometric
analyses of the labor market: Dobrescu E.
(2006), Macromodels of the Romanian Market
Economy, Albu, LL (2004), Dynamics of the
natural rate of unemployment in the transition
period, Stockhammer, E. (2002), Explaining
European Unemployment: Testing the NAIRU
Theory and a Keynesian Approach, and others.
available (published by INS), the parameters

of different models were estimated and also
there were calculated all statistics to validate
them. The software used is Eviews 7.1.
4. STUDY OF LABOUR FORCE
PARTICIPATION RATE
The used model is:
rp 1 1 rp poc(-1) where:
rp is the participation rate, calculated as
ratio between the labour force (civil
active population) and the population
of and over 15 years; rp is also an
explanatory variable, as lagged variable
with one time unit.
poc is the civil occupied population. In the
model poc is lagged with two time
units.
The participation rate dependency on the
occupied population is illustrated in Figure 1.
It can be seen that the ratio of these two
quantities has a high stability. Also, there is a
tendency for stabilization of both the
participation rate, as well as the occupied
population.
Two independent variables were included
in the model, the first being rp with one lag
time, the latter being poc with two lag periods.
This reflects the high inertia of the labor
market. The model contains no free term.
mil.pers.
11.0
10.5
.68
10.0
.64
9.5
.60
9.0
.56
8.5
3. RESEARCH METHOD
.52
The research method used is the

econometric
analysis.
Autoregressive
econometric model allows the analysis of
correlations
between
macroeconomic
measurements, with a certain lag.
For
example,
theoretically,
the
unemployment rate is countercyclical variable
and delayed (Abel 2001). This means that
there is a lag between changes in
unemployment
and
overall
business
development. Using macroeconomic data
8.0
.48
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
Populatia ocupata
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
Rata de participare
Figure 1. Evolution of rp and poc in 1990-2012
The estimation results are:

rpt = 0.36021 rpt-1 + 3.72E-08 poct-2
(0.0349)
(0.0007)
[2.2561]
[3.9476]
() = probability threshold
[] = t-Statistic
382
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

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AFASES 2014
Both variables are significant. It is

important to check if the variables are Granger
causes, one for the other. The results of
Granger test are presented in Table 1. It can be
seen that poc is a Granger cause of rp for each
of the three lags. But there is kept poct-2 for
which the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis is the greatest value.
According to Dobrescu E.[6] on long-term,
the stabilization of the civil active population
determines the participation rate to stabilize
itself at a level equal to:
to other variables through the dynamic

structure of the model.
Inverse Roots of AR Characteristic Polynomial
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
(pop(-2)* 3.72E-08) / (1 0.36021).
-1.0
VAR Granger Causality/Block Exogeneity Wald Tests

Date: 05/14/14 Time: 19:09
Sample: 1989 2013
Included observations: 23
Lags: 1
Null Hypothesis:
poc does not Granger Cause rp
rp does not Granger Cause poc
Lags: 2
Null Hypothesis:
Lags: 3
Null Hypothesis:
F-Statistic
11.8139
2.85491
Prob.
0.0026
0.1066
F-Statistic
9.95626
1.19033
Prob.
0.0014
0.3282
F-Statistic
4.10550
0.70436
Prob.
0.0277
0.5651
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Figure 2. The roots of the characteristic equation
In Figure 3 is presented the chart of

response function of the variable rp to a shock
suffered by poc. It can be noticed that in the
first three periods from the moment of the
shock on poc, rp answers with a deep
decreasing.
Response of RP to Cholesky
One S.D. Innovations
.012
.010
Table 1. Granger causality between rp and poc
.008
The graph of the roots of characteristic

equation, shown in Figure 2 highlights the
stationary character of the explanatory
variables. It notices that all roots of the
characteristic equation are less than the 1,
which means that the autoregressive model is
stationary.
Functions impulse/response highlight how
a shock propagates to one of the explanatory
variables. A shock not only directly affects the
variable on which works, but it is transmitted
383
.006
.004
.002
.000
1
5
RP
10
POC(-1)
Figure 3. Response function of rp
As the shock effect is diminishing on poc,

rp continues to decrease, but the decrease is
much slower. After the first three periods,
MANAGEMENT
there is a remarkable stability between the two

series, the decrease was strongly correlated
with decreased one another.
Forecasting the evolution of participation
rate is presented graphically in Figure 4 and it
highlights the interval [0.46, 0.52] in which it
will be in the coming years.
(CPI). The chart of evolution of yearly real net

average wage is presented in Figure 5.
4,400
4,000
3,600
3,200
.68
2,800
.64
2,400
2,000
.60
1,600
1990
.56
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
Figure 5. Evolution of real net average wage
.52
.48
The results of estimation of model

parameters are:
.44
92
94
96
98
00
RPF
02
04
06
08
10
12
rst = 0.82031 rst-1 + 0.00055 sut

(0.10640)
(0.0003)
[7.7100]
[1.8646]
() = probability threshold
[] = t-Statistic
2 S.E.
Figure 4. Probable future values of rp
It is noticed the evolution tendency

towards stability.
5. STUDY OF UNEMPLOYMENT RATE
The unemployment rate, rs, is the second
analysed variable. According the Bureau of
Labor Statistics (BLS), the unemployment rate
is calculating as a ratio between the number of
unemployed, sbim and the civil active
population (labour force), pac.
rs = sbim / pac * 100, where:
rs is unemployment rate;
sbim is the number of unemployed BLS;
pac is the labour force.
According [3] unemployment rate is
significantly correlated with the labour cost,
respectively with the unitary wage, su. The
model used for studying the unemployment
rate is:
rs 1 1 rs su(1), where:
rs is unemployment rate; rs appears
between the explanatory variables,
lagged with one lag;
su is the unitary wage.
To estimate the model, there were used the
data from INS, of yearly nominal net average
wage, corrected with Consumers Prices Index
In this formulation, the variable rst-1 is

significant at a significance threshold greater
than 10.6%. The analysis of Granger causality
based on the data from Table 2, emphasises
the fact that only for the lag of order 1 it exists
a Granger causality between rs and su.
VAR Granger Causality/Block Exog. Wald Tests
Date: 05/15/14 Time: 09:29
Sample: 1989 2013
Included observations: 23
Lags: 1
Null Hypothesis:
su does not Granger Cause rs
rs does not Granger Cause su
Lags: 2
Null Hypothesis:
Lags: 3
Null Hypothesis:
F-Statistic
0.94309
10.6887
Prob.
0.3431
0.0038
F-Statistic
0.87285
1.11762
Prob.
0.4257
0.3499
F-Statistic
0.44140
1.23290
Prob.
0.7270
0.3347
Table 2. Granger causality between su and rs
From this reason, influences of su over rs

were not considered with lags, in the model. In
fact, the unemployment rate is powerfully
correlated with current su. The explanatory
384
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
variable rst-1 was included in the model ro

reflect te high degree of inertia of labour
market.
Response function of rs at a shock on su,
presented in Figure 6, shows that rs decreases
when su increases, that is corresponding to the
theoretical fundamentals.
It can be noticed that the shock of
increasing su, even it slowly diminishes,
influences rs a long period (at least 5 succesive
periods). Is is accepted that an increasing of su
will change the expectations, these becoming
more optimistic.
Response of RS to Cholesky
One S.D. Innovations
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1
5
RS
10
SU(1)
Figure 6. Response function of rs
The unitary wages are correlated with the

labor productivity.
occupied population. Influence of occupied

population on labor participation rate occurs
mainly with a lag of two years.
Current participation rate is itself
influenced by the rate of participation in the
previous year. An increase in the participation
rate by 1% increases the participation rate of
about 0.36% next year.
It can be seen inertial character of the labor
market suggested by theoretical works that
underlie the study of the labor market.
On the other hand, the unemployment rate
is strongly correlated with real unitary wage.
In the conducted research, using real net
average salary, calculated on the basis of INS
data, deflated with CPI. Average net real wage
from 1989 decreased persistently during 19902000.
The level in 1989 was exceeded only in
2004, increasing thereafter. Real net average
wage is not only the main factor that
determines the size of private consumption,
but the main factor influencing the
unemployment rate.
Note that the current real net average wage
is one that has a significant influence on the
unemployment rate. The constant growth of
real net average wage is likely to change
expectations, resulting in a sequential increase
in consumption and a gradual reduction in the
unemployment rate.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In correlation with the research objective,
autoregressive models used to study the
evolution of labor market indicators, highlight
the correlations between these and other
macroeconomic variables.
Thus, the participation rate, which is
intrinsically linked to demographic evolution
of population, is strongly correlated with
385
Years
1989
1990
rp
0.62
0.61
poc
10,946,000
10,839,500
popover15
17,552,215
17,702,916
MANAGEMENT
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
0.63
0.65
0.63
0.63
0.58
0.56
0.55
0.54
0.52
0.53
0.51
0.51
0.50
0.48
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.50
10,786,000
10,458,000
10,062,000
10,011,600
9,493,000
9,379,000
9,022,700
8,812,600
8,419,600
8,629,300
8,562,500
8,329,000
8,305,500
8,238,300
8,390,400
8,469,300
8,725,900
8,747,000
8,410,700
8,371,300
8,365,500
8,569,600
9,057,625
17,796,308
17,628,133
17,748,687
17,870,437
17,981,825
18,082,636
18,146,764
18,190,185
18,226,785
18,295,918
18,383,003
17,976,508
18,064,890
18,145,035
18,221,714
18,250,418
18,246,731
18,249,385
18,234,744
18,210,068
18,174,982
18,144,412
18,115,350
Source: INS
Years
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
rs
sbim
NA
1.1
3.0
8.2
8.5
8.6
9.2
7.5
6.7
7.0
7.8
8.0
7.6
9.3
7.7
9.1
7.9
8.2
7.0
6.3
7.5
8.1
8.3
7.7
7.3
NA
123,000
337,400
929,000
952,000
971,000
968,000
748,057
664,686
688,400
745,526
775,465
711,299
845,273
691,755
799,526
704,462
728,837
640,942
575,547
680,683
725,150
730,217
701,210
730,131
su
3,063
3,217
2,627
2,285
1,902
1,911
2,150
2,354
1,818
1,884
1,888
1,821
1,911
1,957
2,168
2,397
2,740
2,985
3,426
3,991
3,929
3,786
3,715
3,752
3,885
Source: INS
REFERENCES
1. Abel, A., Bernanke, S., Macroeconomics,
Addison Wesley (2001)
2. Albu L., Dinamica ratei naturale a
somajului
in
perioada
tranzitiei,
Oeconomica, vol. 1 (2004)
3. Blanchard O., Macroeconomics, Pearson
Prentice Hall, (2006)
4. Burdett K., Mortensen D., Layoffs and
Labor Market Equilibrium, Journal of
Political Economy, vol 87 (1980)
5. Busuioceanu S., Correcting Accounting
Errors and Acknowledging them in the
Earnings to the Period, Annals of
Constantin Brancusi, University of Targu
Jiu, Economy Series, Issue 5 (2013)
6. Caire G., Leconomie du travail. Des
reperes pour comprendre et agir, Ed. Liris
(1994)
7. Dobrescu E., Macromodels of the
Romanian
Market
Economy,
Ed.
Economica (2006)
8. Lardalo L., Applied Econometrics, Harper
Collins College Publishers, (1992)
9. Maddala G.S., Kim I., Units Roots,
Cointegration and Structural Change,
Cambridge University Press, (2000)
10. Mankiw N.G., Macroeconomis, Worth
Publishing, (1994)
11. Stockhammer E., Explaining European
Unemployment: Testing the NAIRU
Theory and a Keynesian Approach,
International
Review
of
Applied
Economics, vol. 18 (2002)
12. www.insse.ro
386
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CHANGES IN TOP 10 EUROPEAN BRAND CORPORATIONS

DURING THE ECONOMIC CRISIS
Liliana DUGULEAN, Constantin DUGULEAN
*Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, Transilvania University, Braov, Romania
Abstract: The paper presents some analyses of Eurobrand reports about top 10 brand corporations,
during the period 2007-2013, to capture the effect of economic crisis from 2008. The analyses refer at the
following aspects: tendencies in top 10 European brand corporations, during 2007-2013, development
potential of top 10 European best brand corporations, the evolution of total value of top 10 European
brand corporations and the structural changes on industries of top 10 European brand corporations
during 2007-2013. The structural changes of top 10 European brand corporations could characterize the
changes of European economy and at national level for some developed countries. Some conclusions
were formulated based on the analyses of top 10 European brand corporations values.
Keywords: brand value, valuation method, brand rankings, brand corporation value
1. INTRODUCTION
Few companies are well known at
international level on the market of brand
management and consultancy services.
Interbrand, Millward Brown, Brand Finance,
Global Finance, the European Brand Institute
and many others produce annual rankings of
top 10, top 50 or top 100 Best Global Single
Brands or Corporation Brands, at World and
European level, country and regional level or
within certain industries and some social
activities.
The European Brand Institute in Vienna
analyses intangible assets as patent and brand
values. Its body of European independent
experts are annually publishing the brand
valuation studies Eurobrand for 3,000 brand
corporations in 24 countries and within 16
industries of Europe, America and Asia.
The valuation models usually focus on the
reports of financial transactions and either on
387
the behavioural or technological aspects. The

standards allow comparable valuations by
harmonising different aspects.
The ON Rule ONR 16800 was the first
normative document on brand valuation
world-wide and it was presented in 2006, by
Austrian Standards Office. Based on this
document in 2010, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) created
the standard BSI ISO 10668 Brand Valuation:
Requirements for monetary brand valuation
and the International Valuation Standards
Council created an international valuation
standard for the intangible assets. [1, 2, 3]
In January 2011, experts of the European
Brand Institute presented two standards on
brand valuation and on patent valuation.
Dr. Karl Grn, director at Austrian
Standards Institute, considers In todays
modern economy, intangible assets are of
increasing significance. . it is important to
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determine the value of brands and patents in a

reliable, transparent and traceable way.[4]
The companies of brand management have
their own methods of valuation. Even the same
company of top rankings uses different
valuation methods for different brands,
depending on the most reliable sources of data.
The analysis of top 10 European brand
corporations was based on the results offered
by the Eurobrand reports of European Brand
Institute. The principle of data homogeneity is
respected by using the reports of a single top
ranking company, as Eurobrand. So,
considering that the procedures of collecting
data and brand valuation methods could be the
same in order to analyse the tops 10 during
2007-2013.
The way the crisis acted across the top 10,
50 or 100 brand corporations, could indicate
the structural changes in the European
economy or at national level for some
developed countries, due to the intangible
powerful forces which make the brands to be
bought.
2. BRANDS PREVAILING IN TOP 10
DURING 2007-2013
2.1 Eurobrand top global brand
corporations. Dr. Gerhard Hrebicek, the
president of the European Brand Institute,
considers that Europes future is based on
valuable brands.[5] In this context, the
economic crisis challenging the economies of
EU country members influences the most
valuable European brand corporation.
The report Eurobrand Global Top 100
Brand Corporations 2013, has established on
the first ten places, nine companies from USA
(mil. Euro)
388
and on the 10th place, a company in

telecommunications field from Hong Kong
(China). Four from the nine American
companies are from IT & Technology industry
and the other five are from Consumer Goods
industry. Apple is the most valuable global
brand in 2013, followed by the brand portfolio
of the Coca Cola Company, Google on the 3rd
place, Microsoft on the 4th and IBM on the 5th
place. The Eurobrand Global Top 100 Brand
Corporations 2012 ranked ten American
Companies, on the first ten places. Google was
placed the 5th but in 2013, the 3rd. The
structure on industries was just the same as in
2013, even on the same ranked places.
2.2 Eurobrand top 10 European brand
corporations during 2007-2013. The brand
rankings Eurobrand - Top 10 Brand
Corporations
Europe
extracted
from
Eurobrand - Global Top 100 Brand
Corporations offered by European Brand
Institute were considered for the period 20072013 to emphasise the main changes of their
positions. The Top 10 European most valuable
brand values during 2007-2013 are presented
in Table 1.
It can be noticed that in 2007, Nokia from
Finland was the only company from IT &
Technology industry, number 1 in Top 10
European Brand Corporations.
Three years, from 2007 - 2009, Nokia was
on the 1st place and in 2010 it placed on 2nd;
then it disappeared from top 10, in 2011 being
on 14th place from European top 50, and out of
tops starting with 2012. Nokia is an example
of a powerful brand which failed because of
lacking the strategy of innovation to keep the
pace with the development as the other
companies from IT & Technology industry.
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2007
Brand
Value
Nokia 32322
LVMH 29831
Unilever 25136
Telefonica 23858
Vodafone 22550
Mercedes 20483
Benz
T
18269
Deutsche
BMW
17298
Group
France
17068
Teleco
ABInBev 16873
2008
Brand
Value
Nokia 38283
LVMH 34907
Vodafone 24128
Telefonica 22550
Unilever 21638
Mercedes 21359
Benz
BMW
20061
Group
RBSGroup 19135
France
Teleco
Deutsche
Bank
2009
Brand
2009
Nokia 35220
LVMH 32365
ABInBev 26927
Vodafone 23789
Unilever 22829
Telefonica 22128
Mercedes
Benz
T
Deutsche
19123 BMW
Group
18172 SABMiller
2010
Brand
Value
LVMH 27638
Nokia 25331
Vodafone 25318
ABInBev 23604
Unilever 22212
Telefonica 21880
2011
Brand
Value
LVMH 31699
Vodafone 28505
ABInBev 25481
Nestle 25418
Unilever 24344
Telefonica 23384
2012
Brand
LVMH
Vodafone
ABInBev
Nestle
Unilever
Telefonica
Value
34306
28578
28021
27473
26022
21993
2013
Brand
Value
LVMH 39344
Nestle 34364
Vodafone 28926
ABInBev 28102
Unilever 27715
Volkswagen 23121
19392 Nestle 19563 DAIMLER 19552 SABMiller 18870 SABMiller 20562

19093 T
18001 T
18102 Volkswagen 18483 BMW
Deutsche
Deutsche
Group
18765 SABMiller 17572 BASF 17884 BASF
18374 BASF
18349 Mercedes 16940 SABMiller 17764 BMW
Benz
Group
389
18895
18238 Telefonica 18083
Table 1. European Top 10 Brand Corporation Values during 2007-2013
As a representative of its industry, this one

also has gone out from of top 10, starting with
2011 until nowadays.
The IT & Technology market is dominated
by the American most valuable brands: Apple,
Google, Microsoft and IBM.
LVMH Group (including Luis Vuitton,
Moet, Hennessy, etc.) from France in the
luxury industry was on the 2nd position three
years at the beginning of the analysed period,
from 2007 until 2009, and then for the last four
years, from 2010 until 2013, occupies the 1st
place in the top 10 European brand
corporations. LVMH Group was on the 12
place in Eurobrand Global Top 100 Brand
Corporations in 2013, rising from the 14th
position in 2012. The luxury goods industry in
2013 is represented in Global Top 100, also by
French company Dior, placed on the 73rd
position in ascending from the 91st place, in
2012.
Unilever Corporation in consumer goods
industry from United Kingdom was placed the
3rd in top 2007 and for six years, from 2008
until 2013, it keeps the 5th place.
Telefonica Corporation from Spain in
telecommunications field was placed on 4th
19212
rank in top 2007 and 2008, then on the 6th

place for four years, until 2012, and on the 10th
place in top 2013.
Vodafone
from
U.K.
also
in
telecommunications
industry
oscillated
between the 5th place in 2007, 3rd in top 2008,
2010 and 2013, 4th in 2009 and 2nd in top 2011
and 2012.
Mercedes-Benz
from
Germany
in
automotive industry was on 6th place in top
2007 and 2008, on 7th in top 2009, on 10th in
top 2010, then with Daimler Company on 7th
in top 2011, but the next two year 2012 and
2013 it did not appear in top 10. In Global top
100, Daimler was ranked in 2013, on 43rd
place after 48th place in top 2012.
The automotive industry is also represented
by BMW Group from Germany in top 10 in
2007 on 8th place, and even if it moved to 7th
place in 2008, then to 9th in 2009, it did not
appear in top 10 of top 2010 and 2011, but the
strategic management placed it up again from
10th place in 2012, on 8th place in 2013.
Volkswagen Company in automotive
industry from Germany entered on 8th position
in top 10 in 2012, and rises on 6th place in top
2013. Germany was also present in top 10
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industries,
with
T
Deutsche
from
telecommunications field, on 7th position in
2007, it was not in 2008, but then on 8th place
for three successive years, from 2009 until
2011, since when it has not anymore been
ranked in top 10.
But Germany was also present in finances
& banking field with Deutsche Bank on 10th
position in 2008. It was the only year when the
finances & banking field was well represented,
also by RBS Group from Scotland, on 8th
position. The year of starting the economic
crisis in Europe, had two representatives from
finances & banking field in top 10. The
analysed period did not show other
representative in top 10 for this field.
France Telecom Group was present on the
9th place in top 10 in 2007 and 2008 then it
stopped its appearance in Eurobrand rankings
of top 10 brand corporations. The competition
of Vodafone from UK and Telefonica from
Spain, in telecommunications industry was
strong.
ABInBev Group from Belgium in

consumer goods industry which occupied the
10th place in 2007, was absent in top 10 of
2008, but entered directly on 3rd place in 2009,
2011 and 2012 and 4th place in 2010 and 2013.
After the economic crisis began to shadow,
in top 10 from 2010, the consumer goods
industry was developed by the companies
Nestle from Switzerland and SAB Miller from
U.K. positioned on 7th place, respectively on
9th. In 2011 and 2012 Nestle occupied the 4th
position in top 10, but in 2013 it had the 2nd
place.
Starting with 2011, BASF Company in
chemical industry, from Germany, occupied
the 9th place for three years, from 2011 until
2013.
2.3 Tendencies in top 10 European
brand corporations, during 2007-2013. The
chart of boxplots for the top 10 from each year
is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Boxplots for the top 10 European brand corporations, during 2007-2013
Looking at the chart there can be

appreciated:
the
variation
of
brand
390
corporations values, the levels of the lower
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values, median values, the upper values and

the existence of outliers, for each year.
The variation of brand values was the
lowest in 2008, as the boxplot is the smallest,
but there are two extreme values for LVMH
and Nokia. It is the only year with outliers.
The lowest variation of brand values was in
2010. The highest variation was recorded in
2013. Starting with 2010 the variation of top
10 brand values became greater and greater;
the spreading of values increased. The
decreasing of spread from 2009 to 2010 shows
that the crisis ended in 2010, being the first
year of re-launching the brand values on
ascending tendency. A lag of two years since
the crisis started in 2008, can be noticed on
this chart. The persistence of crisis was until
2010. The median value was mostly the same
for 2007 and 2008, and it began to increase in
2011, being the greatest in 2013. The lowest
value of the 10th place was in 2007 and the
next in 2010.
2.4 Development potential of the
European best brand corporations during
2007-2013. Considering all the brand
corporations ranked in top 10 by Eurobrand
during the period 2007-2013 there can be seen
their positions when the economic crisis
started and during the 2008-2012 global
recession.
Calculating the annual average dynamic
rates of the brand corporations values, during
the period 2007-2013 and depending on the
391
brand values of top 10 in 2013, there can be

obtained the chart from Figure 2.
The emphasised brand corporations from
the first and from the fourth frame of the chart
had positive annual growth rates during the
analyzed period. All the brands placed in the
third frame had negative annual average
dynamic rates and all of them are placed below
the average value of all the brand
corporations values. They do not have
chances to enter again the top 10.
Telefonica from Spain had a negative
average dynamic rate, even if it was ranked in
top 10 from 2013. Also BMW Group and
BASF, both from Germany are placed under
the average value of all considered brands, but
having positive dynamic rates, they have
chances to keep their places in top 10.
BASF has even a greater annual dynamic
rate compared with that of SAB Miller, and so
it has potential to raise more its value. Nestle
from Switzerland has the greatest potential of
development with the highest value of annual
growth rate of 16.5%.
Nokia and RBS Group have the most
unfavourable positions in the third frame, with
negative annual growth rates; close to -26%
for Nokia and - 7% for RBS Group.
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Figure 2. The development potential of the European best brand corporations, during 2007-2013
LVMH distinguishes as the best brand

value close to 40,000 mil. Euro followed by
Nestle with the greatest potential of
development. The corporations having positive
annual dynamic rates comprised in the interval
0 - 10%, are forming a group of seven brands.
392
Telefonica is outside this group, with negative

dynamic rate.
2.5. Evolution of the total value of top 10
European brand corporations. The total
value of top 10 brand corporations values has
the evolution presented in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Evolution of top 10 brand value

during 2007-2013
It can be noticed the decline in 2010 of

total value as sum of top 10 brand
corporations values with a two-year lag in its
evolution, affected by the economic crisis
started in 2008.
Only in 2013, this total value was greater
than the total value from 2008.
Starting with 2010, the value of top 10
brand corporations increased with an annual
average dynamic rate of 5.8%.
393
2.6. The structural changes on

industries of top 10 European brand
corporations. Analysing the structure of
economic activities for the top 10 brand
corporations, there can be noticed some
interesting changes, emphasised in Figure 4.
For each year of the analysed period there
can be seen the structure of brand
corporations value in certain economic field.
The value of brand corporations in
telecommunications decreased from 37% in
2007 until 18% in 2013.
Automotive industry was around 16-17%
in 2007-2009; during 2010-2011, it decreased
until half, being 8%, but in 2012-2013, it
revived again at 16%.
The IT&Technology with 14% in 2007,
increased in 2008 at 16%, but decreased until
12% in 2010, since when the field was no
more represented.
The banking and finances was present only
when the crisis started, in 2008, with 16%.
The luxury industry was present the entire
period with almost a constant proportion,
between 13% and 15% from total value of top
10 brand corporations.
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Figure 4. Structural changes in the value of top 10 European brand corporations, during 2007-2013
Chemical industry began to appear in top

10 starting with 2011 with a constant
proportion of 7-8%.
The deep change was in consumer goods
industry which increased from 19% in 2007, at
43% in 2013. The economic crisis influenced
this industry, which in 2008 had 9%.
394
For the last two years 2012 and 2013, the

structures of the value of top 10 brand
corporations were mostly the same.
2.7. The structure of total value top 10
on European origin countries of brand
corporations. The structure of total value on
origin countries of top 10 brand corporations is
shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 5. European countries of top 10 brand corporations, during 2007-2013
In all top 10 rankings during 2007-2013,

there were six European countries. In 2009
was the single year when there were seven
countries represented.
U.K. had the largest proportion of about
30%, in the top 10 of the last four years of the
analysed period.
Germany maintained its second position
for five years, with weights of 23-24%.
For five years from 2009-2013, France
kept 14-15% from the total value of the top 10
brand corporations in Europe.
In entire analysed period, Spain kept its
middle position in top 10, oscillating between
7%-10%.
For five years Belgium is present in top 10
with 11-12%.
395
Switzerland which entered top 10 in 2009

had an increasing tendency from 9% until 13%
in 2013.
U.K. and Germany have the most powerful
brand corporations in Europe. U.K. dominates
the consumer goods industry. Germany has the
reins of the automotive and chemical industry
in Europe, ensuring a more sustainable
character to its national economy.
3. CONCLUSIONS
In the last decade, Europe failed in IT &
Technology industry face of USA companies.
Nokia lost the fight in this industry.
In Europe, the luxury industry from France
is dominating the brand rankings before and
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after the economic crisis. The conclusion is

that the crisis was an opportunity for the
expansion of this industry, creating an
economic advantage for France.
The economic crisis in Europe did not
influence the telecommunications industry:
Telefonica from Spain and Vodafone from
U.K. kept their middle places in the top
rankings.
The influence of economic crisis over the
automotive industry has been delayed with a
lag of two years. After the crisis was gone, in
2010, the automotive industry developed in
force and the powerful German economy is
present in all tops of analysed period through
its automotive construction companies.
Germany has the most powerful economy
being well represented during the analyzed
period, for top industries as: automotive,
telecommunications and banking.
The distribution on European countries of
top 10 brand corporations origin is not
concentrated in few countries. Top 10 in 2013
ranks the brand corporations from: France,
Switzerland, U.K., Belgium, Germany and
Spain.
396
The innovative character of brand

management ensures the resistance in top
rankings of the best brand corporations.
Information
and
communications
technologies offer important advantages for
the companies which allocate marketing
budgets in building customers relationship,
using the new tools of social-media and
Internet. Strategies in real time are elaborated
based on administration Big Data, to offer new
products and services to the customers, ready
prepared to buy their brands.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.ivsc.org/products
2. http://www.ivsc.org/content/ivsc-publish-
3.
4.
5.
6.
revised-guidance-valuation-intangibleassets
http://shop.bsigroup.com/upload/Standards
%20&%20Publications/IPM_Brand_Valua
tion_article.pdf
http://www.europeanbrandinstitute.com/
http://www.eurobrand.cc/
Best Global Brands,
http://www.gfmag.com/tools/globaldatabase/economic-data/11936-bestglobal-brands.html#axzz2ynUICnvO
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ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF A

ORGANIZATION USING MULTIPLE REGRESSION
PhD Flavia FECHETE*, Prof.univ.dr. Anisor NEDELCU**
*,**Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management, Transilvania University
of Brasov, Brasov, Romania.
Abstract: Economic performance is one of the major goals of any company. This involes important
decisions to optimize the allocation of cash resources, ie labor, raw materials, energy, capital equipment,
etc.. The objectives of the organization can be measured as effectiveness (the extent to which objectives
have been met) or as efficiency (the extent to which objectives have been achieved in the available
resources).
In this regard, it is particularly important to identify factors that influence getting the desired income and
the degree of their influence on the economic performance of the organization. This paper aims is to
realize an analysis of these factors and their degree of correlation on economic performance using
multiple regression.
Keywords: economic performance, efficiency, regression analysis, variables, correlation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Strategic performance, operational,
team or at individual level is a major objective
of any company. To appreciate the extent to
which organizational goals are achieved and
business strategies are effective, it is
imperative to define an integrated system of
indicators that can tell us at any time if our
business is going in the right direction or not.
Moreover, any management decision
should be based on a good knowledge of the
current state of the business, which is not
possible without a system of performance
indicators to inform management about the
results obtained in all key activities and
processes of the company.
397
The economic literature of our country

defines organization performance: "an
enterprise is performant if it is both productive
and effective", productivity representing the
ratio between the results and the means
employed to obtain the results and
effectiveness representing the ratio between
the results and the results expected. [3]
The cost and profits are, in fact, the
elementary performance for firms and
industries from which derive other indicators.
In this respect, in the present paper we
intend to identify and analyze sales revenue
which is one of the main indicators that reflect
economic performance of the organization.
For this purpose, we will use regression
analysis to identify factors that contribute to
influence economic performance of the
MANAGEMENT
organization, and the degree of correlation

with it.
To illustrate the method used will make
a case study applied to a company, ie, a sugar
factory that produces crystal sugar.
The activity of the Sugar Factory is the
processing of sugar beet, in the last quarter of
the residue having a current repair activity.
The final product obtained is white crystal
sugar, which is distributed to different
beneficiaries.
The following section of the paper will
highlight the exact research methods used in
the analysis performed.
2. RESEARCH METHOD
Using statistical analysis as a
statistical part , as a scientific discipline it aims
to discover what is permanent in stochastic
processes variation and
to measure the
influence that determines the change in time
and space, in the qualitative point of view. [4]
For this purpose there are used the
following types of anlaysis : regression
analysis, correlation analysis, ANOVA and
time series analysis.
In a research based on correlation and
regression analysis there must be solved the
following problems: identifying the existence
of the link consisting of logical analysis of the
possibility of existence of a link between the
variables considered, determining the intensity
of the link , problem solved with parametric or
nonparametric
indicators
of
intensity
correlation using correlation analysis, establish
the meaning and form of connection for using
specific methods of regression analysis : basic
methods and analytical methods.[1]
The concept of regression expresses a
statistic connection, ie average regression on
the behavior of variables. Regression analysis
is used for:
- estimation of a variable holding values of
another / other variables;
-assessment of the measure that the
dependent variable can be explained by the
independent variable or a set of independent
variables;
-identification of a subset of several
independent variables to be taken into account
to estimate the dependent variable.
398
The general expression of a regression

model can be written as:
y = f ( , ,,, ,) + , in which:
y dependent variable (output),
randomized;
, ...,
, - independent variables
(factorial), non-randomized;
random variable error or residue.
Random variable summarizes the influences
of variables not included in the model that
influences the variable y.
Multiple
regression
method
is
considered an explanatory one for explaining
the change of a complex phenomenon
analyzed based on the variation of the
variables
considered
independent
or
exogenous [2].
Multiple regression analysis is useful in
building econometric models. A socioeconomic phenomenon is influenced by the
combined action of several factors.
Considering several explanatory variables for
this phenomenon will lead to the identification
of a model that reproduces the actual behavior
in a measure closer to reality.
The purpose of the econometric
analysis is to estimate and predict the average
value of the variable y based on known or
fixed values of the explanatory variables.
Multiple regression analysis allows to estimate
the parameters of the econometric model,
analyze correlations between variables, testing
the significance of the explanatory variables.
For multiple regression, the most
common problem that occurs is related to the
result of the strong ties of interdependence
between the independent variables. They may
lead to improper regression coefficients, so
the estimating becomes impossible or they
can seriously distort it. Therefore, when the
independent variables of a regression model
are not closely related, the results may have
the accuracy needed.
The degree of correlation intensity
between phenomena will be obtained by
setting specific gravity of dispersion based on
recorded factor by total dispersion. [5]
This indicator is called the coefficient
of multiple determination ( ) and measures
the proportion of variation in y that is
explained by the variables , ,,, .
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A small coefficient of determination

( ) or very small regression parameters can
indicate either a very small causal link, but
may also result from wrong or improper
mathematical
representation
of
the
relationships between variables.
Even if we are using reliable data, a big
does not necessarily means that there is a
strong causal relationship. It follows that, on
the basis of regression, it is not possible to
determine causation.
3. MYLTIVARIATE ANALYSIS USING
MULTIPLE REGRESSION - CASE
STUDY
In this section of the paper we use as
explanatory multivariate method multiple
regression analysis to analyze correlations
between variables and establishing the validity
of the multiple regression model.
In this regard, we consider the
following financial ratios derived from the
organization studied during years 2007-2013:
incomes, number of employees, advertising
expenses and product price, as described in
Table 1.
Table 1.Company's financial indicators
Source: mfinante.ro, bvb.ro.
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Incomes
(milioane
lei)
66,8
92,27
69,8
73,35
75,74
83,31
85,6
Nr.
Emplo
yees
247
233
272
256
234
212
201
Adv.
expenses
(mii lei)
23,8
28,3
27,6
26,7
30
29
30,1
Product
price
(lei)
18,3
20,5
16,5
17,6
18,4
20,02
21,2
399
Thus, it was established as a dependent

variable the financial indicator total revenue,
and as independent variables: number of
employees, advertising expenses and product
price.
To explain the variation of the
dependent variable - total revenue - by its
covariance with independent variables:
number of employees, advertising and
promotion expenses, and price / product (lei),
we use a multiple regression statistical model
defined by:
+
+
+....+
+ ,
y =
where :
y= the explained variable;
x1 = the explanatory variable 1;
x2 = the explanatory variable 2;
...
xk = explanatory variable k.
= model parameters.
= specification error, unknown(the difference
between the true and the specified model);
n = number of observations.
In Figures 2, 3 and 4 there are
presented the correlations between the
dependent variable, determined as sales
revenue influenced by other variables
considered factors.
MANAGEMENT
Figure 2. Inverse relation between the

amount of sales and number of employees
Figure 4. Direct link between

the sales and price/product
Table regression is shown in Table 5.

This was performed using the computer
program Microsoft Excel using the commands
Data Analysis / Regression.
The identified model is:
Figure 3. Direct link between the sales and

advertising expenses
-272,23 + 2,17 + 0, 46
+ 9, 47
adjusted values are presented in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Evolution of sales revenues
achieved by the company in the period 20072013 and their adjustment.
400
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Table 5. Table of regression model with three

explanatory variables
Summary
OUTPUT
Regression
Statistics
Multiple 0,98
R
R Square 0,97
Adjusted
R Square
Standard
Error
Observ.
0,94
2,23
7
ANOVA
df
SS
MS
Regressi
on
Residual
164,
65
4,97
33,0
6
493,9
5
14,93
Total
508,8
Coe
ff
Std
Error
t
Stat
272,
23
2,17
59,05
4,61
Pvalu
e
0,01
0,52
4,17
0,46
0,11
9,47
1,47
Intercept
X
Variable
1
X
Variable
2
X
Variable
3
Sig
F
0,00
8
0,02
Low
95
%
460,
16
0,51
Upp
95
%
84,3
3,83
4,21
0,02
0,11
0,81
6,44
0,00
7
4,79
14,1
It can be seen that the coefficients of the

model are significantly different from 0 as
401
indicated by Student calculated ratios, that are

higher than the theoretical value of the Student
table, the values P-value that is less than 5%.
Besides global significance test, there
are analyzed the significance tests of
individual coefficients for each explanatory
variable in the model.
Student ratio for each regression
coefficient is compared with the theoretical
Student value for = 5% and three degrees of
freedom which is 3,18, calculated in Excel
using TINV function. Student theoretical
ration of 3,18 is less than each value calculated
(4.17; 4,21; 6,44), and this shows that each of
the variables: number of employees,
advertising expense and product price helps in
explaining the variation of variable y, ie sales
revenue.
We also identify the confidence
intervals for the coefficients and we observe
that tehy do not change sign in the lower end
to the upper, so do not contain the value 0.
Confidence intervals are:
IC [-460,16; -84,3],
IC [0,51;3,83],
IC [0,11;0,81],
IC [4,79; 14,1].
Fisher theoretical value for 3 and 3
degrees of freedom for a significance level =
5% is 9,27, calculated in Excel using FINV
function.
Overall regression is significant
because F * (33,6) > Fteoretic (9,27), in order
we can say that the regression model is well
built. The calculated F * corresponds to a
significance level of 0,008%, much lower than
5%, as shown Significance F in Table 5.
Also, the coefficient of determination
show a very good linear model that explains
the phenomenon of the change in the four
analyzed variables according to the
explanatory variables in an amount of 98,4%.
MANAGEMENT
The remaining 1,6% is about the influence of

unregistered or not considered factors.
4. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Performance analysis of a company has
a decisive role in setting the strategy followed
especially during the financial crisis.
Performance should be assessed and measured
both with respect to results ( outputs of the
tasks ) and the behaviors ( work process
entries ).The increasingly frequent use of
statistical correlation method is justified by the
increasing need of reflection in a appropriate
numerical form the interdependence of the
phenomena analyzed in terms of the nature,
direction and the intensity of the links which is
manifested in a certain period of time or in
dynamic.
Statistical analysis consisted of an
investigation of the behavior of known
variables and the development of an equation
or model to explain the relationship between
the environment of variables. In this situation,
the income on the product is the result of
conjugation many influencing variables, but
not all the determined ratios have the same
importance, the action of some of them
compensating each other.The main objective
of regression analysis is to explain and
forecast variance of the dependent variable
based on its covariance with the independent
variables . Showing the revenues and benefits
for marketing efforts is a prerequisite for the
analysis of efficiency of enterprise system on
the market.Thus, this paper has tried to define
the notion of performance, to emphasize the
importance of economic performance of the
enterprise and to achieve a multifactorial
regression analysis of factors contributing to
402
performance. In this respect, we conducted a

case study on a company that produces crystal
sugar, taking into account income from sales
as a component of the entity's economic
performance. The model built was a wellchosen one, representative and shows that each
of the explanatory variables : number of
employees, advertisements expenses and
product price, contributes to explaining the
variation in y, ie sales revenue.
Investing in advertising and promoting
the company, the adoption of marketing
strategies in the coming year would increase
revenue, the identified model shows that there
is a direct correlation between these factors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This
paper is supported by the Sectoral
Development (SOP HRD), ID134378
financed from the European Social Fund
and by the Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
[1]Anton,C., Analiza vanzarilor pe produscomponenta a analizei intreprinderii din
cadrul auditului de marketing, Revista
Aspeckt, Editura Universitatii Transilvania din
Braov, Nr.1, 2008.
[2]Dugulean, L. Statistic n cercetare,
Universitatea Transilvania din Braov, coala
Doctoral, Braov, 2013.
[3]Gruian,C.,M.,
Ce
intelegem
prin
performanta companiei?, Analele Universitii
Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria
Economie, Nr. 4/2010.
[4]Jaba, E., Grama, A., Analiza statistic cu
SPSS sub Windows, Editura Polirom, Iai,
2004, p.48.
[5]Petcu, N., Statistic Teorie i aplicaii n
SPSS, Editura Infomarket, Braov, 2003.
HENRI COANDA
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FEW ASPECTS REGARDING THE PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION IN THE EU
Alexandru Florin MGUREANU*
*Faculty of Juridical and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: Environmental law has a specific character, due to his interdisciplinary curriculum, as it
contains elements of law but also elements that are specific to other sciences, as economics, ethics, civil
law, criminal law etc. As a result of the fact the environmental issues are global in nature, environmental
law must have, at its turn, an international character. It is therefore necessary for the environmental
regulations to become uniform and compulsory (with respect towards diversity and principles such as the
principle of subsidiarity) at a European and even global level. The first steps towards a unified
environmental law are being made under the strong influence of some general principles.
Keywords: environmental law, European Union, principle, sustainable development
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Constantin Noica [1], only
the European culture, at least from our
perspective, after it has experienced such
different influences (Byzantine, Romanocatholic, Italian, French, Anglo-Saxon), has
opened towards all the known cultures. As a
result, we can assert that there are, in spite of
the important differences (especially between
Eastern and Western Europe), common
cultural elements for all the member states,
common
values
that
are
protected.
Environmental protection is, with certainty,
such a value.
Environmental law may be defined as the
complex ensemble of juridical rules, which
regulate the relations established between
individuals, regarding their attitude towards
the environment, as a vital element and
support for sustaining life, in the process of
using, in economic, social and cultural
403
purposes, its natural and artificial components

[2] and also the relations regarding the
protection, the preservation and sustainable
development of the environment.
The general principle of environmental law
is an idea with a high degree of generality,
which is common for the environmental law
protection system in its entirety, has the
character of general and fundamental rule of
law, and it is an expression of the essence of
the environmental juridical rules. Some of the
principles are expressly stipulated by the law,
while others can be deduced by means of
interpretations.
According to the Stockholm Declaration
[3] the protection and improvement of the
human environment is a major issue which
affects the well-being of peoples and economic
development throughout the world; it is the
urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world
and the duty of all Governments.
MANAGEMENT
2.National
legislations,
common
principles and sustainable development.
National legislations recognize the principles,
as they are formulated in international treaties,
principles that afterwards become part of
national law (in a rough estimate, there are
about one thousand international treaties that
contain environmental references. Some
international documents expressly refer to
environmental principles: The Stockholm
Declaration contains 26 principles (that must
inspire and guide the efforts of humankind in
order to preserve and improve the quality of
the environment); The Rio Declaration [4]
contains 27 principles and the Dublin
Statement [5] refers to 4 guiding principles.
Art. 6 of the Amsterdam Treaty refer to
sustainable development, concept that was
defined by the Resolution nr. 42/187 of the
U.N. General Assembly as that type of
economic development that ensures the
present needs without affecting the possibility
of the future generations to satisfy their own
needs. The Resolution refers to measures that
are meant to provide sustainable development,
such as: preserving peace, reviving growth and
changing its quality, remedying the problems
of poverty and satisfying human needs,
addressing the problems of population growth
and of conserving and enhancing the resource
base, reorienting technology and managing
risk, and merging environment and economics
in decision-making
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the
European Union [6] stipulates that a high
level of environmental protection and the
improvement of the quality of the environment
must be integrated into the policies of the
Union and ensured in accordance with the
principle of sustainable development. The
principle is based on art. 3, para. (3) of the
Treaty on the European Union and articles 11
and 191 of the Treaty on the functioning of the
European Union, and also on the provisions of
national constitutions [7].
In Romanian legislation there is a
distinction
between
the
means
of
implementing general principles and strategic
elements. Art. 35 of the Romanian
Constitution recognizes the right to a healthy
environment.
3. The polluter pays

Pollution comes from the Latin
polluero-ere and means to soil, defile,
contaminate, make unclear or contaminate.
The principle we analyze was first formulated
in the OECD Recommendation nr. C (72) 128
from 1972. According to the principle, the
polluter needs to pay for the measures taken by
the public authorities in order to cleanse the
environment. Without forcing the polluter to
pay for his act, the society as a whole would
have to pay in order to remove the effects of
pollution. According to the principle, the
persons that are generating pollution are forced
to use filters, to adopt the latest environmental
friendly technologies. Such measures can
sometimes imply great costs for the polluter,
however without this obligation, the cost for
the environment would be a lot larger. The
main objective of the international and
European legislation regarding pollution
prevention is to harmonize national
legislations. The principle was recognized in
the Single European Act (signed in 1986), title
VII, art. 130 R, para. (2), which stipulates that
environmental measures are based on the
principle of preventing pollution at its source,
remedy and on the principle according to
which the polluter pays. The Rio Declaration
reiterates the principle, at art. 16, according to
which, the national authorities must make
efforts
in
order
to
promote
the
internationalization of the costs for
environmental protection and for the
utilization of economic instruments, taking
into consideration the approach according to
which the polluter must cover, in principle, the
cost of pollution, with regard towards the
public interest and without affecting
commerce and international investment. The
principle was also recognized by The Paris
Convention from 1992, according to which the
polluter must cover the expenses for
preventing, reducing and fighting against
pollution.
2.The principle of preventing of
environmental risks and the occurrence of
damage (precautionary principle) According
to the principle, there is an obligation to
intervene before the harm is done, before any
damages are done to the environment. It is
404
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well known that the best way to fight pollution

is to prevent it, meaning to evaluate all the
possible risks and actions. Although
implementing newest technologies, filters etc.
(without involving excessive costs) can be
very expensive, the costs that polluters would
have to pay after pollution has occurred is
generally much larger. Sometimes the effects
on environment are irreversible. According to
the Stockholm Declaration (art. 7), less
developed countries should be helped in their
fight against pollution, as the negative effects
on environment are global. Art. 17 stipulates
that national institution must plan, manage and
control the main resources of the states, in
order to improve the quality of the
environment. Also the latest technical and
scientific developments must be applied on a
large scale in order to avoid and control
environmental risks and to find solutions for
environmental issues (principle 18). The
measures undertake in order to prevent,
control and limit natural disasters and diseases
will be directed towards these scourges, while
avoiding harming effects over the environment
[9]. According to the Rio Declaration
(preamble, para. 8): To achieve sustainable
development and a higher quality of life for all
people, States should reduce and eliminate
unsustainable patterns of production and
consumption and promote appropriate
demographic policies.
The principle was also invoked by the
International Court of Justice [10], which
stated that in environmental protection
vigilance and precaution are imposed,
especially considering the fact that the
damages done to the environment are
irreversible.
The principle is also of great importance
due to the fact that pollution implies effects
that are dangerous for the environment in ways
405
we cannot even understand at the present time,

as it is impossible to evaluate the effects (in
their totality) of even a single pollution act.
4. The principle of conserving the
biodiversity and the ecosystems specific to
the natural biogeographic frame The natural
resources of the Earth, including air, water,
soil, flora and fauna (and especially the
specimens that are representative for the
natural ecosystems) must be protected for the
benefit of the feature generations, by carefully
planning
and
managing
(Stockholm
Declaration,
principle
2).
Conserving
biodiversity necessarily implies a careful
monitoring, able to detect in due time any
harm. Biodiversity is the diversity of the plants
and animals from the nature. Sometimes the
diversity of the habitats and the genetic
diversity are also considered types of
biodiversity. The ecosystem is a complex
formed by living organisms, the environment,
and all the interactions from a given space.
Amongst the abiotic constituents of an
ecosystem we can identify minerals, climate,
soil, water, solar light and any other element
that is not considered as living.
The European Council has adopted an
European strategy for conservation, in effect
since 1990. In environmental policies, active
and precautionary measures are preferred,
rather than coercive and reactive ones.
The notion of conservation is becoming
more and more linked with the one of
sustainable development. The measures of
environmental protection are only effective if
they are implemented over a long or at least
medium period of time. Regarding the biotic
factors (living), the principle implies the
preservation of the flora and fauna for future
generations. According to the Romanian
Constitution [art. 135, para. (2), letter e)], the
MANAGEMENT
state assumes the obligation to ensure the

environmental protection, the conservation and
the improvement of the environmental quality.
A strong stimulant in order to protect the
ecosystems and biodiversity is to give tax
exemptions and compensations for the
economical entities that are performing
activities of ecological conservation and
improvement. Another important aspect is to
institute natural reservations, in order to ensure
the survival of rare species and organisms,
endangered to become extinct. In Romania the
first law regarding environmental conservation
was the Law nr. 213 from 1930, elaborated
with the help of the world famous scholar,
speologist and biologist Emil Racovi. Based
on this law the edelweiss and the thermal lily
were declared monuments of nature. In
Romania there are some of the most important
natural reservations in Europe, such as the
Retezat mountains or the Danube Delta.
According to the Rio declaration, the states
have the sovereign right to exploit their own
resources, but they also have the following
obligations:
-to integrate conservation and the rational
utilization of biological resources in the
national decisions;
-to adopt legal regarding the use of
biological resources;
-to protect and encourage the utilization of
material resources according with their
tradition and to allow the rational use of
resources;
- to sustain local population in the
development of remedying actions in the
affected areas where diversity was reduced;
- to encourage cooperation between
governmental authorities and economic agents
in order to use the resources in a rational
manner.
5. Conclusions
Environmental
protection
must
be
integrated in defining and applying the policies
and the actions of the EU, especially in order
to promote sustainable development. The
principle of environmental protection was
recognized by the EU and by the ECHR,
which stated that the right to a healthy
environment is a part of the right to family and

private life [11]. Environmental protection, as
a principle was also recognized at a
constitutional level, by most member states.
According to the principle of subsidiarity, the
EU will directly intervene when it is
considered that measures undertaken at a
communitarian level are more effective. The
principle of prevention was recognized by the
European Court of Justice in cases such as:
Waddenzee, Castro Verde etc.
While environmental protection is a
continuous a vital challenge for humankind
alike, there are important steps that the EU has
made in order to ensure a clean environment
for future generations, although there are even
greater and more important steps left to be
made from now on.
REFERENCES
1. C. Noica, Modelul Cultural European,
Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993, p.9
2. D. Marinescu, Tratat de dreptul mediului,
All Beck, Bucharest, 2003, p. 43
3. The United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment, having met at
Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972,
paragraph 2
4. The Rio Declaration on environment and de
development, 1992
5. The Dublin Statement on water and
sustainable development, 1992
6. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the
European Union has entered into force in
2009
7. According to the Official explanations
relating to the Charter of Fundamental
Rights of the European Union.
8. Government Ordinance nr. 195/2005
9. World Charter for Nature, principle 12
10. C.I.J. Affaire Gabcikovo-Nagymaros
(Hongrie/Slovaquie) arret du 25 septembrie
1997
11. Powell and Rayner vs. United Kingdom
406
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ARMED CONFLICTS IN

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
Alexandru Florin MAGUREANU *, Ioan TEFU **
*Faculty of Juridical and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania, ** Faculty
of Juridical and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: Due to its impact over social life and its effects on the environment, the war has been an
important subject of interest for jurists all over the world, as attempts were made to incriminate its
devastating impacts. As a result, the conflict phenomenon has become an object of study for international
public law, international humanitarian law and international criminal law.
Keywords: environmental law, armed conflicts, international law
1. INTRODUCTION
International law offers a framework in
which the relationships between national states
take place.
The international framework, meaning the
international situation of a country, its
relations with the neighbors, with the regional
or international communities, have a strong
influence over the law, as there is a tendency
to harmonize national regulations with
international ones, with the signed treaties and
conventions and even in unifying law, in some
areas [1].
The first recorded use of environmental
warfare dates back to 512 B.C., when the
Scythians practised a scorched earth policy on
their own territory, in order to prevent the
Persians from advancing [2]. The rules of war
are as old as war itself and the war is as old as
life on earth [3].
Ecological protection during armed
conflicts refers to the limitation of new and
407
environmentally dangerous means of war that

may cause severe and irreversible damage.
The precautionary principle also implies the
necessity of international laws which should
be able to prevent such damages and also to
protect civil population from catastrophic
effects and natural calamities during peace
time. According to the Rio Declaration
(principle 24) warfare is inherently destructive
of sustainable development. States shall
therefore respect international law providing
protection for the environment in times of
armed conflict and co-operate in its further
development, as necessary.

2.1 Rules on armed conflicts in national
and international laws The purpose of the
war is to weaken the resistance of the enemy,
so that he accepts the will of the victor. As a
result, environmental protection is disregarded
during armed conflicts. Nevertheless, a new
concept was crystalized recently, the ecocide.
MANAGEMENT
Perhaps the oldest ecological law is the one

we find in the Bible (Deuteronom 20.19),
according to which: When you besiege a city
for a long time, making war against it in order
to take it, you shall not destroy its trees by
wielding an axe against them. You may eat
from them, but you shall not cut them down.
Are the trees in the field human, that they
should be besieged by you?. War was
considered as a legal way of solving disputes
between states. Therefore, acts of cruelty were
not considered crimes but merely accepted
forms of punishments applied to those
considered guilty. Water poisoning, burning
of crops, destruction of human settlements
were considered common practices during
armed conflicts, rules that will lately be latter
recognized as positive law, limiting thus the
ways armed conflicts are conducted, the
seasons when wars were allowed and the
means the combat takes place. The ecologic
criteria has been recognized as an international
humanitarian law principle by the first
additional protocol to the four Geneva
Conventions of 12 August 1949 regarding the
protection of the victims of the international
armed conflicts, adopted in 1977 [4].
According to art. 55 of the mentioned
protocol, care shall be taken in warfare to
protect the natural environment against
widespread, long-term and severe damage.
The protection includes the prohibition of
using methods or means of warfare which are
intended or may be expected to cause such
damage to the natural environment and thereby
to prejudice the health or survival of the
population. Paragraph (2) states that: Attacks
against the natural environment by way of
reprisals are prohibited. The final goal of the
article seems however to be the protection of
human beings and not the environment.
The reference to widespread, long-term
and severe damage can also be retrieved in
the preamble of the 1980 Convention on
Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be
Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to
Have Indiscriminate Effects (Rome Statute
Establishing the International Criminal Court).
Similar stipulations can be found in art. 1
of the 1977 Convention on the Prohibition of
Military or Any Hostile Use of Environmental

Modifications Techniques.
Also, according to art. 22 of the Hague
Regulations, the rights of belligerents to adopt
means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited.
According to the New Romanian Criminal
Code, art. 443, it is considered crime,
punishable with prison from 3 to 10 years,
carrying out an attack, knowing that it will
cause severe and lasting environmental
damages,
which
would
be
clearly
disproportionate in relation to the actual
military advantage, during an armed conflict.
Art. 444 of the Code states that it is considered
a crime, punishable with prison from 7 to 15
years, the use of poison or poisonous
substances as weapons, asphyxiating gases or
similar substances, weapons that cause
unnecessary physical suffering, during an
armed conflict.
The Swiss Criminal Code states that the
penalty is a custodial sentence of not less than
three years for any person who, in connection
with an armed conflict: launches an attack
although he knows or must assume that such
an attack will cause loss of life or injury to
civilians or damage to civilian objects or
widespread, long-term and severe damage to
the natural environment which would be
clearly excessive in relation to the concrete
and direct overall military advantage
anticipated [5]. The Belgian Criminal Code
contains similar regulations (art. 136, para.
22), as does the Criminal Code of Malta (art.
54D).
The French Criminal Code does not have a
similar stipulation, however the balance of the
natural surrounding and environment, and the
essential elements of its scientific and
economic potential are considered as intrinsic
part of the fundamental interests of the
Nation [6].
According to the Albanian Criminal Code,
environmental distribution of hazardous
substances may be considered act with terrorist
purpose (art. 230). Art. 394 of the Armenian
Criminal Code incriminates Ecocide, as the
crime of mass destruction of flora or fauna,
poisoning the environment, the soils or water
resources, as well as implementation of other
actions causing an ecological catastrophe
408
HENRI COANDA
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(punishable with imprisonment from 10 to 15

years). The Canadian Criminal Code
incriminates the possession of nuclear
material, radioactive material or device. The
person that, with intent to cause death, serious
bodily harm or substantial damage to property
or the environment, makes a device or
possesses, uses, transfers, exports, imports,
alters or disposes of nuclear material,
radioactive material or a device or commits an
act against a nuclear facility or an act that
causes serious interference with or serious
disruption of its operations, is guilty of an
indictable offence and liable to imprisonment
for life (art. 82.3).
According to art. 41, para. (3) of the
Russian Criminal Code, Risk shall not be
regarded as justified if it was known to involve
a threat to the life of many persons, or a hazard
of environmental or societal disaster.
There is a tendency lately, in international
criminal law, to incriminate terrorism,
including its effects over the environment, and
also the war against terror. Military
organizations are compelled to protect and
conserve natural resources and to act in a
responsible manner in all situations, to
evaluate the effects that military actions have
over the environment.
2.2 Military actions as a risk factor for
the environment The military cannot be
excluded from the category of risks factor for
the environment due to the following
considerations:
-transformations that take place in the
military sector, where equipment and
409
technologies that generate pollution are being

used;
-the impact of the training process over the
environment is significant;
-the insufficiency of the financial resources
allocated environmental actions and programs;
-the serious and severe damages that armed
conflicts can bring to the environment;
Such harmful effects can consist in:
-contamination and deterioration of the soil
and infrastructure;
-the burning of forestry fund and of
vegetation;
-contamination of water;
-producing an important quantity of waste,
including nuclear and chemical waste;
-phonic and chemical pollution of air;
- various damage to fauna and flora.
During the course of military actions, the
military has the obligation to take all necessary
measures in order to protect the environment.
The entire personnel must have knowledge of
the way daily activities are being carried out,
the way military activities or training affects
the environment.
War can generate not only loss of human
life and cultural values but also can serious
affect the environment. During the operations
that took place in 1999, NATO forces attacked
chemical plants and other industrial sites in
Yugoslavia, and also significant damage was
done to reservations such as the national parks
in Serbia and the Skadar Lake in Montenegro.
Also, as a result of the attacks, important
quantities of toxic materials were spilled in the
Danube River. The exact impact to the
environment is in fact impossible to be
MANAGEMENT
evaluated correctly. NATO bombings against

Taliban fighters have destroyed most of the
Afghanistan forests, and in 2003 oil wells were
set on fire by Iraqi forces [7]. The conflict
from Lebanon caused, in 2006 the spilling of
10.000-15.000 tons of fuel into the
Mediterranean.
In the doctrine [8] was suggested that in
order to remedy the inadequate standards in
the international law of environmental warfare,
a separation would be required, between active
environmental warfare, which requires the
use of the environment as a weapon of
waging armed conflict, and passive
environmental warfare, which includes acts
not specifically designed to use the
environment for a particular military purpose,
but that have a degrading effect on the
environment. Passive environmental warfare
violates international law only when it
produces effects that are widespread, longterm and severe.
3. Conclusions
The classic role of the international law,
that of stopping or preventing armed conflicts
between states, has developed into much more,
as it often implies new tasks that the
international organizations have accepted,
tasks that imply an increasingly stronger
limitation of nationhood, of state sovereignty,
reaching even the point where we can
seriously ask ourselves about the future of the
structure that we now call a state. On one side
the international organizations are imposing
more and more limitations to the national
legislations,
even
without
a
global
government.
The fact that there are still no general rules
able to incriminate military actions that
damage the environment (nor institutions that
can apply sanctions), poses an ever greater
threat for the environment in case of future
conflicts. Also, most of the international rules
prevent only the use of a specific type of
weapon, therefore they cannot be considered
general regulations.
It is clear, at this moment, that the

international juridical frame that aims to
protect the environment in case of military
conflicts, is either to vague or insufficient for
an effective protection. The signing of a new
convention on environmental protection during
armed conflict would be, in our opinion, a
necessary steps (but not sufficient) in the
prevention of environmental degradation
through military actions. Such a Convention
should clearly define notions such as:
environment, active environmental damages
and passive (or collateral) environmental
harm; types of weapons allowed in order to
protect the environment; type of actions that
are prohibited expressly. Even more important,
such a Convention should clearly stipulate
means of monitoring military activity even
during peace time, by international organisms
and severe and clear penalties for any
violations (no matter who the perpetrator is,
whether it is a state, an organization or an
individual).
REFERENCES
1. Romul P. Vonica, Introducere general n
drept, Lumina Lex, Bucharest, 2000, p. 30
2. Marco Roscini, Protection of natural
environment in time of armed conflict,
International
humanitarian
law:an
anthology, L. Doswald-Beck, A. R.
Chowdhury and J. H. Bhuiyan, eds.,
Nagpur: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2009, p.
155
3. Ion Dragoman, Armata i mediul, in
Romanian Revue of Humanitarian Law,
Bucharest,2003,p.208
4. Constantin Poenaru, Protecia mediului i

noile situaii de conflict armat, Dreptul
Internaional Umanitar la nceputul
secolului XXI, Asociaia Romn de Drept
Umanitar, Bucharest, 2003, p.208
5. Art. 264g, letter. A), of the Swiss Criminal
Code
6. French Criminal Code, art. 410-1
7. Marco Roscini, op. cit., p. 156
8. Eric T. Jensen, Vanderbilt Journal of
Transnational Law, vol. 38, 2005, p. 146
410
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF MANAGER AS BASED

ASSUMPTION OF MANAGER COMPETENCES IN AIR FORCE
ACADEMY CONDITIONS
Mria PETRUFOV* Eva RVAYOV**
*Department of Management, The Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav tefnik in
Liptovsk Mikul
** Department of Social Sciences and Languages, The Armed Forces Academy of General Milan
Rastislav tefnik in Liptovsk Mikul
Abstract: The authors point to the importance of the use of emotional intelligence for preparation
of professional soldiers. They are concerned with development, conceptions and models of
emotional intelligence as well as with specific features of military education. The authors pay
considerable attention to self-evaluation of students and pedagogical staff in the field of
emotional intelligence. They evaluate opinions of the Slovak Armed Forces members who
participate in career courses and propose other possibilities of emotional intelligence
development in the environment of the Armed Forces Academy by means of courses of study and
professional and lifelong training courses.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, commanders personality and his key competences, influence
of emotional intelligence in the Slovak Armed Forces, level of emotional intelligence within
military education at the Armed Forces Academy, innovation of professional and lifelong
education by means of emotional intelligence development for professional soldiers
1. INTRODUCTION
Enhancement of education has been
given the highest priority at all types of
schools, regardless of the their scope, because
quality of education significantly affects the
whole society. Teachers at the Armed Forces
Academy (hereinafter AFA) make every effort
to enhance their work and work better. Within
the study programmes they propose curricula
that would enhance the students competencies
necessary for the performance of their future
work and their success in their jobs. One of the
411
examples of this effort is also the possibility to

educate students at AFA in form of trainings
within selected areas of emotional intelligence
(hereinafter EI), which would positively
influence the students training for the military
profession and the morale. Today the
developed world is aware that the effets of
emotional intelligence on success of people
individuals, groups, teams, organisations or
companies is enormous.
Since the department of defence has
specific aims within our society, these
specifications should occur in the theoretical
MANAGEMENT
training of AFA students, which affects the

development of EI of the members of AF of
SR. Manager competencies and the human
factor have some gaps, what might reduce the
efficiency of working processes at AFA, too.
Thus, in this article we analyze different
opinions of teachers on EI of students and we
have conducted a survey of EI level based on
the self-evaluation of AFA students and
employees and we also analyze articles and
remarks of AF of SR members on the issue of
applying EI in practice within career courses.
In our efforts we also try to support education
within this field and create a kind of manual of
EI that would serve as teaching aid for
teachers and lecturers within AF of SR.
Gradually, we want to inform the public
universities and public administration about
some of our results.
2. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
In recent years there have been more and
more literature on emotional intelligence,
which not only science, but also the public is
interested in. Why is the general public
interested in it? Because people already know
that they need to find a way how to handle
their emotions, because in the 21st centry the
illiterate are not just the ones who cannot write
nor read, but also those who cannot learn,
unlearn and learn again. This might be the
reason why the public is interested in
emotional intelligence. Emotions make our
lives more colourful, they determine the level
of our mental and physical activities. Our
relationship to other people, to events and
tasks depend on them. They also affect the
evaluation of our own behavior and activities.
Today we know that negative emotions such
as anger, sadness, fear, outrageous resistance
are worse than positive emotions such as joy,
happiness, surprise, and love. The fact is that
emotional learning is a social skill, that starts
from experience and examples. Early
identification and understanding our own
emotions is the basic competence for adequate
handling of our feelings in certain situations.
This skill is also the basic assumption of all
other
building
blocks
of
emotional
intelligence. An emotional illiterate is
someone who has no access to his/her
feelings. In situations causing powerful

emitons this person remains passive, does not
feel anything because he / she caanot identify
and understand the feelings. Other peoples
feelings remain unknown, too. The absence of
feelings worsens private as well as
professional relationships. The reason is (if we
exclude any brain disordes) the incomplete
cognitive development during childhood,
however, this can occur also in adulthood due
to traumatic experience.
2.1 Development, concepts
and models of emotional intelligence
EI
Current research of intelligence is getting
rid of the inadequate differentiation between
thinking and feeling. Thanks to many
psychologists such as Robert Sternberg,
Howard Gardner and Peter Salovey there is a
widespread term concept of intelligence being
used instead. Modern research suggests that
knowing oneself and being sensitive to others
have a particular aim. H. Gardner calls them
intrapersonal interpersonal and intelligences.
At the beginning of the 90s P. Salovey and his
colleague J. Mayer made up a more felicitous
term emotional intelligence.
Their merits lie in specifying what
intelligence comprises. They identified 5
different sub-skills pozna vlastn city,
handling ones own feelings, using given
options, sympathizing with other people,
building social relations. However, it was
thanks to Harvard psychologist Daniel
goleman that emotional intelligence received
worldwide attention (Mrtinov, Boeckov,
1998, p. 8 11). In Scopus database from
2001 to 2008 there are 552 articles with the
term emotional intelligence in the title. Hartl
and Hartlov (2000, 2004) define emotional
intelligence (EI) as the ability to live joyfully
and the level of coping with everyday
problems. Emotional intelligence according to
Schulze (2007) represents a psychometric
frame of intuitively attractive idea that people
differ in their emotional knowledge and that
these differences are reflected in their real
lives, (Schulze and col., 2007, p.128). Pletzer
(2009) states that Daniel Goleman defines
emotional intelligence as the ability to
motivate oneself and not give up when facing
412
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
frustration, as the ability to handle desires and

postpone satisfaction, the ability to handle the
mood, prevent anxiety and tension, the ability
to affect ones own quality of thinking, the
ability to sympathize with other people and not
losing hope even in difficult situations.
Concepts of emotional intelligence
According to the research (Molanov,
Baumgartner, 2008) there are two different
strams within the theory of EI that can be
divided according to whether they are focused
on maximum or typical performance. The
typical approach focuses on the way people
usually behave in everyday situations while
the other maximum approach focuses on
what people are able to do (Bracket, Geher,
2006). Based on that, Petrides and Furnham
(in Prez et al., 2007) differentiate
between:: trait emotional intelligence and
emotional intelligence as a skill. These two
concepts are different. Trait emotional
intelligence focues on self-characterization
questionnaires, while emotional intelligence as
a skill focused on tests of maximum
performance. Nearly all existing concepts and
tools of emotional intelligence cover at least
four fields related to emotions, which are the
results of factor combination of two
dimensions self vs. the other one and
recognition
/consciousness
verzus
regulation/control, (Molanov, Baumgartner,
2008, p. 163).
Models of emotional intelligence
At present there are several conceptual
approaches to the models of emotional
intelligence in professional literature. These
models can be divided into two groups: skill
models focuse on performance methods of
measuring emotional skills and mixed models
when measuring EI they rely on selfcharacterizing models. Daniel Goleman has an
413
excellent ability to present the readers even

a very difficult scientific theory. He processed
a comprehensible
model
of
emotional
intelligence which caused that the term
emozional intelligence spread rapidly and
became very popular in the USA as well as in
Europe. Model by D. Goleman (1998)
differentiates within the structure of qualities
of EI two fields (Goleman, 1995, p. 16):
A. Abilities r elated to oneself i.e. 12
qualities for being successful at work:
1. Self-awareness field (handle ones own
mental processes, possibilities,
preferences, intuitioni)
2. Self-regulation field (repressing
impulsive behavior and coping with
anxiety and insecurity)
3. Motivation for bigger pictures field
(emotional tendencies leading to or
facilitating the ascent)
B. Competences w ithin human rela tions, i.
e. 13 skills for getting a job
1. Empathy field (empathizing realizing
the feelings and interests of other
people)
2. Affecting others and team work field
(flexibility in interaction with people,
ability to reach the desired reactions
from people)
3. Influencing people
4. Team work
3. pecific particularities of EI in
practice within the AF of SR
Today we know that managers working
eithin the AF of SR, i.e. commanders,
significantly differ in knowledge, skills and
experience and also in many other factors that
build up their personality. Thus, it is necessary
to pay attention to forming the character and
especially their emotional maturity.
MANAGEMENT
For the AF of SR it is typical that

organization structure of individual units
(organizations) puts people in specific
relations, the goal of which is performing
certain tasks. In spite of that the most
employees within the AF of SR as well as in
organization of any type and mission think that
their work requires just their heads and not
hearts. Many employees worry that
empathizing with their colleagues could easily
get them into a conflict with their organization
goals or mission. Emotional intelligence
influences the ability to vent negative events in
form of constructive criticism, the ability to
create a creative working atmosphere, the
ability to communicate effectively. According
to scientific research high level of emotional
intelligence supports the phenomenon of
leadership, a fact that should be considered
within the AF of SR. It is obvious that the
individual working performance of people, be
it mental or manual work, is mostly influenced
by emotional intelligence. Indeed, people who
do not dispose of such levels of emotional
intelligence cannot be condemned. People can
perform a lot of work also without using
emotional intelligence, however, their chances
are limited. An advantage of emotional
intelligence is that we can work with it
throughout our whole life, we can enhance it.
Flexibility of emotional intelligence is
definitely one of the advantages when
compared to cognitive intelligence, the
development options of which are sometimes
limited. Various organizations such as LOral
and U.S. Air Force have saved millions of
dollars by introducing programmes focused on
enhancing emotional intelligence, (Bradberry,
Greavesov, 2007, p. 63).
The AF of SR have limited financial
resources,
thus
enhancing
emotional
intelligence might be a way of ensuring
effectivity.
Last but not least, it is necessary to
mention the effect of emotions on human
health. People should know their feelings
because this is the only way people can
prevent further problems that might come.
Suppressed emotions lead fast to stress,
tension or anxiety.
Professional soldiers exposed to
psychical and physical stress for long will not
be prepared well enough regarding his

emotional level. He will be prone to illnesses
and his convalescence will last longer.
Enhancing the emotional consiousness is an
investment in oneself. We must consider also
the fact, that the professional soldier lives his
private and his professional lives. He lives
with his wife and brings up children, who
might not be attracted to the military
profession of their father and the family might
find it difficult to cope with his typical military
stringency. Thus, he cannot perform the
military regime (follow the order) at home,
because his family would fall apart. To be
successful in his military life he needs a solid
family background happy family life, to
which he can get through enhancing his EI.
Military education is full regarding the content
for the development all kinds of intelligence,
thus we can ask: Why shall we enhance the
emotional intelligence? We have to think in
a broader context of the profession. There are
several high-risk professions, where people
might be threatened and even their lives might
be in danger. However, from all of these types
of profession, only soldiers (eventually also
poliemen) find themselves in situation in
which they have to take the lives of even
healthy people, which is very difficult (e.g.
during war or other conflicts). This is why
they have to handle their emotions (regret,
fear, despair, resistance etc.). The history and
the rpesent offers many examples of situations
when soldiers could not handle their emotions,
consequently they were prosecuted or
convicted. Thus, the developed armies in the
world pay attention to the training of morale
(or moral intelligence). The development of
emotional intelligence should serve as its
support. In this context within the military
education it is necessary to train each EI skill
dually in fictional situations, in war and
peace, within theoretic lessons, at work, at
home, in privacy, in public etc. Controlling
ones own emotions (both positive and
negative) is not easy, people need to train it
their whole life. The good news is that we can
learn how to do it.
Within AFA we have been dealing with the
enhancement of EI due to the decline of EQ of
students regarding their behavior. There have
been more remarks regarding many
414
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
shortcomings and negative aspects in fulfilling

their tasks, low activity in classrooms and
unwillingness to work for their own sake.
Furthermore, there have been some cases of
inappropriate behavior or even aggressive
behavior. And finally, we have noticed an
increase in negative experiences of teachers
regarding EI.
Self-assessment of students regarding EI
Thus, the goal of students selfassessment was to determine the level of their
emotional intelligence, which affects their total
intelligence level. The results of their selfassessment can suggest several shortcomings
in the quality of their training for the military
profession. The participating students were
2nd year students of study gropus 22 and 23
military organization management (MOM) due
to their branch of study, in which they need
manager competences. Their task was to
perform self-assessment of 25 skills from
emotional intelligence field and mark it on an
answer sheet. They were supposed to assign 1
- 6 points to each skill, 6 points meaning the
best evaluation. There were 28 answer sheets
used for this survey, 22 respondents
participated (78,57 %).
Results of the students self-assessment
The results of the self-assessment can
serve for the needs of educating students. The
results according to individual fields can be
seen in Chart 1. We can see the total result of
assigning points to the EI skills from 5 fields.
Chart. 1: Hypothesis of students EQ
according to the self-assessment (source: our
own research)
415
Types of areas
Self-awareness
Self-regulation
Motivation
Empathy
Relations and
team work
Hypothesis of
students EQ
points
assigned of
the max.
number of
6 points
3,91
4,25
4,07
3,58
% of the
max
number of
points
65,2
70,8
67,8
59,7
4,19
69,9
4,03
67,1
According to the sel-assessment the level

of EI is mathematically expressed by
arithmetic average as EQ 67,1 % . This
suggests that students themselves feel an
approximate 33 % deficit of EI, which might
be a signal for the teachers to adapt the
education process. The best skill was the area
of self-regulation (70,8 %) and relations and
team work area (69,9 %), which is quite
impressive given their age and immaturity. An
interesting finding is the fact that students are
relatively self-critical, which results from their
answers for the area of empathy, which they
assigned the least points (59,7 %) of all areas.
It is related to the typical traits of young
people, for example being shallow, not
empathizing with others, perception barriers
and various prejudices. Empathy area should
be given proper attention within the education
process. Since every area consists of several
skills, let us have a look at them. Chart 2 show
which concrete skills are considered by
students the best or the weakest.
According to this self-assessment we could
hardly process the students characteristic as a
whole. They think of themselves they are
flexible and at the same time that they are not
willing to adapt to changes or innovations. If
MANAGEMENT
they had a sense of the policy of organizations,

they would know that each company or
entrepreneur care about their customers
(purchasers of their products or services).
These are the disadvantages of generalizing.
Thus it would be very useful to have this kind
of information from every individual for the
need of his / her individual development
within EI.
Chart 3: Number of self-assessments of

employees (source: our own research)
Departments
Department of
Management
Department of Electronics
Department of
Mechanical Engineering
Department of
Informatics
Department of Social
Sciences and Languages
Security and Defence
Department
Department of Science
and Foreign Relations
Education Department
Spolu:
Chart 2: Level of EI skills according to the

self-assessment of students (source: our own
research)
Skills
evaluated
as best
Selfconfidence
4,32
Skills
evaluated as
worst
Selfassessment
3,68
Self-regulation
Adaptability
4,73
Innovation
3,82
Motivation
Optimism
4,23
Loyalty
3,77
Empathy
Sence for
policy of
organization
3,85
Focus on
customer
3,48
Relations and
team work
Schopnos
spoluprce
a vzjomnej
podpory
4,77
Willingness
to change
3,41
Areas the
skills belong to
Self-awareness
In general we can see that there is no big

difference in the averages. Students admitted
some shortcomings even in the best evaluated
skills. The obtained information shows the
necessity to develop EI especially in the area
of self-awareness, motivation and empathy.
Curricula at AFA should, however, include
emotional intelligence as a whole.
Respondents
6
9
5
7
4
10
7
5
53
Self-assessment of their own 25 skills

within EI was evaluated by respondents on an
answer sheet. Each skill could be assigned 1
6 points, 6 points being the best evaluation.
Employees self-as sessment res ults.
For the purpose of interpretation we focused
on the results according to individual
departments, as well as results of employees as
a whole. We counted the results as the
arithmetic average of values that had been
assigned to the individual skills by the
exmployees. Employees EQ represents the
mathematically expressed level of EI.
Question 1: In which EI area did
employees evaluate their skills the most?
Chart 4 suggests that although the results in
individual areas are quite similar, the best
skills are in the area of self-regulation.
Chart 4: Hypothesis of employees EQ
according to self-assessment (source: our own
research)
Types of areas
Self-awareness
Selfregulation
Oblas motivcie
Empathy
Relationsandteam
work
Hypothesis of
employees EQ
Self-assessment of employees regarding EI

Self-assessment within the area of EI has
been voluntarily performed by employees of
individual departments of AFA, see Chart 3.
416
of
assigned
points
4,36
4,71
4,48
4,24
% of
points
72,7
78,4
74,7
70,7
4,44
74,1
4,45
74,2
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Employees from 6 departments placed

self-regulation in the first place , but most
points have been assigned by the Department
of Science and Foreign Relations, in both
cases 5 points (83,3 %). Respondents from
the Security and defence department assigned
most points to self-awareness 4,93 points
(82,2 %) and at the Department of
Management the area of motivation dominates
with 4,29 points (71,5 %).
Question 2: Which two areas do the
individual departments handle the best? Two
best handled areas of EI are those with the
most points. According to the previous chart
self-regulation and motivation are the best
evaluated
areas.
Differences
between
individual departments are in the number of
points they assigned. It is obvious, that selfregulation is considered the best handled area
of EI, which is essential for teachers educating
students. We have expected higher number of
points assigned to evaluation of motivation.
Question 3: Which specific EI skills do
employees consider their best ones?
Chart 5: Best EI skills of employees
(source:our own research)
Categories
of
employees
Department
of
Management
Department
of
Electronics
Department
of
Mechanical
Engineering
Know
yourself
Interpersonal
relationships
Reliability
4,83
Conscienti
ousness
4,83
Cooperation
and support 4,83
Loyalty
5,33
Enhancing ties and

relations 5,0
Innovation
5,2
Influencing others
5,6
Department
of
Informatics
Department
of Social
Sciences and
Languages
Security and
Defence
Department
Department
of Science
and Foreign
Relations
Education
Department
Total
Stimulate others 4,57

Cooperation
and support 4,57
Reliability
4,57
Focus on customer
4,5
Conscienti
ousness
5,5
Cooperation
and support 5,5
Loyalty
5,71
Understand others
5,29 Cooperation
and support 5,29
Conscienti
ousness
5,6
Reliability
5,0
Conscienti
ousness
5,15
Cooperation
and support 5,6
Cooperation
and support 4,94
Question 4: Which EI skills have the

least points?
Chart 6: EI skills with least points assigned
u zamestnancov (source: our own research)
Categories of
employees
Department of
Management
Department of
Electronics
Department of
Mechanical
Engineering
Department of
Informatics
Department of
Social
Sciences and
Languages
Security and
Defence
417
Conscienti
ousness
4,71
Know
yourself
Selfconfidence
3,17
Selfcontrol
3,33
Initiative
4,33
Ambitions
4,33
Selfcontrol,
adaptability,
loyalty 4,0
Sebaovldanie
3,86
Sebadvera a
optimizmus
3,25
Selfcontrol
3,90
Interpersonal
relationships
Leadership skills
3,33
Focus on
customer 3,56
Enhancing
diversity 3,60
Focus on
customer 3,71
Enhancing
diversity and
willingnes to
change 2,75
Understanding
others 4,40
MANAGEMENT
Department
Department of
Science and
Foreign
Relations
Education
Department
Total:
Selfknowledge
3,71
Selfknowledge
4,0
Self-control
4,09
Selfknowledge
4,25
Rozvoj diverzity
4,30
Influencing
others 3,71
Leadership skills
3,71
Enhancing
diversity 3,80
Enhancing
diversity 3,94
Sense for policy
of org. 4,06
Question 5: What is the order of

departments according to the number of
assigned points? Security and Defence
Department 4,81 (80,1 %) Education
Department 4,65 (77,5 %). Department of
Science and Foreign Relations 4,58 (76,4
%) Department of Electronics 4,53 (75,5 %)
Department of Mechanical Engineering 4,46
(74,4 %) Department of Informatics 4,19
(69,9 %) Department of Management 4,14
(69 %) Department of Social Studies and
Languages 3,82 (63,7 %).
Question 6: What results can we draw
from the EI self-assessment of employees? In
the above stated analysis each employee can
find a general overview of the self-assessment
of EI of all employees, as well as his / her
closest colleagues. For the success at work
each person has to cope with the area of
self-awareness, which means: have the
ability of self-knowledge, understanding
ones own abilities and limits, have the ability
to self-assess what we are good at and what
we need to improve, have enough selfconfidence.
The area of self-awareness (together
with the area of motivation) has gained the
least points in this research. Each training
within EI should start with training the area of
self-awareness. The most important is also the
most difficult. Handling self-awareness
requires the person to be honest with himself /
herself and judgmental enough. This is the
only way EI training should be focused on
acquiring those skills that are most needed for
groups or individuals when trying to be
successful. We cannot determine the real EQ
value without relevant skills testing in
a research project, only based on selfassessment. Because most people tend to

consider themselves much better at everything
that they really are. They tend to think I can
do it. In spite of that, self-assessment has
brought along s useful experience. The depth,
amount of knowledge from EI areas could
surprise many students and employees that
have not been dealing with EI so far.
Question 7: What is the difference
between employees and students selfassessment? Chart 10 determines the
parameter representing the hypothetical EQ.
We can see that employees evaluate their skills
with 74,2 %, which is only by 7 % better than
students do. Is this difference due to
experience, family and surrounding influence?
Shouldnt this difference be bigger for
a successful education process? What do
individual areas differences mean? These are
questions for a psychologist, but all of us have
our own answers and opinions about them.
Chart 7: Comparison of EI level of employees
and students (source: our own research)
Number of
the points
(max. 6 points
for each skill)
Self-awareness
Employees
Students
4,36
72,7
3,91
65,2
Self-regulation
Motivation
4,71
4,48
78,4
74,7
4,25
4,07
70,8
67,8
Empathy
Relations and
team work
Hypothesis of
EQ
4,24
4,44
70,7
74,1
3,58
4,19
59,7
69,9
4,48
74,2
4,03
67,1
Regardless of the level of EQ,

a significant
difference
between
the
employees and students skills is only in the
area of empathy. In other areas the students
seem to parrot their teachers and employees
with a very similar result. The level of
employees and teachers EQ affects the EQ
level of students, too. They mirror us.
2.3. Career courses participants
contributions to EI
Career courses participants had the
opportunity to research their 25 EI skills, too.
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
They were asked to select 2 skills and in their

free time write a short, anonymous paragraph
on how they use them in practice, what
experience they have from work or personal
life and what their attitude to them is. We
wanted to understand their attitude, so that our
students can expect from their future superiors.
Chart 8: Courses respondents overview
(source: our own research)
Type of
course
ACSC =
Advanced
Command
and Staff
Course
JCSC =
Junior
Command
and Staff
Course
WOC =
Warrant
Officers
Course
Total:
Number of
respondents
Return of the
set task
60
5,00 %
29
22
75,86 %
29
18
62,06 %
118
43
36,44 %
At first sight, someone might remark, that the

fish stinks from the head down. If there is a
mistake somewhere, just rarely is only one
side responsible for it, especially if we do not
have the opinion of the other side. We have
chosen the easiest criterion to evaluate the
paragpraphs: A they understanding of the
skill and attitudes is felicitous B they capture
the given skill, they dispose of correct and
incorrect attitudes, C they inaccurately
capture the ability, their attitude is either lack
stimuli or there are no attitudes at all. If this
was a common evaluation (grades 1, 2, 3),
then the ACSC participants would score
1,14, JCSC 1,5 and WOC 2,4. All 43
paragraphs would score 1,9. We need to
note, that in this case this was a subjective
419
evaluation, because truth is in the eye of the

beholder. Courses participants as a w hole
commented on 22 skills (out of 25). Nobody
commented on skills such as reliability,
innovation, willingness to accept changes. For
the sake of a total evaluation it was necessary
to notice positive and negative remarks in each
paragraph.
Possibilities of enhancing EQ within AFA
If AFA is interested in enhancing
effectiveness in all areas of remit by means of
enhancint EI and human resources, there are
several options that might lead to the desired
aim requirements to meet EI criteria when
joining the army or a certain phase, throught
the military career and at the end of certain
phases.
- At the beginning of certain phases we can
require specific EI criteria when hiring new
employeed, as well as students at the
admission exams regardless of the study
degree.
- We can continuously process requirements
for EI skills, propose the system of
rewarding AFA employees and students.
Consequently we can regularly test (e.g.
psychodiagnostic testing) these criteria.
- At the end of certain phases we can monitor
the criteria as well. For example, by means
of evaluating the Students Scientific
papers, Diploma papers, state exams,
habilitations, inaugurations etc.
Require meeting the criteria within EI is
a difficult task. It is not difficult just due to the
time needed, but also due to the means used
for setting the criteria and especially due to the
ways of monitoring the desired skills
preparation of EQ tests, motivation interviews,
model situations for admission interviews,
preparation of courses and EI trainings etc. For
suchlike EI enhancement project it is
MANAGEMENT
necessary to progress gradually, step by step.

The first step should be to organize short-term
EI courses and trainings. After participating in
them the next step would be suitable
including EI issue in the study programmes.
Organizing EI courses
Suitable courses for enhancing EI would
be organized namely for students and
separately for AFA employees. If the legal
conditions allow it, AFA could organize EI
courses within the department of defence (or
outside of it for payment). For organizing
suchlike courses we could use the
recommendations by Goleman: Hlavn
smernice pre kolenia v EI(Basic guidelines
for EI trainings). They might inspire AFA for
our own internal guidelines or for amendments
to our guidelines.
Including EI in study programmes
Regarding higher education institution,
the most common way to include a new topic
in the curriculum so that students can obtain
new competences is a change or innovation of
basic pedagogical documents. It is not just
restructuralization of the graduates profile,
but just an update of the study programe, that
must be accepted by the guarantor. Before the
update of study programmes it would be
convenient to confirm the success of the
proposal, for example at the Lifelong
Education Centre at AFA, which provides
lifelong and career education for the AF of SR
members. They should include the given topic
in their individual subjects. The choice should
be made by individual departments or courses
guarantors. The offer of courses should
contain more topics to choose from. If there is
a positive response from participants, then we
can update the study programmes and include
EI in several areas, because all departments
teach subjects with suitable subjects, where EI
could be easily included and the students
would benefit. If we consider EI an individual
subject, most suitable subjects would be for
example: Management, Leadership, Manager
communication,
Human
resources
management, Organization behaviour, Ethics
and military behaviour, Mass media
communication and militay diplomacy and
crisis communication, Public relations,
Strategic management, Project management,

Changes and innovation management, Crisis
management (national and international).
Besides updating the study programmes
for our own students, the Department of
Management can update the issue of EI also
within short-term specialized courses with the
title Key manager competences, that they
provide. The content of the courses comprises
modules
focused
on
management,
communication skills, human resources
management, team work, ethics and manager
diplomacy. Almost all modules are suitable for
EI updates.
CONCLUSIONS
Similarly to the Department of
Management, also other departments have the
opportunity to innovate
their
study
programmes by including the EI issue in their
programmes and subjects, especially the
Department of Social Studies and Languages
and Security and Defence Department. When
discussing and deciding about the suitability of
EI for study programmes a closer look at this
issue might help. We can use the Golemans
manual of models that divide EI in 25 skills.
We have used this model for our research.
This model is not the only one dealing with
this topic. Other departments can choose from
models by other authors. Within the AF of SR
it is possible to use a processed text for the
support of enhancement of EI. Our aim was to
confirm the possibilities to educate at AFA
within EI. If teachers agree with including EI
in the module or study programmes, they
would probably face problems related to the
lack of texts and books for this purpose.
Compiling texts is very time-consuming and
difficult, that is why the EI Manual for AFA
teachers might be helpful. The manual can also
serve as study text for students instead of the
missing books. It can also be a useful
handbook for employees and managers at AFA
when dealing with everyday problems. It is
suitable also for teachers of other types of
universities and schools, because it can be
used in any education process.
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
REFERENCES
[1] PETRUFOV, M. HARTMANNOV,

E. Emocionlna inteligencia a vojensk
vzdelvanie. Liptovsk Mikul: AOS.
160 p. ISBN 978-80-8040-454-3
[2] MRTINOV, D. BOECK, K.
(1998). Emocionlna inteligencia: city na
vzostupe.
Bratislava:
Slovensk
spisovate. 18-19 p. ISBN 80-220-0842-7
[3] GOLEMAN,
D.
(1995).
Emon
inteligence. Pro me bt emon
inteligence dleitej ne IQ. Praha:
Columbus. 16 p. ISBN 80-85928-48-5.
[4] KANITZ, A. (2008). Jak rozvjet svou
emon inteligenci. 1. vyd. Praha: Grada
Publishing. 32 p. ISBN 978-80-2472582-6
421
[5] MOLANOV, Z. BAUMGARTNER,

F. (2008). Emon inteligencia - teria,
metodolgia, monosti vskumu. In
Ruisel, I. (Ed.) 2008. Myslenie osobnos
mdros. Bratislava: EP SAV. 163164 p. ISBN 978-80-8897-10-25-1.
Available:
http://www.psychologia.
sav.sk/upload/ruisel.
[6] HARTL, P. HARTLOV, H. (2004).
Psychologick slovnk. Praha: Portl s. r.
o. 234 p. ISBN 80-7178-303-X
[7] SCHULZE, R. a kol. (2007). Emon
inteligence. Praha: Portl. 128 p. ISBN
978-80-7367-229-4
[8] BRADBERRY, T. GREAVESOV, J.
(2007). Emon inteligence v praxi.
Praha: Columbus. 62 p. ISBN 978-807249-220-6.
MANAGEMENT
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
THE INTERALLIED CONFEDERATION OF RESERVE OFFICERSCIOR, AND PERSPECTIVE OF RELATION WITH EX-SOVIET UNION
(E-SU) STATES IN THE CONTEXT OF CRIMEA CRISIS.
ROLES OF THE PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS AND MILITIA
OF ETHNIC MINORITIES IN THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY
TURBULENCE THEATRE
LCDR. (AF-Res.) Ioan PITICAR
Air Force Academy Henri Coanda, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers commonly referred to by its French
acronym CIOR, represents the interests of over 1.3 million reservists across 36 participating nations
within and beyond NATO, making it the worlds largest military reserve officer organization. Founded
in 1948 by the reserve officer associations of Belgium, France and the Netherlands, CIOR is now a
NATO-affiliated, non-political and non-profit umbrella organization of member nations national
reserve officer associations.
This presentation will deal possible future relations between NATO/CIOR on the one hand, and
Ukraine, Moldova, or the South Caucasus States on the other hand, in conditions when Russia tending
to recreate the Soviet old territory, in the context of events and of the recent evolution from Crimea.
The reservists role from paramilitary or militia organizations based on Ethnic Minorities, was used
very efficient in Crimea by Russian forces, in order to reach their objectives in operations in an
efficient and quickly manner.
This abstract intend to present the implication of paramilitary or militia organizations, based on
Ethnic Minorities, in conflicts between states, like an asymmetrical option that could lead to civil war
and to the terrorist acts, out of any control of the states.
Keywords: CIOR, Crimea, paramilitary, militia, civil war, reservists.
1. Roles of CIOR
2. Before of february's Crimea events
The CIOR has two main roles: to provide

advice on Reserve issues and support to the
NATO Alliance, and to foster the professional
development of reserve officers.
423
According to a pact from 2010 between

Ukraine and Russia, Russia had a lease for
their naval facilities in Crimea until 2042, and
maintained the right to use some small areas of
Crimea, up to 25.000 troops, 24 artillery
MANAGEMENT
systems, 132 armored vehicles, and 22 military

planes on the Crimean peninsula.
3. The pact The Kharkiv Agreement
Russias use of their warm water port in
Sevastapol was due to end in 2017 with
Ukraine saying their would be no extension (as
per their constitution prohibiting foreign
military use of their lands) and Russia would
have to leave.
But now, after Crimea episode, Russia have
Ukraine as an enemy over "a barrel" of gas
theft.
In 2010 Russia and Ukraine "negotiated" an
treaty called "The Russian Ukrainian Naval
Base for Gas treaty" which is also known by
the name of "The Kharkiv Pact".
The bottom line of the deal is this, Russia
gives Ukraine a "special price" on gas - a
supposed 30% discount - (which in turn will
help them purchase gas to return into the
system for the gas they supposedly took, or if
they chose they can use the discount to pay
Russia back faster for the gas they didnt pay
for and in return Ukraine leases the Naval base
in Sevasatapol until at least 2042 (Russia
wrote a clause into the treaty giving them the
option of extending to 2047).
Russia gets its money (or gas) back AND gets
to keep its port in Sevastapol under the
auspices of "saving" Ukraine.
The treaty had a rough ride through the
Ukrainian parliament with fights and
demonstrations breaking out, it was finally
ratified under dubious circumstances (several
assenting votes were registered by people
known not to even be in the building when the
votes took place). In Russia the treaty
was passed through their parliament in one
vote with 96% assenting.
Apparently we could say: this is fair.
Russia get's paid for gas, Ukraine gets cheap
gas and Russia doesn't have to build a new
base for their ships. All Win, right?
But here's the Russian triky!
On February 24, 2014, additional soldiers
arrived, on the Crimean Peninsula, but the
total number remained well below 25,000.
Western Governments accused the Russian
military of seizing control of the Crimea
region, and threatened sanctions against
Russian individuals claiming "Russia's clear

violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and
territorial integrity". These threats were
subsequently carried out and Russia retaliated.
The Crimean Peninsula is seen by Russia as
its strategic link to the Mediterranean Sea,
Black Sea, and the Balkans with Azov Sea
area, as well as a land of historic cultural and
religious
significance.
The
Russian
government maintains that its preparedness to
enter the Ukraine militarily in Crimea is to
protect ethnic Russians in the region.
Russia does not recognize the newly
installed interim government in Ukraine,
instead
considering
now-oustedPresidentViktor
Yanukovych
Ukraine's
legitimate leader.
Yanukovych formally asked Russia to
intervene in Ukraine militarily to maintain
peace and order. Russia claims that its armed
forces were not involved in the stand-off prior
to the referendum and reunification of Crimea
to Russia, and also asserts that use of force for
the purposes of humanitarian intervention in
Ukraine has not yet occurred.
Vladimir Tyunin, used to be the director of
a humanitarian institute in the Ukrainian city
of Sevastopol. He now commands 100 trained
men at the heart of the standoff between
Russia and the West.
I have a group of people that can do any kind
of task Tyunin, 57, said at the end of
February, in the port on the Crimean
peninsula.
These are special forces. They can assault
buildings, they can block buildings. We are
ready to protect ourselves.
As diplomats around the world seek to
defuse the crisis, Crimea is preparing for a
March 16 referendum on splitting from
Ukraine and joining Russia. Pro-Moscow
supporters like Tyunins unit, which he says
participated in the siege of the Ukraine Navys
headquarters, are on the front line of a conflict
that so far has been fought more with words
than weapons.
The militias gave President Vladimir Putin
the upper hand in the autonomous republic of
about 2 million people, home to his Black Sea
Fleet. Their numbers rose to about 15,000 on
March 7, when a local hunting club joined
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ROMANIA

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AFASES 2014
with 4,500 members, guns and ammunition,

according to Alexander Bochkarev, a retired
colonel from the Ukrainian Interior Ministry
and now the commander of the militia in the
Crimean capital, Simferopol.
4. Rival Groups
For now, militia officials say the main task
of the paramilitaries is to keep order in Crimea
after the protests in Kiev left more than 100
people dead last month. There has been no
bloodshed since the standoff began on the
peninsula, where ethnic Russians make up 59
percent of the population, while Ukrainians
account for 24 percent and ethnic Tatars for 12
percent, according to the 2001 census.
The danger is that the people of Crimea
who are pro-Kiev may now form their own
militia, said Ben Barry, senior fellow for land
warfare at the London-based Iternational
Institute for Strategic Studies.
This may also be the case with Tatars.
Militia organizers including Bochkarev say the
groups mirror those formed in Lviv in western
Ukraine and Kiev, where they kept the peace
in the immediate aftermath of the revolt that
toppled Kremlin-backed President Viktor
Yanukovych.
The militias were organized at the call of
Crimean Prime Minister Sergei Aksenov,
installed after the regional parliament had been
seized by armed Russia supporters. The groups
supplement the official Russian troops in the
region, estimated by the Ukraine government
at more than 19,000.
5. Troop Buildup
Russian troops continue to be deployed and
to increase their presence along Ukraines
eastern border, First Deputy Premier Vitaliy
425
Yarema said in Kiev today. Meanwhile, the

militias in Crimea keep Ukrainian forces
confined to their bases, patrol streets and
control the road network with checkpoints.
The units are armed with bludgeons, iron
crowbars and hunting rifles, with more
substantial weapons also at their disposal,
Bochkarev said by telephone.
We have several arsenals in reserve that are
guarded by our Crimean guys, said
Bochkarev, who has 2,800 people under his
command. Many of them may join the regular
Crimea army that is being formed now, he
said.
Crimean authorities started recruiting last
week and 186 soldiers have already taken an
oath, the Interfax news service reported, citing
premier Aksenov. There will be a 1,500-strong
army with guns guarding polling stations at the
March 16 referendum, he said.
Bochkarev, whose regiment has fast-response
troops, a logistics unit and a security service to
do background checks on would-be members,
said he recommends the best people to the
recruiters. New soldiers get a contract and a
Kalashnikov assault rifle.
6. No Aggression
Ukrainian Army Colonel Yuli Mamchur,
acting commander of a besieged airbase near
Sevastopol, said he is in touch with militia and
didnt see any aggression from them.
We are calling each other when we see
something strange near the base, Mamchur
said by phone. Drunken crowds, for example,
or some non-sanctioned rallies. There was
absolutely no threat to anyone here till
Russians came here to protect us.
Putin said its not his troops who are
surrounding Ukrainian army installations.
MANAGEMENT
Yet
Bochkarev,
the
Simferopol
commander, said Russian involvement is key.
The fact that our Russian brothers are here
gives us 100 percent confidence, Bochkarev
said.
Between Sevastopol and Simferopol, cars
stop at a militia checkpoint. Men in
camouflage gear open trunks and scrutinize
documents.
People are taking part to protect Crimea
from Ukrainian radicals, said Grigory, a traffic
controller who declined to give his last name.
I wont leave this position until I know we
are all safe, he said.
Russia succeded to take over Crimea, but
several factors make it harder to believe that
Russia will be able to establish control and to
effectively annex Crimea as it did with South
Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria. For one,
the Ukrainian side so far has not made any
moves that Russia can credibly present as a
provocation that necessitates armed response
by the Russian side to protect its military or
its citizens, as was the case in Georgia in 2008.
The new Ukrainian governemnt leaders
have called for calm, the far right Right Sector
said it will not be sending its men to Crimea,
and in a conciliatory gesture to Russianspeakers, acting president Turchynov recently
vetoed the law the Ukrainian parliament
adopted several weeks earlier repealing the
2012 law elevating the status of the Russian
language.
With the Security Council in session to
discuss events in Crimea and Western leaders
urging restraint and warning Russia that
violations of Ukrainian sovereignty and
territorial integrity are unacceptable, there is
hope that a diplomatic solution to the crisis
could be found quickly.
But even if diplomacy fails and the Russian
military annexed Crimean territory with the
intention of controlling it permanently, it will
be much harder for Russia to establish control
of Crimea than it was in South Ossetia,
Abkhazia and Transnistria.
The main reason for this is the Crimean
Tatars.
7. Tatar Response
The militias structure is already similar to
a regular army, according to Leonid Lebedev,
a spokesman. Funding comes from donations,
he said. Younger members are often barred
because of their pro-Ukrainian position,
Andrei Kratko, an activist from Yalta, a city in
the south of Crimea where around 100
vigilantes patrol streets, said by phone.
The build-up of Crimea militias was
boosted after February 26 clashes between
pro-Russia activists and Crimea Tatars near
the regional parliament in Simferopol,
Lebedev said.
The Tatars see the role played by the
militias differently and have called for a
United Nations peacekeeping mission.
They come, try to provoke a conflict and then
armed gentlemen appear, Refat Chubarov,
who leads the Tatar minoritys executive, told
reporters last week.
The Tatars a Muslim group that was
deported en masse from Crimea by Stalin in
1944 and that for decades has waged a
peaceful struggle for the right to return
have been coming back in droves since 1989.
According to the latest Ukrainian census from
2001, 243.433 Crimean Tatars account for
12.1 percent of the Crimean population of
2.033.700.
They represent a highly mobilized and
unified constituency that has consistently been
pro-Ukrainian and opposed to pro-Russian
separatism on the peninsula. Going back to the
1991 independence referendum, the narrow
vote in favor of Ukrainian state independence
in Crimea may have been thanks to the vote of
the Crimean Tatars.
Since then, the Crimean Tatars and their
representative organ, the Mejlis, have
cooperated with the pro-Ukrainian political
parties. Leaders of the Mejlis such as Mustafa
Dzhemilev and Refat Chubarov have been
members of the Ukrainian parliament elected
on the party list of Ukrainian nationalist
parties such as Rukh in the 1990s and later
from Our Ukraine party.
On February 26, the day before the
Crimean parliament was taken over by the
armed men, Crimean Tatars held a large rally
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
near the parliament that was larger than a

simultaneous pro-Russian rally. There has
been no comparable local mobilized group
opposed to Russian takeover in any other of
the breakaway regions.
Although the group has been a staunch ally
of the Ukrainian government against proRussian separatism on the peninsula, the
Ukrainian central authorities, while benefiting
from this support, have also been suspicious of
the Crimean Tatars, who consider Crimea their
historical homeland and have advocated
measures such as changing the status of
Crimean autonomy to make it the nationalterritorial autonomy of the Crimean Tatars as
opposed to simply territorial (and de facto
ethnic Russian autonomy given that ethnic
Russians constitute more than 50 percent of
the population in Crimea).
The law on the status of the Crimean Tatars
as indigenous peoples of Ukraine that the
Tatar leaders have been pushing for many
years remains unadopted.
Whatever the Tatar grievances against the
Ukrainian state may be, when faced with the
choice of being under either Russian or
Ukrainian control, the Crimean Tatar
leadership has consistently and unequivocally
chosen Ukraine.
Since the Soviet period, attempts to split the
Crimean Tatar movement and persuade some
of the Tatars to support a pro-Soviet, and later
pro-Russian, agenda has not borne fruit. In an
interview with this author in the 1990s,
Mustafa Dzhemilev said that in 1991 Boris
Yeltsins government made an offer to the
Crimean Tatars to back Russian control of
Crimea in return for giving the peninsula the
status of Crimean Tatar national autonomy.
Dzhemilev refused the offer then, and, recently
he said that he has received a similar offer
from a highly placed Russian official now,
427
noting that the Crimean Tatars will not

entertain such offers now, either, and that they
do not trust Russia and want Crimea to remain
within Ukraine.
The Chairman of the Mejlis already issued
a statement refusing to recognize the new local
government in Crimea that was voted for by
the local parliament after the invasion, with
armed men in the building and reportedly
without a quorum.
Recently,
news
media
reported
Dzhemilevs statement that the Crimean Tatars
are organizing self-defense units and that if
diplomacy fails, the units would come under
Ukrainian command and would fight the
aggressor if necessary.
8. NATO Contents of cooperation
In general cooperation has remained
relatively limited. The pattern and the context
of cooperation have evolved over the years.
Initially it was more about establishing
political ties with countries that were
completely new on the world map and in the
process of building up defense and security
sectors of their own from scratch. It appeared
all the more necessary to establish political
and security dialogue with these states that the
situation in the whole area was very
unpredictable and many security challenges
needed to be tackled there.
By that time, there was also strong hope to
use the Partnership for Peace as an instrument
for encouraging the expansion of liberal,
democratic values. Later on, a phase of
consolidation came the partnership policy
has grown more specific, focused on meeting
the needs of a more global NATO,
increasingly oriented towards fighting threats
outside the Euro-Atlantic area are but
undermining its security.
MANAGEMENT
For their part, the partner states have

consolidated their foreign and security policies
and know better what they want and do not
want to do in their cooperation with NATO.
Another problem is that NATO has a
credibility problem. It has made clear it does
not want a role in solving the frozen conflicts
in the region, which is undermining its
authority in the eyes of the countries, for
which these conflicts are at the core of their
security interests. The absence of a strong
reaction on NATOs part during the Georgia
war has only strengthened this vision. Partners
see that NATO is in Afghanistan, far from its
traditional zone of responsibility, and has not
been able or willing to play a part in postSoviet unresolved conflicts. For them, it is
clear that it means that NATO does not want
to take responsibility for the security of the
region.
9. Constraints and limitations
We have to admitted once, that cooperation
between NATO and former Soviet Union
countries has remained quite limited. A first
limitation is tied to the fact that NATO/ex-SU
countries relations have been overshadowed
by the Russia factor. Russia itself has quite a
comprehensive cooperation agenda with
NATO. It is often forgotten that Russia was
involved in NATOs peacekeeping operations
in Bosnia and in Kosovo; it has also
participated to the transit of NATO freight
through Russian territory for the ISAF mission
and to the training of Afghan security forces;
counter-terrorism cooperation, anti-piracy, air
trafficking security, Afghanistan, search and
rescue at sea are all parts of the Russia-NATO
cooperation agenda under the auspices of the
NATO-Russian Council Cooperation with
Russia is seen as useful by a number of NATO
members. But this relationship is highly
politicized and one of the major contention
bones has been, precisely, NATOs role in the
ex-SU countries.
This area indeed has become a field of
competition between Russia and NATO (and
the EU, as the current Ukrainian crisis has
revealed). The Georgia war came as a very
painful symptom of such competition. The US
is now paying less attention but under the

Bush administration, the US government
advised some of these countries (not only
Georgia and Ukraine) to declare an interest in
joining NATOi (despite the opposition of
some NATO members). This has contributed
to make Russia even more anxious about
NATOs open doors policy. Georgia has paid a
high price for it in 2008: with what the EU
called a disproportionate military reaction and
its subsequent decision to recognize South
Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent states,
Russia clearly demonstrated that there are
limits in acceptance to NATOs enlargement
in the ex-Soviet space.
NATO feels that, with countries that are exSP members, such as Armenia and
Kazakhstan, membership complicates their
cooperation with NATO and constrains their
political integration with the Alliance.
Besides, one reason why NATO does not
want to establish formal cooperation with exSC, which, in addition, it sees as nondemocratic and ineffective, but also is that it
sees it as a tool for Russia to assert its sphere
of influence in the post-Soviet space.
Another problem is that NATO has a
credibility problem. It has made clear it does
not want a role in solving the frozen conflicts
in the region, which is undermining its
authority in the eyes of the countries, for
which these conflicts are at the core of their
security interests. The absence of a strong
reaction on NATOs part during the Georgia
war has only strengthened this vision.
Partners see that NATO is in Afghanistan,
far from its traditional zone of responsibility,
and has not been able or willing to play a part
in post-Soviet unresolved conflicts. For them,
it is clear that it means that NATO does not
want to take responsibility for the security of
the region.
Another important limitation is the values
gap between NATO members and most of
these countries. Of course, pragmatism and the
need to work with partners to tackle urgent
security challenges have often made this stake
secondary. For example, focused as it has been
on the logistical and other needs related to its
Afghanistan operation, NATO has reduced the
insistence on its normative agenda in recent
428
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
years. Azerbaijan is not the most democratic

state on the world stage but a number of
NATO members see this countrys energy
resources as potentially helpful in Europes
effort to become less dependent on Russian
energy. It seems it has made the Alliance more
patient with this player.
However, the authoritarian character of
most of these states is an invisible barrier to
more serious cooperation if only because
their leaders will always be cautious in
developing ties with an organization which
they tend to see as a tool of Western regime
change policy (this is typically the case for
Azerbaijan). NATO, in addition, will always
be distrustful because of the opportunistic
nature of such regimes, which can make them
unreliable in their foreign policy priorities (and
their cooperation unstable).
To conclude, the most pressing question is
certainly about the possible evolution of ex
SU countries preferencies, for a set of values
(NATO), or for another (Russian values).
Obviously, a pertinent de question remain:
Still be in the future, in the most of ex-SU
space, o Russian business, blackmail based
on the natural resources?
429
REFERENCES
1. http://www.cior.net/News/2014/CIORNATO-Geopolitical-Seminar2014.aspx Security through Crisis
Management from NATO Strategic
Concept
2. www.bloomberg.net
3. http://time.com/42683/crimeas-tatarscondemn-annexation-seek-autonomy/
4. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opini
on/2014/03/why-do-russians-supportinterv-2014328174257483544.html
on/2014/03/crimea-crisis-tatarstanfactor-2014314143349496558.html
on/2014/03/crimea-tatars-homeland-atstake-2014355402511335.html
MANAGEMENT
430
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
ANALYSIS OF THE POSSIBILITY OF PROVIDING A COMPLEX

MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM FOR PUBLIC INTERNAL AUDITORS BY
MANAGEMENT
*ec. drd. SFETCU Marian
* Faculty of Economics Sciences and Business Administration of Babe - Bolyai University
of Cluj Napoca. E-mail: marian_sfetcu@yahoo.com. Tel: 0720 760 220
Abstract: This action displays a scientific research on statistical analysis based on Spearmans
correlation coefficient, in order to show the management possibility of implementing a complex
motivational system for public internal auditors. The analysis was based on the results of the
questionnaires sent by e-mail to public pre-university and university education audit structures, and on
the establishing the mathematical analysis model of the results and their review. The analysis results are
summarized in the conclusions drawn from empirical research.
Keywords: correlation coefficient, complex motivational system, public internal audit, statistical
analysis, logical analysis, regression, descriptive analysis.
JEL: M 42
I. INTRODUCION
The importance of the research stays in
the ensuring of the possibility of
implementing a complex motivational system
(Nicolescu O., Verboncu I., 2008, pp. 291
292) [6] for public internal auditors by the
public entity management from the research
field. This analysis is part of the scientific
approach of the activity and public internal
audit structure management, in order to
maximize the audit contribution to the
assuring of the public entity performance, by
assuring the management of efficient and
effective risk inventory and the efficient,
effective and economic use of public entity
431
resources. This approach was born from the

need to adapt the public internal audit to the
new demands of economic, social and
technical development, which are also subject
to public entities. Analyzing the possibility of
ensuring the management of the public entity
of a complex motivational system for the
auditors, leads to the determination of the
motivational necessities of the auditors, the
identification of the factors underlying the
possibility of implementing a complex
motivational system and providing knowledge
to the public internal audit performance
research field.
MANAGEMENT
The resea rch field of this scientific

endeavor, is featured by the public entities of
public
pre-university
and
university
education, components of the national
education system, which organized, according
to The Low (Low 672-2002, art. 11-12) [8],
public internal audit structures. Our approach
includes the public internal audit structures
within the school boards and the public
universities, without the public internal audit
structures within the Ministry of National
Education and within the special education
(military education). In this approach where
involved 31 audit structures, out of a total of
42 school boards, 36 public university audit
structures, out of 49 universities and 4 audit
structures from within the public local
administration
structures
and
some
decentralized public entities. To ensure
confidentiality the schools participating in the
research were numbers.
Research method. The research was
based on setting goals and working
assumptions (Chelcea S., 2007, pp. 108-122)
[3], establishing the research method based on
the statistic analysis methods and techniques,
establishing conclusions and communication /
disseminating these concerning the execution
or invalidation of the established hypothesis.
The way of analyzing the results based on
applied statistic methods and techniques
(Green E., 1922) [4], was based on analyzing
the research results through regression link
between the variables method (Chareille P.,
Pinault Y., 1996) [2].
The objective of the research
is the
possibility of the management to ensure a
complex motivational system for the internal
auditors
within
the
research
field.
Implementing a complex motivational system
to the public entities is difficult, due to the
reduction of the financial resources, blocking
the free posts, promotion based on degrees
and levels of the stuff within the budgetary
entities, is uphill due to the regulatory
framework and the correlation of the needs,
aspirations, personal interests of auditors
(training, promotion, awards, etc..), with the
entity objectives is a sensitive issue. From this
point of view arises the question which also
432
represents our working hypothesis: Is there

any possibility for the management to ensure
a complex motivational system for the public
internal auditors within the educational
system?
II. ANALYSIS OF THE
MANAGEMENT POSSIBILITY OF
ENSURING A COMPLEX
MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM FOR THE
PUBLIC INTERNAL AUDITORS
2.1.
General informa tion on

conducting empirical research
The analysis of the management

possibility to ensure a complex motivational
system for the public internal auditors started
by questioning the 72 audit structures within
the research area, out of 92 structures, with 8
closed questions contained in Table 1. The
items used in the empiric research have 4
possible answers, as shown below: 1 = Never,
2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always, shown
in Table 2. Research results. The
questionnaires were send towards the units
within the research field, through e-mail, to
each structure, between 15 31.05.2013, and
the answers were collected between 15.06
15.07.2013 and 01.10.2013 15.11.2013.
The analysis of the answers was based in a
statistic adaptation which allows a simple and
synthetic description (Bailes C. 1998) [1],
using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences program (SPSS).
The statistic analysis was performed by
selecting the items (the asked questions)
concerning the methodological factor and the
management factor and governance, which
define the general characteristic of the
analyzed variable (Y). In order to avoid errors
in the SPSS program performance we
ciphered the items, as shown in Table 1. Items
used in the empiric research.
For the statistic analysis of the empiric
research we used Spearmans correlation
factor, because from all the studied
correlations, at least one variable is ordinal.
As a result, the use of the correlation factor
can be unfit, especially for estimating the
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
possibility of rejecting the void hypothesis (pvalue). Like so, the causality relation between
the implied variables were analyzed by using
the Methodical Logit Model (MLO) (Hosmer
D.W., Lemeshow S., Sturdivant R.X. 2013, p.
528) [5]. The choice of methodology is not
random, it is assessed by the variables nature,
which are not quantitative, asserted by
concrete measuring, but their values can be
ranked. In case of obtaining a positive value
and statistic eloquent for the coefficient of the
factor variable Xj, it can be said that a
accession of the values if this variable leads to
accession of the possibility of obtaining high
values for Y variable. In case of obtaining a
eloquent negative factor, the interpretation is
contrary; if the factor acquired is statistically
insignificant, we cant reveal a casual relation
between Xj and Y, no matter the factor sign.
cj , j 1,5 threshold values estimated by model
c1 , c j c j 1 , c5 conditions that
ensure that the sum of the probabilities for
each respondent equals 1.
2.2.
Statistic analysis of the

empirical research results
The analysis was based on representative

factors:
a) Based on the methodological factor, we
research the influence of the audit
activities which tries to defers the legal
regulation within the field Item 2), the
capacity of the audit to accomplish in
time the intern audit tasks and goals
established by the management (item 4)
and deferring the professional etic
Code in the current audit activity (item
6), on the management attention to
ensuring a complex motivational
system (item 1), where Y = 1, Y = f (2,
4, 6) Table 1. Items used in the
empirical research);
b) Based on the management and
governance factor, we research the
negative influence of the lack of
resources on the audit activities (item
3), accomplishing the goals established
by the auditors alongside with the
management, through audit reports
(item 5), accomplishing the external
audit missions for evaluating the public
internal audit (item 7) and for the
management
to
advocate
the
professional preparation of the auditors
(item 8), on the managements concern
for ensuring a complex motivational
system (item 1), where Y = 1, Y = f ( 3,
5, 7, 8) (Table 1. Items used in the
empirical research);
By applying the regression method we
acquired factors, either positive or negative.
In general form, MLO can be written as:

Prob ( yi j | x , b , c ) F ( c j 1 xi b ) F ( c j xi b )
Prob( yi j | x, b, c)
exp(cj 1 xib)
exp(cj xib)
1 exp(cj 1 xib) 1 exp(cj xib)
where,
indexes respondents to the
questionnaire
yi = value of the endogenous variable (item
that we consider as a result)
if
the
respondent
answered
yi 1
"never" yi 2 if the respondent answered
sometimes
yi 3 if the respondent answered often
yi 4 if the respondent answered always
xi = vector of explanatory variables (items that
we consider as factors)
b = vector coefficients
i 1, N
433
MANAGEMENT
(according to the regression tables). These

factors can be taken as given, if only p-value
is under 0,1 or 0,05. Otherwise, we can
consider these coefficients as zero. Hence,
two
cases:
a) p-value > 0,1 there is no link between X
and Y;
b) p-value < 0,1 if the factor is positive,
then X arises, which implies Y to
arise(decrease if the factor is negative).
While analyzing the link between the

variables, by using Spearmans factor, issues
z < 0,3 = weak link 0,3 < z < 0,7 = medium
link z > 0,7 = strong link. We can also
consider that there is a link between the
variables, if p-value < 0.01 sau 0.00.
Table nr. 1. Items used in the empirical research.

Nr. crt.
Variable code
COMPLEX_MOTIVATIONA
L_SYSTEM
RESPECTING_LEGAL_REG
UALTION
IMPACT_ RESOURCE
Explanation
Item 1
The management task is to ensure a complex
motivational system, decent for the auditors
Item 2
Does your audit activity concern respecting the
legal regulation within the field?
Item 3
Was your internal audit activity affected by the
lack of resources needed for its well function?
Item 4
TASKS_AUDIT_DEADLINE Were the goals and tasks, established by the
management for you, accomplished in time?
Item 5
GOALS_ENTITY_RELATIO
Do the relations compiled by you respond well to
N
the goals established with the management?
Item 6
ETHICAL_CODE
In your current work, have complied with the Code
of Ethics for auditors?
Item 7
AUDIT_EXTERNAL_EVALU In the past five years, were there external audit
ATION
missions of your entity?
Item 8
ASSURANCE_PROFESSION Does the management support the work of
AL_PREPARING
professional training of auditors?
Source: Author Protected
Table nr. 2. Research results
Nominal and
percentage
Item 1 Item 2
values
Answer 1
13
4
Answer 2
22
7
Answer 3
20
7
Answer 4
17
54
Answer 1 (%)
18,1
5,6
Answer 2 (%)
30,6
9,7
Answer 3 (%)
27,8
9,7
23,6
75
Answer 4 (%)
Source: Authors calculation
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
Item 6
Item 7
Item 8
23
19
18
12
31,9
26,4
25
16,7
9
5
25
33
12,5
6,9
34,7
45,8
8
2
14
48
11,1
2,8
19,4
66,7
3
9
7
53
4,2
12,5
9,7
73,6
17
11
24
20
23,6
15,3
33,3
27,8
9
20
16
27
12,5
27,8
22,2
37,5
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HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
2.2.1 Analysis based on the

methodological factor, tries to explain the
influence of the factors that define the
methodological factor (items 3, 5, 7, 8 from
Table 1. Items used in the empiric research), on
the management concern for ensuring a
complex motivational system (item 1) by
establishing the regression function, as Y = 1,
where, Y = f (2,4,6) (see Table 1).
Out of 72 respondents, 54 auditors are
concerned about respecting the field
regulations, which is 75%, 33 auditors
answered that the audit goals and tasks
established by the management are always
completed in time, which represents 45,8% and
25 auditors answered often to this item,
which is 34,7 %, and 53 auditors answered that
the audit activity always respects the etic
professional Code, which represents 73,6%.
From this descriptive analysis we can conclude

that the values acquired from the scientific
approach are above average (M = 36), the
auditors always try to respect the current legal
regulations (xi = 54) and always respect the
etical proffesional Code (xi = 53), except the
audit tasks and goals established by the
management, which are always completed (xi =
33)and often (xi = 25) in time, which, taken
individually, are beneath average M = 36. From
this approach we can say that the auditors
respecting the tasks and goals established by the
management, with values beneath average,
contribues to respecting the ensurement of the
audit independence, by avoinding the tasks and
goals established by the management for the
auditors, which will make the audit subject in a
future stage.
Table nr. 3. Regression calculation

Endogenous variable (Y): COMPLEX_MOTIVATIONAL_SYSTEM
Factor variable
Coef.
Std.Er.
p-value
RESPECTING_LEGAL_REGLEMANTATIONS
***1.171
0.426
2.75
0.006
TASKS_AUDIT_DEADLINE
***1.223
0.357
3.43
0.001
**0.712
0.363
1.96
0.050
ETHICAL_CODE
N = 72 ; pseudo R2 = 0.2723
***, **, * : considerable statistic at an apron of 1%, 5% si 10%. All the factorial variables are statisticly
considerable and positive. Source: Author calculation using SPSS

From the MLO regression analysis,
Table 3 Regression calculation, you can see that
there are links between the probability of
ensuring a complex motivational system,
respecting the current regulations, completing
the goals established by the management and
respecting the ethical professional Code. From a

statistical point of view, by applying the
regression analysis and Spearmans correlation
factor, where p-value < 0,1, shows that the
biggest probability for the management to
ensure a complex motivational system, is
435
MANAGEMENT
possible by completing the tasks and goals

established by the management (p-value =
0,001, at a considerable apron at 1 %) and with
a link calculated using Spearmans factor z =
0,357, followed by respecting the current
regulations (p value = 0,006, at a considerable
apron of 1 % and z = 2,75) and by respecting
the professional ethical Code (p-value = 0,050,
at a statistical considerable apron of 5 % and z
= 1,96).
Theoretically, we think that respecting
the ethical code, would have had values close to
completing the management tasks by the audit
and respecting the legal regulations, concerning
the statistic research. On a logical aspect,
completing the goals and tasks established by
the management is based on respecting the
regulation and normalization field. If the legal
regulations are being respected, then the ethical
code is also respected, which shows that the
respondents gave this aspect a thought.
Logically thinking, the audit completing
the tasks and goals established by the
management, respecting the professional ethical
code and the current regulations, adds to the
management ensuring a complex motivational.
In the public internal audit practice (UCAAPI,
2007-2012) [7], on a national level, it is
considered that the management appreciates
more completing the entity tasks and goals
established, which adds to ensuring the
fulfilling the public entity goals, conditions
which grant respecting the professional ethic
code. Also, we presume that respecting the
professional ethical code also implies respecting
the regulation and normalization field of the
public internal audit.
Preliminary conclusions.
In the
education system, the static analysis showed
that the probability for the management to
ensure a complex motivational system by
completing the tasks and goals established by
the management, respecting the regulation and
normalization field and the professional ethical

code, concerning the national practice which
establishes
a
complex
motivational
system(salary, promotion, bounty, sanction), is
ensured by respecting the professional ethical
code, then by respecting the legal field.
The descriptive analysis shows that the
auditors keep their independence by avoiding
completing the goals and tasks established by
the management, other than the audit activity.
The management cared more about ensuring
a complex motivational system for the auditors, by
setting the auditors tasks and goals, which leads to
defying the auditors independence by involving
them in future audit activities
2.2.2. Analysis based in the

management and governance factor, tries to
explain the influence of the factors of
management and governance (items 3, 5, 7, 8,
Table 1. Items used in empirical research) on
the management concern in ensuring a complex
motivational system (item1). The analysis was
based on establishing the regression function, as
Y = 1, where, Y = f (3, 5, 7, 8) (see Table 1).
Based on the descriptive analysis of the
items, which affects the ensuring of a complex
motivational system for the auditors, the
resources impact did never affect negatively the
audit activity for 23 auditors (31,9%) and
sometimes for 19 auditors (26,4%), the reports
always answer adequate to the goals established
with the management for 48 auditors (66,7%)
and often for 14 auditors (19,4%). The values
are beneath average (M = 36), which shows that
the management did not always support the
professional training of the auditors (27 auditors
being 37,5% and often for 16 auditors, being
22,2%), and the external evaluation of the audit
was always considered useful for 20 auditors,
being 27,8% and for 20 auditors often, being
33,3%.
436
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Table 4. Regression calculation

Endogenous variable (Y): COMPLEX_MOTIVATIONAL_SYSTEM
Factor variable
Coef.
Std.Er.
z
p-value
IMPACT_ RESOURCES
*0,374
0,231
1,62
0,105
GOALS_ENTITY_RAPORTS
***1,130
0,303
3,73
0,000
EXTERNAL_AUDIT_EVALUATION
***1,017
0,251
4,04
0,000
ENSURING_PROFFESIONAL_TRAINING
***0,889
0,269
3,31
0,001
N = 72 ; pseudo R2 = 0.2395
***, **, * : considerablestatisticatanapronof1%, 5% and 10%. Source: Author calculation by
using SPSS
territorial structures of the Romanian Account
Court and the evaluations of the audit Services
from MEN, finds problems and adds to their
extermination, with an impact in ensuring the
public internal audit from the research area. We
consider that the research of the audit reports on
the audit structure goals, are based in the
auditors capacities and the knowledge of the
audit structure, finding the problems and
drawing recommendations, relevant and
according to the goals established by the
management. The professional training, adds to
the management ensuring a complex
motivational system by discovering the training
needs of the auditors, according to the activity
subject of the entity with direct implications in
ensuring the goals established by the
management
through
objective
recommendations, relevant and according to the
reality. We can see that the resources impact
does not affect as much as the other variable the
ensuring of a complex motivational system,
which draws the conclusion that the auditors
ensure their professional training by their own
means (attending to courses, increasing their
degrees master, doctors degree, publishing
materials in public magazines etc.), ensuring the
audit missions with existing resources.
The analysis of the probability for the

management to ensure a complex motivational
system for the public internal audit by applying
the regression analysis based on Spearmans
factor of management and governance (where
p-value < 0,1), showed that the biggest
probability to ensure a complex motivational
system for the public internal auditors is the
external public audit evaluation which affects
the most (p-value = 0,000, at a considerable
statistic level of 1 %) with a link (Spearmans
factor, z = 4,04) followed by reported entity
goals (p-value = 0,000, at a considerable
statistic level of 1% and z = 3,73) and by
ensuring the professional training, p-value =
0,001 (at a considerable statistic level of 0,001
and z = 3,31) the last one being the resources
impact (p-value = 0,105 at a considerable
statistical level of 10% and z = 1,62), and
according to the condition, p-value > 0,1, the
resources impact do not affect the management
ensuring a complex motivational system for the
public internal auditors.
From a logical point of view, ensuring
the resources, could have had a stronger
influence on ensuring a complex motivational
system as we thought in the beginning of the
analysis. As the analysis shows, the external
evaluation of the audit is the most important
element that can add to ensuring a complex
motivational system, being known that the
Preliminary conclusions.
From the
descriptive analysis, we can see that the
437
MANAGEMENT
management is not concerned with the

professional training of the auditors, but it has
the biggest influence on ensuring a complex
motivational system for the auditors, also the
audit evaluations every 5 years and the
resources impact, can add to ensuring a
complex motivational system for the public
internal auditors from the research area.
III. CONCLUSIONS
Statistically, the empirical research we did
and the results based on the Logit Methodic
Model, shows the probability of the
management to ensure a complex motivational
system for the public internal auditors in the
educational system, by respecting the regulation
field. The tasks that the management
established for the auditors, completing the
public entity goals established through audit
reports, the external evaluation of the audit and
the professional training of the auditors, are
elements with a higher probability to add to
ensuring a complex motivational system for the
public auditors, based on the statistical links
between them.
The static analysis through the regression
method, was based on the information from the
respondents from the research area, and the
results defer from the results acquired from the
logical descriptive analysis. The regression
analysis shows that these can affect the variable
that the analysis is based on. Logically, it is
essential for ensuring the public internal audit
performance,
to
keep
the
auditors
independence, by avoiding for the management
to establish tasks for the public internal
auditors, which in the audit practice ( The
similar low of the Minister of Education,
Research, Teenage and Sports, Minister of
Administration and Interns and Minister of
Public Finances nr 4576 / 230 / 2445 / 2011)
[10], there are trade-offs done to ensure the
independence of the auditors, while the preuniversity auditors are forced [9] to validate the
staff states and pays of the public pre-university
staff, which is audit subject, or rearranging the
tasks if the disposed paid staff as an effect of
the staff politics (OU 77 / 2013) [9].
The management ensuring the professional

training of the auditors and the resources
impact, are sensitive spots for the public
entities, while the approved budgets are more
and more diminished, fact also shown by the
descriptive statistic of this variable.
From this approach we can draw the
conclusion that it is a very big probability for
the management to ensure a complex
motivational system for the public internal
audit, in contradiction to reality, which proves
that the resources impact (financial through the
approved and given budgets, human resources
through the staff politics of the Ministry of
Education) can not ensure the professional
training, and satisfy the auditors expectations
according the audit and public entity goals.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] Bailes C., 1998 L'analyse statistique des
donnes.
L'outil statistique appliqu au
marketing et la gestion, Chotard et Associes
Editures, Paris;
[2] Chareille P., Pinault Y., 1996 Statistique
descriptive, Ed. Montchrestien, Paris;
[3] Chelcea S., 2007 Methodology of
sociological
research,
quantitative
and
qualitative methods, Ed. Economic, Bucureti;
[4] Green E, 1992 Econometric analysis, ed.
Prentice Hall, New York;
[5] Hosmer D.W., Lemeshow S., Sturdivant
R.X. (2013) - Applied Logistic Regression, Ed.
Wiley-Blackwell, 528p.
[6] Nicolescu O., Verboncu I. 2008
Fundamentele managementului organizaiei,
Ed. Universitar, Bucureti;
[7] The Central Unity for Harmonizing the
Public Internal Audit, 2007 2012 Report on
the activity of the public internal audit,
Bucureti (www.mfinante/ucaapi/), (UCAAPI);
[8] *** Low 672 / 2002 republished low
concerning the public internal audit;
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[9] *** OU 77 / 2013 OUG nr. 77/2013

ensuring the well function of the local public
administration, the number of free posts and
lowering of the expenses inside the public
institutions and authorities.
Minister of Administration and Interns and

Minister of Public Finances nr. 4576 / 230 /
2445 / 2011 concerning the validation of the
financial fluxes for paying the salary expenses
of the staff in the public pre-university
education;
[10] *** The similar order of the Minister of

Education, Research, Teenage and Sports,
439
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BEYOND THE FAST-FOOD MODEL OF EDUCATION. IS THE SCHOOL

CAPABLE TO FOSTER CREATIVITY?
Ioan unea*, Grigore Vasiliu*, Simona Spiridon**
*ACIEE, University Dunarea de Jos, Galati, Romania, ** CJRAE, Galati, Romania
Abstract: Many critics argue that the institution of modern school, and the teachers as educational agents
are not just incapable to stimulate, but also seem to block the innate creativity of the students. The
research described in this paper is a literature review aiming to identify the key factors that influence the
creativity in the educational environment in order to formulate practical actions towards an education for
creativity. We propose a new model of creativity in the educational context, and conclude that a reformed
school remains the main social instrument for promoting creativity.
Keywords: creativity, models of creativity, education for creativity
1. INTRODUCTION
We have sold ourselves into a fast food
model of education, and it's impoverishing our
spirit and our energies as much as fast food is
depleting our physical bodies says Sir Ken
Robinson in [19].
Though the development of creativity is
claimed to be an imperative objective of
modern education, there are surprisingly few
educational initiatives dedicated to fostering
creativity of students. Xu et al in [28] have
made a thorough inventory of the courses
dedicated to fostering creativity in universities
from North America, Europe, Japan, and
China. Surprisingly, they only found only 39
such courses, and in most cases these were
isolated initiatives of individual professors
well known for their interest in the research of
creativity. And despite the billions of Euros
invested by the European Union in lifelong
learning programmes, we identified only two
441
projects on this topic, which received

financing before 2013.
In a comprehensive study, Cachia et. al
([6]) interviewed more than 7000 teachers
from 27 European countries. They concluded
that there is a discrepancy between how
teachers perceive creativity and the way they
claim to foster creativity during their
teaching, and note that in many countries,
education policies and objectives mention the
need for creative learning, but do not provide
an encompassing working definition of
creativity or instructive guidelines on how it
should be promoted at school.
The situation seems to be even worse in the
public education system in North America.
Under these circumstances a decline of
creativity is possible, and even predictable.
Bronson et al. ([4]) note that in North
America, after 1990 there is a visible increase
of the intelligence quotient IQ, accompanied
by a constant decrease of the creativity
quotient, measured with the Torrance Test of
MANAGEMENT
Creative Thinking (TTCT, see [27]). The

causes of this phenomenon are still unclear,
but the effects may be severe and require
energetic actions for fostering the creativity in
the educational context. Bronson concludes
that while our creativity scores decline
unchecked, the current national strategy for
creativity consists of little more than praying
for a Greek muse to drop by our houses.
The solution, according to Robinson, is to
abandon the paradigm of the school as a
factory: The fact is that given the challenges
we face, education doesn't need to be reformed
it needs to be transformed. The key to this
transformation is not to standardize education,
but to personalize it, to build achievement on
discovering the individual talents of each
child, to put students in an environment where
they want to learn and where they can
naturally discover their true passions. ([1920])
This paper proposes a pragmatic review of
the vast literature dedicated to the study of
creativity in education aimed to identify the
key factors that influence creativity in both
negative and positive directions, in order to
provide the stakeholders with a clear view of
the actions required.
Beyond this introduction, this document is
structured as follows:
Section 2 briefly describes the general
conceptual framework,
Section 3 identifies the key factors
influencing the creativity, as presented in
the literature, and derives several action
directions to foster creativity through
education.
Section 4 is reserved for conclusions.
2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.
2.1 Choosing a definition and a model of
creativity. We will not attempt to clarify here
the many aspects involved in the definition of
creativity. As demonstrated in
the
comprehensive analysis of this topic offered
by Parkhurst ([18]),
there is still no
unanimously accepted definition of creativity.
An extensive analysis of all the theoretical
aspects of creativity is available in [25]. For
practical reasons, in this study we will adopt
the definitions of creativity and innovation

proposed by Teresa Amabile:
Creativity is the production of novel and
useful ideas in any domain, and Innovation
is the successful implementation of creative
ideas within an organization ([3]).
Jan
Fagerberg
in
([9]])
brings
supplementary clarification by emphasizing
the difference between invention and
innovation: Invention is the first
occurrence of an idea for a new product or
process.
Innovation
is
the
first
commercialization of the idea.
Thus, the creativity is the process of
developing ideas that are simultaneously
novel, and valuable from a practical
perspective (the inventions), while the
innovation is the process of capitalization of
the results within an organization.
Many researchers (see for example [14])
made a distinction between Creativity (with
capital letter) called the big C, which
designates exceptional results (e.g. the works
of Leonardo da Vinci, Shakespeare, Picasso,
Einstein, etc.) and the little c), which defines
the everyday creativity, accessible to almost
all people (e.g. create a new culinary recipe,
find an original interior design solution, etc.).
Most researchers agree that the little c
can be acquired and developed through
education, and, along this study, we will use
the term creativity in this acception.
The definition formulated by Amabile
addresses only one of the 4 Ps of the
creativity (the 4 Ps are: person, process,
product, and place or environment see
[25]), namely the creative person, which is
convenient when studying the creativity from
an educational perspective.
2.2. A simple model of creativity. Amabile
also proposed a model of creativity ([3] see
figure 1.).
According to this model, the creativity has
three components:
The Expertise is the individual knowledge
base that is the starting point of any
creative processing of the information.
Nothing can be built in the absence of a
foundation. One cannot be creative, for
example in organic chemistry, without a
solid knowledge of the functional groups,
and, generally speaking, it is not possible
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to reach performance in any domain,

without having a good knowledge of the
state of the art in that field.
EXPERTISE
CREATIVE
THINKING
SKILLS
C REATIVITY
TASK
MOTIVATION
Fig. 1 The components of creativity, according

to Amabile
Creative thinking skills. This component of

the creativity is defined by a specific way
of processing the information from the
knowledge base, which is favorable to
using new perspective on the problems,
and to following new cognitive paths. (see
below the definitions for lateral thinking
and divergent thinking.) The creative
thinking skills can be in principle
improved by learning specific heuristics,
but, in the same time are influenced by a
series of personality traits such as
independence, the capacity to take
moderate risks, the ability to tolerate
ambiguity, etc.
Motivation is the energy source of any
human endeavor. Though there are many
studies proving that incentives (a typical
extrinsic motivation, see the definitions in
Ryan, [23]) may stimulate, or even - in
certain conditions - may inhibit creativity,
Most researchers agree that intrinsic
443
motivation is preferable as element that

stimulates creativity.
Though very simple, the Amabile model of
creativity has the advantage that it clearly
shows several means to influence the creativity
in the educational process: the expertise can be
improved by an efficient design of the
curriculum, the creative thinking skills can be
acquired by learning and practicing some
specific heuristics, and the motivation of the
students can be addressed by adjusting the
educational
environment
from
an
organizational perspective ([16]]).
3. KEY FACTORS AND ACTION
DIRECTIONS TO FOSTER
CREATIVITY THROUGH EDUCATION
The idea to foster the creativity of the
students through education is not new. Back in
1965, Bruner argued that children should be
encouraged to treat a task as a problem for
which one invents an answer, rather than
finding one out there in a book or on the
blackboard ([5]). Four decades later Scott
([24]) unequivocally confirmed Bruners idea
and concluded: Thus, creativity training
appears beneficial for a variety of people, not
just elementary school students or the
unusually gifted. Taken as a whole, these
observations lead to a relatively unambiguous
conclusion: Creativity training works.
However, the educational environment
may either stimulate or inhibit the creativity of
the students. Cachia ([6]), and Craft ([7])
identified a number of inhibiting factors:
The prescriptive environment of the
school;
The curriculum oriented towards quantity
rather than quality of the information;
MANAGEMENT
The lack of consensus regarding the

definition and the model of mental
processes associated with creativity;
A certain confusion of values: teachers
frequently perceive some behaviors or
personality traits
specific to creative
students (e.g. stubbornness, hyperactivity,
argumentiveness, and independence) as
misbehaviors.
Teachers are not trained to foster creativity
of students: though most of them claim
they encourage students to be creative,
they simply dont know how to do this;
The lack of quality educational content for
teaching creativity. Teachers and students
are equally in need of such materials;
The lack of simple and easy to use
instruments for the assessment of
creativity;
The lack of IT&C tools to support teaching
for creativity.
Davies et al. ([8]) counted the following
environmental factors that could have a
positive influence on the creativity of the
students:
Flexible use of time and space;
availability of appropriate materials;
working outside the classroom/school;
playful or games-bases approaches with
a degree of learner autonomy;
respectful relationships between teachers
and learners;
opportunities for peer collaboration;
partnerships with outside agencies;
awareness of learners needs, and
nonprescriptive planning.
Other researchers indicate a variety of other
factors that can influence creativity in school:
Moods and emotions ([17])
Pattern recognition and visual thinking
([12]);
Organizational and institutional influences
([10]);
Teamwork ([11]);
Some cultural factors (Rudowicz, 2003);
The ability to use certain heuristics, e.g.
TRIZ ([2]);
And, last but not least, an essential factor
that could dramatically impact the future of
teaching for creativity is the use of ICT in
education ([1], [15], [13], [21],[26]).
For a better understanding of the influence

of the educational environment on the
creativity of the students, we propose an
extension of the Amabile model, as shown in
figure 2.
TEACHER
DOMAIN
KNOWLEDGE
EDUCATIONAL
ENVIRONMENT
EXPERTISE
CREATIVE
THINKING
SKILLS
C REATIVITY
TASK
MOTIVATION
Fig. 2 An extended model of creativity for the

educational context
This extended model obviously includes

the teachers as essential educational agents,
and the general learning environment, as seen
from organizational, and social interactions
perspectives. (The ICT tools involved in the
educational process are also considered as
included in the environment.) The proposed
model clearly illustrates the interactions
between the elements of the educational
system.
Considering the above mentioned factors, the
following action directions for fostering
creativity through education become obvious:
Eliminate the factors that inhibit creativity.
The responsibility for this lies with the
decision makers at the European, national,
and organizational level, and to a certain
degree with the teachers, who should
contribute to the creation of a lessprescriptive educational environment. In
this category of measures, we count: the
reform of the curriculum, defining and
promoting a respectable social status for
the teachers, which includes decent
salarization, increasing the autonomy of
the public schools, etc.
Attract teachers in CPD (Continuous
Professional Development ) courses to
help them understand the psychological
mechanisms involved in creativity.
Develop educational content specially
aimed for the education for creativity. This
includes both courses for teachers, and
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specific courses for students designed to

improve their creative thinking skills, and
help them acquire certain specific
heuristics.
Develop solutions based on IT&C to
promote creative problem solving in
education.
Develop simple and easy to use IT&C
tools for the assessment of creativity.
Ala-Mutka et al ([1]) extend the responsibility
from teachers to policymakers, researchers,
and other practitioners, who should engage in
developing a common vision of future learning
for innovation, as a tool to guide their joint
effort.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The implementation of the concept of
education for creativity and innovation
seems to require a clear vision and convergent
efforts of the researchers, decision makers and
teachers in order to adapt the educational
environment to the requirements of the
knowledge society, and to create dedicated
content aimed to foster creativity.
Though intensely criticized for blocking the
innate creativity of the children, a reformed
School, with specially trained teachers, seems
to remain the most important social instrument
for promoting creativity of the students on a
large scale.
In this context, the Information and Computer
Technology appears to be a promising
instrument to deliver the educational content,
to promote creative interactions between
learners, and to measure the progress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been funded with support
from the European Commission. This
publication reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held
445
responsible for any use which may be made of

the information contained therein.
REFERENCES
1. Ala-Mutka, K., Punie, Y., & Redecker, C.
(2008). ICT for learning, innovation and
creativity. Policy brief prepared by the
Institute for Prospective Technological
Studies (IPTS), Joint Research Centre,
European Commission. Luxembourg:
Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities. Available at:
ftp.jrc.es/EURdoc/JRC48707.TN.pdf
[Accessed 04 November 2013].
2. Altshuller, G. S. (1996). And suddenly the
inventor appeared: TRIZ, the theory of
inventive problem solving. Technical
Innovation Center, Inc
3. Amabile, Teresa M. Creativity and
innovation in organizations. Harvard
Business School, 1996
4. Bronson, P., Merryman, A. (2010, July 10).
The creativity crisis. Newsweek. Retrieved
from
Newsweek
website:
http://www.newsweek.com/2010/07/10/the
creativitycrisis.html
5. Bruner, J. S. (1965). The growth of mind.
American Psychologist, 20(12), 1007.
6. Cachia, R., Ferrari, A., Kearney, C., Punie,

Y., Van den Berghe, W., & Wastiau, P.
(2009). Creativity in schools in Europe: A
survey of teachers in Europe. European
Commission-Joint
Research
CenterInstitute for Prospective Technological
Studies, Seville.
7. Craft, Anna. The limits to creativity in
education: Dilemmas for the educator.
British Journal of Educational Studies,
2003, 51.2: 113-127.
MANAGEMENT
8. Davies, D., Jindal-Snape, D., Collier, C.,

Digby, R., Hay, P., & Howe, A. (2012).
Creative Learning Environments in
Educationa systematic literature review.
Thinking Skills and Creativity.
9. Fagerberg, J. (2004). Innovation: a guide to
the literature. Available online at
http://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/43
180 (retrieved Nov. 2013).
10. Heinze, T., Shapira, P., Rogers, J. D., &
Senker, J. M. (2009). Organizational and
institutional influences on creativity in
scientific research. Research Policy, 38(4),
610-623.
11. Hoegl, M., & Parboteeah, K. P. (2007).
Creativity in innovative projects: How
teamwork matters. Journal of Engineering
and Technology Management, 24(1), 148166
12. Hong, F.T. (2013) The role of pattern
recognition in creative problem solving: A
case study in search of new mathematics
for biology, Progress in Biophysics and
Molecular Biology 113 (2013)
13. Jahnke, I. (2011). How to Foster Creativity
in Technology Enhanced Learning?. In
Social media tools and platforms in
learning environments (pp. 95-116).
Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
14. Kaufman, James C.; Beghetto, Ronald A.
Beyond big and little: The four C model of
creativity. Review of General Psychology,
2009, 13.1: 1.
15. Loveless A.M. (2002). Literature review in
creativity, new technologies and learning.
Futurelab report #4, University of Brighton
16. Maehr, Martin L.; Midgley, Carol.
Enhancing
student
motivation:
A
schoolwide
approach.
Educational
Psychologist, 1991, 26.3-4: 399-427.
17. Newton, D. P. (2012). Moods, emotions
and creative thinking: A framework for
teaching. Thinking Skills and Creativity.
18. Parkhurst, H. B. (1999). Confusion, lack of

consensus, and the definition of creativity
as a construct. The Journal of Creative
Behavior, 33(1), 1-21.
19. Robinson, Ken. The Element: How
Finding
Your
Passion
Changes
Everything. Penguin. com, 2009.
20. Robinson, Ken. Out of our minds:
Learning to be creative. Capstone, 2011.
21. Roschelle, J. M., Pea, R. D., Hoadley, C.
M., Gordin, D. N., & Means, B. M. (2000).
Changing how and what children learn in
school with computer-based technologies.
The future of children, 76-101.
22.Rudowicz, E. (2003). Creativity and
culture: A two way interaction.
Scandinavian journal of educational
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23. Ryan, Richard M.; Deci, Edward L.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic
definitions
and
new
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Contemporary educational psychology,
2000, 25.1: 54-67.
24. Scott, G., Leritz, L. E., & Mumford, M. D.
(2004). The effectiveness of creativity
training: A quantitative review. Creativity
Research Journal, 16(4), 361-388.
25. Sternberg, Robert J. (ed.). Handbook of
creativity. Cambridge University Press,
1999.
26. Thompson, P., & Randall, B. (2001). Can
E-Learning Spur Creativity, Innovation
and Entrepreneurship?. Educational Media
International, 38(4), 289-92
27. Torrance, E. P. (1966). The Torrance Tests
of Creative Thinking-Norms-Technical
Manual Research Edition - Verbal Tests,
Forms A and B-Figural Tests, Forms A
and B. Princeton, NJ: Personnel Press.
28. Xu, F., McDonnell, G., & Nash, W. R.
(2005). A survey of creativity courses at
universities in principal countries. The
Journal of Creative Behavior, 39(2), 7588.
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THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE

ROMANIAN STRATEGY FOR RDI
Ioan unea*, Grigore Vasiliu*, Simona Spiridon**
*ACIEE, University Dunarea de Jos, Galati, Romania, ** CJRAE, Galati, Romania
Abstract: Considering its close interrelation with the economic performance of the organizations, the
concept of innovation has been extensively studied in the past decade, from a variety of perspectives
(economy, business management, entrepreneurship, knowledge management, marketing).
The result is that innovation appears to be so complex, and so difficult to understand and to assess,
that it ressembles the story about the blind men and the elephant. Therefore, the purpose of this
discussion paper is to shed some light on the terminology related to innovation, in order to explain some
of the fallacies of the Romanian national strategy for Research, Development and Innovation.
Keywords: creativity ,innovation, national strategy on RDI
1. INTRODUCTION
By comparing the Forbes list of most
powerful
and
valuable
brands
(http://www.forbes.com/powerful-brands/list/),
and the list of most innovative companies
according to Boston Consulting Group
(http://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/09/
27/is-apple-the-worlds-most-innovative-companystill/) (see Table 1), two things become obvious:
first that there is a strong correlation between

the capacity of the companies to generate (and
absorb) innovation, and their economic power,
and, on the other hand, that there is a large
disparity between the USA and the rest of the
world in this direction.
This conclusion is almost a literal
transcription of an idea formulated 10 years
ago by Hargreaves: we live in a knowledge
economy, a knowledge society. Knowledge
economies are stimulated and driven by
creativity and ingenuity. Knowledge society
447
schools have to create these qualities,

otherwise their people and their nations will be
left behind ([8]).
In this society, the key resource for
progress is no longer capital or labor is
innovation. ([6]).
Table 1. List of most powerful brands, versus most
innovative companies in 2013 (Sources: Forbes
and Boston Consulting Group)
Rank Most Innovative
Most Powerful
Companies
Brands
(BCG)
(Forbes)
Apple
Apple
1
Samsung
Microsoft
2
Google
Coca-Cola
3
Microsoft
IBM
4
Toyota
Google
5
IBM
McDonalds
6
Amazon
General Electric
7
Ford
Intel
8
BMW
Samsumg
9
General Electric
Louis Vuitton
10
MANAGEMENT
But what exactly is innovation?

Considering its close interrelation with the
economic performance of the organizations,
the innovation has been extensively studied in
the past decade, from a variety of perspectives
(economy,
business
management,
entrepreneurship, knowledge management,
marketing).
The result is that the concept of
innovation appears to be so complex, that it
ressembles the story about the blind men and
the elephant.
Therefore, the purpose of this discussion
paper is to shed some light on the terminology
related to innovation in order to explain some
of the fallacies of the Romanian national
strategy for RDI (Research, Development and
Innovation).
Beyond this introduction, the paper is
structured as follows:
Section 2 contains a brief description the
conceptual framework related to innovation.
Section 3 presents the Romanian national
strategy for RDI, and finally, Section 4 is
reserved for conclusions.
2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:
INNOVATION AND ITS MAIN
FACTORS
Barenghesh et al. ([2]) counted as many as
60 different definitions of innovation. One of
the earliest was proposed by Thompson in
1965 ([10]), and sounds pretty straightforward:
innovation is the generation, acceptance and
implementation of new ideas, processes,
products, or services
For comparison, the definition proposed by
Barenghesh et al in 2009 sounds like this:
Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby
organizations
transform
ideas
into
new/improved products, services or processes,
in order to advance, compete and differentiate
themselves successfully in their marketplace.
In this paper, we prefer the definition
proposed by Amabile in 1996 ([1]), which
links innovation to creativity: Creativity is
the production of novel and useful ideas in any
domain, and Innovation is the successful
implementation of creative ideas within an
organization.
Jan Fagerberg in [7] brings supplementary

clarification by emphasizing the difference
between invention and innovation:
Invention is the first occurrence of an idea for
a new product or process. Innovation is the
first commercialization of the idea.
Thus, the creativity is the process of
developing ideas that are simultaneously new,
original and valuable from a practical
perspective (the inventions), while the
innovation is the process of capitalization of
the results within an organization.
In what concerns a model of the innovation
at the organizations level, De Jong ([5]) cites
Buijs ([xx]), who proposed a transformational
model as shown in figure 1.
PROCESS
INPUT
OUTPUT
Fig. 1 The transformational model of

innovation (Buijs [3], apud De Jong[5])
In this model, the transformation process
itself is not described in detail: it is considered
as a black box so there is little focus on the
actual work processes themselves. ([5])
For organizations as large as countries
Bloomberg computes and publishes a so-called
Global
Innovation
Quotient
(www.bloomberg.com ), based on economic
and statistic indicators. The components and
their weight in the GIQ are shown in figure 2.
R&D intensity
Productivity
10%
5%
5%
High Tech
20%
Researcher
concentration
20%
20%
Manufacturing Capability
20%
Tertiary efficiency
Patents
Fig. 2 The components of the Global

Innovation Quotient, proposed by Bloomberg
The relevance and the weight of various
factors in GIQ are questionable, mainly
because they reflect to a very small extent the
role and the quality of the education in
innovation, and completely ignore other
decisive factors such as the migration of the
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specialists and the organizational permeability

to innovation.
Talking about the migration of specialists
the famous physicist Michio Kaku said that the
economic dominance of the USA is due to a
secret weapon, which is the H1B visa the
temporary work permit for highly skilled
people.
The concept of organizational permeability
to innovation can be illustrated in a negative
sense by the example of the reaction of the
society to the innovative ideas of Giordano
Bruno in the Middle Ages, and in the
positive sense by the example of Google,
where the employees are allowed to spend
20% of their time working on creative projects
at their personal choice. The impact of this
rule exceeded any expectation: Susan Wojciki,
vicepresident for Advertising at Google said
that In a recent six-month period, half of
Googles core initiatives started as projects
during employees 20 percent innovation
time ([11]).
The Bloomberg GIQ has the advantage that
it clearly defines the main factors of the
innovation, and gives a unique measure to
compare the innovation capabilities of various
countries.
Regarding innovation, it is useful to
introduce a distinction between the big I (the
big innovation) associated with the
introduction of exceptional scientific and
technological discoveries (think of the
discovery of the transistor, of the laser, or the
apparition of the personal computer, or the
smart phone, etc.), and Little innovation (the
little i), which designates innovative
initiatives of smaller impact, e.g. buying a
machine to increase the work productivity, or
acquiring the license to use a patent to improve
a technological process, etc.
449
The dichotomy between small i and big

I is to a certain degree similar to the concepts
of incremental innovation versus radical
innovation. (see Koberg et al. [9]).
Obviously, the big I requires large
investments in research infrastructure and
highly skilled human resources (e.g. the
Hubble telescope, or the LHC particle
accelerator from CERN).
An interesting example of small I with
possibly large effects is the concept of open
innovation, defined as the process of creating
inflows and outflows of knowledge that
connect the organization with the outside
world in order to minimize the cost of the
research while keeping a high innovation level
([4]). A typical example of using open
innovation is the organization of idea contests
on topics selected by the organizers. These
contests offer (usually modest) financial
incentives for the participants who propose
the best solutions. This way, the organizers
can benefit of a multitude of innovative ideas
at the lowest possible cost. In the famous
grand challenges organized by Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation, or in the
competitions organized online by Innocentive
Inc. (www.innocentive.com) there is a striking
discrepancy between the importance and the
difficulty of the proposed problems, and the
amount of the rewards offered for solvers.
Despite its obvious advantages for the
organizers, the concept of open innovation is
largely ignored in Europe by the decision
makers and by business.
3. THE ROMANIAN STRATEGY FOR
RDI. A BRIEF ANALYSIS
In December 2006, the Government of
Romania published The National Strategy for
Research Development and Innovation for
MANAGEMENT
2007-2013, later legislated through the

Government Decision HG-217/2007 (available
online
in
Romanian
at
www.research.edu.ro/uploads/legislatie/planul
-national/hg-475.doc), with the declared
objective to recover the delays relative to
other European countries [in the field of
Research and Innovation]. In 2013, by the
end of the period covered by the above
mentioned strategy, Romania ranked the 46th
of 50 countries analyzed by Bloomberg
according to the Global Innovation Quotient.
Between 2007-2013, Romania did not win not
even one grant funded by ERC (European
Research Council see the synthetic
document:
http://erc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/content/
ERC_in_a_nutshell_oct_2013.pdf)
In fact, very few of the objectives stated in
the above mentioned national strategy were
actually reached. Some of them are
ridiculously unrealistic: for example, the
strategy aimed to multiply by 10 the number of
EPO patents per million people. Note that
Romania was the only country in EU27 where
the number of researcher actually dropped by
more than 5% between 2005-2011 (see
Innovation Union Competitivness Report for
2013: http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovationunion/pdf/competitiveness_report_2013.pdf)
The main cause of the decrease of the
number of researchers in Romania is the brain
drain. We dont have official data regarding
the migration of researchers, but considering
the fact that over 22,000 physicians emigrated
from Romania between 2007-2013, we can
estimate that this phenomenon also affects
other categories of skilled workers, including
researchers. We dont have knowledge about
any serious initiative of the Romanian
authorities to stem this process.
It is also worth to note that most of the
Romanian researchers dont even have an
institutional subscription to read the high
impact factor journals where, according to the
Government strategies, they are supposed to
publish articles.
The level of public expenditure for
research, development and innovation should
have been 1% of the GDP in 2010, and
expected to raise at 1.5% in 2013. In fact, by
the end of 2013 the value of this indicator was
only 0.49% of the GDP, a quarter of the EU

average of 2%.
A thorough analysis of the relevant statistic
data for the evaluation of the competitivness of
Romania with respect to innovation is
available in the European document (EUR
25650 EN, 2013).
Perhaps even more serious than the
underfunding of the research is the chronic
underfunding of education. Though the Law of
the National Education nr. 1/2011 stipulates
the allocation of 6% of the GDP for funding
the education, between 2009-2013, the amount
of funding dropped from 4.24% to 3.6% of the
GDP.
The result is that Romania has the lowest
percentage of university graduates from the
total
population
(21.8%
see
http://www.6pentrueducatie.ro) and there are
no Romanian universities ranked in the top
500 worlds best universities (Shanghai
ranking)
(http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU201
2.html).
Even more harmful than the underfunding
is the lack of consistency of the laws related to
education. The Law of the National Education
was often amended between 1995-2013,
sometimes 2-3 times a year.
This is the general framework wherein the
Romanian policymakers have launched the
new National Strategy for research,
development and Innovation for the time
interval 2014-2020,
(the document is
available
online
http://www.research.edu.ro/ro/articol/3343/stra
tegia-nationala-de-cercetare-si-inovare-20142020).
This new strategy has been produced by a
large consortium under the coordination of
UEFISCDI (The Romanian Executive Unit for
Funding The University Education and the
Research Development and Innovation), which
comprises most of the research entities and
public universities of the country (see
www.cdi2020.ro
for
details
on
the
consortium).
Predictably, the new strategy assimilates
many of the objectives and priorities of the EU
programme Horizon 2020, and maintains a
more realistic approach in what concerns the
expected progress of the innovation in
450
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Romania. There are still some unrealistic

objectives (for example OS5 the strategic
objective nr. 5 which aims at doubling the
number of the researchers until 2020. It is
unclear where these researchers will work, and
who will provide funding for their activity.
We also noticed a clear strategic option
towards developing the big I innovation:
The increase of the Romanian contribution to
the progress of the frontier knowledge
Possibly, the paneuropean project ELI-NP
(Extreme Light Infrastructure www.eli-np.ro),
which will provide funding for building the
worlds biggest laser in Romania encouraged
this option, but, considering the results of the
strategy 2007-2013, it is not sure that Romania
is capable to sustain the big I option on a longterm basis.
In what concerns the small I innovation,
it is worth to mention the initiative called
innovation vouchers intended to directly
support innovation in SMEs.
One major drawback of the new strategy
for innovation in Romania derives from the
fact that there is no reference to the link
between education, creativity and innovation.
The strategy does not consider at all the
brain drain, and as a consequence there are no
measures to stem this phenomenon.
The open innovation is totally ignored, and
so is the obvious need of the researchers to
have access to the latest and most valuable
scientific publications.
4. CONCLUSIONS
To conclude this brief review, we
appreciate that the overall situation of the
education, research and innovation in Romania
- at the decision makers level - is rather
daunting, and it is hard to believe that it will
451
score spectacular improvements in the near

future.
ACKOWLEDGEMENT
This document has been written in the context
of the project TECRINO- Teaching Creativity
in Engineering 538710-LLP-1-2013-1-CYLEONARDO-LMP.
This project has been funded with support
from the European Commission. This
publication reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held
responsible for any use which may be made of
the information contained therein.
REFERENCES
1. Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity and
innovation in organizations (Vol. 5).
Boston: Harvard Business School
2. Bahrami, B., Olsen, K., Bang, D.,
Roepstorff, A., Rees, G., & Frith, C.
(2012). Together, slowly but surely: the
role of social interaction and feedback on
the build-up of benefit in collective
decision-making. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance, 38(1), 3.
3. Buijs, J.A. (1987), Innovatie en interventie,
Deventer
4. Chesbrough, H. W. (2003). Open
innovation: The new imperative for
creating and profiting from technology.
Harvard Business Press.
5. De Jong, J. P. J. (2000). Measuring
innovative intensity. Zoetermeer, the
Netherlands: EIM Business and Policy
Research
6. Drucker, P. (1993). Post-capitalist Society.
New York: Harper Collins.
MANAGEMENT
7. Fagerberg, J. (2004). Innovation: a guide to

the literature. Available online at
http://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/43
180 (retrieved Nov. 2013)
8. Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the
knowledge society: Education in the age of
insecurity. Teachers College Press.
9. Koberg, C. S., Detienne, D. R., & Heppard,
K. A. (2003). An empirical test of
environmental, organizational, and process
factors affecting incremental and radical
innovation. The Journal of High

Technology Management Research, 14(1),
21-45.
10. Thompson, V. A. (1965). Bureaucracy and
innovation. Administrative science
quarterly, 1-20.
11. Wojcicki, S. (2011). The Eight Pillars of
Innovation. Think Quarterly. Retrieved
from:
http://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/quarterly/
innovation/8-pillars-of-innovation.html
452
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
OPEN DISTANCE EDUCATION NEW CHALLENGES
Anca ANDRONIC*
*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University Spiru Haret, Braov, Romnia
Abstract: Although distance education gets an increasingly special attention, emphasis should be put on
the importance of style and strategies that have the greatest impact on the quality of distance learning.
This may involve different technologies used alone or in combination. As such, there must be made a
series of decisions on choosing the most effective methods which respond best to the established goal. The
emphasis is therefore put on the role of facilitator as opposed to the role of "provider" specific for the
traditional system.
Keywords: distance education, strategies, methods, impact
1. INTRODUCTION
Although distance education gets an
increasingly greater attention, we should focus
on the importance of style and strategies that
have the greatest impact on the quality of
distance learning. Facilitating virtual learning
requires some new approaches in order to
practice and manage the teaching and learning
precess. For the program to be effective it
requires a whole new mental set about
technology.
Many institutions spend significant
resources - not just time and money - to
introduce distance education and invest
considerable in creating new technologies
required for distance courses and their proper
management.
Also, it takes the teacher to learn to
manage critical dimensions generated by the
new learning environment in which such as:
change of role, metaphor, culture, awareness
and collaboration.
453
Distance learning may involve different

technologies used alone or in combination. As
such, there must be made a number of
decisions on the choice-effectiveness of
methods which best meet the goal set. The
emphasis is therefore put on the role of
facilitator as opposed to the role of "provider"
specific for the traditional system.
Lisa
Kimball
(2001)
compares
metaphorically the distance education with a
"canary in a mine that detects life-threatening
problems before anyone else realize that they
are in danger." So the real problem concerning
the learning experiences encountered by
teachers are those relating to the design and
administration of distance learning programs.
The questions are: "How do we get the
right balance, between presentation and
practical activities, experiments, between
individual experiences and collaborative
learning? Among the tasks defined by the
teacher facilitator and those shaped by the
student? "
SOCIO and HUMANITIES
The new technology requires us to

rethink this dynamic of learning because we
are not able to use familiar approaches. It
gives us the opportunity to change the way we
manage teaching and learning in general. The
critical part of the question is, "How can we
engage students via distance learning" or,
more precisely: "How can we involve more the
students in meaningful learning activities
through this technology?". Facilitating
distance education does not mean to
implement our old lesson plans using new
media technologies. Rather it is about the
opportunity to expand our learning tools
available at some point, to create a new
dynamic learning aligned with the best ways
of adult learning.
After Eunice, Kimball, Silber and
Weinstein (1998) there are some critical
aspects of distance learning. The most
important issue concerns the mentality that has
to change in order to take full advantage of
new opportunities created by the technology of
distance learning.
2.NEW PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES
OF DISTANCE LEARNING
Lisa Kimball (2001) makes a
description of this new approaches, presented
in brief as follow:
The distinction between the dynamic
approach and the linear one in distance
education could also describe the major
change from the old view to the new vision of
education management. The first challenge for
a teacher is to realize how to harness the
power of new media technologies in order to
take advantage of their ability to support the
flexibility, parallel processing and time; it is
also important to produce new designs and not
use new media technologies in order to
provide the same obsolete things.
The old model of designing learning
had functioned based on a linear fashion, from
defining learning objectives to "delivering the
course". The first educators engaged in a
comprehensive analysis of learning needs were
often based on assessments made by others on
the skills and learning objectives.
Large courses have been developed,

and finally the course was being taught as
planned.
Associated with this linear approach is
a set of teaching strategies, strategies that
corresponded to that linearity and were
characterized by: centralization, uniform
distribution. When students appeared to be
bored and uninvolved in this type of program
the solution was to find ways to use new
information technologies to make the teaching
learning process more fun.
Much earlier, distance learning was
nothing more than a way to generate some
multi-media slides well-thought by an expert
in a show well done. In this context, distance
learning has been praised for its ability to
reach a larger number of students at certain
quality standard. But an expert teaching
courses to a group of passive students is
engaged in a kind of unidirectional teaching
similar to the classic one, only that this lecture
is delivered through television for students
staying in their rooms at home.
Later on came a new vision of teaching
and learning, this actually being an ongoing
process rather than a fixed hour program with
a beginning and an end, and the importance of
a wide participation of students in the
designing of their own learning was
recognized as such.
Distance learning technologies are
particularly well suited for a more dynamic
approach to managing learning. Good teachers
have always been open to change the lesson
plans based on "student input". New media
makes it easier. For example, it is easier to
provide additional reading materials based on
the students interest rather than rely solely on a
manual ordered weeks or months before the
actual course starts. The online environment
can provide space to continue conversations
among students about what to do and what not
to do in a course.
Also, the same technology can
contribute to design the projecting process of a
course. For example, the teacher contacts most
students via e-mail during the summer to learn
more about their interests and expectations,
but there are also required information about
students' skills in order to be taken into
account when designing the course. As such,
454
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
the teacher was able to use this information to

create preliminary project teams and to
develop initial tasks to reflect the specific
needs of the course participants.
One of the first things that the teacher
must think in distance learning aims the type
of atmosphere he needs and also, he must
clearly define the learning experience he
intends to provoke. In distance learning
language and metaphor are important - as
primary tools needed to create the ambience
and help participants to evoke images and to
put in their mind a particular space for
learning, even if they do it at different times in
different places .
In
distance
learning,
many
environments borrow the language from
traditional educational institutions, to provide
students with clues about what to expect, such
as the classroom, lecture hall and library. This
can be a good strategy to help students
navigate through unfamiliar environments.
However, there is a danger in using a language
that fits the traditional learning environment
and not the distance learning environment, as
it may lead to transferring old models in the
newly created environment - for example, one
can expect to actually enter into classroom and
wait for the teacher to come and teach.
One way to start a virtual course is to
identify the types of interactions and
experiences that the teacher believes are
needed to support learning and also it is
essential for him to capture the feelings that
wants to evoke.
The teacher may want his students to
have self-disclosure intimate conversations
like those had late at night in a cafe or want to
hire teams of students working on different
topics like those made around a conference
table. Putting the student in a virtual classroom
can evoke any of these dynamics.
455
The Institute for Educational Studies at

Endicott College has created a master year to
transform education. The intensive program is
designed around teachers worldwide who form
a community and meet in a virtual campus
using asynchronous Web-conferencing. In
order to help participants "feel" they are part
of a virtual campus, the program includes
lectures, seminars, discussions, study groups.
Participants come together in a variety
of classrooms, virtual seminars and
discussions. But the most important aspect of
the program is to create a learning "from peer
to peer" if participants share their inner
thoughts and feelings about their personal
growth and the relationship with their role as
educators.
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Both teachers and students need to be
aware of how distance learning occurs.
Students need different types of feedback to
help
"tune"
their
participation
and
expectations. There is a need for teachers to
provide a"research in progress" feedback
rather than a feedback on the final product,
because so much of this new type of learning
is process-oriented.
Even if in Romania, the image of
open distance learning is still fragmented and
marked by distrust, we trust that a
constructivist approach in this area may open
new possibilities, and one of which is to
encourage adults to continue their education
an encouragement to actually learn
throughout life.
REFERENCES
1. Jigu, M. Consilierea carierei. Bucureti:
Editura Sigma (2001).
2. Jigu, M. (coord.). Tehnologiile informatice i
de comunicare n consilierea carierei.
Bucureti: Institutul de tiine ale Educaiei
(2002).
3. Jigu, M. (coord.). Consilierea la distan.

Bucureti: Institutul de tiine ale Educaiei
(2004).
4. Kimball, Lisa. Managing Distance Learning New Challenges for Faculty. In Reza Hazemi.
(ed.). The Digital University. Springer (2001).
5. Ko, Susan and Rossen, Steve. Teaching online:
a practical guide. London: Taylor & Francis
(2010).
456
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
DEFINITION OF VOLUNTEERING IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
Rzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC*
Abstract: Volunteering is often discussed in relation to a number of terms used frequently in

social and human sciences: prosocial behavior and altruism; charity and philanthropy behavior;
social responsibility; democratic behavior and active citizenship; community development.
Further, I will present an analysis of the relationship between volunteering and these concepts.
Keywords: volunteering, prosocial behavior, community development, social responsability.
1. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR, ALTRUISM

AND VOLUNTEERING
Septimiu Chelcea (1998, 2003) aproached
prosocial behavior in an integralist manner,
defining it as "an intentional behavior, carried
out without being a professional obligation and
aimed at supporting, preserving and promoting
social values, without waiting for any moral or
material rewards from others" (Chelcea, 2003,
86). Prosocial behavior includes a variety of
ways of expression, which also include
altruism as a subspecies of prosocial behavior
(Chelcea and Taran, 1990, 178-179). The same
view is to be found in James W. Vanden
Zaden (1977/1987, 299-300), which included
altruism among the manifestations of prosocial
behavior, defining it as "a behavior performed
for the benefit of another person, without
waiting external reward. "
By comparing the definitions above
we can conclude that:
a) Altruism differs only apparently
from volunteering, by a nuance of expression:
altruistic behavior is characterized by a lack of
expectation of "external rewards" and
457
volunteering does not imply the existence of a

"material reward". The difference is profound
though: the volunteer does not expect material
consideration, but frequently searches (and is
legally justified) to obtain other types of
external rewards.
Moreover, in the vast literature on
volunteer management, providing external
rewards is seen as a sine qua non component
of an efficient activity. In addressing Pro
Vobis National Volunteer Centre in ClujNapoca (2006, 6-7), the recognition of the
merits of volunteers includes a formal
dimension (awards, certificates, medals and
organizing events where volunteers with
outstanding accomplishments are formally
mentioned) and an informal dimension (the
staff is encouraged to express their sincere
appreciation as often and spontaneously as
possible for the contribution made by
volunteers).
In
conclusion,
altruism
and
volunteering differ in terms of an essential
aspect: in altruism external rewards are
excluded (by its very definition), while in
volunteering they may exist, except the
material ones. In the practice of working with

volunteers, nonprofit organizations should
have their own system to reward volunteers,
which would have to include all the ways in
which this recognition occurs routinely :"The
recognition of the accomplishments of
volunteers is not an event, a gift or prize it is
a process, an attitude that needs to exist in
everything that is done to attract, inspire,
maintain and coordinate volunteers "(Pro
Vobis National Volunteer Center, 2006, 6).
b) Volunteering is different from prosocial
behavior, primarily due to a higher duration of
the event. Psycho-sociological approaches of
the prosocial behavior most commonly refer to
giving help in emergency situations, through
behaviors that have a duration which is usually
measured in minutes.
Compared to the assistance in
emergency situations, volunteering appears as
a systematic individual approach of goving
help, with a duration that can vary from a few
hours a week to a sustained effort over many
years. Emergency interventions are motivated
by identifying the situation itself as an
emergency, while the volunteer needs
sustained (moral) motivation to continue work.
This statement is provided, usually by the
reward systems of the volunteering
beneficiary- organization.
Both
prosocial
behavior
and
volunteering, refer however, to the same type
of activity: to helping others. When the need
of help is acute , the helping behavior is
"pure", disinterested, taking the form of
prosocial behavior. If we are dealing with a
person who needs "chronic" help then we can
talk about volunteering, social practice that
includes - as a rule -moral rewards as well.
2. CHARITY AND PHILANTHROPY
BEHAVIOR
For Daniel Saulean (1999, 19) the charitable
behavior is a way of mitigating the economic
based inequalities in a society:, "He is
sometimes spoken of as a social phenomenon
that reflects not only the level of development
achieved by the society, but a large part of the
complex of values and social norms." The
charitable behavior can occur between people
who belong to the same social class (eg,

helping a neighbor who had lost his home as a
result of natural disasters), but is most
commonly initiated by those who have a
surplus of resources. In the latter case, the
charity provides a redistribution of resources
as a form of solidarity "top-down" on the
social ladder.
Philanthropy is defined in the
Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian
Language (1998, 379) as "a charity action for
the benefit of poor people." Philanthropy is
"commonly made by those who have surplus
for those in need", being a strong economic
determined behavior: " The intensity of
philanthropy varies in time depending on the
periods of increase or decrease of the
economy" (Saulean, 1999, 19) .
The relationship volunteering /
philanthropy is addressed by Bogdan Voicu
(2005,
121-123),
which
states
that
"volunteering is a form of social recognition,of
affirmation of the philanthropy features", a
form that is available to all persons who have
the knowledge, skills or time resources
necessary for helping others. In other words,
volunteering gives each individual the
opportunity to produce charitable behaviors
and to probe the qualities required to prove for
philanthropy. If the volunteer gets to have at
one time a surplus of economic resources, it is
likely that it will initiate philanthropy or other
charitable behavior.
3. SOCIAL RESPONSABILITY
In English, the 'responsible' initiatives of
companies were called by a variety of
terms:corporate citizenship, corporate
philantropy, corporate societal marketing,
community
affairs,
community
development.
The preferred term today is "Corporate
Social Responsibility" (CSR), a term that
describes the current thinking on the
contribution that companies must have in the
development of modern society. As states and
international institutions have realized that
adopting CSR principles serve the objectives
of sustainable development, emerged the need
for international standards to define what
constitutes a "desirable corporate behavior."
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These standards were developed by the United

Nations
Organisation,
the
European
Commission or the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development.
CSR concerns are relatively recent in
Romania (and in Eastern Europe in general)
being generally associated with the activity of
multinational companies, despite the principle
that "for the effects to be felt globally, their
actions must be supported by others made by
small and medium enterprises (SMEs)." In the
SME sector in Romania, social responsibility
is met with a substantial dose of skepticism
and is very commonly confused with
philanthropic
activities
undertaken
by
companies (Smith, 2008)
The ways in which a company
(regardless of its size) can act as a result of
social responsability are diverse: philanthropy
(en. "Corporate Philanthropy"); cause related
marketing (en. "Cause Related Marketing");
social marketing (en. "Corporate Social
Marketing"); socially responsible business
practices (en. "Socially Responsible Business
Practices"); promoting a cause (en. "Cause
Promotion") and volunteering in the
community (en. "Community Volunteering").
The later course of action (also know
as "corporate volunteering") seems to be
the"middle way" between social responsibility
at the company level(CSR) and the potential
for expressing helping behavior among
employees (Andronic, 2008). It is a kind of
initiative that the company encourages its
employees to participate as volunteers in
supporting the community, an NGO or a cause
of concern to the community in which it
operates.
4. DEMOCRATIC BEHAVIOR AND
ACTIVE CITIZENSCHIP
459
Cristina Rigman (2008, 6-7) emphasizes that

the skills and abilities developed by volunteers
prepare them for an active political and social
life, equipping them with valuable information
and resources on active participation, access to
networks of mobilizing the community
resources , trust, tolerance and consensus
building skills with others and especially the
acquisition of a state of empowerment. The
absence of this condition makes most people
not to engage in civic and political life
(Rigman, 2008, 6-7).
Volunteering
is
associated
with
empowerment ("the ability of a social actor to
self-sustain,
to
control
their
living
environment" - Sandu, 2005, 215) as the skills
and abilities mentioned above are easily
transferable to other contexts of democratic
participation . Volunteering appears as a tool
for learning and practicing participatory
democracy or as an expression of democratic
culture (Voicu, 2005).
In this context, the relationship
volunteering- active citizenship (defined as " a
potential of individuals to organize in a variety
of forms, to mobilize resources and to exercise
the power they have to protect or gain certain
rights or to produce public goods " - Dodescu
and Hatos , 2004 , 10) is one of major interest.
Bernard Crick (2004 ), in an article dedicated
to this topic , noted that individuals "before
being citizens should be volunteers" and
"active citizenship must involve , at one time ,
volunteering , but not every volunteering
involves citizenship" . There are volunteer
activities taking place without involving
important components of active citizenship : a
good level of knowledge about the functioning
of a democratic system; processes leading to
improving the knowledge capacity of
individuals and advocacy- concept describing
" the activity of defending / supporting a
principle or point of view ( individual / general

/ of an organization ) to a government
institution or a legislator " (Pro Democracy
Association, Academy of Advocacy and
Society of Professional Journalists, 2007).
4. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Dumitru Sandu (2006, 15) defined community
development (DEVCOM) as "voluntary
changes by and for the community, beginning
from the experience of practice in postcommunist Romania":
DEVCOM has a much broader scope of
coverage than volunteering, including
numerous activities of human groups which do
not exclude the involvement and obtaining of
benefits, including materials, being "a tolerant
label for a family, relatively disorganized of
practices or patterns of local intervention who
have or tend to have as result a "greater good
of the community '" (Sandu, 2005, 15).
In this form of social development
volunteering is included, and it is addressed in
this context, especially in connection with the
development of the necessary abilities
DEVCOM (United Nations Volunteers, 2004).
REFERENCES
1. Andronic,
Rzvan-Lucian.
(2002).
Voluntariatul n sectorul social-improvizaie
sau management? n Eficien, legalitate, etic
n Romnia mileniului III Lucrrile celei de
a-X-a sesiuni de comunicri tiinifice a
Universitii Spiru Haret (pp. 401-404).
Braov: Editura Lux Libris.
2. Chelcea, Septimiu i ran, Constantin. (1990).
Psihosociologia comportamentului prosocial. n
Septimiu Chelcea (coord.). Psihosociologia
cooperrii i ntrajutorrii umane (pp. 176201). Bucureti: Editura Militar.
3. Chelcea, Septimiu. (2003). Comportament

prosocial. n Septimiu Chelcea i Petru Ilu
(coord.) Enciclopedie de psihosociologie (pp.
86-87). Bucureti: Editura Economic.
4. Crick, Bernard. (2004). Citizenship and
Volunteering. n Philip Collins and Moussa
Haddad (editori). Giving Something Back:
Business, volunteering and healthy communities
(pp. 40-43). Londra: Social Market Foundation.
5. Dodescu, Anca i Hatos, Adrian. (coord.).
(2004). Cum se nva cetenia activ n
Romnia?
Rezultate
de
cercetare
i
recomandri de politici. Oradea: Editura
Universitii din Oradea.
6. Rigman, Cristina. (2008). Volunteers in
Romania: A Profile. Cluj-Napoca: Centrul
pentru Studiul Democraiei
7. Sandu,
Dumitru.
(2005).
Dezvoltare
comunitar. Cercetare, practic, ideologie.
Iai: Editura Polirom.
8. Saulean, Daniel i Epure, Carmen. (1998).
Defining the Nonprofit Sector: Romania. n
Lester M. Salamon i Helmut K. Anheier
(editori). Working Papers of the Johns Hopkins
Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project, nr. 32.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Institute
for Policy Studies.
9. Saulean, Daniel. (1999). Sursele sociale ale
vieii asociative i filantropiei n contextul
tranziiei. www.fdsc.ro/documente/22.pdf
10. United Nations Volunteers. (2004). Enhancing
Business-Community Relations. The Role of
Volunteers in Promoting Global Corporate
Citizenship. Global Report. Bonn: United
Nations Volunteers.
11. Vander Zanden, James W. [1977] (1987).
Altruism and helping behavior. n James W.
Vander Zanden. Social Psychology (pp. 297327). New York: Random House.
12. Voicu, Bogdan. (2005). Voluntariatul. n
Penuria pseudo-modern a postcomunismului
romnesc. Volumul I. Schimbarea social i
aciunile indivizilor (pp. 121-136). Iai: Editura
Expert Projects.
460
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VOLUNTEERING: THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND PERSONAL

CHARACTERISTICS
Rzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC*
Abstract: Theories on volunteering are various in origin (they come from sociology, social
assistance, psycho-sociology, political science), reflecting the diversity of forms of manifestation
of this type of prosocial behavior. Malina Voicu and Bogdan Voicu (2003, 2004) conducted a
synthesis of these theoretical explanations, which I will refer to in the first part of this section. I
will also present the five theoretical models of volunteering described by Peggy A. Thoits and
Lyndi N. Hewitt (2001) and at the end of the article I will refer to the interpretation of
volunteering in terms of the sociology of emotions.
Keywords: volunteering, motivation, social emotions.
1. INTRODUCTION
Malina Voicu and Bogdan Voicu (2003)
conducted a synthesis of different theoretical
approaches of volunteering , considering that
they can be classified into two major
categories :
- A first category of explanations focuses on
the different types of resources or
characteristics (social capital, human capital,
income, gender affiliation and age, urban /
rural environmen) and their contribution in
the production of voluntary behavior . After
the identification of these resources we can
create a " perfect profile " of the volunteer in a
certain culture , beginning with the identified
sociodemographic characteristics ;
- A second category of explanations is based
on the beliefs and values of the volunteers and
461
states that the cultural dimension of

volunteering is more important than the
presence of a particular type of resource. Also,
this includes the research on the motivations of
individuals who become volunteers.
2. SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLUNTEERS
The social capital (particularly the bridging
type) is important for volunteering, because
volunteering activities involve participation,
cooperation and trust in people. The
organizations that recruit volunteers frequently
use the social networks of their own members
(Pearce, 1993 apud Voicu and Voicu, 2004).
John Wilson and Marc A. Musick (1997) show
that people with a large social network have a
higher probability to contact and work as
volunteers, and participation as a volunteer

contributes to a further increase of the social
network: "organized volunteering is in its
essence, a form of sociability, and increases
the frequency of social contacts " (Voicu,
2005, 122).
The human capital has been related to
volunteering, especially in terms of "dominant
status model " developed by David Horton
Smith (1994), under which volunteers are
people who have high-level features related to
human capital.
The frequency of voluntary acts is
directly related to the income of potential
volunteers (Smith, 1994). The persons who are
not "concerned for tomorrow" find more easily
the necessary time to involve as volunteers. At
the society level the economic development
tends to produce high levels of volunteering,
hence a possible explanation for the increased
interest in volunteering in Romania in the last
years.
With regard to gender affiliation,
theoretically, there are points of view that say
that women should be voluntary rather than
men, given the fact that they possess some
qualities required by volunteering ( higher
scores on the various tests aiming to measure
empathy or altruism), and they are also less
involved in the labor market (Wilson, 2000).
Other authors state that men should rather be
volunteers given the fact that they have more
features of the "dominant status model"
compared to the female population.
At a distance of ten years, two studies
that sought to identify the ideal profile of the
volunteer in Romania have conflicting results
in terms of gender affiliation: in 1997 it was
more male (Saulean, 1999, 24) and in 2007
nearly two-thirds were women (Rigman, 2008,
4).
From a theoretical perspective, the
volunteers come from the ages where free time
is more available, compared to the working
population: teenagers and people in early
retirement. Regarding adolescents and young
people, for them, the probability to become
volunteers is lower for those who work compared to those who study - or if they have
children compared with those who do not. For
the other ages, the presence of children is not
an impediment "Older parents tend to be better
prepared to raise children. They have more

time to become volunteer (Oesterle, 2004
apud Voicu and Voicu, 2004, 4). Volunteering
in older people has many positive effects
"probably because the services brought to the
community become a substitute for
employment when retirement occurs" (Thoits
and Hewitt 2001, 117).
Typically, volunteers are recruited
from urban areas. This can be explained on
one hand by the abundance of social networks
that intersect here (used by organizations to
recruit volunteers and to increase its capital),
but also because non-profit organizations,
those who recruit volunteers (especially public
ones) are more present in urban areas than in
rural
areas.
The
controversy
exists
theoretically only related to the size of cities
that promote volunteering and it is far from
being resolved, thanks to the intervention of
other factors that may promote volunteering
(for example, if a city is or not a university
center in Romania, particularly with regard to
social-human faculties).
3. INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND
MOTIVATIONS
The involvement as a volunteer has an
expressive function for the individual, which
can so express the values that drive his
existence (eg religious ones - Wilson and
Musick,
1997).
Regarding
individual
motivation leading to volunteering, the works
consulted specifically insist on the awareness
of opportunities for expanding the social
network,
acquiring
new
skills
and
qualifications or pursuing a form of social
recognition . Thus, volunteering seems rather
generated by motivations that have nothing to
do with altruism . Susan Eckstein (2001, 230)
insists that in becoming a volunteer " unequal
exchanges contribute to strengthening the
reputation , prestige and authority " , hence the
conclusion reached by Malina Voicu and
Bogdan Voicu (2005, 5) : " Excluding the
purely altruistic factors, the determinants of
volunteering can be reduced to a set of
resources or socio-economic indicators of
status" .
Starting from the two major theoretical
explanation of volunteering, Malina Voicu and
462
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
Bogdan Voicu (2005, 5) form a portrait of the

volunteer in Eastern Europe, which is similar
to that of the volunteer in Western Europe: "a
well-educated person, with an extensive social
network that has a good financial situation and
seek to fulfill necessities of higher order.
Furthermore, we expect to find higher levels of
volunteering among young people with a high
level of religious practice and residing in
urban areas. "
4. THEORETIC MODELS OF
VOLUNTEERING
Peggy A. Thoits and Lyndi N. Hewitt (2001,
117-118) describe four models of volunteers
that in present, guide the literature "on this
field and propose a specific model, that of"
personal welfare "(" the personal well -being
model "):
a) "The volunteer motivations model"
emphasizes the role of individual motivations
in volunteering, the range being an extremely
extended one "for example, to learn new skills,
develop personality, increase self-esteem,
career preparation, expressing personal values
and commitment to community or even
reducing intrapersonal conflicts or threats to
their identity. " Volunteering serves different
motivations both from one person to another
and also for the same person, which leads to
concluding that "the selection of volunteers
can not be systematic or patented at a general
level ", due to motivational poliformism
(Thoits and Hewitt, , 2001, 117);
b) Values and attitudes model stresses the
link between volunteering and individual
belief on the importance of civic participation
and responsibility felt to produce charitable
behavior. Not surprisingly at all, the values
and attitudes favorable to the voluntary civic
involvement influences volunteering
463
c) The role-identity model show that past

performance by a person of a voluntary action
leads to the development of a "volunteer role
identity" that motivates future involvement as
a volunteer of the same person;
d) The volunteer personality model suggests
there are personality or disposition variables
that favor volunteering. In this context, Allen
and Rushton (1983, cited in Thoits and Hewitt
2001, 117) conclude that "volunteer
participation is higher for individuals with
internal control, with high self-esteem and a
high emotional stability. These results suggest
that people who generally have higher
personal coping resources [...] and have a
better state of mental health would be more
likely to volunteer. "
e) The personal well-being model combines
personality characteristics (self confidence ,
sense of control over their own lives , selfesteem and self-esteem of a high level) and a
good (physical and mental) health, as a list of
their own personal resources to those who
search / are being searched to volunteer . The
relationship volunteering / personal welfare is
a mutual one " studies suggest that people with
a higher welfare (eg , greater psychosocial
resources and physical or mental health) will
become volunteers more often and people who
are involved in community service may have a
greater life satisfaction , self-esteem ,
awareness of the meaning of life , physical and
mental health " (Thoits and Hewitt, 2001, 118)
5. VOLUNTEERING AND THE
SOCIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
In the last three decades the sociology of
emotions crystalized as a new area of research
(Chelcea, 2007) and in psycho-sociology, "the
idea that emotions are social, that are rooted in
social relations is now widely accepted"

(Chelcea and Zodieru, 2008, 369).
Septimiu Chelcea (2007, 161) states
that "the theories of prosocial behavior have, if
not entirely, at least partially, validity in the
analysis of sympathy (and perhaps other
emotions). Showing sympathy to someone, we
give them support to overcome the critical
situation, we encourage her, which is a
genuine prosocial behavior if " the sympathy
donor " - the term is mine - does not expect a
material or moral reward ,and
if the
expression of sympathy isnt a work
obligation, but a conscious act, freely
decided." With this statement, I will try to
interpret volunteering related to the theory of
sympathy elaborated by Candace Clark (1987,
1997) cited Septimiu Chelcea (2007, 160-163).
Over a longer period of time " the
sympathy donor " needs motivational support
for the sustained effort to help he makes and
we are no longer facing a "genuine prosocial
behavior" but a volunteering act.
The volunteer (that I can name by
paraphrasing Septimiu Chelcea - "the chronic
sympathy donor") acts within the "emotional
economy", frequently described by Candace
Clark as an "overinvestor" having a" credit
line of sympathy "(defined by Clark as the
amount of sympathy that the individual has) of
superior level and being willing to reach a"
limit of sympathy "as high as possible toward
the people they help.
"The sympathy limit " is understood
here as "the sympathy that the individual
negotiates according to the actual situation of
the other person, but also in relation to their
own life history (past experience of being"a
good man ") and the height of their moral
standards "- Chelcea, 2007, 161). The
sympathy - "the most social of emotions" operates as a " protection value " that allows
the one in difficulty to mobilize his resources
to act according to the cultural norms,
including the proper asking for help. If "
sympathy is the life preserver that sometimes
help those in distress" (Chelcea, 2007, 162),
the volunteers would have the crew of the
lifeboat: based on the relationship sympathy
established with the person / people they help,
volunteers can give help and it will be

accepted as such "sympathy mobilizes those
who like each other to focus on the moral
aspects, the cultural rules and thereby,
sympathy has the function of social
integration."
REFERENCES
1. Chelcea, Septimiu i Zodieru, Alexandru.
(2008). Emoiile - o construcie social. n
Septimiu Chelcea (coord.). Psihosociologie.
Teorii, cercetri, aplicaii (pp. 355-376). Iai:
Editura Polirom.
2. Chelcea,
Septimiu.
Sociologia
(2007).
emoiilor: teorii culturale. In Sociologie
Romneasc. Volumul V, nr. 2/2007, 149-163.
3. Eckstein, Susan. (2001). Community as GiftGiving: Collective Roots of Volunteerism. In
American Sociological Review, nr. 66, 829-851.
4. Rigman, Cristina. (2008). Volunteers in
Romania: A Profile. Cluj-Napoca: Centrul
pentru Studiul Democraiei.
5. Saulean, Daniel. (1999). Sursele sociale ale
vieii asociative i filantropiei n contextul
tranziiei. www.fdsc.ro/documente/22.pdf
6. Smith, David Horton. (1994). Determinants of
Voluntary Association Participation and
Volunteering: A Literature Review. In
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quartely,
nr.23, 243-263.
7. Thoits, Peggy A. i Hewitt, Lyndi N. (2001).
Volunteer Work and Well-Being. In Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 42, Nr. 2,115131.
8. Voicu, Bogdan i Voicu, Mlina. (2003).
Volunteering in CEE: one of the missing links?.
In Bogdan Voicu i Horaiu Rusu
(editori).Globalization, Integration, and Social
Development in Central and Eastern Europe
(pp. 57-66). Sibiu: Editura Psihomedia.
9. Voicu, Bogdan. (2005). Voluntariatul. In
Penuria pseudo-modern a postcomunismului
romnesc. Volumul I. Schimbarea social i
aciunile indivizilor (pp. 121-136). Iai: Editura
Expert Projects.
10. Wilson, John i Musick, Marc A. (1997). Who
Cares? Towards an Integrated Theory of
Volunteer Work. In American Sociological
Review, nr. 62., 694-713.
11. Wilson, John. (2000). Volunteering. In Annual
Review of Sociology, nr. 26, 215-240.
464
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF MORAL EDUCATION IN DETENTION
Cristiana BALAN
The Faculty of Psychology - Pedagogy, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract
The moral life has its values, norms and its courts, it ensures respect for values that transcend the direct
interest of the person and makes one think of the others, accepting and protecting them and promoting
their interest as a real purpose. To reach all these, we need to take an educational step of asserting the
moral good and denying the moral evil and for all these to become real, a lot of work, sacrifice, passion
and dedication are needed and the work of a psychologist can hope to be an integrated element in such a
construction. This is an ascertaining study which addresses the prison system as a whole, from the
experience within a single prison, but at the same time, it addresses the whole society which includes this
particular prison. The points of interest and also the research objectives were to identify the degree of
perception of moral values among young prisoners, attitude determination and the acceptance degree of
the prisoners regarding moral education activities during detention; forming documented opinions on the
most effective moral education activities for prisoners.
Keywords: moral education, moral culture, set of values, the factor of rehabilitation
1. A NEW CONCEPT IN THE

ROMANIAN PRISON SYSTEM
The work is developed on a undeniable
current theme that brings in the center of the
investigation the man, and not a mere man,
but one that, in specific social circumstances,
has come to be isolated, legally, by the society
and forced to give up his freedom, for long or
small periods of time. [1].
Since this year (2011) the "credit system"
has been introduced in some of the (pilot)
prisons which is functioning upon the idea of
accumulated, acquired or canceled credits. For
each activity carried out by a prisoner within
the programs of education, productive,
hobbies, sports, etc.., he receives a bigger or a
smaller number of credits which accumulates
465
with each activity carried out during detention,

thus giving him the opportunity to collect as
many credits as possible. With this number of
credits each inmate acquires rewards such as
additional packages or visits and even the
permission to go home for one day.
This system aims to increase prisoners self
-confidence and encourages them to acquire as
many credits for the programs conducted and
the evaluation within the Parole Board before
the punishment deadline will also be done
related to the number of credits accumulated
by each prisoner. It is about a much easier
evaluation, ethically speaking and it may
contribute to the assessment of the social
recovery of prisoners.[3].
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
We wish to mention that in this paper we
only present the beginning of a research
provided as permitted by the subjects
condition, that of prisoners in a prison.
Therefore, the objectives, even if they have
the size of a much more daring project, relate
to the expectations commensurate with the
possibilities and the motion space of the
subjects given the circumstances.
We propose, therefore, the following
objectives:
Identifying the perception of moral
values among prisoners;
Determining the attitude and the
acceptance by prisoners of moral
education activities during detention;
Formation of documented opinions on
the most effective moral education
activities for prisoners.
3. WORK HYPOTHESES
Based on the proposed objectives and the
pattern of scientific data gathered in the first
part of this paper, we considered useful to
submit to testing and evaluating the following
hypotheses:
1. Most prisoners have a valid perception of
ethical values, but have a negative assessment
of their ability to respect and promote these
values;
2. Among the prisoners there is a hierarchy of
preferences for cooperation with educational
factors, depending on the degree of
involvement;
3. Most prisoners recognize the seriousness of
the offenses for which they were condemned
and appreciate positively the role of detention
in their social behavior correction.
4. THE POPULATION STUDIED
Sampling difficulties were evident during
the research. The requirements imposed by the
representation scientific requirements in
conjunction with voluntary request, forced us
to draw in research only those prisoners who
have shown interest to our theme, so some of
the prisoners got away from the theme - those
prisoners who would, in our opinion , mostly

need moral education: those who remain in
complete opposition to the social system and
outside its living rules.
The sample for the research, looks as
follows:
- A group- sample of prisoners selected on a
voluntary basis (50 people), statistically
structured on the basis of relevant criteria for
the research: age, sentencing limits, recidivists
non-recidivists, married, unmarried, with or
without children, level (type ) of religiousness.
- Factors of influence and education from the
prison staff and partners, established on a
friendly basis: priest, psychologist, director,
NGO representative etc.
The conclusions of the identification data
of prisoners show a balanced distribution in
terms of age and occupation before
enprisonment.
There is a preponderance of unmarried
prisoners with sentences of up to five years,
and the overwhelming majority declare
themselves to be of Christian - Orthodox
religion. However, the preponderance of
married
prisoners (32%), of those with
sentences over five years (34%) or recidivists
(32%) is significant, which allows the
extraction of relevant conclusions.
5. METHODS AND RESEARCH TOOLS
During the research the following methods
were used:
1. Conducted interview, applied to the people
in the management and education areas of the
prison and other persons representing civil
society with whom the prison cooperates.
2. Questionnaire-based survey applied to the
prisoners forming the sample.
The opinion questionnaire applied to the
prisoners in the prison in which this study was
conducted, has been designed based on the
research objectives and hypotheses and on the
conclusions drawn from the field literature.
We are aware that it has its limitations in
terms of both design and implementation. The
limited work possibilities have not allowed, as
was necessary in terms of scientific
requirements, its calibration on a pilot sample,
for which the answer to some questions
revealed some limitations of form or the lack
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
of discriminative significance, as the case of,

the question on the religion of participants or
the insufficient separation of particular social
situations (cohabiting, unmarried but with
children, etc).
The limits of the questionnaire are related
to representativeness. A total of 50 prisoners
who agreed to answer the questionnaire, all
men, from a single prison, is undoubtedly a
major limit. We consider, however, the results
of the survey satisfactory, especially since the
prisoners participation was absolutely
voluntary, without coercion.
We consider this study to be a beginning that
may allow a more extensive research in a
major project, possibly on a national scale.
3. Case studies of prisoners, based on
voluntary and confidentiality regarding their
identity and also, their consent on the data
published in the study.
4. The monograph of a case
The instruments in paragraphs 3 and 4 have
a feature allowed by the research team with
reserve, but considered to be useful for the
research, for the public penetrability and
plasticity of the texts, but also for the
relevance of the social and spiritual universe
of the material described.
3. CONCLUSIONS
After applying the aforementioned tools,
we believe that, under the limits of validity
determined by the very limits of the study, we
can formulate important conclusions regarding
the direction to follow concerning the moral
education of prisoners.
3.1. After analyzing the results of applying all
the tools for collecting information and
opinions on the population studied, we found
that the detainees have an acceptable moral
culture, manifesting in a significant majority,
467
their attachment, at least declaratively, towards

these values. A significant nuance is that some
officers of the prison show serious reservations
about this perception, saying that the prisoner
is, by nature, incorrigible, indocile, unable to
gain access to authentic moral values. We
believe this view as an isolated one, and in
order to shape it as determining we would
need to do a research on a representative
number of persons within this category.
A major conclusion resulting from the
study is that most prisoners properly assess the
causes that led to the crimes they were
convicted for, detaching as causes, the
entourage and the personal character, with
emphasis on the fact that both the character
and the entourage have met a favorable social
environment in which the privileged values
were far from the authentic ethics: money,
adventure, priority of physiological needs
rather than moral, all installed in society amid
a post-revolutionary freedom
which
transformed itself for many, into libertarianism
and denial of any authority.[4].
Therefore, the participants in our study
recognized with sufficient clearness that even
they know and adhere to the basic moral
values, when they were outside the law were
unable or unwilling to undergo it.
Under these circumstances, we consider
that the first hypothesis of our study confirmed
totally of two sources (case studies and
opinion questionnaire) and partly from the
third (interview), less exploited under
circumstances of genuine testability, due to the
small
number
of
respondents.
We therefore believe that most prisoners
have a valid perception of ethical values, but
have a negative assessment of their ability to
respect and promote these values, before
detention.
Based on this conclusion, we believe that

moral education in prison is fully possible,
finding a favorable echo among the majority
of prisoners, that not only manifest openly
their willingness to participate, but they also
demand more activities, more differentiated,
better organized, less formal and closer to the
personality profile of each prisoner.
3.2. The assessments from the application of
an instrument of research have revealed
interesting features about the preferences of
detainees in cooperation with educational
factors inside and outside the prison. By far,
the most outstanding preference is for what
detention has taken from the prisoner : his
family. This is more evident for married
inmates, but is significant for the unmarried
ones too. Next, in order, the psychologist,
educational staff, priest, prison mates.
However, prisoners assessment, supported, in
part, by the prison staff, is that the presence of
these educational factors in their lives is
insignificant, and the responses of "rarely" or "
pretty rarely" are prevalent.
We believe, therefore, that the second
hypothesis is confirmed, so that among
prisoners there is a hierarchy of preferences
for cooperation with educational factors,
according to institutional and non-institutional
factors, opening the way for an objective
analysis of how to think the involvement of
these factors in the moral education of
prisoners.
On the other hand, it requires a rethinking
of the role of professionals and individuals
with specific responsibilities in the moral
education of prisoners. The role of the priest
has to be more important. A measure which
we believe that could significantly change the
nature, content and effectiveness of moral
education in prisons should be changing the
role of the psychologist, who should have a
specific role according to his specialization
and in the prisons with large staffs a
psychological department distinct from that
educational one should be effectively
constituted.
3.3. The main objective of our study was to
find means by which education would provide
moral and social rehabilitation of those
deprived of freedom. For this it was necessary
to evaluate the extent to which prisoners

recognize the seriousness of the acts
committed and supports the idea that they can
rediscover their role in life through education.
By assessing the results of the instruments
applied in the research, we find a favorable
attitude from the prisoners. The feeling of guilt
is mostly shared and the opinion about the role
of moral education in prison is a favorable
one, as well.
Therefore, the third hypothesis of our study
is confirmed. Most prisoners recognize the
seriousness of the offenses for which they were
condemned and appreciate the role of moral
education while in detention in straightening
their social behavior.
So, nothing prevents us, to give greater
importance to the moral education of
prisoners. We have not thought for a moment
to propose the transforming of the prison into a
recreation center or a house of culture. We do
not think that the prisoner should be included
in educational activities in most of the time
spent behind bars. We also do not believe that
bars should be covered up in velvet or that the
guards should be changed into counselors. We
understand and accept that detention must be,
above all, perceived as a punishment, with all
its valences, involving deprivation of freedom.
The analysis of the results led to a major
conclusion: that most prisoners have a valid
ethical perception of moral values, but have a
negative assessment of their ability to respect
and promote these values before detention.
Based on this conclusion, we believe that
moral education in prison is fully possible,
finding a favorable echo among most
prisoners, who not only openly manifest their
willingness to participate, but they also ask for
activities that are more differentiated, more
less formal and closer to their personality
profile. Another way of life than that which
brought the prisoner behind bars requires a
new set of moral and civic values that he
should have the opportunity to discover.
During detention it is necessary to give credit
to moral education as an important factor in
rehabilitation.[1].
468
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Those who will approach this work will

discover that evil is not all evil, that the world
behind bars is a world where a lot of guilty
consciences cannot wait to be given the
opportunity to raise at the level of the
authentic human being. Provided someone to
discover them, bring them to light and to
restore them their trust and hope. The success
will never be complete. But if one lost sheep
was brought to the flock it is called that a
minimal moral act was committed. [2]
469
REFERENCES
1. Dobrinoiu, V., Neagu, N. Drept penal,
Partea special, Teorie i practic
judiciar.
Editura Wolters Kluwer,
Romania (2008).
2. Stinger, P. (editor). Tratat de etic.
Editura Polirom, Iasi (2006).
3. *Strategia sistemului penitenciar
2009-2013. Educaie i asisten
psihosocial
adaptate
nevoilor
persoanelor
custodiate,
n
http://www.anp-just.ro
4. *Educaie moral i reintegrarea
social a deinuilor n penitenciar, n
http://psihoforce.info
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THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING IN IMPROVING

BEHAVIORAL DYSFUNCTIONS IN RECIDIVIST CRIMINALS
Cristiana BALAN
The Faculty of Psychology - Pedagogy, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania
Abstract
This paper addresses certain behavioral disorders in prison environment, and also their nature and
content of adolescent offenders and recidivists. The socio-dynamic criminal behavior is analyzed in
general and that of the recidivist offenders as well, there are also established the correlations between the
factors that contribute to the social maturation, the formation of collective consciousness in relation to
the accelerated pace of somato-psychic development, the endogenous or exogenous conditions that favor
a development that is early, disharmonic, perverted and masked, which, by their persistence, maintain the
criminal phenomenon confirmed by the psychological evaluation. Behavioral disorders have an upward
trend, and we observe within the first step the repeating of the same type of crime (the mono-criminal),
then a second stage which is the polymorphic phase (the specialization of relapse), and the last stage is
that of the general recidivism. The probability of recidivism is highlighted by eight factors: heredity,
abnormal character, educational environment, educational problems, and consciousness of self,
inappropriate use of time and entertainment, the gender and the severity of crime committed.
As strategies of recovery regarding the criminal personality predisposed to recidivism, we propose the
following measures of social intervention: family adjustment, vocational adjustment, social adjustment.
An important role in this regard plays the social rehabilitation measures, to improve ecological
conditions of the individual (in family, workplace, at school, in the community group), by specific social
actions, focusing on psychological counseling of young offenders by specialized people.
Keywords: behavioral disorders, prison environment, crime, recovery strategies
1. Behavioral dysfunctions in prison

environment
The theme of this study approaches the
behavioral dysfunctions in the prison
environment, their nature and content in
adolescent offenders and recidivists. It is
socio-dynamic analyzed the criminal behavior
in general, of the recidivists particularly, there
471
are established the correlations between

factors contributing to social maturation, the
formation of collective consciousness in
relation
to
the
accelerated
somatic
development, endogenous or exogenous
conditions favoring an early disharmonious,
perverted or masked development, that
through their persistence maintain the criminal
phenomenon confirmed by psychological

evaluation.
Behavioral disorders present an upward
trend, and we are able to observe as a first
step, the repetiton of the same kind of offenses
(the criminal mono-phase) and a second stage
the polymorphic phase (specialization of
relapse), and the last one being the general
recidivism. The probability of relapse is
highlighted by eight factors: heredity,
abnormal character, educational environment,
educational difficulties and self criticism,
injudicious use of time and entertainment, the
kind and seriousness of the offense committed.
The prison living conditions have a simple
logic, as the staff provides a range of services
for prisoners - feeding, hygiene, recreation,
literacy, security. The impression created is
one of environmental sustainability as the
inmates bear harder or easier the
imprisonment.
After a longer contact with the prison, its
human dimensions, relational structures,
unofficial norms and values, rumors dynamic,
system privileges, power relationships,
statuses and roles of actors involved will begin
to be perceived. These all have psychological
and psychosocial consequences visible on
prisoners and staff.
2. THE RESEARCH DESIGN
In prison, the issue of norms and values takes
on particular aspects determined by prisoners
situation: lack of freedom and other
frustrations prevent proper relating to
significant aspects of everyday existence.
Dignity, health, employment, equality, human
rights, protection and love are appreciated
through the "state of being a prisoner " and
ranked according to the pressure of needs
unmet in the prison. Here, as in society, act
three types of rules:
Organizational concerning the
Functioning mechanism of the institution (law
enforcement of sentences).
Actional - indicating rules of a
"correct" assessment of everyday situations
and events that interest prisoners
Relational Concerning effective ways
for the relashionships prisoner-
prisoner, prisoner-group of inmates,

prisoner -prison staff.
Specific to prison environment is the
parallel existence of formal rules that are
inforced and pursue the objectives of the
institution
productive,
educational,
preventive with the unofficial rules
expressing the experience generalization of
prisoners aimed at building bearable
relationships and living conditions during the
execution punishment and acting only within
the group of prisoners.
As will be demonstrated, the impact of
imprisonment on the components of
personality is in many cases dramatically,
generating different behaviors from those of
the free environment. Decisive for the
evolution of the prisoner is his position on
punishment and the degree of biological and
psychological safety that he perceive in his
new living environment. Moreover, as the
prisoners are more adapted to the prison, the
more pronounced their reactivity will be.
Typically, the human personality structure
presents the following key components:
emotions, motivation, will, temperament, skills
and character. Those components which in
special situations, like serving a sentence of
imprisonment are omitted, acquires a special
importance to maintaining the individual soul:
family, home, friends, familiar objects, regard
for others. The brutal separation of these
elements
contribute
to
psychological
disintegration of the person that tries to
compensate the "losses" through various
defense behavior.
Custodial
environment
determines
an
aggressive behavior which consists in rejecting
the norms and values of the group from the
outside. Aggression could be defined as "a
verbal or acting offensive behavior, aiming at
humiliating or physical suppression of others."
[1].
Aggressive behavior can be turned against
oneself (self-harm), towards destruction of
objects invested with official meanings
heteroaggression. A specific form of
aggression in prison environment is slavery the use by some inmates of other inmates in
activities considered demeaning. Another form
of aggression is the instrumented one, which is
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manifested in the form of individual or group

conflict, competeing for a limited source of
income. Extreme forms of verbal and physical
aggression are directed against prisoners
convicted for felonies repudiated in prison. [2].
Research objectives
1. Determining detention consequences on the
behavior of recidivists
2. Determining the influence of personality
and self-image of recidivists on behavioral
disorders in conditions of detention
3. Establishing the attitude of recidivists
towards educational activities in prison
Research Hypotheses
General hypotheses
The evolution of recidivists behavioral
disorders is influenced by internal factors and
specific contextual prison environment.
Derived Hypotheses:
1. Behavioral dysfunctions in prison
environment are influenced by the personality
of inmate. If the prison inmate has a
personality well-defined and confined in
present, he is emotionally stable, with a strong
ego and the range of behavioral disorders is
lower.
2. The self-image of the prisoner influences
the behavioral dysfunctions in prison. If a
prisoner is collectively dependent, naive,
sentimental, humble, kind, submissive,
anxious, tense, frustrated, overtaken by events,
the range of behavioral disorders is higher.
Sample
To test the hypothesis and achieve the
objectives we used a sample of inmates from
prison Codlea - Brasov, in the period JanuaryDecember 2013
473
The sample includes 50 detainees, 30

recidivists (18 offenders are men and 12 are
women) and 20 non-recidivists (12 are men of
and 8 women).
Analyzing the survey data we observe that
most of the prisoners were up to three
convictions for various offenses, without being
considered recidivists, since the convictions
were under 6 months of imprisonment or they
did not met the conditions for the small
relapse, committing three acts of the same
nature.
Most acts are directed against private
property. It was noted that in 50% cases , the
first offense was committed between the ages
of 18-22, while the highest number of
recidivists are in the age group of 26-35. In
recidivists the criminal profile emerges in the
juvenile phase.
The highest percentage of offenders comes
from urban areas, individuals with no or
insufficient training. A relatively high
percentage are classified as unemployed.
Most come from dysfunctional families,
from parents with criminal records or with
parents who are unemployed.
The highest number of recidivists show
disharmonious developments of personality,
which often were overlapped on educational
gaps in the family, school and society.
The criminal sanctions do not provide the
necessary conditions for stopping the
phenomenon, for most of the times we
consider the danger solely in terms of the
social relations that are violated, without
taking into account the specific characteristics
of the individual. To this is added the fact that
the process of rehabilitation is not being done
after relevant criteria and more important, will
not continue after the execution of the
sentence by a corresponding social
classification and competent supervision.
Research methods and means

A. Methods:
a. Investigation of personality by personality
inventory requires the subject to think deep
before referring to the dominant characteristics
of his behavior, his honesty when answering
the questions
b. Questionnaire-based interview
B. Means of investigation:
In order to analyze the relationships
between the variables of the classification and
the level of relapse, the following samples
were applied to the entire sample :
interview-based survey
anamnesis
personality questionnaire 16 PF(R.B
Cattell)
Starting from the general considerations that
that in the deviant behavior socio-dynamic we
must observe the action of social factors, since
the period of the formation of personality, so
primarily in environmental conditions (family,
school, close entourage) [3]. and emphasizing
that the analysis of personality, its antisocial
incidents, the psychopathological aspects
sociopatologice which motivate them, we can
state that the research hypothesis and
objectives of the work are confirmed.
The research examines socio-dynamic the
behavior of offenders in general, of recidivists
particularly, establishes the correlations
between the factors contributing to social
maturation, the formation of collective
consciousness in relation to the accelerated
somatic development, the endo or exogenous
conditions favoring early disharmonious,
perverted, masked development, which, by
their persistence and chronicity, maintain the
phenomenon confirmed by the tests applied.
The dissonance found between social
maturity and delayed social maturation is one
of the main factors of criminal behavior.
Behavioral disorders have an upward
trend, as follows:
as a first phase, we observe the
repetition of the same kind of offenses
(the mono-criminal phase);
the second phase is the polimorf one
when the relapse specializes;
the last phase the general relapse[4].
Tested subjects fall in the category of complex

relapse: they have committed three to four
offenses.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The phenomenon of relapse generates and is
largely responsible for the perpetuation of
specific disfunctionalities specific for the
detention environment.
The probability of relapse is highlighted by
eight factors:
heredity
anomalies of character
educational environment
educational dificulties
counsciousness and self-criticism
inappropriate use of free time
the kind and intensity of the offense
severity of offense.
As strategies for recovering the personality
predisposed to recidivism, we propose to
implement a plan of action aimed at achieving
the following social measures:
familial adaptation
professional adaptation
social adaptation
As a final conclusion, we point out that the
evolution of behavioral disorders of the
recidivists is influenced by internal factors
related to individual personality and also,
contextual factors specific to the prison
environment.
An important role in this regard lies with
the measures of social rehabilitation, of
improving the ecological conditions of the
individual (within family, at work, at school,
in the community), by specific social actions,
focusing on psychological counseling of
young offenders by qualified personnel.
REFERENCES
1. Brezeanu, Ortansa, Integrarea social
postpenal a infractorilor ntre
realitate i perspective. Bucureti:
Editura Fundaia Romnia de Mine
(2000).
2. Bu, I. Psihologie judiciar. Curs
universitar. Cluj-Napoca: UBB (2003).
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3. Butoi,
T.S.,
Criminologie:
comportamente criminale. Bucureti:
Editura Solaris Print ((2009).
4. *Legea
nr.
275/2006
privind
executarea pedepselor i a msurilor
475
dispuse de organele judiciare n cursul

procesului penal.
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EDUCATION AND MANAGEMENT IN A DEMOCRATIC PERSPECTIVE

Angela BLOGU
Vasile Goldi Western University of Arad, Arad, Romania, Individual Office of Psychology
Angela Blogu, Timisoara, Romania
Abstract: The opportunity of educational management modernisation is required in the perspective of the
society's development trends and of social integration, which implies the need to participate in the
globalisation, internationalisation processes specific to the contemporary world. They claim a new
management - the transitional management of human resources - which highlights the learning and
valuing of the new competences related to cooperation in open and complex heterogeneous cultural
areas, which demand for a permanent evolution and self-organisation. The edification of a modern,
prospective, flexible and open education, appropriate for a democratic society and for the requirements
of the market economy, for the individual self-achievement options is possible by implementing the
proposed management paradigm, appreciated as a strategy of change, employed on systemic, structural,
methodological, technical level, which converges towards the edification of a new "innovating school" as
a "moment of change in the evolution of education", reacts in psychological plan to the requirements
specific to the innovating creativity, based on an observance of the principles of efficiency on social
scale, the participation of education actors in the spirit of democracy values, rational organisation and
planning, motivation for permanent innovation.
Keywords: education, paradigm, democratic, principles
Subject actuality. Society development,

particularly in an era of changes, has a direct
dependency on the evolution of education,
which is one of the main tools whereby the
society stimulates, directs and controls the
development processes. The option for a
democratic and open society claims the focus
of efforts on "the educative dimension of the
social development, which, according to the
economic, political and cultural dimensions,
should build a healthy society, improving life
quality by a higher education. Given this
context, "educability and adaptability"
constitute two essential conditions for the
current and future changes, and the
"education-development" assembly represents
the strategy of the social progress.
477
The new educational policy prefigured in the

finalities of education implies an education
management sought to ensure organisational
development by promoting an education
strategy of boosting the human resource
performance, focused on the formation and
development of human personality, capable of
taking independent decisions in order to
achieve its own destiny and choose for the
democratic society. The valuing of the
resources management has, its creative
application, represent challenges of the
contemporary time, they are able to ensure the
development of the educational system,
particularly of the school, in a society based
on knowledge and computerisation.
The new orientations and realities involve a
new vision over the man itself as a supreme
value and, therefore, the need to perceive

education as a social phenomenon not only
from the general-human perspective - training
the man for life, perspective that currently
predominates in the psycho-pedagogical
research, but also from the modern
management perspective - of valuing the
individual
and
his
self-management,
externalisation and behavioural manifestation
capacities, as a defining value of his efficiency
and efficacy, field that both theoretically and
practically remains unexplored scientifically
and socially. Within this context, educational
management as science and art to prepare
human resources to form personalities
according to some finalities requested and
accepted by the individual, have the mission to
modify personality in an autonomous and
reformative sense for a correct, efficient
achievement of his activity, to socialise people
to fulfil roles and specific functions in other
types of organisations and society given that
this becomes a society based on knowledge
and computerisation. In this train of ideas, the
social and cultural pattern, when the
individual considers himself passive in
relation with his organisation, is overcome,
although
his
magistrocentrism
or
socialcentrism is still persistent, paradigm that
maintains the formation of the doer.
The change of paradigm on particular level
passing from the formation of the doer to the
formation of the decider constitutes a new
research direction and it involves, on overall
level,
a
participative
human-centred
democratic management, which should be
promoted by specific principles.
THE DOER
THE DECIDER
passive,
depending on the
others;
is lacking the
power of will in
taking decisions,
in
overcoming
inveterate habits
proactive,
selfknowledge;
the identification/
feeling of its own
value;
self-esteem,
personal strength;
high self-reflection,
and cultivating
other, better and
more
effective
habits;
uncertain,
a
product of what
is happening or
has happened;
victim of the
situation, of the
circumstances;
it is the reflection
of other people's
opinions
and
indications;
is lacking own
reflection;
is lacking an
authentic
understanding of
the real joy and
happiness;
is lacking vision,
unclear
orientation
in
life.
self-awareness, selfdetermination, selfexpression,

selfconfirmation, selfachievement, selfadjustment;
orientation in life
and the capacity to
make decisions;
wisdom, certainty;
(self)discipline;
life is considered a
functional product
of own decisions;
it determines the
course of things;
builds his life on
principles;
orientation
to
individual
and
public
selfachievement.
The humanisation of leadership implies

consideration on the individual particulars of
each participant to the educational process,
creation of some conditions to promote
individual development and capacities. All of
these can be achieved only by removing the
"administrative leadership" and implementing
the "managerial leadership", having the
following features: respect and confidence in
people, accepting personality, cooperation,
individualisation,
individual
change,
professional development, optimism, self-trust
and trust in the others.
The dynamics of the contemporary life,
determined by impressive changes in all the
areas of activity, requires a continuous
adapting of the educational system to the new
orientations and realities. The path chosen by
the society towards democracy and opening
may only ensure success if education will
form personalities capable of valuing new
ideas, values, beliefs, will promote new
individual behaviors, specific to a democratic
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society. Being oriented from man to man,

education is also a universal act of
communication, and the positive orientation of
education employs it axiological, meaning that
the education makes its way by values and for
values, the human being itself representing the
supreme value of education.
Given that the contemporary societies have
largely become societies of knowledge and
computerisation, the production of material as
also of non-material goods is ensured by a
larger and larger number of individuals, who
produce and value knowledge. Hence,
knowledge and learning becomes the primary
weapon of efficiency, performance and
competitiveness. School is a specific type of
social system being, on one hand, a generator
of knowledge, producer of human knowledge,
and on the other, being a disseminator of
knowledge results meant for training
successive generation for a rich personal life
and self-achievement, as also to value human
resources, as propulsive resources of the
economic and social, scientific, technological
and cultural development.
School has the social meaning to form the
future, but first it is called to educate the
generation, who should live and build under
conditions of social equity and competition.
Nevertheless, it should become democratic
and flexible to changes. From this perspective,
education should form intellectual, moral and
physical in the individual, to aid him to live in
the society. Thus, the need is felt for an
authentic education, which respects and
advantages human freedom by encouraging
the good, the free discipline, the selfleadership of the group of students, by
creating an environment that boost
spontaneity. The meaning of education and the
fundamental criterion of human life
assessment is the achievement of personality
by free creation. Updated, this orientation
becomes materialised by school training
479
programmes for social competences, which

should allow the graduates to cope with the
requirements of the active life in a society
based on market connections: initiative,
cooperation, team work, mutual training,
communication, logical thinking, problem
solving, decision making, obtaining and using
information, planning own actions, evaluation.
In the same time, it is required for the man to
honour his own personality, to try and rise
over the society, to determine his own path.
On the other hand, today, as never, the
assertion of Paul Lengrad becomes of
notoriety: "Education cannot simply be added
to human life as something imposed from the
outside. There is not more important thing
than culture. In philosophical terms, we can
say that education does not belong to the
category defined by the word to have, but to
the one characterised by the word to be.
Human existence in a status of "becoming"
in each stage and in various situations is the
real existence of education". As such, the
formation and development of personality,
which is representing the human subject,
considered as a bio-psycho-social unity, to
which the epistemic, pragmatic and
axiological functions are specific, in its
evolution "to be" and "to become", requires a
shift from individualisation to the psychology
of constructive individualisation (C. G. Yung).
By individualisation, the man builds his
individuality and his Self, which expresses the
unity of the personality.
In a time of change, a need is felt for moral
authentic renewal. In this train of idea, the
assertion of A. Einstein holds a particular
notoriety: "The greatest human effort is the
fight for morality in our actions. Our internal
balance and even our own existence depend
on that. But morality from our actions may
give beauty and dignity to life. To transform
this in a living force and to be fully aware of it
is, perhaps, the most important task of
education". Education for the moral-spiritual

values assumes "a value construction of the
personality of each individual, build on the
generally human values (truth, good, beauty,
sacred) and traditional (solidarity, harmony,
sincerity etc.) and open, in the same time, for
the European ethos" (the values of the
individual freedoms of expression, creation,
initiative) .
The man should be educated as a social and
cultural
being,
which
nevertheless
accomplishes and updates itself as an
individual being. Only as such education may
transform the person in personality, if we
consider that personality is a fullyaccomplished person. Under the current
conditions, it is important to learn
permanently,
to
form
indispensable
intellectual capacities, to replace the formula
"long life learning" with "learning throughout
the life", which requires the formation of
certain capacities of management for self. In
this train of ideas, considering that Romania
accedes more and more to a market economy
and to a society based on knowledge, the
educational system should be adapted to the
fluid context where people are living
according to the requirements of integration in
the European community. This requires a
productive conscious learning, for each man to
become an active citizen of society, prepared
to occupy a job, which guarantees own
independence, self-respect, life quality, which
claims responsibility on his side to contour his
own life. As such, the educational system in
the multi-cultural mosaic from the European
community should be edified with high
efficacy, starting with the fundamental thesis
of natural integration of the individual in the
universal culture, promoted by the famous
German linguist and philosopher V. von
Humboldt in the formula: Individual - Nation Humanity, consolidating and achieving this
strategic challenge by the national school,
conceived as a "social institute of the national
culture, by which disciples the people
perpetuate themselves and their material and
spiritual existence.
In the conditions of the contemporary life, a
particular importance for us is the education
for democracy. Education for democracy has a
double unitary meaning: to educate the

individual to be capable of living in, and to be
capable of building the democratic society.
Democracy represents a concept of
politological nature, which delimitates a
"philosophy, a way of living, a religion and a
governing form". In this train of ideas,
considering the need for democratisation and
modernisation of the education, valuing the
education in the meaning of the social and
human progress, we should imperatively
humanise the educational process, adapt it to
the
individual
needs,
interests
and
particularities of the person, create a learning
community based on trust, collaboration,
support, which would ensure the success,
development of the student. In this purpose, a
particular importance stands in the use of all
the methods of formal and non-formal
education.
From the definition of education as an activity
in itself, a system of actions of formationdevelopment of the human personality, of
conscious orientation oriented towards certain
finalities, it results the existence of an explicit
approach of the conception, organisation,
coordination,
evaluation,
continuous
optimisation of the elements of the educational
system - which is even the study field of
educational management. The need for
management is shown by the existences of
efficacy, by the increase in efficiency in
achieving the finalities of education, and not
only by the assurance of resources and by
direction. Within the meaning of the
aforementioned, the American scientist J.K.
Galbraith underlines that "education should
fulfil two vital functions. The first, to allow
people to self-lead themselves intelligently,
and the second, to make possible for them to
try and obtain full satisfaction from the lived
life". In an era of changes, the need for
personal "self-leading" is obvious and
advisable, which implies and efficient valuing
of education and educational management,
which majority aims at "valuing the individual
and its capacities". Therefore, both education
and the educational management direct the
efforts
towards
the
formation
and
development of the personality, capable of
building its own destiny, giving to life a
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meaning. As such, the couple "educationdevelopment" targets the final purpose of

individual and collective life quality
enrichment. Subject to the educational
management is therefore required the
formation of competences, necessary for the
young to connect the personal existence to the
dynamism of the current and future social life,
in its own interest and of the society. These
competences are functional knowledge,
capacities and application skills, positive and
constructive behavioural attitudes made by
systematic exercises in the teaching activities.
The intellectualisation of the student's
personality, the featuring of a new system of
values, which ensures the social a human
progress, should aid him to rapidly adapt to
new, changing situations. Given this context,
the long-term objective of the school should
be to train the students for an effective social
integration in the conditions of a "turbulent"
environment, which involves the graduation of
a preponderant, pragmatic education, oriented
towards creativity and formation of an
independent, critical thinking, towards the
development of the spirit of initiative,
entrepreneurship, team work.
The environmental change itself where the
educational unit operates, the large
transformations from the school - the new
educational objectives, the new programmes
and manuals, teaching technologies, the wider
implication of the community - determines a
new position of the school principal in the
system. This requires another content and
another character of the educational
management in order to form a creating,
captivating, attractive and efficient school
system, to put the accent on the formation of
the man who is willing and is able to take life
in his own hands, to become an active citizen
to cope with the challenges of the changing
environment. Currently, a school manager
should be able more than ever to create a
481
strong organisational culture and a favourable

climate for the collective and individual
activity, to establish the human balance, to
assert the freedom in education by
harmonising the organisation tasks and the
human relations. As a guarantor of the
individual and organisational success, the
school leader should involve in a continuous
search to identify and develop possibilities of
improvement of the educational unit by means
of his competences, by his way of thinking
and acting, oriented towards man, towards the
valuing and development of the individual
capacities, by involving/ attracting the
educational actors in the life of the school
organisation and in the social life. The new
educational finalities and objectives, as also
the new orientations and realities from society
imply passing from an empirical, traditional
leadership to a scientific, efficient leadership
and all its features.
An edification of the leadership system
appropriate for the exigencies of the
democratic society and for the new
educational objectives should be achieved
taking into account the education and
management as a science, the trends of
modern management, the main schools,
theories, principles and methods of leadership,
the achievement tools and the advanced
leadership practices, which contribute to the
increase of social efficiency of school and
education overall.
In its historical evolution, the last stage of
development of the general management implicitly educational - is characterised by the
attention granted primarily to human relations
and therefore the largest investments are made
not just in material resources, as one of the
streamlining sources, but especially in human
resources, primarily in the systems, projects
and programmes of original training (school
training of the students, persons trained in requalification,
reconversion
etc.)
and
continuous training (post-school, postuniversity, for specialists, in our case for the
educational personnel with teaching, leading,
guiding and control functions).
The restructuration of the educational system,
which should cope with the humanisation and
socialisation requirements, provided in the
curricular objectives of the new millenniums
start, requires a higher accent in waiving the
informative-reproductive education in favour
of
a
formative-applicative-productive
education; in this vision: (a) on institutional
level - the achievement of the challenge of the
current school on training for active postschool life (professional, civil and family); (b)
on the level of the sub-system of initial
training - streamlining the curriculum
management by achieving the curricular
objectives of general training by means of the
application tools for such curriculum.
The initiation, promotion and leadership in the
activity of managerial training on all education
levels, formal and informal, of a new
orientation of stringent actuality, materialised
in actions specific to the age and training level
regarding the education of the liability/
responsibility spirit (pre-school education,
primary education, gymnasium), the formation
of the capacity to decide for oneself
(gymnasium and high school), from where it
results the training on all ages of the
independence of thinking and acting, which
stimulates initiative, in the end it will give
shape to a complex, realistic and general
programme of formation of the decider in a
society of knowledge, computerisation,
freedom and democracy specific to the rule of
law, globalisation of the living, cooperation,
solidarity, collective and individual security
standards.
The given thematic represents a novelty in the
current school managerial theory and practice,
in the meaning that until new it did not
presented a particular concern and teaching
research was not sufficiently approached,
although, based on all appearances, it was
intuited, assumed, therefore implicit, but
"undiscovered", and a certain obvious concern
was at the personal appreciation, as an isolated
initiative and individual possibility.
Reorientation in the formation of such

personalities is recommended to be achieved
starting with the child's education in the
family, where, as asserted by Stephen R.
Covey, "the spouses play three roles:
producer, manager, leader". In the role of a
"producer", they should be capable, patient,
should involve children to "have the
motivation to perform their tasks according to
the expectations". In the role of managers, the
parents tend "to focus on ability and not on
efficiency, on making things right, instead of
making the right things", which requires "a
high level of independence and self-trust",
while "in the role of a leader you can produce
changes... helping the others to feel free to
express their concerns and involve in the
creation of new, acceptable solutions". In this
activity of education of children in the family
for them to become "champions", as also the
employed and led people, Covery claims ten
principles that are to be observed:
reinforcement of the self-esteem of the
children; encouraging personal greatness;
encouraging the occupations they love;
creating a pleasant culture; timely preparation
of important family events; presenting
examples of excellence; knowing their own
potential; accepting their friends; to have
beliefs, to trust the others; to grant support,
resources and sincere reactions from the
parents.
The creation of specific conditions to
democratise the parents-children relations
(stimulating the childrens' initiatives,
stimulating self-education, knowing and
complying with human and children rights,
promoting a healthy life style targeted on the
moral-spiritual values etc.) assumes the
promotion of some principles of humanisation
and democratisation of the family relations:
axiological unity and continuity between
moral and civic education; knowing and
promoting consequently the human and
children rights; promoting the gender equality;
active and responsible participation the life of
family and society.
Managerial education, as a system with
influence on the formation of the becoming
personality, capable of taking independent
decisions, to choose a democratic state
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construction, is provided in the school

curriculum,
materialised
in
general
educational objectives, in trans-disciplinary
general objectives, in objectives on training
steps and levels, in objectives on curricular
areas, curricular objectives on disciplines, in
reference objectives.
Among the factors that limit freedom in
education, the teachers mention a slow
democratisation of the education leadership,
conservatism, old mentality, authoritarianism,
insertion, fear of responsibility, the economic
and financial situation, fear of freedom,
teachers' fixations. These and other factors
correlate in large lines with the results
obtained within the study on the difficulties of
the school management materialised in
objective
and
psychological
causes
(individuals and psycho-social).
A general retrospective in the targeted issue
allows
making
certain
determinations
regarding the formation of qualities specific to
the decider personality, oriented on its
constitution in two aspects, in the instructiveeducative process, in all the school disciplines,
particularly in the social and human ones: (a)
educating the liability spirit; (b) forming the
capacity to decide for oneself, finalised in
social plan under the form of constructive
behaviors.
The education of the liability spirit and the
formation of the capacity to decide represent a
main objective of the entire educational
process: teaching - learning, evaluation, a
process masterfully organised on four
taxonomic levels of difficulty/ complexity: 1 reproduction (to know to reproduce that you
have learned); 2 - correlation, transfer,
application (to know to make relations in what
you have learned); 3 - solution (mainly life
problems: to know, the exercise/ skill to
solve); 4 - design, confection, building,
production (the skill to fully value the human
483
and professional potential in a creative

manner).
The condition to educate the liability spirit
and the capacity to decide for oneself is
ensured by the quality of the lesson, conceived
and achieved as a formative applicative action/
activity, therefore designed as an operational
teaching task by means of some appropriate
verbs of action , as common indicators of
teaching-learning-evaluating on the 4 levels
of skill formation (school acquirements as
functional knowledge, but not as a purpose in
itself, but as a mean to form capacities and
behaviors, in this case to decide for oneself by
systematic exercises of application in class of
the knowledge assimilated in all the
disciplines). The formation of the attitude of
responsibility and of the behaviour to decide
independently, i.e. the competence to decide
for oneself, should be based on the general
decision-making algorithm: in the respective
problem/ theme, it is mandatory to have the
necessary knowledge/ information, and the
solution should be the result of choosing an
alternative from several possible alternatives
on success criteria (on each alternative it is
evaluated the number of chances and
mischances, choosing the alternative with the
highest chance of success and/ or a
combination on the idea, out of two, I choose
the third). In fact, the formation of the
capacity to decide for oneself targets the
personal and public success, meaning the
formation of the competence to succeed.
The synthesis of the experiments started
indicate formative, school, extra-school
actions, as also their effects, depending on the
training level, in the pre-school and primary
education: arranging sensorial contact with
objects and phenomena of the real world
surrounding us by training the five senses:
boosting curiosity, interest, emotions, conduct,
affection, civilised behaviour by independent
work, rules of conduct, order, cohabitation;
independent expression of own opinions, of

the states of mind.
Developing the competence to decide forms
by an active participation in solving practical
problems, as a training exercise for active life,
and the results, even partial, will be perceived
as a fruit of positive decisions, as an
undertaking of the responsibility for risk/
failure/ success (on professional, social line),
considered as a manifestation of patriotism
with chances of success, by forming a positive
and active attitude for the learned discipline
and its application in life, the skill to learn to
teach as a condition of our own selfdevelopment. The capacity to decide is
therefore formed in an education based on
curricular activities, on forming the capacity
to decide for oneself, particularly on selfknowledge and valuing own potential, both
human (qualities of personality, positive
attitudes and constructive behaviors) and
professional (professional and social skills and
competences), e.g. the formation of
competences that ensure meeting the
requirements of the market economy:
initiative, cooperation, team work, mutual
training, assessment, communication, logical
thinking, problem solving, decision making,
obtaining and using information, planning
own actions, to know to learn so you can
know to do, to be and to become, cohabitation.
In this context, a full valuing of the school
curriculum,
reconsidering
the
school
disciplines, increasing the share of some
optional objects and courses in valuing the
individual and his self-leading capacities, such
as: moral-spiritual education, civic education,
we and the law, the bases of state and law,
man and society, education for family life,
communication culture, life skills that
reinforce the curriculum potential, the
development of the individual and its
capacities, skills of externalizing and
behavioural manifestation of the personality.
In the same train of ideas, it is important to
make the curriculum in the educational class,
which
contains
recommendations
for
designing and developing educative activities
in the educational class and in gymnasium and
high school classes, having as purpose "the
formation and development on students of the
integrating capacities of the contemporary

personality, defined within the context of the
problems and individual values of the national
and worldwide community". The achievement
of this purpose is "guided by an educational
self-management centred on skills, such as:
self-control, skills, capacities, interests
etc. features and values that define
personality, allow the student to
specify his desires and purposes;
concrete, real possibilities to reach the
established objectives;
the
capacities
(knowledge,
competences, skills) required to
design and monitor the activity
oriented towards the purpose".
The curriculum provides the following
framework objectives:
Forming the concept of selfknowledge.
Forming the needs/ necessities for
permanent and continuous selfachievement/ self-update.
Forming the self-management skills
for our own physical, intellectual and
spiritual formation.
Developing the behavioural culture.
The recommended contents focus on
educative activities of training the personality
for an active life (to master oneself life, ways
to self-adjust life, own style - expression of
individuality, the project of individual
development, the individual project for
professional orientation, for career etc.), the
form
masters
having
methodological
suggestions and evaluation suggestions,
proposed by the curriculum authors,
converging with the school curriculum
objectives, and of a real use for form masters,
of whom contribution is undisputable in the
process of personality (self)forming with
democratic options.
Hence, the achievement of the school
curriculum provisions converges with the
paradigm of the seven skills of the most
efficient people, formulated by St. Covey, of
which observance comes to ensure success in
the active life: social, family, management.
The personal and public success in the active
life is based on certain criteria and it depends
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on the level of individual; evolution, from a

dependent status to independent and, in the
end, to be inter-dependent.
Dependency is a limit-condition, less evolved,
of the personality, where responsibility for the
personal success/ failure falls on somebody
else.
Independence is a more evolved condition of
personality, which ensures personal success,
where the individual is responsible for his own
success, gets actively involved, trusts his own
forces and achieves his available potential.
Interdependence is the most evolved
condition of personality, which ensures public
success, where cooperation, joint work (group/
team) stimulates talents and competences to
jointly create great things. This assumes:
understanding, courtesy, honesty, compliance
with the engagements, trust, personal integrity.
The evolution from the dependence to
independence and interdependence is based on
the paradigm of the seven skills of the most
efficient people or on the unique human talent,
associated with each skill: proactivity is the
feature of self-knowledge; to start having in
mind the final purpose, is the feature of
imagination and conscience; to grant priority
to priorities is the feature of the power of will;
to think win/ win is the feature of a mentality
of abundance; to seek first to understand the
others and then to be understood is the feature
of courage in balance with respect; to act
synergistically is the feature of creativity; saw
sharpening is the sole feature of the
continuous improvement or renewal of self in
order to overcome entropy.
The transition from the paradigm targeted on
the formation of the doer/ dependent, to the
curricular paradigm, which stimulates the
formation-development of the decider, capable
of valuing its (self)management capacities, to
self-achieve, targets features, such as:
The changes from education, the basic
curriculum, offers a wide perspective for the
485
capacity valuing process and for the

individual's capacity to form the competent
man, independent and interdependent, with
democratic options - major objective,
achievable in a social-historical, economic and
cultural context, and which requires a relevant
and coherent methodology to promote a
managerial reform.
On level of school unit, the managerial change
also provides for the following stages:
Stage I defining the concept of change and
establishing the features of the changing
situation, identifying the change support and
creating a vision that would support the
changing effort, communication and sharing
the vision of the educational players,
empowering them in the changing context.
Stage II the architectural design of change,
designing/ planning change, elaborating the
managerial project of development of the
school unit, determining the purpose, the
objectives of the school organisation,
changing beliefs, the culture and the
organisational structure and climate, the
managerial paradigms and model of the
educational unit, individual and professional
training in the spirit of this change, featuring a
new working modality and the control system
based on implicative engagement, as also on
an appropriate monitoring and assessment
system.
Stage III implementing the change,
ensuring the conditions for the change,
motivation, communication, involvement,
participation of the educational players,
reconsidering the managerial activity based on
the new conceptual model of leadership,
waiving the assumptions of the traditional
management, appreciating the effects of the
change, investigating and assessing the postchange condition.
The implementation of the new educational
management
paradigm
requires
an
optimisation of the interdependence between
the functions of the management from the

educational system and the appropriate
institutional structures. The successful
implementation of the conceptual model of
modern and endemic management implies
anticipative analysis of the pro and against
change forces. Hence, using the conception of
Kurt Lewin on the balance of forces in the
process of change and the methodology
adapted and developed by C. Rusu, we could
determine the ratio of pro and con forces in
the grounds of the results of the diagnosis
made by us on system and school unit level
regarding
leadership,
evaluating
the
importance of the factors that determine the
forces identified on a scale from 1 - low to 5 strong.
Thus, the increasingly
accepted trends regarding the edification of a
democratic and open society exert a pressure/
influence on the need to implement an
appropriate management, fact sustained
particularly by the teachers, who only under
such conditions may transpose into practice
the new educational objectives and finalities
and to fully self-achieve. In the context, there
are also other pro change forces for the
management system, to increase the level of
competitiveness, the need to connect to
European and international educational
standards, as also the organisational culture,
which is built on a system of values, beliefs,
thinking patterns (including professional),
symbols etc., appropriate for the development
level of the human, democratic society. There
are also significant the forces oriented against
change, among which a higher share falls on
the one referring to the maintenance of the
central organisational structure, to the
authority hierarchy, as also to the lack of the
necessary skills and experience of the teachers
with management positions for such activity in
a new context. Or, exactly this work condition
reinforces conservatism, routine, the fear of
new
responsibilities,
maintaining
a
traditionalist-empirical management.
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FORMING THE EMPATHIC CAPACITY OF THE TEACHERS

Angela BLOGU
Abstract: The educational exercise constitutes a complex situation, where previous knowledge is
always subject to facts, being mandatorily contextualised in accordance with the realities from the
educational process.
One of these precursors is the psychological knowledge - more precisely
psychological "lecturing", understanding and signification of the education situation, with all the
components and interactions making it. We hence propose the method of empathy in the educational
process, which can naturally develop the personality and the self of the students.
Keywords: Empathy, capacity, teaching professional training, communication, reshuffle, model.
Subject actuality. The teaching activity

implies permanent communication relations
between the agents of education - teachers,
students, parents, school managers. An
important place in this activity is held by the
relation professor - student, which represents
an important aspect of the educational
environment of the student. This relation is a
largely different from the other social
relations, it is determinant in establishing the
educational objectives of the contemporary
school, as also to establish a healthy
psychological and moral climate in the school,
and it requires a good empathy from the
teacher, that should be continuously
developed, empathy being indispensable to an
effective communication.
In the view of a number of researchers,
empathy is an indispensable capacity for
people activities, of which specialty involves
interpersonal relations. One of the main forms
of the human activity requiring empathy is the
489
teaching activity. The role and place of

empathy in the teaching activity is not recent.
There are wide researches in the field of the
professor's capacity, which he should possess
to perform in his activity. Among the
important
capacities
ensuring
the
instrumental-operational side of the teaching
activity we also find empathy. The presence of
empathy is required in the structure of the
teaching activity, particularly in optimising the
relation teacher-student.
The teaching psychology constitutes the main
source of information and scientific grounding
of education, being most dependants and
having an essential meaning for the educator
and for the resource teacher. The fundamental
problems of the educational psychology
include psychological issues of the young
generation's education and the psychological
issues of the educative process.
The educational process is an act of
informational communication (transmission)
of ideas, messages, opinions, behaviours
(actions), within which the relations professorstudent

represent
communicational
interactions of cognitive, affective, volitional,
behavioural (action) nature etc. The teachinglearning process, as a specific form of
communication, can be therefore examined by
the models offered by the theory of
communication.
The Latin verb communico,-are had a more
profound meaning, not only referring to
evidencing contact, the connection, but it also
meant to have something in common, to share,
to put together, to mix, to unite. Romanian
language has taken over this meaning of
sharing, unifying, meaning retained by the
archaic cuminecare. In the vision of C. Noica,
the understanding is completed by what it is
not expressed in the text. "We advance by a
boost of communication, but we do not truly
progress if we fail to obtain a boost of
cumunicare." Communication contains the
man, and the man shows or hides himself in
and through communication, because in all
communication acts we have, aside the
common meanings, perfectly understood, also
typical aspects, partially understood, as also
singular aspects pertaining to the personal
ineffable and they cannot be fully decoded.
In the general sense, human communication
is an interpersonal relation where people give
meaning and value to the received message.
Communication is defined as a transmission
of content from the emitter to receiver by
means of a channel; it is a possible or real
relation between two or more individuals,
between whom an exchange of substances,
energy or meanings can take place. Empathy
firstly refers to making a profound and
sustained physical contact with the other,
within which contact a person is very careful
with the experience of the other a sole
individual. In an empathic manner to be, the
experience of the other is appreciated as it is
an idiosyncratic manifestation of the other in
its
uniqueness.
Secondly,
empathic
exploration includes empathic, profound and
continuous investigations or immersions, in
the experience of the other. And thirdly,
empathic exploration assumes resonant
observance of the implicit limits or aspects of
the client's experience, which can aid it to

create a new meaning.
Inter-human communication represents one of
the supreme values of the man. In the modern
world, marked by informational explosions
and by the impetuous development of the
information and communication means, of
globalisation of all the field of public life,
inter-human communication becomes more
and more important.
All the conceptual documents of the education
reform advances as constitutive principle of
education the recognition of the personality of
the educated one as a supreme value of
education, its uniqueness, this fact claiming
continuous harmonisation of the inter-personal
relations between education and educated, as
inherent conditions of the consolidation of the
humanist character of education in the modern
world.
The process of forming the empathic capacity
of the teachers is grounded on the
development and valuing of the empathy
features, related to a the evaluation criteria
applied to professor-student relation, adapted
to the educational context, which are also
formed as empathic capacities.
These are: opening to communication;
adapting to the communication way of the
interlocutor; self-analysis; active listening;
non-verbal
language;
emotional
responsiveness; putting in other man's place;
putting in the role of the characters from
literary works, movies; factional situation.
Because both from the theoretical and
experiential framework one can decide the
need to elaborate a model-instrument that
would intensify the empathy-forming process,
oriented towards improving the professorstudent relation, the researchers have
elaborated a Model for forming the empathic
capacity of the teachers (Model).
The Model implementation period can vary
from a half a year to a year of education.
Within the continuous professional training
activities from the training centres, this period
can be equal with the period of their presence
in the training centre. Although it is a short
period, it is sufficient for the teachers to
become aware of the need for form empathy,
to accumulate certain knowledge and to train
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the empathic capacities, all of them

constituting a launching track for subsequent
self-training of the empathic capacity of the
teachers, which would lead to the reshuffle of
the communication relations with the students.
By reshuffle we understand change,
modification, improvement. We used the term
reshuffle with the meaning of improvement.
The selection of the term reshuffle, is stained
theoretically and praxiologically, both
research sources revealing the fact that certain
aspects of the professor-student relations,
particularly - equitable treatment for the
students with learning performances and with
desirable behaviour and for the students with
undesirable performances and behaviour, are
"deteriorated" or reduced and require a
reshuffle, i.e. a change to good, an
improvement.
The scientific meanings of the term model are:
graphical or tridimensional representation of
an idea, of a process or of a system (form,
structure, scheme, illustration); an assembly of
elements or variables composing a symbolic
or social system (system, plan, configuration);
temporary truth (assumption, hypothesis,
opinion); logical representation of a theory
(formula, theoretical model).
The teaching model "tends to reproduce" the
essential elements of the original, natural or
social phenomena and processes, studied
according to the specific and concrete
objectives of the teaching activity in question.
The model achieves a double teaching
function: of initial information, which triggers
the logical and epistemological mechanisms
specific to the analogue reasoning; of final
validation of the formed knowledge and skills,
at the level of some different reference
systems that employ the specific resources for
formative, permanent, continuous evaluation.
To model means "to execute something based
on a given model", i.e. modelling means "the
action to model and the result thereof". In
491
educational modelling as a teaching method,

the action of indirect investigation of reality
by
elaborating
and
using
models
predominates.
Modelling assumes facilitating the discovery
by the trainees (teachers) of the properties,
information and relations between things
(objects, phenomena, processes from the
nature and society, which such models
reproduce).
The elaborated model met the following
requirements:
1. The need to become aware of the
purpose, training objectives,
principles, conditions, forms and
methods of the training process
by moderators and by the
members of the training groups
(self-training).
2. The need for a motivation to form
empathy with the teachers
3. Joining theory with practice
4. Achieving the training activity by
integrating the evaluation in the
empathy-forming process
In building the Model specific theoretical
benchmarks have also been applied. The
model presents a theoretical system, made of
the components:
the
training
purpose
and
objectives, the principles, the
contents, the forms, the methods,
the conditions and stages of
training the empathic capacity,
which also represent the essential
items of the empathy-formation
process for the teachers, as
reshuffle of the professor-student
relation.
The purpose for applying the model: forming
the empathic capacity of the teachers as a
reshuffle of the professor-student relation,
particularly, the performance of an equitable
treatment for the students from professors, the

constitution of some cordial relations between
professors and students.
The training objectives are elaborated based
on the empathy features, related to the
evaluation criteria for the communication
relation professor - student:
initiation in the theme of teacher's
empathy;
forming the capacity to be open
for communication;
forming the capacity for affective
response to the others' emotions;
forming the capacity of selfanalysis;
forming the capacity to observe
and use own and interlocutor's
non-verbal language;
forming the capacity to put in the
place
of
characters
from
literature, movies;
forming the capacity to put in the
other's role;
forming the capacity of active
listening;
forming the capacity to adapt to
the communication way of the
interlocutor;
forming the capacity to act, after
passing
through
the
aforementioned situations.
delimited training objectives, of

some principles specific top the
training activity, as also by the
rigorous staging of the training
process.
The principle of integrating
theory with practice determines
that the empathy-forming process
implies integration of the
theoretical activity with the
practical one.
Specific principles for the empathyforming process
The principle of integrating the
evaluation in the empathyforming process of the teachers
provides the performance of an
initial, formative and final
evaluation
during
training.
Effective empathy integration
process will foster the diagnosing,
monitoring,
adjustment
and
correction of the training, as also
of the empathy-formation action
itself, because the performance of
tasks
such
as
imaginary
transposing in the other's
situation, for example, also
represents an act of empathy,
therefore it is not an exercise of
empathy.
The principle of forming and
valuing the empathic capacity
from the perspective of the
professor-student
relations
establishes that the empathyforming
process
necessarily
implies the formation and valuing
of the empathic capacities of the
teachers, oriented towards the
improvement
of
the
communication relation between
professor and student. The
principle was constituted on the
theoretical thesis about the
formation of empathy in teachers
as a path of improvement of the
professor-student relation.
The principle of interdependence
of
forming
the
empathic
Principles. Their definition/ determination is

necessary for an efficient performance of the
process of training the empathic capacity of
the teachers in order to improve the professorstudent relation. Two types of principles were
applied:
General educational principles
adapted to the approached issue
The principle of organising and
of continuity of the empathyformation profess for the teachers
stipulates that the efficiency of
the empathy-forming process is
determined by the way it is
organised and directed, by the
organisation of the training
actions, by the presence of a
purpose and of a system of well492
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capacities
assigns
to
an
interdependent character to the
empathic
capacities,
the
formation of an empathic capacity
implicitly
leading
to
the
formation of other empathic
capacities. The principle is
deduced from the analysis of the
empathy
features,
which
demonstrated that an empathic
feature
necessarily
implies
elements of other features.
By contents of training the empathic capacity
we understand the theoretical matters on the
concept of empathy, the nature and its
functions, the psychological mechanism of
formation, the factors influencing empathy in
communication, the features of empathy
related to the evaluation criteria of the
communication relation professor-student, the
particularities of manifesting empathy of the
teachers in their relations with the students.
The forms of the empathy-forming activity are:
collective, in group, individual, in pairs. The
collective and group activities can be
performed within the continuous professional
training courses, within the methodological
meetings, seminars, prelections, trainings. The
individual activity can be performed in
parallel with the group one, as also separately,
and it involves: theoretical documentation in
the matter of empathy problematic; study on
the structure, mechanism and features of the
empathy; application of the knowledge in
interpersonal communication; drafting the
work sheets. The activity in pairs is efficient
in making some diverse exercises.
The methods for forming empathy have been
conventionally classified in evaluation
methods, applied in the determination and
control experiments, and training methods,
applied in the training experiment.
493
Applied
evaluation
methods:
testing,
enquiring, conversation, observing the
professor-student relations, the study of the
analytical programmes.
Applied training methods: exhibition,
explication, prelection, debate, brainstorming,
essay, exercise, case study, work sheets.
Training conditions. There were established
for an efficient formation of the empathic
capacity, the following conditions: initiation in
the problem, becoming aware of the need for
form the empathic capacity and the empathy
features related to the evaluation criteria of the
communication relation professor-student;
complying with the principles at the basis of
the model, appropriate application of the
methodologies.
The stages of empathy-forming
1. The initial evaluation of the empathy of
the teachers and of certain aspects of
the professor-student relation. The
evaluation is made by means of tests
and enquiries
2. Becoming familiar with the purpose of
the training objectives, with the
principles, forms, methods and
conditions for forming empathy. This
is an initiation and explication stage.
3. Using the results of the evaluation in
order to form empathy. Establishing,
by teachers, the own level of empathy
and its features. Drafting the
individual scheme of the levels of
formation of the empathy features.
Evidencing
the
low-developed
features in relation with the others.
Taking the decision to grant special
attention to the low-developed
features, but without disregarding the
other features of empathy.
4. Detailed knowledge upon the basic
notions on empathy and motivating
the need for form the empathy
capacity. In this stage, the basic
notions and empathy features are

introduced; arguments and examples
are made in favour of the need for
form empathy as a capacity
contributing to the improvement of the
relation
professor-student;
the
theoretical sources are individually
studied in the given issue, which
continues in all stages; the selftraining direction for teachers'
empathy is evidenced by studying the
literature and applying the knowledge
acquired in the relations with the
others.
5. Performing the practical activity,
using the theoretical material,
combined with the formative selfassessment of the teachers. The
practical activities take place using the
theoretical material concerning the
concept,
nature,
functions,
mechanism, features of empathy,
related to the evaluation criteria of the
professor-student
communication
relation, the particularities of empathy
of the teachers manifested in their
relations with the students. The
application
of
the
assimilated
knowledge -e .g. the cases of
interaction of the teacher and students
in terms of place and role of the
teacher's empathy; case studies,
situations - problems, exercises etc.
Work sheets are drafted to prepare,
achieve
and
analyse
the
communication situations, which
include the use of the empathy
features, and which ensure formative
self-assessment of the teacher's
empathic capacity and the self-training
direction of the empathy.
6. The final evaluation. In this stage, the
evaluating itself takes place, the
progress of empathy and of the
professor-student
relations
is
determined; decisions are made for
improvement/ detailing of the process;
discussions, proposals, summaries are
made. In the last training stage, the
professors are required, according to
the sheets, exercises, tasks, to continue
independently the empathy selftraining activity, based on the model

given,
operating
the
usual
improvements and modifications,
which will lead to an improvement of
the
empathic
capacity
and,
respectively, of the teaching activity
and of the professor - student
communication relations.
The synthesis of the examined theoretical
benchmarks allows us to elaborate an
operational definition of the teacher's empathy
as a capacity contributing to the improvement
of the professor-student relation; definition
deduced from the features of empathy of the
teachers related to the evaluation criteria for
the professor-student communication relation.
Hence, empathy is the teacher's capacity:
to self-analyse in communicating with
students, to examine his way of
communicating with the students, the
successes
and
failures
in
communication;
to be open to communication with the
students, therefore encouraging to come
close to him; to treat them equitable,
excluding the prejudgments and
achieving a positive attitude towards
them;
to adapt to the communication way of
the student, considering his features, his
individual and age particularities etc.;
to actively listen
the students,
manifesting interest for their speech and
opinions;
to appropriately use the situation of the
non-verbal language - to be more
accessible to the students, more intimate
with them, to stimulate them in study
and training-development, to evidence
his positive attitude towards them;
to carefully observe the non-verbal
indices of the students - to better
understand their concerns, their needs,
their desires etc.;
to "permanently put in the position of the
student"- to determine the situation from
the student's perspective and to
understand him better;
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to be capable of sharing the emotions of

the students;
to act according to the previous indices.
The indicated capacities represent features

specific to teacher's empathy, as also
evaluation criteria for the professor-student
communication relation, which produce
concomitantly and as necessary capacities for
the teachers.
The profession of a teacher, as any
other profession, is the result of training by
studies, accumulating a certain professional
culture, at the level of some specific teaching
competences. Therefore, the initial and
continuous formation should contribute to the
accomplishment of the professional culture,
general and philosophical, but also of
specialty and resource teaching. Only through
acquiring as more competences, the cultural
formation of a teacher will be more valuable.
As entity of the professional culture, we also
subscribe the emotional culture, as a
psychological and pedagogical component of
the teaching professionalism, as an element
with enabling role upon the functionality of
the entire personality of the teacher.
Professional culture has a wide field of
manifestation and it redefines the dimensions
of professionalism at the level of the
psychological and pedagogical competences,
which determine continuous efficiency and
development of the teachers, professional and
social remodelling. From analysing the
concept of efficiency, we acquire the role of
the teaching actions, performed by the teacher
for fulfilment, creation, production, efficacy,
power and positivism. The key note acquired
by defining efficiency in the educational field
is expressed, in the term of particular success
or success, which has become the supreme
model to appreciate the quality of a person,
"social systems whereby the society makes its
values.
495
In a complex world, the emotional

balance, the ability to relate, cooperation, selfassertion skills are becoming increasingly
important because uncontrolled, negative
emotions
are
generating
blockages,
uncomforting, while a positive management of
the emotional life with empathy leads to
increasing the flow of communication, social
motivation, revealing strong emotional
connection between culture and individual
performance to adapt to changes. The
investigations upon the dimensions of the
emotional culture have illustrated social skills,
interpersonal competences, psychological
maturity and emotional consciousness. An
increased attention is given to emotional
competences,
approached
as
metacompetences, which determine and explain the
way of acting of the people in various
situations, the way they use their own
capacities to understand the ones around them
and for an emotional self-control.
The special literature analyses
emotional culture under all aspects,
converging towards a close connection
between the emotional potential and the
emotional orientation of an individual and the
level of development of the emotional culture
of a personality. This is a construct of
intellectual
acquirements
reflected
in
knowledge about emotions, which conditions
the social happiness of the individual,
contributing to an optimum social and
emotional adapting. Emotional culture is the
basic condition for a person to operate
effectively and efficiently in social terms.
With emotional maturity and creativity, a
personality can be aware of, decode and
develop the emotional information and to
elaborate strategies of adaptation to new
situations.
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MOBBING: PSYCHOLOGICAL TERROR IN THE WORKPLACE

Viorel CONSTANTINESCU
Association of Applied Psychology in the field of Private Security
Abstract: Mobbing is a less known phenomenon in Romania, but its effects are real and worrisome. It is a
form of psychological abuse in the workplace, carried out by either colleagues or superiors through
repeated aggressive acts. This kind of psychological pressure frequently leads to affecting the well-being
of the victim either by loss of self-esteem, feelings of victimization, depression, psychosomatic disorders,
insomnia, self-destructive behavior (alcoholism), a drop in work efficiency, acute stress and posttraumatic stress. In organizations where mobbing takes place, there is an obvious decrease in
productivity. In order to prevent this type of behavior, there needs to be an accurate understanding of the
act of mobbing in all contexts. (organizational, professional, individual)
Keywords: psychological harassment, emotional abuse, intimidation, mobbing, psychological pressure
1. INTRODUCTION
Heinz Leymann was the first psychologist to
put forward the idea of mobbing in specialized
literature. He borrowed the term mobbing
from animal psychology expert Konrad
Lorenz, who had observed and studied
behaviors of isolation/exclusion among
animals, more explicitly the attacks of a group
of smaller animals against a bigger one.
The mobbing phenomenon has been studied as
early as the 1990s in several European
countries such as the Scandinavian countries,
Great Britain, France, Italy and Spain. It
basically refers to actions of intense
psychological abuse carried out against an
employee with the purpose of making him
resign his job, in the circumstances where
firing/relocating him would lead to legal
troubles for the employer. The employee can
497
become a long-term victim of a series of

abuses, wrongdoings and humiliation meant to
force him to leave his current job. This
psychological pressure should not only make
him lose his position, but in most cases will
also affect his health.
Mobbing is a type of
systematic
psychological harassment in the workplace
that happens every time an employee is being
harassed and stigmatized by his colleagues or
superiors through gossip, intimidation,
humiliation, discrediting and isolation,
endangering his emotional well being as well
as his professional competence.
According to studies conducted by Kenneth
Westhues (2007), mobbing takes place
predominantly in organizations where job
positions are considered more secure. It is
more frequently present in the non-profit
medical
The term mobbing does not refer to:

- workplace banter;
- isolated instances of unethical conduct;
- isolated conflicts in the workplace.
The EGE 2000 method leaves no room for
legal argument. It consists of 7 parameters that
need to be taken into account for a conflict to
be considered mobbing. All 7 conditions are
mandatory when determining a case of this
kind. If one of them is not fulfilled then a
conflict cannot be classified as mobbing.
These parameters are:
Conflict has to happen in the
workplace. The conflict that does not
take place in the workplace is not
considered mobbing, but straining.
Duration. Conflict has to last for at
least 6 months. Only then it can be
considered a case of persistence in
behavior. DSM IV classifies any
disease lasting less than 6 months as
acute, while anything past 6 months is
considered chronic. This means that
mobbing is a chronic conflict.
Frequency. Conflict has to happen a
few times every month.
Existence of certain types of action.
A conflict may be considered mobbing
if it fulfills at least 2 of the 5 categories
of negative actions:
o
Actions against free
speech (person cannot express
his/her point of view , he/she is
shunned );
o
Systematic isolation (
person is isolated from his/her
colleagues)
o Change of tasks ( person is
assigned
to task above or
below his/her professional
capacity)
o Attack on reputation
(gossip,
talk behind ones back,
incorrect evaluations)
o Violence or threats of violence.
sector, education, military and

industry than in the private sector.
2. CONFLICT & MOBBING
Inequality. This does not refer to the

organizational hierarchy. It means that
the victim cannot properly defend
himself/herself because of an inferior
position.
Stages are successive.
Intent of persecution. The victim is
discriminated, treated differently from
others with the intent of making
him/her resign.
3. EVOLUTION OF MOBBING
The act of mobbing does not happen instantly.

The gradual evolution of mobbing was devised
by Leymann who identified 4 stages, of
preparation, of slow or precipitated evolution,
maturization and persistent action.
The first stage exists in every organization and
does not necessarily imply the occurrence of
the other steps of evolution. It manifests itself
through divergences, differences in opinion or
competitiveness, which is a normal
phenomenon and sometimes even beneficial
for the progress of an organization.
The second stage has elements that might
trigger the occurrence of mobbing. The
psychological balance of the person is
somehow threatened, self-confidence is
jeopardized, stress and anxiety become a
problem.
The third stage is when management should
get involved. Unfortunately, most of the time
this either does not happen at all, or it happens
when it is already too late and the victim has
already been removed. In this case, conflicts
may have legal repercussions.
The final stage leads to the stigmatization,
social isolation and the removal from the
workplace, which could make finding a new
job more difficult.
4. CAUSES OF MOBBING
Mobbing is preceded by a situation of conflict.
The probability of such a situation is increased
by the following factors:
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deficiencies in human resources

management;
workplace instability;
personality traits of the victim;
group dynamic in the organization;
poor relationships between work
colleagues;
high levels of stress caused by the
professional activity;
frequent organizational changes;
The factors that determine mobbing are:
Initiation of tasks.
In larger
companies, managers have tried to
design tasks as simple as possible and
automatize them in such a way that less
qualified staff is needed to complete
them. Mobbing may appear as a result
of lack of activity or boredom.
Basically, the perpetrator chooses a
victim to pass the time.
Task management. Improper task
management can be a trigger because
work situations inevitably generate
conflicts. If the system is not organized
properly, the dispute may lead to
mobbing. Improper task management
implies: overload of work activities for
an individual, both in quantity and in
difficulty, absence of clearly defined
rules and norms, work interferences.
Management of employees. If done
through abuse of power, it may lead to
6. WAYS OF COMBATING MOBBING

Mobbing can be underdiagnosed
because of a tendency among specialists to
diagnose victims with work-related stress, a
result of emphasizing the state of disease.
499
organizational culture which tolerates

moral harassment;
psychosocial factors that influence
work psychology: the type of work
tasks,
socio-organizational
environment and work organization;
organizational stress.
situations where the manager chooses

to leverage his authority when settling
disputes, instead of identifying the
faults in the system.
5. EFFECTS OF MOBBING
Effects may manifest in personal, professional
and social situations, and they are recognizable
by:
anxiety and panic attacks;
behavioral disorders: anorexia,
alcoholism, bulimia, toxicomania;
loss of motivation for professional
activity;
early medical retirement;
underperformance in the workplace;
incapability of adapting to social and
emotional situations.
Prevention is one of the most efficient

ways of combating mobbing. Other ways
might include training the managers through
educational programs or if the act of mobbing
has already begun, reconciling the parties with
the help of a specialist in mediation. The last
form of intervention happens when the act of
mobbing is already in full effect and it deals

with the legal rehabilitation of the victim.
REFERENCES
7. CONCLUSION
1. Gheondea, Alexandra et al. (2010),

Fenomene specifice de discriminare la
locul de munc, Revista Calitatea
vie ii, XXI, nr.1-2, p.113-136;
2. Adams, Andrea (1992), Bullying at
work, How to comfort and overcome it,
Virago Press, London;
3. Bogathy, Zoltan (2002), Conflicte n
organiza ii, Ed. Eurostampa,
Timi oara;
4. Harald, Ege (1996), Mobbing, Ed.
Pitagora, Bologna;
5. Harald, Ege (1997), Mobbing in Italia,
Ed. Pitagora, Bologna;
6. Harald, Ege (1998), I numeri del
Mobbing, Ed. Pitagora, Bologna;
7. Harald, Ege and Lancioni, Maurizio
(1998), Stress e Mobbing, Ed. Pitagora,
Bologna;
8. Leymann, Hanz (1990), Mobbing and
Psychological Terror at Workplace, in
Violence and Victims, nr.5;
9. Leymann, Hanz (1996), Mobbing
persecution au travail, Ed. Seuil, Paris;
10. Mielu, Zlate and Romeo Zeno Cre u
(2002), Mobbing-ul sau psihoteroarea
la locul de munc, Revista de
psihologie organiza ional, vol.2,
nr.1, 11-25.
Victims of mobbing are generally described as

dedicated to their work and eager to succeed.
Despite preconceptions, the victim is most of
the time job oriented with a rising career.
When the first signs of mobbing appear, the
victim does not fully comprehend the situation
and has difficulties reacting to it. They usually
need psychological and legal counseling to
deal with the attacks.
The affected go through physical and
psychological torment, their work capacity is
diminished, self-esteem decreases drastically,
their socioemotional balance is altered
(anxiety, depression, phobias, panic attacks), as
well as their psychophysiological balance
(headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal disorders,
sleep disorders) and their behavioral stability
(change in eating behavior, self-harm and
hetero-aggressive outbursts, passivity).
The specialized literature mentions an
existential crisis that victims of mobbing have
to deal with, in the sense that losing their job
might threaten their identity and sense of selfworth.
Mobbing is inefficient for an organization. It
affects the professional performance of the
victim; it may affect work relationships, lead to
improper
communication,
decrease
in
productivity, all this culminating in a loss of
efficacy for the organization.
In order to prevent this type of behavior, there
needs to be an accurate understanding of the
act
of
mobbing
in
all
contexts.
(organizational, professional, individual)
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RELEVANT PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR SUCCESS

Georgiana CORCACI
Department of Psychology, University Petre Andrei of Iasi, Romania
Abstract: This paper aims to address the question of how success is viewed today as a result of
individual behavior, in terms of internal motives and external factors leading to the adoption of certain
attitudes for successful people to reach. Success is closely linked to the effort, leaders say, this is the
attitude that each person should adopt in order to fully realize what he wants and to reach this state,
being covered by every person access to education (Ilut, P. 2004, p. 31). To this end, we conducted three
surveys that we've applied to a sample of 180 subjects, so that we can draw some conclusions regarding
the importance of motivation and attitude to succeed.
Keywords: psychological factors, attitudes, behavior, success.
1. INTRODUCTION
A successful business fulfills a clear objective,
accurate recognition of success established by
other community members. Success is
personal and customized to each of us and is
characteristic of every community in part
(Bland, G. 2000, p 23). Success in
performance, is the optimum of the target that
we want to go and that we find, given that we
gain appreciation for the achievement of the
aim (Harrington, D. 2002, p. 54, Jenson, R.
2004, p. 48). Success can be viewed as a state
that is reflected both internally and externally.
This requires knowledge of personal qualities
and confidence in them, in direct proportion to
the work and passion to achieve it. Success
can be met by any person, if desired, sought
and pursued consistently, if opportunities are
offered what are valued regardless of the
obstacles. Attitude is a "relatively stable way
501
of reporting individual or group to certain

sides of social life and self-esteem" (Chelcea,
S. 1994, p 36).
2. FOR RESEARCH
Research to address the issue of success in
terms of the psychological interdependence
between attitude and motivation and how they
are reflected upon and also aim to highlight
how the adoption of certain attitudes influence
behavior of individuals in an effort to achieve
those objectives proposed which lead to what
they believe is a success. The purpose of this
research is also to identify the motivation
behind the individual success that makes
people want to be successful, and equally the
causes underlying the creation of this vision.
The overall objective:
- Analyze how each individual perceives

success, based on the interdependence of
attitude and motivation.
Objectives:
- Identify how success is perceived by
individuals.
- Highlighting the role of attitude in
achieving success.
- Perception of the importance of
achievement motivation that lead to
success.
4. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Research hypotheses are:
1. Be positive, supported by a strong
motivation to compete to achieve individual
success.
2. Of individual personality factors are
important in an attitude conducive to
achieving a high standard.
3. Actional alternatives influence attitudes and
aspirations of individuals to achieve success
professionally.
5. THE SAMPLE INVESTIGATED
In the present research, the study sample is
represented by a number of 180 students, aged
between 18 and 25 years in all study years,
from three different faculties. Subjects covered
were selected based on research results to
education, so the first 10 students were chosen
with the best results in each year of study and
last 10 of the same year, the worst results.
6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
To study the assumptions we built three
questionnaires, which we implemented sample
set:
- First attitude questionnaire aims, subjects
regarding their career.
- The second questionnaire focused on
identifying motivates people to be
successful.
- Last questionnaire clarifies in sight
meanings term success.
502
7.
DATA ANAL
INTERPRETATION
YSIS AND
In the first questionnaire, introductory

question clarifies sex, weight subjects
participating in this research: a percentage of
55% of respondents are male subjects and a
45%. Are female. When asked, the type of
organizational structure based on rules and
procedures, 83.33% of subjects chose this type
of organization, which formally certify their
spirit high and the other 16.67% were against
this structure.
- 77.78% of subjects believe they can maintain
a pleasant discussion with anyone who
requests it, the other 22.22% disagree with
this, which leads us to say that it takes an
open attitude, a sociable and communicative.
The same percentage was recorded when
subjects were asked a question about whether
they like to communicate with colleagues to
eliminate
potential
errors
in
data
transmission. Subjects were asked whether
they usually work to complete an activity,
whether under pressure of time, 61.11% said
yes, which indicates that they are people
focused mainly solving tasks, and the other
38.89% considered that there is no need for
this to happen, either for convenience or the
desire to do things calmly, not in a hurry.
- Ask if they are willing to implement any idea
that seems to be feasible and effective,
subjects answer in 75%, meaning that it is
open to new things, take risks, while 25%
were against, saying they need more detail
and more time to decide.
- 27.78% of those who were surveyed believe
that our destiny is written all, and 72.22%
take the opposite behavior, realizing that
success means, effort, work, responsibilities
and risk taking. Of the responders, 94.44%
think it is an extremely important that their
reputation is spotless, and 5.56% does not
give it much importance.
- When facing problems, 94.44% of the
subjects participating in research find
solutions to address them immediately. There
are also people who panic at such times and
resolutions comes more slowly, as shown and
statistical results, 5.56%. When asked if they
lose their temper when they are taken to the
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point where an uncompleted, 41.67% of them

answered affirmatively, saying intolerance to
frustration, with authority, while 58.33%
remain vertical, and aware of the
shortcomings and mistakes.
- 16.67% of subjects considered that the
results in excess of their just had better luck,
which shows their lack of ownership results,
inability to self, and a distorted image of
reality. However, 83.33% of them, which is a
very large percentage are aware that results
are driven by sustained and self-management
preseverenei.
- 83.33% of the subjects interviewed agree that
quiet work in the office with acceptable
remuneration is cheaper than one that
involves many responsibilities and great
trouble, and this shows the desire for stability
and a peaceful life ce16 while 67% say the
opposite, going on the grounds that a peaceful
and stable organizational climate is not the
most important criterion.
- When asked if they work best together, only
25% voted in the affirmative, and a
significant percentage of 75% were opposed,
reflecting a dose of individualism and at the
same time, self-confidence. Subjects were
asked about how planning their activities,
specifically, if their notes on an agenda that
have to do in the near future. We find that
only 16.67% of them plan their activities,
others 83.33% turning to other methods.
- 52.78% of respondents are actively involved
in extra-professional activities, even if it takes
time, and 47.22% of them said he did not
engage in such activities. Of the subjects
interviewed, 61.11% say that many people
turn to them for how they solve different
problematic situations and 38.89% claim that
many people do this. When subjects were
asked to determine the importance of a
permanent and secure employment for them,
they responded at a rate of 80.56% that is

very important to them as potential service to
meet that criterion, 16.67% of them think that
is quite important this issue, and for 2.78% of
subjects not a crucial criterion.
- 97.22% of subjects undergoing research have
opted for the idea that for a successful career
you need a job where there are a range of
personal opportunities, 2.78% of them chose
the same option, but "largely". According to
the survey, 83.33% of subjects say "heavily"
the most important is to have a well paid job,
regardless of the field, 11.11% see this
"equally" important, and in a relatively small
percentage of 5.56% are those who disagree
with this statement.
- Personal satisfaction is important in
providing a work item to which respondents
consider: 27.78% "heavily", 13.89% are
"largely", 27.78% agreed with the statement
released, and 25% of respondents approved
"the little "this idea, not because there would
be a significant job satisfaction, only that
wage setting contributes to satisfaction. In the
same breath, 5.56% reject all those shown.
So, salary is the most important criterion, an
idea reinforced by the item in the 94.44%
criterion states that the remuneration is very
motivating.
- 77.78% of respondents put career first
prestige, 16.67% agree "largely" on this
point, the other 5.56 % being equally agree
that the real importance of prestige. Subjects
considered, according to survey results, that
independence within an organization is highly
coveted, as shown in the percentages of
88.89%, respectively, "heavily" and 11.11%,
respectively, "largely". Subjects were asked if
their view, a job provides opportunities to
promote rated. It seems that most of them,
88.89%, believe that "heavily" a good job
3
503
offers growth opportunities, respectively,

11.11%, "largely".
- 91.67% of respondents believe that
everything is built gradually, which shows
that most of them realize that efforts will be
necessary for personal fulfillment. Unlike
most, 8.33% of approved subjects "small
extent" the idea, suggesting subjects are
unable to acknowledge and appreciate the
efforts that are required to become a
successful person.
- When asked whether they agree that
anything important is achieved gradually,
91.67% of subjects chose pro this statement,
and 8.33% have opted for "small extent",
which may raise turn, prevents the and
dreamers are still immature and tend to
expect a major change for the better, with
minimum effort. They were also asked to
comment on the extent to which education
contributes to a situation is advantageous. In
these conditions, 77.78% believe that school
is the most helpful factor in obtaining a
coveted post. Contrary to popular opinion,
13.89% said it helps "small extent" and "very
little" reinforces the conviction of the former,
with a percentage of 2.78%, which may lead
to the idea of some frustrations, failures,
failures on schools and professional.
- Another reason is the coveted position within
the organization that will enable potential.
Thus, 83.33% of respondents said they want a
high position in the company "heavily",
another 11.11%, "largely", which shows the
desire of the respondents of self, to become
successful. Of course, there was a percentage
of 5.56%, which are equal if they are in a
high office or a function that involves fewer
tasks and rights. Such behavior is probably
caused by natural fear to take over many
responsibilities that would involve such a
position.
- In terms of respondents wish to be part of the
body representation to executives, responses
were similar, subjects showed his desire to
join such organizations. According to the
rating scale, 83.33% of interviewing subjects
consider "heavily" the importance of the
provision of quality work immediately after
they exit from school. A high percentage of
previous notes that subjects focus on quality
504
actions, noting their desire to continually

enrich. Also, 5.56% are of the same opinion,
see "largely" the importance of quality
service delivery after graduation. Contrary to
the majority, 11.11% of respondents
considered this issue as less important,
personal reasons, I see other alternatives for a
successful career.
- Also, when asked if the future is important to
have a competent head, most of them, at a
rate of 77.78%, have been strongly agreed
with this statement and another 2.78%
reinforce this idea. We notice again the
subject's desire to work in a healthy climate,
quality human resources. It is normal to have
other opinions, as to 11.11% of them, this is
irrelevant, probably very great confidence in
their forces, and 8.33% others, concerning the
question of the importance of having a
competent chief less important. It seems that
the latter has other principles, is based on
other values, arising only from their vision.
- When asked if a desire to promote good
salary deferred, 33.33% of them responded
"very little", and 8.33% noted that "little"
may defer salary motivating desire to
promote. In this respect, we appreciate that
subjects showed a craving to do positive
things in their career, to go through all the
stages necessary in order to learn to apply
what they studied. They demonstrate dignity
and courage to face the reality. However, the
majority tend to lean towards the other side of
the balance. Thus, at a rate of 47.22% on one
side and 8.33%, on the other hand, felt some
fear of losing considered favorable position
within the organization and at the same time,
fear of risk of losing a good salary promotion
in uncertain conditions.
- When asked about the need to work around
the house, all subjects responded that this
topic is less relevant, which demonstrates
again that subjects shows high mobility. As
shown in the results of the scoring grid,
80.56% believe that a united team guarantees
safety and provides a quiet working
environment, which is normal, given the age
of individuals at research. In these conditions,
they prove a real willingness and openness to
the social sphere. 5.56% maintained the same
opinion, and 8.33% are "equally" agree with
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those stated. A percentage of 5.56% is

each person, and can manifest in different
occupied by those who disagree with this
ways. The data obtained shows that 77.78%
idea, which leads to the idea that individuals
of subjects surveyed consider that they have
in this category may have a more
managerial competence to enable a field. In
this category is highly motivated individual
individualistic attitude in terms of personal
who want a job that requires a high degree of
fulfillment.
responsibility. The proportion of 22.22%,
- According to the survey, individuals who
have been our research, responded at a rate of
other subjects considered not to have
managerial skills, which demonstrates that
91.67%, that in their opinion, not career
they are aware of the other skills held and that
comes first. This shows that the respondents
can help more in the kind of action to take to
have already formed a view on life and have
ensure its successful future in your chosen
compiled a list of priorities, and career is not
field.
on top. On the other hand, 8.33% of the
subjects placed their careers first, which - Most of the respondents, 83.33%, believe that
means that there are dedicated individuals they will achieve success in their own ways,
among them, ready to do anything to achieve which is good considering the age category
that goal. When they were asked to express they fall. Note that they are realistic and
their opinion about the statement "one of the willing of self and what is most important, are
best ways to improve your life is to ensure aware of the efforts that have to do to reach
less successful in life", 94.44% have opted for the position of success. But as normal, 16.67%
the affirmative, which means that young disagree. They have at hand other ways to
people believe that success is the key to achieve success, or are frustrated by the fact
happiness, another 5.56% denied the that results are not appreciated at their true
allegation, probably the reason that success value. The evaluation grid, 86.11% of subjects
means nothing in their eyes.
considered to be a successful person must have
- When asked in which subjects were asked money, while others, in proportion of 13.89%
their opinion on whether success is the result deny this hypothesis. The financial rewards are
of an extraordinary genius, a divine miracle important because they provide basic needs of
or anything else that does not possess, the
individual,
provides
financial
subjects responded unanimously negative, independence, safety, feeling of prosperity,
development
new
plans,
which means nothing, then they are aware opportunity
that success is the result of one's personal cultivating passions and hobbies. When asked
work and not something accidental, and that if success is given by personal satisfaction, the
this can be achieved by anyone undertake proportion of 94.44% said yes. For them,
personal satisfaction is the recognition of
effective activities to this end.
- 88.89% of those surveyed believe they will effort, appreciation of family and friends, their
achieve success when they feel happy or status in a company and assessing colleagues
make in life, and the other 11.11% are against and superiors. This result shows that personal
this statement. It can be seen most clearly satisfaction is the most appropriate measure of
tending to see success in terms of happiness a successful career. A percentage of 5.56% are
achieved at a time. This bias is related to those who feel separate them with other
individual happiness is seen as distinct from criteria to evaluate success.
5
505
- If asking for the lack of success in the absence

of extensive work experience, 83.33% of
respondents
approve
this
statement,
considering that going to build a successful
career, you need extensive experience in the
field, and a weight of 16.67 % of respondents
sees different things, being more optimistic for
what's next. This idea is supported by the
question that 97.22% of respondents believe
that successful people get to be experts in
working, which confirms desire to excel in
subjects they have chosen. When subjects
were asked whether success is conditioned by
neglect / circumvention of laws, 25% of the
subjects were pro this statement, which
worries can be put into the realities of today's
society, which not infrequently promotes
attitudes unethical.
- It is noticeable, however, that 75% of
respondents, as shown results are attuned to
ethical behavior, which involves the
acceptance and observance of ethical codes of
organizations working and interacting with the
community. For 97.22% of subjects, level of
education is particularly important in career
development and success. Also, subjects were
asked if a person's success influenced the
impact it has on the environment in which they
operate. On this question, 91.67% of them
confirmed, which means that they consider
environmental impact must be within the
community where the organization operates or
globally. 8.33% of them have denied this.
55.55% of respondents consider that
successful people can be seen in terms of
leisure time that it may benefit you want,
while 45% think that this is not relevant.
Respondents assessed the extent of 97.22%
people think that to be successful, must be
powerful and influential individuals and
52.78% of respondents considered that success
can be controlled, which shows that
respondents are very confident in their own
forces and future holds for them, 47.22%
believe that success can not be controlled.
8. CONCLUSIONS
As we have seen in this work, the
image of success is, for many, synonymous
with the image of an excellent result, reserved
506
only certain privileged people, or endowed by

nature gifted or very lucky. In fact, success
can be met by any person, if desired, sought
and pursued consistently, if opportunities that
is offered are valued regardless of the
obstacles. We have shown over the three
attitude questionnaires were analyzed subjects
with a successful internal motive causing them
to adopt behaviors that those attitudes lead
them to achieve success and how they
manifest their behavior.
We cannot talk about success and
successful not to mention the feeling of
happiness, fulfillment, contentment, it is
essential that we view the success. If we start
the journey of life following picture
"borrowed" a success or stereotypes imposed
by society, without taking into account what
we want really, we cannot, ultimately,
disappointment. Attitudes are not working and
not the personality rather undifferentiated,
some are deeper, more intimately related to
each particular individual, others are less
profound, more superficial and volatile, less
than about personality traits and peculiarities
than the situation occur. As shown in
Paragraph Gavreliuc (Gavreliuc, A. 2006, p
79), to achieve specific behaviors occur and
many other personality variables, insisting
today than those related to information
processing in cognitive structures. Concrete
research shows, on the other hand, the habits
are, in many cases, stronger predictors than
attitudes. Synthesis of meta-analysis studies
show that habits matter greatly, as expected,
the daily routine behaviors, such as putting a
seat belt when driving the car. George
Pnioar, in the his paper
Effective
motivation: A Practical Guide (Pnioar, G.
2005, p. 85) argues that motivating human
actions oriented towards satisfying knowledge
of needs, the balance in relation to
environmental demands and to participate in
human relations. As a law rendering the entire
psyche, it acts on the side of each personality,
including
those
controlled
by
the
subconscious. To understand the functional
mechanism of the reasons that trigger and
maintain human behavior still need to
introduce a premise that is provided by
empirical findings: "Human behavior is always
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caused" thus appears alongside the concept of

reason and choice (Maxwell, J. 2005) The
cause is an objective, existing mental
structures of the individual, innate or acquired
and stored in the form of instincts, needs,
habits, skills, attitudes, prejudices and other
beliefs. This, in their concrete hypostasis, can
differ from person to person both in terms of
content and satisfaction model.
The paper does not seek to deny the
complexity of the human psyche, but generally
demystify success, showing that the necessary
resources for success, strong motivation,
proper attitude, persistence, are, once
understood, accessible to all. We showed in
the paper that the success, both personal and
professional, is the result of a set of mental
states, processes and psychological variables,
being convinced that success in terms of
considering all approach constituted the most
appropriate factors for successful analysis and
practical strategies its fulfillment.
That said, it seems that there are a
number of reasons and causes that leads
individuals to adopt a certain attitude in trying
to achieve success. As can be deduced based
on questionnaires, most of the subjects
interviewed are conditioned to pay satisfaction
and prestige, in choosing personal goals, their
idea of success is intimately linked to socialcultural context. This paper highlights the key
elements in achieving such success, a
constituent part of the state of happiness, as
Plato tells us: happiness consists of five parts,

one is to make good decisions, a second is to
have good health and bodily senses, third is
successful as, entrepreneurs, and good
reputation of the fourth and fifth among the
men abundance of money and assets useful
life.
REFERENCES
1. Alin Gavreliuc, Paragraph, from the
interpersonal to social communication: social
psychology and progressive stages of selfarticulation, New York: Polirom, (2006), 79.
2. George Pnioar, Effective motivation: A
Practical Guide, New York: Polirom, (2005),
85.
3. Glenn Bland, Success!: Glenn Bland
Method, Bucharest: International Business
Tech Press, (2000), 23.
4. David Harrington, How to form a successful
team, Bucharest: Teora, (2002).
5. John Maxwell, All about leadership,
attitude, teamwork, relationships, Bucharest:
Amaltea, (2005), 143.
6. Peter Ilut, Values, attitudes and social
behaviors, Bucharest: Polirom, (2004).
7. Ron Jenson, The Pyramid of Success:
Successful organizations through successful
people, Bucharest: Codecs, (2004).
8. Septimius Chelcea, Personality and society
in transition, Bucharest: Scientific and
Technical Publishing, (1994).
507
508
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THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE PROGNOSIS OF

SCHIZOPHRENIA
Camelia Maria DINDELEGAN
Associate Professor Department of Psychology, University of Oradea,
Clinic of Psychiatry, Dr. Gavril Curteanu Clinical Hospital, Oradea, Romania
E-mail: dindkamy@yahoo.com
Abstract : The purpose of the present research is theoretical, empirical and practical. Thus, we tried to
highlight and observe the difference between the parents of children diagnosed with schizophrenia who
have dysfunctional cognitive schemas and the parents who have mentally healthy children and the way in
which some differences are more pronounced in the first case than in the second.
The research was conducted on a sample of 89 people, divided into three groups: the first group
comprised 29 patients with a diagnosis of paranoid schizophrenia and schizo-affective disorder, the
second group comprised 29 parents of schizophrenia patients and the third group, consisting of 31
subjects, parents of mentally healthy children with no family history.
The conclusions argue that there are significant differences in terms of dysfunctional cognitive
schemas among parents of schizophrenia patients and parents of mentally healthy children.
The dysfunctional cognitive schemas found in parents with schizophrenia children are even more
pronounced than those of mentally healthy children; they were supported by checking the average scores
obtained by each participant.
Key words: Maladaptive cognitive schemas, Etiopathogeny, Schizophrenia.
Introduction
This research takes as its starting point
the ideas of Laing (1959, cited in Hayes and
Orrel, 2003, p 35), claiming that
"schizophrenia does not simply occur without
any apparent cause, but because the personal
lives of individuals are intolerable and that "a
retreat into madness" is often the only way
you can solve the contradictions they are
subject to." The same author argued that
psychiatry has failed to integrate in the
diagnostic the stress that schizophrenics often
bear and which in many cases justifies their
disorders. Studies on the role of social and
family factors are based on the research of
Faris and Durham (1939, cited Chirita and
509
Papari, 2002), who reported a higher

frequency of schizophrenia in disadvantaged
areas of major cities. The conclusion was that
factors as social and family environments full
of stress, lack of organization and poor
economy are believed to create a vulnerability
to schizophrenia.
The present study aimed to detect as
many influences as possible that are exerted
on the childs mental development, starting
with the early interactions that occur between
parents and them, to how to raise and educate
them in terms of dysfunctional cognitive
schemas.
Studies at this level show the
importance of family communication both on
the onset of the disease and during its

evolution (Pharoah et al., 2003, cited in
Jeican, 2007). Most explanations and current
research are biologically determined. There
havent been found psychological factors that
cause schizophrenia from other humans,
however there is strong evidence that
psychosocial factors play an important role in
determining the severity of the disorder at
people with biological vulnerability and it
causes psychotic episodes (Dindelegan, 2012,
p 59)
Thus, we tried to highlight and
differentiate between dysfunctional cognitive
schemas of parents people diagnosed with
schizophrenia and those of the parents having
mentally healthy people, as well as the
gradualness some are more pronounced than
others. From an empirical point of view, the
study brings data to reinforce the idea of the
existence
of
relationships
between
psychosocial variables of proximity, family
and the development of schizophrenia and
completes this idea with empirical data
showing that high scores on certain schemas
dysfunctional cognitve schemas of the parent
associate with high scores of the
schizophrenic child, on some dimensions of
the Positive and General Psychopathology
subscales (PANSS). This has some significant
implications for assessing the significance of
the patient's family environment. Thus, it is
important to maintain a high level of
beneficial relationships in the family of the
schizophrenic, to improve prognosis, to avoid
relapse and to provide a good environment.
Methodology of Research
The objective of this research aims to
identify the extent to which psycho-social
factors of proximity - family contribute to the
development and maintenance of a certain
type of thinking and to identify differences in
the dysfunctional cognitive schemas between
parents of schizophrenic patients and parents
of mentally healthy people. The hypothesis
that initiated this research assumes that there
is a significant association between high
scores obtained by parents on the subscales
of
the
Young
Cognitive
Schema
510
Questionnaire and those obtained by their

schizophrenic children, on P and G subscales
of PANSS Scale.
Research Sample
The research was conducted on a
sample of 55 people divided into three
groups. The first group consists of 15
subjects, clinically diagnosed with paranoid
schizophrenia and schizo-affective disorder.
Patients were hospitalized at the Clinic of
Psychiatry Dr. Gavril Curteanu Clinical
Hospital and others were registered at the
hospital and were coming to consultation.
The second group consists of 15 people,
comprising parents of patients with
schizophrenia (one parent from each patient).
The third group is the control group of 25
subjects (one from each family), parents of
mentally healthy children without personal
and family history.
Instruments, procedures and data
analysis
Young
Cognitive
Schema
Questionnaire - Short form.
In order to evaluate these schemas,
Young and his coworkers (Young et. al.,
2003) developed the schema questionnaire.
The YSQ-S2 short form consists of 75 items
distributed in 18 subscales representing
cognitive
schemas:
dysfunctional
Abandonment/ Instability (AB); Mistrust/
Abuse (MA); Emotional Deprivation (ED);
Defectiveness/ Shame (DS); Social Isolation/
Alienation (SI); Dependence/ Incompetence
(DI); Vulnerability to Harm or Illness (VH);
Enmeshment/ Undeveloped Self (EM);
Failure to Achieve (FA); Entitlement/
Grandiodity (ET); Insufficient Self-Control/
Self-Discipline (IS); Subjugation (SB); SelfSacrifice
(SS);
Approval-Seaking/
Recognition-Seeking
(AS);
Negativity/
Pessimism (NP); Emotional Inhibition (EI);
Unrelenting Standards/ Hypercriticalness
(US); Punitiveness (PU) (Dindelegan, 2008).
To establish the fidelity of the scale
160 subjects were included, young and
mature. The administration of the tools was
made both collectively and individually. The
questionnaire has a very good fidelity,
yielding an alpha Crombach = .96. Crombach
coefficients were also calculated for the
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subscales (between .68 - .90), supporting a

good fidelity of subscales (Dindelegan,
2008). The first tool used to validate the
YSQ-S3 questionnaire is SPIN-Social Phobia
Inventory, adapted to the Romanian
population by Chereji (2003, as cited in
Dindelegan, 2008). YSQ-S3 subscales
demonstrated a good predictive validity.
PANSS Evaluation Scale (Positive
and Negative Syndrome Scale)
It is an assessment tool with seven 7
levels of intensity in the form of a formalized
semi-structured interview that assesses the
dimensions of positive symptoms, negative
symptoms or other type of symptoms. It
includes 33 items depicting: Positive Scale
score (P), Negative Scale score (N)
Composite Index (Scale Positive minus
Negative Scale), General Psychopathology
Scale (G), Supplemental Aggression Risk (S)
and total score.
The investigated population is made
up of people aged over 18. Cronbach's alpha
internal consistency index was calculated for
the entire Romanian normative sample (N83). For the standard model, the syndrome
scales (Positive, Negative and General
Psychopathology) have shown adequate
internal consistency, with alpha values of
.83, .71 and .74; obviously the lowest interitem correlations belong to the General
Psychopathology Scale as it captures the
symptoms
of
a
wide
range
of
psychopathology. The subscales of the
pentagonal model obtained adequate internal
consistency of the coefficients ranging
between .60 and .78. Research on using the
PANSS scale was extensive, a simple search
of the number of occurrences of the PANSS
in
PsychINFO
database
(Http://romania.testcentral.ro,
30.04.2013)
presented 536 records for the period 19852005.
511
The research was conducted in the

period January 1st 2013- April 25th 2013 in
the Clinic of Psychiatry Dr. Gavril
Curteanu Clinical Hospital. The average
duration of each appointment was 30-60
minutes for the PANSS questionnaire and
10-15 minutes for the YSQ questionnaire.
Results of Research
After verifying the shape distribution
of the scores of parents of schizophrenic
children, for the 18 subscales of the YSQ: AB,
MA, ED, DS, SI, DI, VH, EM, FA, ET, IS,
SB, SS, AS, NP, EI, US, PU we used the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and we obtained a z
which corresponds to the values: .561 , 1.07 ,
.769 , 1.01 , .637 , .973 , .470 , .707 , .853 ,
1.38 , .985 , .786 , .670 , .712 , .726 , 1.12 ,
.900 , .920 and a significance level p> .05 on
subscales AB, MA, ED, DS, SI, DI, VH, EM,
FA, IS, SB, SS, AS, NP, EI, US, PU; thus, the
result shows that the population distribution is
symmetric for these items. We obtained a
significance level p < .05 at the subscale ET,
with the result that the population distribution
is asymmetrical at this item. After verifying
the shape distribution of the scores of people
suffering of schizophrenia, for the 13
subscales of PANSS: G2, P1, G9, P6, G14,
P3, G1, G6, G3, P5, G10, G12, G16, we used
Kolmogorov Smirnov test and we obtained a
z which corresponds to the following values:
1.54, 1.94, 1.94, 1.55, 1.30, 1.46, 1.01, 1.18,
.72, 1.46, 2.19, .96, 1.30 and a significance
level p> .05 on subscales: G14, G1, G6, G3,
G12 , and G16; thus, the result shows that the
population distribution is symmetric for these
items. We obtained a significance level p <
.05 on subscales G2, P1, G9, P6, P3, P5 and
G10, with the result that the population
distribution is asymmetrical at the specified
items.
Table no. 1 Analysis results of the Bravis-Pearson r test

g2
r
p1
g9
p6
g14
p3
g1
g6
g3
p5
g10
g12
g16
ED
-.27
-.033
-.059
.107
-.058
.024
.175
.294
.039
-.229
-.083
.030
-.058
AB
-.49**
.101
.082
.102
-.128
.110
.016
.142
.055
-.080
-.105
-.173
-.211
MA
-.151
-.164
.055
.174
-.032
-.032
-.062
.434*
.111
-.123
-.247
-.108
-.165
-.613**
.103
-.004
.299
-.099
-.116
-.111
.275
-.030
-.164
.173
.090
.134
DS
-.058
-.221
-.485**
-.242
-.201
-.185
-.061
-.242
-.264
-.068
.006
.023
.227
FA
-.280
-.081
-.026
.147
.093
.124
.138
.219
-.011
-.063
.012
.024
-.049
DI
-.272
.065
-.097
-.217
.021
-.078
.063
.032
-.342
.000
.039
-.058
-.299
VH
-.282
-.088
-.303
-.019
-.079
-.148
.070
-.136
-.177
-.014
-.173
-.135
.160
EM
-.347
-.054
-.301
.341
.008
-.143
-.005
.131
-.044
-.060
.197
.161
.198
ET
-.525**
-.009
.075
.174
-.180
-.267
-.035
.111
-.230
-.168
.020
.072
-.015
IS
-.088
-.193
-.351
-.041
.095
-.291
.122
-.264
-.329
-.149
.179
-.118
.171
SB
-.064
-.331
-.493**
-.304
-.230 -.440*
-.281
-.209
-.157
-.190
-.124
-.063
.276
SS
-.224
.181
.104
-.022
.279
.062
.153
-.113
-.052
-.128
.512**
.225
.271
AS
-.154
-.277
-.044
.342
.035
-.280
-.046
.200
.152
-.272
.157
-.215
.239
NP
-.047
-.432*
-.161
.309
.207
-.265
.066
.100
-.244
-.150
.071
-.010
-.139
SI
512
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EI
-.129
.285
-.068
-.188
.177
.090
.252
-.162
-.116
.218
.122
.030
-.067
US
.107
.156
.209
-.011
.190
.258
.077
-.068
.066
.376*
-.151
-.068
-.098
PU
.048
.046
-.208
-.038
-.144
.126
.166
.133
.105
-.305
.018
.074
-.099
Correlations
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level 2-tailed
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level 2-tailed.
513
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To check if there is a significant positive

correlation between the results of parents with
schizophrenic children at the Young
Questionnaire subscales and the results of
their children at the P and G subscales of
PANSS rating scale, we calculated the
Pearson correlation coefficient r.
We
used
the
Bravis-Pearson
correlation coefficient r for all variables
because we wanted to outline the relationship
between all variables in common, without
losing determination index and having a wider
observation of the subscales and because the
significance thresholds are far from the critical
threshold of .05 and also because we knew
that Kolmogorov-Smirnov test z is inexact in
such cases.
Following the interpretation of Table
No. 1 we see that there are significant
associations between the following subscales:
AB and G2, SI and G2, ET and G2, NP and
P1, SB and G9, DS and G9, SB and P3, MA
and G6; US and P5, SS and G10. In the case
of insignificant coefficients (p> .05), the
correlation is not linear for the respective
variables.
The condition of the normality of
distribution the variables Abandonment/
Instability (AB) and Anxiety (G2) was
verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the
results of the variables Abandonment /
Instability (AB) [KS z = 1.07, p> .05] and
Anxiety (G2), [KS z = 1.54, p> .05],
statistically significant, show that the variables
arent normally distributed. According to these
results, there is a negative correlation between
the subscale Abandonment/ Instability (AB)
and Anxiety subscale (G2), r(27)= - .49, p <.
01 we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic
children get high scores on the subscale
514
Abandonment / Instability (AB), their children

tend to get lower scores on Anxiety subscale
(G2). While r is an expression of size effect
(with reference to Cohen's criteria (1988, as
cited Labar, 2008, p 83), we may say that the
relationship
between
Abandonment/
Instability (AB) and Anxiety (G2) is weak (R
= 0.05).
distribution the variables Social Isolation (SI)
and Anxiety (G2) was verified using
Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, the results of the
social isolation variables (SI) [KS z = 1.01, p>
.05] and Anxiety (G2), [KS z = 1.54, p> .05],
arent normally distributed. According to the
results obtained (Table No. 1), there is a
positive correlation between the subscale
Social Isolation (SI) and Anxiety subscale (G
2), r (27) = .613, p <. 05 we conclude: if
parents with schizophrenic children get high
scores on the subscale Social Isolation (SI),
their children tend to get high scores on
Anxiety subscale (G2).
distribution the variables Entitlement (ET) and
Anxiety (G2) was verified using KolmogorovSmirnov z, the results of the variable
Entitlement (ET) [KS z = 1.38, p <.05],
statistically insignificant, show that variables
have a normal distribution; the Anxiety
variable (G2), [KS z = 1.54, p> .05],
arent normally distributed. According to the
results obtained (Table No. 1), there is a
positive correlation between Entitlement (ET)
and Anxiety subscale (G2), r (27) = .52, p <.
01 we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic
Entitlement (ET), their children tend to get
high scores on Anxiety subscale (G2).
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distribution
the
variables
Negativity/
Pessimism (NP) and General Illusions (P1)
was verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov z,
the
results
of
the
variable
Negativity/Pessimism (NP) [K-S z=.726, p
>.05], statistically significant, show that the
variables arent normally distributed and for
the variable General Illusions (P1) [K-S
z=1.94 p <.05], statistically insignificant,
show that variables have a normal distribution.
Application conditions being met, we
calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient r
(0.18). According to the results obtained
(Table No. 1) there is a negative correlation
between subscale Negativity/Pessimism (NP)
and the subscale General Illusions (P1) r ( 27)
= - .43 p < . 05 we conclude: if parents with
schizophrenic children get high scores on the
subscale Negativity/Pessimism (NP), their
children tend to get low scores on General
Illusions subscale (P1).
distribution the variables Subjugation (SB)
and Unusual Thought Content (G9) was
results of the variable Subjugation [KS z =
.786, p = .05] and Unusual Thought Content
(G9) [KS z = 1.94 p <.05], statistically
insignificant, resulting in the fact that the
variables are normally distributed.
The condition of linearity between
Subjugation (SB) and Unusual Thought
Content (G9) subscales was verified by
inspection of the cloud of points. Application
conditions being met, we calculated the
Pearson correlation coefficient r (0.24).
According to the results obtained (Table No.
1) there is a negative correlation between
Subjugation (SB) and Unusual Thought
Content (G9) subscales, r (27) = - .49 p <. 01
we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic
515

Subjugation (SB), their children tend to get
low scores on Unusual Thought Content (G9).
distribution the variables Defectiveness/
Shame (DS) and Unusual Thought Content
(G9) was verified using Kolmogorov-Smirnov
z,
the
results
of
the
variables,
Defectiveness/Shame (DS) [KS z = .637, p >
.05] and Unusual Thought Content (G9), [KS
z = 1.94, p> .05], statistically significant,
show that they arent normally distributed.
between Defectiveness/ Shame (DS) and
Unusual Thought Content (G9) subscales, r
(27) = - .48 p <.01, we conclude: if parents
with schizophrenic children get high scores on
the subscale Defectiveness/ Shame (DS), their
children tend to get low scores on Unusual
Thought Content (G9).
distribution the variables Subjugation (SB)
and Hallucinatory Behavior and associated
delusions
(P3)
was
verified
using
variable Subjugation (SB) [KS z = .786, p =
.05] and Hallucinatory Behavior and
associated delusions (P3) , [KS z = 1.46 p>
.05], statistically significant, show that the
variables
arent
normally
distributed.
between Subjugation (SB) and Hallucinatory
Behavior and associated delusions subscales
(P3), r (27) = - .44 p < . 05, we conclude: if
parents with schizophrenic children get high
scores on the subscale Subjugation (SB), their
children tend to get low scores on

Hallucinatory Behavior and associated
delusions (P3).
distribution the variables Mistrust/ Abuse
(MA) and Depression (G6) was verified using
variable Mistrust/ Abuse (MA) [KS z = .769,
p = .05], statistically insignificant, show that
the variables are normally distributed and
Depression (G6), [KS z = 1.18 p> .05],
statistically significant shows that the
variables
arent
normally
distributed.
(Table No. 1) there is a positive correlation
between Mistrust/ Abuse (MA) and
Depression (G6) subscales, r (27) = - .43 p <.
05; we conclude: if parents with schizophrenic
Mistrust/ Abuse (MA), their children tend to
get high scores on Depression (G6).
distribution
the
variables
Unrelenting
Standards (US) and Grandiosity (P5) was
results of the variable Unrelenting Standards
(US) [KS z = .90, p> .05], statistically
significant, show that the variables arent
normally distributed and Grandiosity (P5),
[KS z = 1.46 p <.05], statistically
insignificant, show that the variables are
normally distributed. Application conditions
being met, we calculated the Pearson
correlation coefficient r (0.18). There is a
positive correlation between Unrelenting
Standards (US) and Grandiosity (P5)
subscales, r (27) = .37, p <. 05: we conclude:
if parents with schizophrenic children get high
scores on the subscale Unrelenting Standards
(US), their children tend to get high scores on
Grandiosity (P5).
distribution the variables Self Sacrifice (SS)
and Disorientation (G10) was verified using
Kolmogorov-Smirnov z, results of the variable
Self Sacrifice (SS) [KS z = .67, p> .05],
516
arent normally distributed and Disorientation

(G10) [KS z = .21, p <.05], statistically
insignificant, show the fact that the variables
are normally distributed.
The condition of linearity between Self
Sacrifice (SS) and Disorientation (G10)
subscales, we calculated the Pearson
correlation coefficient r (0.26). According to
the results obtained (Table No. 1) there is a
positive correlation between Self Sacrifice
(SS) and Disorientation (G10) subscales, r
(27) = .51, p <. 01; we conclude: if parents
with schizophrenic children get high scores on
the subscale Self Sacrifice (SS), their children
tend to get high scores on Disorientation
(G10).
Discussion
In conclusion, the hypothesis that there
is a significant association between high
scores obtained by parents at Young Cognitive
Schema Questionnaire subscales and those of
their schizophrenic children at P and G
subscales of PANSS, is partially supported for
5 of the subscales, namely: Abandonment/
Instability and Anxiety (AB and G2), Social
Isolation and Anxiety (SI and G2),
Entitlement and Anxiety (ET and G2),
Mistrust/ Abuse and Depression (MA and
G6), Unrelenting Standards and Grandiosity
(US and P5), Self Sacrifice and Disorientation
(SS and G10).
Conclusion
According to our research hypothesis,
the results we obtained conclude that the
combination of high scores of parents of
schizophrenic children, at the subscales
Abandonment/ Instability, Social Isolation,
Entitlement , Mistrust/ Abuse, Unrelenting
Standards and Self Sacrifice with the high
scores of their children at the subscales
Anxiety, Depression, Grandiosity and
Disorientation is due to the influence that the
parent has on the child because they spend a
significant amount of time together and thus
the parent has a bigger authority and
influence. The child who lives and grows
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around a parent who has such strong

cognitive schemas can develop traits such as
anxiety, due to the environment and the
effects of his parents behavior on him; he
may take some thinking styles through social
learning which include anxiety.
Sociocultural studies try to prove that
a bad pattern of behavior in the family, an
oppressive atmosphere, a hyperactive
schizophrenogene mother, along with other
negative influences, all have a degree of
influence on the mental development of the
child (Jeican, 2007). J. Harley (cited in Birt,
2001), states that any communication within
families is mutual and is characterized by
behavioral manifestations. So parents with
certain strong dysfunctional cognitive
schemas can manifest their outcomeson the
child; such behavior may be a trigger or even
an accelerator factor, if the child is already
suffering of schizophrenia.
The correlation coefficient obtained
between the five variables/subscales was
statistically significant, indicating a linear
moderate relationship between the subscales
Abandonment/ Instability and Anxiety (Ab
and G2), Social Isolation and Anxiety (SI
and G2) Entitlement and Anxiety (ET and
G2), Mistrust /Abuse and Depression (MA
and G6), Unrelenting Standards and
Grandiosity (US and P5), Self Sacrifice and
Disorientation (SS and G10). This means that
whenever you increase the level of one of the
subscales dysfunctional cognitive schema
questionnaire of
the parent (eg.
Abandonment/ Instability), increases the
level of one of P or G subscales of PANSS
rating scale of the schizophrenic child (eg.
anxiety).
The practical implications of the
results obtained in this study are clinical
evidence for the activity. Accurate
517
knowledge of possible psycho-social factors

involved in the development of diseases such
as schizophrenia, correcting them and
creating an appropriate family environment
for the patient, can have amazing effects on
the approach in terms of recovery and
avoiding relapse.
A number of evidence supports
psycho-education in the family as one of the
"best practices" for young adults with
schizophrenia and their families. Because of
this compelling evidence, researchers at the
University of Maryland have identified that
psycho-education in the family - an
evidence-based practice, should be offered to
all families. This and other research studies
have shown reduced rates of relapse and
lower rates of hospitalization. Other findings
include a significant number of patients
rehabilitated professionally, lower care costs
and improve family welfare (Herseni and
Thoas, 2006). A meta analysis of 16
individual studies found that family
interventions with less than 10 sessions have
no effect on reducing family problems. There
are also several controlled studies that
support the effectiveness of single and
multiple family interventions. Family
psycho-education studies were conducted
outside the United States, China, Norway, the
Netherlands and with a Hispanic population
of Los Angeles and California (Herseni and
Thoas, 2006).
This study has aimed to highlight
errors that can lead to a dysfunctional family
communication, in finding more practical
ways where intervention should be done
within the schizophrenics family. Ienciu,
Romosan and Lazarescu (2012, p 250)
mention the family perspective, especially
the systematic one, and talk about a new
paradigm
extending
the
modeling
schizophrenia to socio-communicative level.
References
Andrasik, F. (Eds.) (2006). Comprehensive
Handbook
of
Personality
and
Psychopathology,
Adult
Psychopathology (Vol. 2). John Wiley &
Sons.
Birt, M. A. (2001). Clinical PsychiatryProlegomena. Cluj-Napoca: Dacia.
Chirita, V. & Papari, A. (Eds.). (2002).
Psychiatry Treaty (Vol. 1). Constanta:
Fundatia Andrei Saguna.
Dindelegan, C. M. (2008). Cognitive Schemas
in Depression. Oradea: University of
Oradea.
518
Dindelegan, C. M. (2012). Incursion into

Psychopathology
and
Clinical
Psychology. Bucuresti: Sper, Alma
Mater Collection, No. 30.
Hayes, N. & Orrell, S. (2003). Introduction in
Psychology. Bucaresti: All.
Ienciu, M., Romo can, F. & Lzrescu, M.
(Eds.) (2012). Schizophrenia and
spectrum disorders. Timisoara: Brumar.
Jeican, R. (2007). Schizophrenia: Research
and Recent Aetiological Theories. ClujNapoca: Limes.
Labar, A. V. (2008). SPSS for the science of
education: Data Analysis Methodology
in Pedagogical Research. Iasi: Polirom.
Young, J. F., Klosko, J. S. & Weishaar, M. E.
(2003). Schema Therapy A
Practitioners Guide. New York: The
Guilford Press.
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THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE AT STRESS

LEVEL PERCEIVED BY THE PEOPLE DIAGNOSED WITH
DEPRESSION
Camelia DINDELEGAN*, Florina SERAC-POPA**
*Faculty of Social Humanistic Science, Department of Psychology, University of Oradea Oradea,
Romania
Clinic of Psychiatry, Dr. Gavril Curteanu Clinical Hospital, Oradea, Romania
* Psychologist -Clinic of Psychiatry, Dr. Gavril Curteanu Clinical Hospital, Oradea, Romania
Abstract: In this paper we wanted to present the issue of stress perception, depending on the attributional
style of people diagnosed with depression and of clinically healthy individuals.
Currently, it is believed that emotional experiences, normal oscillations of affection are shown on a
continuum between a negative pole- represented by depression and a positive one- euphoria, these
oscillations having many nuances within these two poles. Most people are in a state of emotional
stability, but in some cases, due to changes to the environment, due to a vulnerability in the personality
structure of an individual, this state is disturbed and the emotional experiences can be movable toward
one pole or another.
Thus, attribution helps us understand our own behavior and that of the people around us. People
have a very strong tendency to give and achieve causal attribution for almost any activity they do and for
almost any behavior, realizing this at the unconscious level.
Key words: Stress, depression, attributional style.
519
Introduction
The world we live in is constantly
changing and this is happening at a dizzying
pace that continually puts to test our capacity
of resilience. In order to adapt oneself to
environmental requirements, it is necessary
that cognitive structures that filter out reality
do not present major distortions. These
structures, called cognitive schemas, are
different beliefs we have acquired in early
childhood. Among them we find the belief that
we are more or less able to achieve the desired
results, by using our skills or the belief that we
are either or not able to control our own lives.
A significant importance in adaptation is
also the person's attributional style, more
precisely the way he assigns the occurrence of
positive or negative events. Such attributions
may be internal or external, stable or unstable,
global or specific. The way these attributions
combine depends on how the person adapts to
the stressors of his/ her life.
In this paper we wanted to present the
issue of stress perception, depending on the
attributional style of people diagnosed with
depression and of clinically healthy
individuals.
Chapter I
Theoretical aspects
1.1 Depression: Definition and conceptual
delimitation
Currently, it is believed that emotional
experiences, normal oscillations of affection
are shown on a continuum between a negative
pole- represented by depression and a positive
one- euphoria, these oscillations having many
nuances within these two poles. Most people
are in a state of emotional stability, but in
some cases, due to changes to the
environment, due to a vulnerability in the
personality structure of an individual, this
state is disturbed and the emotional
experiences can be movable toward one pole
or another, showing dysthymia. Consequently,
the difference between a normal sadness or
grief and depression is quantitative, not
qualitative. A clear indicator of experiencing
520
affective experiences of pathological intensity

is the professional, social and family
performance collapse (Dindelegan, 2006).
In the Larousse Dictionary of Psychology,
2000, depression is defined as a "morbid
condition, more or less sustainable, especially
of persistent sadness and a decrease in tone
and energy." The affected person is considered
most times unable to face the least difficulty,
also lacking any kind of initiative. She suffers
from impotence and thinks that her intellectual
faculties, especially attention and memory are
degraded. The feeling of inferiority further
enhances melancholy.
1.2. Attributions: definition and general
view
Causal attribution helps us understand our
own behavior and that of the people around
us. People have a very strong tendency to give
and achieve causal attribution for almost any
activity they do and for almost any behavior,
realizing this at the unconscious level. In
1958, Heider initiated the development of
attributional approaches in social psychology.
He claimed that the main reason people do
assignments is to predict and control the social
environment. Thus, if we can successfully
explain past behaviors, there is a chance that
the same or similar causes, allow us to
anticipate what we will do in certain social
situations in the future.
Baron and Byrne (1997 cited Pennigton,
2000) define causal attributions as the process
by which we seek to identify the underlying
causes of the behavior of others and thus to
know certain stable features or their
provisions. This definition is useful, but fails
to make reference to the fact that people are
also concerned with making assignments
regarding their personal behavior. However,
this definition emphasizes that causal
attributions are made in close relation with
personality traits or characteristics of the
individual and his provisions.
In the process of characterization of
causal attributions, it is useful to refer to the
following aspects- internal or external causes
of attributions; spontaneous attributions vs.
deliberate attributions and attributions for
voluntary and involuntary behaviors.
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Regarding the first aspect, we can say that

causal attributions are divided into two
categories: internal and external. The internal
ones reffer to the fact that ones own behavior
or others behavior can be explained best by a
factor within the individual (temper,
personality, emotional state, etc.). In contrast,
the external attributions are achieved when
own or others' behavior can be best explained
by the pressures of a particular person or
situation, an external factor.
As for the second aspect, spontaneous
attributions occur without any cognitive
voluntary effort, and are usually based on
certain stereotypes or impressions about
themselves or others. In contrast, the
deliberate cognitive attributions present a
cognitive voluntary effort and usually take
place when we think about what we do or
what others will do in a social situation
Hamilton and Mackie (1995 cited in
Pennington, 2000) have observed that people
who have a good mood often do spontaneous
attributions; engaging in a deep mental effortto explain ones own behavior or that of
others, can lead to the loss of the good mood.
And in terms of attributions made for
voluntary
and
involuntary
behaviors,
Kruglanski (1975 cited in Pennington, 2000)
suggests that voluntary behavior should be
attributed to internal causes, and the
involuntary attributions should be attributed to
external factors. Behaviors that appear after
experiencing strong emotions can be classified
as involuntary behaviors, and yet can be the
subject of both internal and external
attributions.
Chapter II
Methodology of research
2.1 Objectives
521
In this paper we wanted to present the

issue of stress perception, depending on the
attributional style of people diagnosed with
depression and of clinically healthy
individuals.
2.2 Hypotheses, variables and design
Hypothesis. 1
The stress perceived
differs according to the level of negative
attributional style, adopted by depressed
people, in contrast to the clinically healthy
people.
Variables : VI a category of diagnosis
a1- clinical group
a2 control group
VI b negative attributional
style
b1- low level
b2 high level
VD - the perceived stress
Two-factor intergroup design
2.3 Subjects
The study was conducted on a sample of
240 people, of which 120 participants were
randomly selected from the normal population
clinically healthy and the other 120
participants were individuals diagnosed with
various forms of depression (the most
common diagnosis being recurrent major
depressive disorder); the 120 patients are
hospitalized at the Clinic of Psychiatry, Dr.
Gavril Curteanu Clinical Hospital in Oradea.
The control group was composed of 69
women and 51 men, aged between 30 and 60
years, their average age being 39.62 and the
standard deviation of 7.50. From the point of
view of the level of education, 4 people have
completed middle school (8th grade), 5 people
have graduated from a vocational school, 79
persons with secondary education (high
school) and 32 persons with higher education
(university, college).
Clinical group consisted of 75 women

and 45 men, aged between 30 and 77 years,
their average age being 52.85 with a standard
deviation equal to 10.64. One person had no
education, 15 people have completed primary
education (4 classes), 50 people have
graduated from secondary school (8th grade),
12 people have graduated from a vocational
school, 37 with secondary education (high
school) and five people had higher education
(college).
As for the area of origin, participants in
both groups were from both urban and rural.
They participated voluntarily in this study by
giving their consent.
2.4 Procedure
The people in clinical group were
presented the battery of tests individually by
the assessor; they were presented the reason
they will be evaluated, they were read the
instructions and the content of each scale or
questionnaire and their responses were
recorded on an answer sheet, being assured of
confidentiality of results. The battery
consisted of the following scales: Perceived
Stress Questionnaire (PSQ), Attributional
style questionnaire (ASQ).
There wasnt a time limit in completing
the battery of tests, in both cases.
2.5 Processing and interpretation of
results
Our research started from the hypothesis
we mentioned above hypothesized above,
which was tested on two samples of subjects:
people with depression and clinically healthy
individuals.
Hypothesis. 1
The stress perceived
differs according to the level of negative
attributional style, adopted by depressed
people, in c ontrast to t he clinica lly healthy
people.
We proceeded to Negative Composite
scores (low and high) dichotomization, based
on the median value for the control group
(average = 11.00) and the clinical group
(average = 10.00), so we got 58 people with a
low negative attributional style and 62 people
with high levels in the control group. And in
the group of people diagnosed with depression
522
we found that 54 of them had low levels of

negative attributions and 66 people had high
levels of negative attributions.
Having a problem comparing four
independent samples, a two-factor intergroup
design and symmetric data distribution (Table
2.5.1), we used ANOVA statistical method.
To test this hypothesis, we used the
comparison of scores obtained at Perceived
Stress Scale, according to the presence or
absence of depression and the level of
attribution for negative events.
Below we present the results obtained
from Kolmogorov Smirnov test and the
comparison of the four samples.
Table no. 2.5.1 Kolmogorov Smirnov test
results for the stress perceived scale scores,
according to the style of the diagnostic
category of negative attributions
Diagnosis
Level of
Z
P
category
negative
attributiona
l style
Depression
Low
0,666 .768
High
0,629
.823
group
Control group Low
0,834 .490
High
0,833
.491
In Table 2.5.1 we see that Z index in the
four samples had thresholds significantly
higher than 0.05, with a risk of error
statistically insignificant, therefore we can say
that data processing respects the condition of
symmetry.
Table no. 2.5.2 Results of comparisons
in the case of perceived stress, according to
the negative attributional style and
diagnosis category
Independent
variables
F(1,236)
118,11
.000
Level of negative
attributional style
(LNAS)
0,17
.679
Interaction between
(DC) i (LNAS)
2,12
.146
Diagnosis Category
(DC)
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The results in Table 2.5.2, confirm once

again that the perception of stress differs
depending on the presence or absence of
depression (F [1,122] = 118.11, p <0.01).
Referring to the level of attributions for
negative events, we cannot decide on the
existence of a differentiated stress perception
(F [1,122] = 0.17, p> 0.05), in the case of
subjects included in the study. As the
interaction between the negative attributional
style and diagnostic category, we cannot rule
on their contribution, in differentiated
perception of stress (F [1,122] = 2.12, p>
0.05).
Below we present the averages to see
how the distribution of scores is made.
Table no. 2.5.3 Average and standard
deviations for perceived stress, according to
diagnosis category and the negative
attributional style
Diagnosis
category
Depressi
on group
Control
group
Level of
negative
attributional
style
Average
Standard
deviation
High
80,50
11,82
High
65,63
65,63
In table 2.5.3 we can see that the clinical

group has obtained the highest values in the
perception of stress compared to the control
group. For people diagnosed with depression
who present a higher level of negative
attributions, the scores are almost equal
compared to people who have this type of
pathology, but whose level of negative
attributions is low, the same thing happening
in the control group.
It appears that for the subjects included in
our study, stress is seen at about the same
523
intensity, if we refer to the attributions for

negative events.
This is contrary to Seligmans theory on
attributional style. He argued that individuals,
who perform internal, stable and global
attributions for the negative events they face,
are more vulnerable to experiencing strong
reactions to stress and depressive symptoms.
This is possible because, to feel the burden of
extreme liability for the occurrence of
unpleasant events, to consider the reasons for
which they take place are always the same,
that negative events will always be present
and will affect their lives are some beliefs that
have negative consequences on the selfesteem of the person, especially if they get to
be chronic. One possible explanation for our
results is that the majority of people diagnosed
with depression were assessed at least one
week after starting drug treatment and their
condition began to improve. Another aspect
that could contribute to obtaining these results
is that healthy people, even if they had a
higher or lower level of attributions for
negative events, the impact on perceived stress
may have been mitigated by other factors such
as social support and the coping strategies
used.
Chapter III
Conclusions
The belief that we have some control
over our lives, that we have the ability to
achieve certain results due to possession of
skills and the way we explain the events
whether positive or negative, are of crucial
importance in regulating human behavior at
cognitive, affective, behavioral and biological
level. These beliefs are reflected in both the
reporting stressors and the experiencing of
psychological or physiological disorders.
It was found that people who are

diagnosed with depression perceive stressors
as being more intense, in contrast to healthy
individuals. This was expected, given Beck's
cognitive theory (1967.1976 cited Neubauer
and Gotlib, 2000) on the etiology of
depression, stating that people who exhibit
this disorder interpret information from the
external environment, in line with negative
cognitive schema, positive events are ignored
or minimized, and the negative or neutral are
sharpened. So distorted perception of reality is
a stressor itself and thus negative life events
will have a greater impact on the person.
Seligman argued that individuals
performing internal, stable and global
attributions for negative events they face, are
more vulnerable to experiencing strong
reactions to stress and depressive symptoms;
this idea could not be pointed out in the case
of participants to our study for whom the
stress seems to be perceived at about the same
intensity, if we refer to attributions they do for
negative events. This may be due to the global
nature of the negative composite, which may
result in passing the existence of potential
differences in the perception of stress,
according to attributional style. This idea will
be considered in future research.
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THE ANALYSES OF SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN THE FIELD OF

PROFESSIONAL CAREER
Mihaela GURANDA*
*Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: We are living nowadays in a society based on knowledge, which needs a qualified,
educated and flexible labour force. There is a great need of individuals who continuously develop their
competences, because it has not considered the problem of having a working place along the life time, but
the possibility to adapt to many working places and institutions along one period (Chao, 2005).
O`Reilly (2001) estimates that during the next years, the young persons that are coming into the
labour market will have seven-eight various working places along their career. Taking into account this
professional fluidity, the aptitudes of taking decisions for their career must be developed now more than
ever. The capacity of continuous evaluation and choosing the best alternative is a feature of the
demanding for the tomorrow working force (Smith, Ryan, 2011).
Keywords: career, significant changes, competences
1. Introduction
In order to use eficiently the notion of
career we are going to refer to a number of
significant conceptual delimitations. John
Arnold (2001a) presents eight definitions of
the concept of career. According to the
specialised literature there are many others.
Three of them, belonging to Super, Perlmutter,
& Hall i Gary Johns, underline the essential
aspects of career. If Super (1978) considered
career as a succession of professions, jobs and
positions taken by a person along its life,
Perlmutter i Hall (1992) sustained that the
career is the ensemble of jobs characterized by
training and experience, while a person
reaches to superior positions, described by
responsabilities and competences. Gary Johns
(1998) defines career as an evolving
succession of professional positions a person
could have. As it can be noticed, the mutual
aspect of the three definitions is that of
527
professional evolution along the life time.

Conceived as a constellation of roles, the
career could be graphically designed as a
rainbow. Each coloured arch from the career
rainbow represents the major roles of the child,
the young person and the adult. The brightness
and the breadth of the rainbow arch represents
the time and space of life nedeed to fulfill the
roles. While getting older, there are new roles
added to the rainbow, the new role
reorganising the importance of the previous
ones. Each human being has, in fact, a multirole career in his life, in which he plays
simultaneously eight or nine roles (Luca,
2002: 17)
Based on these definitions, it could be
sustained a synthetical definition of career, as:
Career is the succession of professions, jobs,
positions, activities, experiences and roles
suggested/played by the individual along his
professional life simultaneous with the
subjective interpretation that lead to distinct
contract is of 18 months. It is a very short

period, according to the specialists in the
domain, who considere that a person needs a
six months period in order to integrate in a
community, two years to accumulate all the
vital aspects of a working place, 2-4 years to
obtain performance in that working place, and
only after 4 years there will appear the faze of
professional calmness. In this rhytm it can be
said that a person may have at least 9 careers
along his life time. The person needs to adapt
continuously. The results of the study shows
that:
-50% of the candidates consider that they
need 6 months to find a working place;
need 3-5 months to find a working place;
need 1-2 months to find a working place;
-2% find a job in less than a month.
In Romania, according to the studies made by
The National Institute of Statistics, between
2003-2008, we may assert that the number of
employees from the public sector has been
continuously diminished, and as a result the
number of employees from the privat sector
grew. I consider that since 2008 until the
present the statistics data are showing a
continuously diminishing. The inactive
population is as numerous as the active one.
(Table 2), and the number of unemployed is
growing from one year to another.
professional trajectories (Zlate, 2004: 352).

The career makes sense to the professional
behaviour, establishing its direction and goal
(Savickas, 2002, Young, Valach, Collin,
2002). The career could serve as a source of
personal fulfilment, enrichment, happiness and
satisfaction, important elements that influence
the evolution of human personality
(Kahneman, Riis, 2005).
2. Changes in the context of career
The society is marked by a lack of
transition from school to the labour market.
The teens are taught, but after finishing their
studies they do not have a working place. The
adults are compelled to attend another faculty
in order to find a better working place. At the
national level there is registered a loss of
human capital due to migration, the people
choosing to work abroad for more money and
in more decent conditions. The lack of
flexibility of the educational offer produces an
unbalance at he level of labour market, and
thus it imposes the transition from the
education centred on knowledge to the
education centred on competences. The role of
key competences and the quality of their
obtaining at different educational levels are
getting more and more important. Education
for active life and the cult of work are
becoming the major objectiv of all educational
strategies.
According to a study made in 2009 in
USA, the average of duration of a working
Table 2 . The working force (16-64 years) registered in 2008,according to gender and averages
(Investigation of working force in administration,2009)
Total
Masculin
Feminin
Urban
Rural
Active population
10.059.000
5.590.000
4.469.000
5.492.000
4.567.000
Employed population
9.493.000
5.228.000
4.265.000
5.116.000
4.377.000
566.000
362.000
204.000
376.000
190.000
11.469.000
4.900.000
6.569.000
6.348.000
5.121.000
71,2
66,4
6,5
Percentage
55,8
53,1
4,6
61,8
57,6
6,9
65,8
62,8
4,2
Unemployed
Inactive population
Activation rate
Employement rate
Unemployment rate
63,5
59,7
5,6
528
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The biggest part of the employed

population is working in the agriculture,
forestry and fishing, manufacturing and
commerce. 81% from the active population
works in the private sector, and 17,5% in the
public sector. The adults have an important
involvement potential in the working process
in comparison with the teenagers.
Regarding the unemployment (Figure 2.2), we

notice the fact that the year 2009 brought the
biggest growths of the unemployed number,
the year 2010 and 2011 offering a relative
ballance of the unemployment situation at
Romanian level.
Evolutia numarului de someri inregistrati in perioada 2008-2011
800.000
750.000
700.000
650.000
600.000
550.000
500.000
450.000
400.000
350.000
300.000
ian.
feb.
martie
aprilie
2008
383.989
379.779
374.050
352.466
340.462
345.510
352.912
364.183
376.971
403.441
2009
444.907
477.860
513.621
517.741
526.803
548.930
572.562
601.673
625.140
653.939
683.123
709.383
2010
740.982
762.375
765.285
738.187
701.854
mai
680.782
iunie
679.495
675.790
670.247
645.453
633.476
626.960
2011
614.976
600.308
539.666
493438
338.298
iulie
337.084
august
sept.
oct.
nov.
dec.
Figure 2.2. The Evidence of uneployment between

2008-2011
(INS, 2010)
Figure 2.1. the evidence of vacant working places
between 2007-2010 (INS, 2010)
In a communique of The National Institute of

Statistics, (2010) it has been presented that the
number of vacant working places in the second
part of the year 2010 was of 23.300,
diminished by 900 working places in
compariosn with the first part of the year and
with 11.600 less than 2009 ( Figure 2.1).
More than one third (8.500) of the total
number of vacant working places are to be
found in the manufacture industry, followed
by the public administration (2.700 working
places) and social care (2.400 working places).
The fewest working places are registered in
the field of estate dealings (30 working places
). The biggest need of working force expressed
by the employers reffered to operators for
installations and machines, equipment
assemblers. The less working places
availability was among the members of the
executive assembly and public administration.
529
If we are reffering to the unemployment

average according to the sex/gender, we are
noticing that in April 2011, in comparison with
the previous month, the average of male
unemployment diminished from the value of
6,52% in March, to the value of 5,90%, and
the average of female unemployment
diminished from 5,24% to 4, 85% (Figure 2.3)
Evolutia ratei somajului inregistrat, a ratei somajului feminin si a ratei somajului
masculin in anii 2010 si 2011
10,00
9,00
8,00
7,00
6,00
5,00
4,00
ianuari f ebruar
e
ie
octomb noiemb decem

rie
rie
brie
martie
aprilie
mai
iunie
iulie
august
sept
Rata somajului inregistrat 2010
8,10
8,33
8,36
8,07
7,67
7,44
7,43
7,39
7,35
7,08
6,95
6,87
Rata somajului f eminin 2010
7,26
7,36
7,43
7,20
6,90
6,70
6,77
6,84
6,78
6,54
6,38
6,20
Rata somajului masculin 2010
8,82
9,16
9,17
8,80
8,40
8,08
7,99
7,85
7,85
7,55
7,44
7,47
Rata somajului inregistrat 2011
6,74
6,58
5,92
5,41
Rata somajului f eminin 2011
5,99
5,80
5,24
4,85
Rata somajului masculin 2011
7,41
7,27
6,52
5,90
Figura 2.3. The Evidence of uneployment according to

gender between 2010-2011 (INS, 2010)
Regarding the structure of uneployment

according to the training level, the
unemployed persons with primarily, secondary

and professional training level represent the
larger group of persons who are addressing to
the county agencies for the engagement of
working force in order to find and obtain a
working place, and this is of an average of
77,52%. The unemployed persons with
highschool and post highschool training level
represent 16,70%, and those with university
studies only 5,78%. From the point of view of
classification of the unemployed persons
according to their age, the representative ones
are the averages for the ages 40-49 years
(28,72 %) and 30-39 years (26,48%).
According to the long term unemployment, at
the end of April, there were registered in the
evidence of the agency 16.598 unemployed
teenagers for over 6 months (that means
31,46% from the total of unemployed persons
under 25 years old) and 91.134 adults being
unemployed for over 12 months, (20,68%
from the total of unemployed adults), the
average of the long term unemployed from the
total unemployed persons being of 21,83%.
Taking into account the actual situation
of the labour market it is necessary to take
measures to bring improvement and to allow a
better evolving of the teenagers, youth and
adults on the professional level. One of the
measures is that one taken through the
activities of career councelling, which offers
career plans according to each individual. All
these activities require the existance of results
due to researches, studies, analyses,
evaluations about the labour market or the jobs
world (Jigu, 2001). The councellor, together
with the adolescent or the adult, will explore
the personality features and obvious
motivational aspects, the type of temperament,
the intelligence level and professional
interests. By identifying the interests,
according to the personality type, it has done a
better implementation in his own system of
professional values. Analysing the profiles
specific for each person, we find information
and determine the growth of self-knowledge
level. Fulfilled with information about the
labour market, about the opportunities of the
working places, the opportunities of training or
specialisation, there are going to be identified
those occupations and jobs suitable for the
analysed profiles.
The recent estimations shows that until

2015, approximatelly 30% of the working
places will demand higher education and
almost 50% at least highschool studies, being
significantly diminished the working places
that are asking for a reduced level of
qualification (Cedefop, 2008). This aspect
requires the teens and youths specialization
according to the market demandings, keeping
in balance the request-offer report.
3. Conclusions
The changes in the context of career are
multiple and the new visions upon this are
linked to the promotion of long-life learning as
a way of integration and reintegration on the
labour market and to the enhancement of
efficiency and competitiveness of the
specialised institutions and of the staff
responsable
with
human
resources
management. In the future, the accent will be
placed on the short term contracts, and the
office from home will become a much more
used alternative. The methods
of staff
recruitment and selection will be more varied,
and the career councellors will be better
trained and adapted to the new changes. The
perspective upon career will change,
competence being on the first place. The new
Working Code has brought changes by the fact
that the employer may establish the objectives
of individual performance and the evaluation
criteria of these. The proposal offers the
possibility to the employer to establish
concrete objectives and performance adapted
criteria for his own employees. This change
will determine the growth of performance and
competitiveness among the employees
(Dugulescu, 2011).
The nowadays situation shows that
Romania has made progress in restructuring
the system of continuous professional
development. The strategy for short and
medium term for continuous professional
development intends to develop a structured
system
of
continuous
professional
development, transparent and flexible, with an
adequate level of financing and a great
involvement of social partners, which will
assure the growth of working force mobility
and to respond to the companies needs for
530
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qualified working force, taking into account

the future economical restructuring and the
alignment to the European market. The
implementation of some career management
programmes will be a future perspective of the
career evolution and it will assure human
capital with the potential to take coordinating
positions and to face some difficult situations.
By the positions rotating will be improved the
abilities,
knowledges
and
behaviours
necessary for various professional roles. The
employers tendency is to reassign, due to
some staff restructuring, various tasks to the
subordinated employees. Thus, very many
employees
will
retrieve
various
responsabilities and will face many changes
( arapatin, 2011). By better knowing the
employee, knowing his personality, motivation
and professional interests, the strategies of
career development will lead to the obtaining
of wanted results. The actual studies in this
field proved that the employees with an
increased career selfmanagement and who
know their interests and personality have a
greater feeling of belonging to the organisation
and, also, a bigger satisfaction. Under these
circumstances, the companies must not give up
to their role of managing their employees
careers, but they must adapt a specific manner
to the actual context. By developing the
competences of career selfmanagement, by
optimization of the decision-making process
and by creating a favorable climat to personal
initiative could lay the foundations of an
organizational culture open to the new.
Analysing all of these, we are briefly
presenting the most significant changes in the
career context:
-Replacing the career stability with its
mobility. Nowadays, the jobs are more
often changed than in the past (Huteau,
2003).
531
-Diminishing the predictability of careers

course. The careers became less safe for
the majority of persons.
-Getting to careers open to aspects of large
sociability. The individual evolution
depends nowadays on the experience
gathered along his life time. His blooming
is due to the events from the outside of the
organization (Feldman, 2002).
-Moving from career management to the
selfmanagement. The individuals are much
more involved in building their own
careers and thus they are more careful in
the moment of choosing their career. The
transition is made from the model of a
career managed by the organizations to the
model of a self-managed career (Werner,
2002) and it has transferred the risk of
career development from the organization
to the individual (Leana, 2002).
-The simultaneous action of singular
careers with limitless careers. The absence
of careers limits means that these are
surpassing the organizational boundaries
linked to the function and hierarchy, they
needed a much more personal flexibility
regarding activities and abilities. The
individuals may choose careers according
with their own personality.
-The development of new employment
ways (employment on a determined
period) including new documents with
evidence of work (replacing the work
books with the electronic ones)
The changes from the labour market
determined new visions upon career. Here
are some of them:
-The individual work reflects his
personality. The independent persons
choose business professions that offer the
possibility to have initiative and to lead.
The agressive individuals will choose
competitive professions and the coercive

ones will take professions that require a
certain degree of obedience.
-The choosing of career becomes a
decision-making process in which the
individual compares the occupational
alternatives according to an algorithm that
inlcudes the correspondence between
aptitudinal requests, the competence ones,
the personality ones, the valuable ones, the
attitudinal ones specific to each occupation
and his own aptitudes, competences,
personality features, values and attitudes
(Luca, 2002: 22).
-People are forming their preferrances for
different activities through a multitude of
learning experiences. They give significance to
the activities through the ideas that have been
sent (Krumboltz, 1994: 17).
-People differ from the point of view of
aptitudes, personality features, interests and
values.
According to all these characteristics, the
individuals are suitable for some professions,
which give them the opportunity to organize
and to value their personality. Their success in
the confrontation with the working
environment depends on the maturity degree in
their career, that is the way in which the
individual is ready to face the demandings of
his profession.
Bibliography:
Dugulescu, M. C. (2011, 1 martie).

Noul Cod al muncii: oportuniti,
provocri,
perspective.
http://www.dugule@scu.ro/site/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&view=article&id=110:noul-cod-al-munciioportuniti-provocri-perspective&catid=37:activitatirecente&Itemid=86.
Feldman, D.C. (2002). Work Careers.

A Developmental Perspective. San
Francisco: A Wiley Imprint.
Huteau, M. (2003). Gestion des
carrieres et developpement personnel.
Introduction. In Levy-Leboyer, Cl.,
Huteau, M., Louche, Cl., Rolland, J. P.
(sous la direction de). La psychologie
du
travail.
Paris:
Editions
dOrganisations.
Institutul Na ional de Statistic (INS),
(2010). Eviden a locurilor de munc
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vacante n perioada 2007-2010.

http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/raport%2
0activitate/Raport%20de%20activitate
_2010.pdf
Jigu, M. (2001). Consilierea carierei.
Bucureti: Editura Sigma.
Kahneman D., & Riis J. (2005).
Living, and thinking about it: Two
perspectives on life. In Huppert, F. A.,
Baylis N., & Keverne, B. (Eds.), The
science of well-being (pp. 285-304).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Krumboltz, J. D. (1994). The Career
Beliefs
Inventory.
Journal
of
Counseling and Development, 72, 424428.
Leana, C. R. (2002). The Changing
Organizational Context of Career. In
Feldman, D. C. (Ed.) Work Careers. A
Developmental
Perspective.
San
Luca, M. R. (2002). Elemente teoretice
i metodice pentru consilierea carierei
n coal. Braov: Editura Universitii
Transilvania.
Perlmutter, M., Hall, E. (1992). Adult
development and ageing. (2nd ed.).
Chichester: Wiley.
Savickas, M. L. (2002). Career
construction: A developmental theory
of vocational behavior. In D. Brown
(Ed.), Career choice and development
(4th ed., pp. 149-205). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Super, D. E. (1978). Dezvoltarea
carierei. In Davitz, J. R., Ball, S.
(Eds.).
Psihologia
procesului
educaional.
Bucureti:
Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic.
Werner, J. M. (2002). Public Policy
and the Changing Legal Context of
Career Development. In Feldman, D.
C.
(Ed.).
Work
Careers.
A
Developmental
Perspective.
San
Zlate, M. (2004). Tratat de psihologie
organizaional-managerial. (Vol.1).
Iai: Editura Polirom.
HENRI COANDA
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SLOVAK REPUBLIC

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REFLECTIVE JOURNAL WRITING AS A METACOGNITVE TOOL

Ramona HENTER*, Elena Simona INDREICA**
*Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Brasov, Romania,
** Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Brasov, Romania
Abstract:
Metacognition, the ability to think about your own thinking process, becomes an essential ability for
teaching in nowadays schools, where pupils no longer need just information (seen today as perishable
goods), but need to be taught how to use the information they get. As students need a more personal
approach, a specific feedback according to their own personality traits, both teachers and students are
moving towards more formative assessment, new strategies of achieving this are required, one of these
being the reflective journal. We aimed to teach subject matter specific information along with
metacognitive methods and techniques, as a basis for the cognitive development of freshmen in
educational sciences, as they will be the teachers that will face the future generations that may be very
different from todays pupils. We chose the reflective journal as the metacognitive technique to be
discussed in this article. In a reflective diary, students record their thoughts on their awareness involved
in cognitive labour, comment on their learning decisions explore the ways of using learning strategies
consciously and of adapting the learning process to the concrete situations. Such a learning journal can
offer the stimulus for the student to start thinking about his cognitive processes. We analysed students
learning diaries in order to identify the extent to which metacognitive training can improve learning and
to gain insight on the process of learning new strategies for academic study.
Key words: metacognition, reflective journal, formative assessment, academic performance

1. INTRODUCTION
Teaching and learning have been evolving
along with the changes in our society. Not the
gathering of information is important
nowadays, but the way one can use the
information in order to progress. For this
purpose, strategies of taking control over ones
knowledge have been developed, many
starting from Flavels metacognitive theory.
Recalibration of educational objectives has
been also called for by modern teaching
theories [15, 2], the accent being set on
students engagement in the learning process.
At the same time, simple grades are not
enough anymore for assessing students
533
performance; they need a more personal

approach, a specific feedback. As teachers and
students are moving towards more formative
assessment, new strategies of achieving this
are required, one of these being the reflective
journal. Although the usefulness of learning
diaries was recognized as early as the 80s
[14,18,19], in Romanian schools this method
is rarely used (or at least there are no reports
on such activities). This is why we wanted to
include the learning diary in our teaching
methodology in order to raise students
metacognitive awareness as means to improve
learning performance.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Learning strategies are seen as part of the
cognitive skills necessary for the practice of
various tasks leading to fluent performance,
that is to automaticity when performing a skill.
For cognitive psychology, learning is a shift
from controlled to automatic processing [12],
meaning that conscious attention to the task is
necessary before the automatic stage is
reached. The more consciousness allotted in
the first stage, including metacognitive
monitoring, the more profound the learning is.
Metacognition here can be seen as a process
that enables the learners to make their mental
representation become explicit in order to
analyse knowledge effectively [12].
Metacognition, defined by the Great
dictionary of psychology as "all the activities
in which the subject gets to know its own
knowledge tools or manages their functioning"
[1], has been introduced by John Flavell in
1976 to define awareness of thought process,
as well as the ability to monitor this process.
Metacognition represents what people know
about cognition in general and about their own
cognitive processes, in particular, as well as
how they use this knowledge to adjust their
information processes and behaviour.
Metacognition may be the missing link
in school learning [11], the thing that
differentiates individuals with similar innate
potential as concerning their performance.
Thinking about what we think, how we think
when we face a certain task or situation and
why we think in a certain way are levels of
metacognitive awareness; metacognition also
covers the ability to monitor these processes.
Papaleontiou-Louca [13] underlines the fact
that metacognition, on one hand, and learning
and development, on the other hand, are not
equal, metacognition meaning the process of
regulating learning and development.
Metacognition takes the form of
metacognitive
experiences,
knowledge,
objectives or goals and activities or
strategies. Flavell [apud 5] presents
metacognitive experience as the conscious
feelings that we have about our own
cognition during an activity, feelings like we
do not understand something or that we are
completely cognitively engaged in that
activity. They may appear before, during and

after the actual activity. Metacognitive
knowledge and beliefs can be divided into
those related to the person, task and strategy
categories [apud 5,13] The person category
covers everything a person thinks about
nature and people around seen as cognitive
agents, as individuals who think and learn. It
also covers awareness of ones own abilities.
The task category contains all the
information on what the individual has done,
the problem solving management and the
degree of probability of success in
completing the task. The strategy variable
refers to the identification of objectives and
sub-objectives and selecting the cognitive
processes and strategies likely to be effective
in achieving these goals. The third category,
the objectives, covers the desired results of a
cognitive enterprise. The last category of
factors is represented by the strategies used to
monitor the cognitive progress and they are
used by learners to achieve both cognitive
and metacognitive goals.
The research raised by Flavell's model of
metacognition revealed the existence of two
dimensions of metacognition: knowledge of
cognition and regulation of cognition [apud
7]. Knowledge of cognition is composed of
three
factors:
declarative
knowledge
("knowing that"), procedural knowledge
("knowing how", including the learning
strategies), and conditional knowledge
(knowing where, when and why a person
uses a certain strategy). Regulation of
cognition includes: planning (which involves
selecting appropriate strategies and allocation
of resources necessary to perform the task),
monitoring (aimed at awareness about the
level of understanding and degree of solving
the task during its performance), testing
(implementation of strategies), review and
evaluation of strategies (including the
evaluation of the methods used, of the
objectives and of the results) [17].
Research has revealed that academic
achievements is associated with higher levels
of metacognitive awareness and that
metacognitively aware learners use more
efficiently specific learning strategies, and
attain higher performances [8,4]. Also, the
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level of performance and degree of effective

strategy use are stronger related to
metacognitive abilities than to differences in
intellectual abilities [17].
Metacognition can be taught, that is
metacognitive strategies can be clearly
defined and presented to students and by
teaching students metacognitive methods we
empower them, we make them overtake their
own learning process. Some may already use
such strategies, intuitively, but even they
benefit from metacognitive trainings through
consciously planning and monitoring the
learning process. Among the metacognitive
strategies that can be used in academic
learning we mention: questioning the thought
process generating questions [13], walking
among images [3,7], semantic maps [3,7],
reflective journals [6,13].
Reflective journals can be used to
monitor both metacognitive dimensions
(knowledge of cognition and regulation of
cognition), as the writer has to reflect on his
own strengths or weaknesses during
performing an activity, but also on other
aspects related to self-management or
resource management, such as timemanagement (the ability to develop efficient
learning schedules and adhere to them), the
management
of
efficient
learning
environments
depending
ones
own
characteristics (e.g., right place, lighting,
temperature, management of distractors),
peer learning, help seeking when needed, etc.
[3,8,10,16]. The reflective journal is a
technique that combines metacognitive
processing with learning. It can provide
students with descriptive feedback on a
regular basis so that they will gain greater
confidence and experience greater success in
class [9,10]. Besides fostering cognitive
learning strategies, writing learning journals
535
is further intended to elicit metacognitive

learning strategies [8].
In a reflective diary students record their
thoughts on the level of awareness involved
in their cognitive labour and comment on
their learning decisions [13,6]. Through a
reflective journal one can explore the ways of
using learning strategies consciously and of
adapting the learning process to the concrete
situations. Such a log can offer the stimulus
for the student to start thinking about his
cognitive processes. The student writes down
his learning experience, focusing on the
success or failure of using a certain technique
or on the important data achieved, the
feelings developed, the attitudes created
during the learning process. Students can
improve future learning by filling in a
learning journal, by discovering less
successful strategies or by starting to think
about aspects not identified before (like
setting objectives, describing feeling arisen
during learning, extrapolation of data, etc.).
Providing descriptive feedback to
students was proved to be helpful in
motivating them to continue writing in their
journals, as well as in seeing the correlation
between writing about their thinking and
academic success [Bain apud 9]. Writing and
thinking offers students the opportunity to
make new connections and start making
meaning of what they are learning and
understanding the importance of why they
are learning it [9].
Reflective journals have the potential to
make major contributions to learning as
students are encouraged to express and
reflect upon their feelings, beliefs, knowledge
and skills and teachers receive information
about their students thinking and their
instructional techniques, which consequently
could improve teaching [9]. As a result,
instruction becomes more personalized,

which is one of nowadays educational
systems demands. Previous research [9] has
also proven the utility of learning logs, in
terms of improving students achievement
but also motivation.
3. STUDY DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Study design
We recorded students journal entries for
the five compulsory questions, then we
performed a frequency analysis on the data
obtained. We also recorded students grades
(ranging from 1- the lowest to 10 the
highest) at the Developmental Psychology
subject matter, as they kept the logs during
classes allotted for this subject.
We aimed to assess the impact of journal
writing on learning performance. Our
hypothesis was that using reflective journals
will
increase
students
metacognitive
awareness and it will improve their academic
results for the subject matter where they used
the journals.
3.2. Sample
The participants of this research study
included students from the Faculty of
Psychology and Educational Sciences, in the
first year of study, who were studying
Developmental Psychology. The division into
the experimental group and the control group
was done according to their major: students
majoring in special psycho-pedagogy and
pedagogy were allotted to the experimental
group (consisting of 55 students, 21.3 average
age) and students majoring in teaching at
preschool and primary school level were
allotted to the control group (the first group of
the year, of 35 students, 21.6 average age).
Both groups were formed by girls only.
Selection was completed in this manner to
avoid any bias: all students had Developmental
Psychology in their compulsory curriculum
and they were taught by the same teachers,
using the same teaching methodology.
3.3. Data Collection and Analysis
Students in the experimental group were
asked to record their reflections on their
learning content and process. They were asked
to answer the following questions, but they

were instructed to add any other thoughts they
had about their learning:
1. Which were my goals for this class?
2. What did I learn/understand or did not
learn/understand?
3. How will I use what I learned today?
4. What do I have to learn connected with
todays topic? And how will I do that?
5. How would you grade your activity
today? (On a range from 1 the lowest
to 10 the highest).
Students were given instructions on how to
keep a learning journal, they were given
examples and the teacher modelled writing the
journal on the first assignment because
research showed that students do not
sufficiently engage in cognitive and
metacognitive strategy use in writing their
learning journals if there is no instructional
support [16].
They were encouraged to write their own
thoughts, reassuring them that there is no
correct or wrong way of keeping a diary and
that their answers are important for their own
learning process. The focus was on the
metacognitive strategies used by each student,
as the cognitive strategies were explicitly
chosen by the teacher (the same teaching
method was used with all students, including
those in the control group). However, students
in the experimental group were asked how
they would keep on learning for that topic, so
they had to think about other possible teaching
methods or about (metacognitive) strategies
they could use for further learning at home.
They were asked to fill in the learning
journal during the last minutes of each class,
over one semester. Group feedback was given
at the beginning of next class, without personal
nomination. Completing learning journals
provided students with the opportunity to
reflect on their own cognitive processes
involved
in
studying
developmental
psychology.
4. FINDINGS
The purpose of this research study was to
determine if student achievement could be
improved by using reflective journals as a
metacognitive technique. All the students
involved are freshmen, as we thought they
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would benefit the most of a metacognitive

training.
The control groups average grade was
8.09 whereas the experimental groups average
point was 8.48. Although there is no
statistically significant difference, we consider
that this difference makes a point in terms of
actual results obtained by the students. The
experimental group proved to be more
effective. This may be due to the students
personal characteristics or effort, too, but
entries in the journals make us believe that
writing a log may have had an influence on
their grades.
The analysis of the journal entries was
done separately for each question and for each
participant. We took into account five journal
entries for each participant, written at a 2 or 3week distance so that the differences would be
more obvious.
The first question concerned setting
objectives for that class. At the beginning of
the semester, in the first journal entries, most
of the students had general expectations, such
as being active in class (T.I., 21), learning
new things (P.I., 21). But probably being a
freshman implies all these. The answers
evolved towards statements like: be more
involved in team work
(B.C., 22), pay
more attention to the topic (A.I., 21), do my
part of team work the best I can (B.A., 24). In
the last class, the objectives concerned more
detailed involvement (give personal opinion
(B.C., 22), share knowledge (S.A.M., 21),
conscious attendance (U.A., 21), awareness
in class (T.I., 21), all these showing more
phases of metacognitive awareness than in the
beginning of the semester.
The next questions were aimed at
monitoring the cognitive processes involved in
learning during the lesson. Students seems to
have been mastering this metacognitive
537
dimension, as most of them could explain very

well what they have learned or what was not
very clear about the topic discussed (87% at
the beginning of the semester), still this
number reached 93% at the end of the
semester, as proof of the influence of
metacognitive strategies. Students (about 95%
both in the beginning and in the end of the
semester) had very clear in mind that they will
use all new knowledge in their career or as a
parent, in future, thus showing use of
metacognitive planning in an untrained way.
Students wrote that they usually had to
study further to master each weeks topic, but
in the beginning their answers were diffuse,
without any method being clearly named of
described. As writing in the journal
progressed, they mentioned the repetition of
the method used in class, but in the last entries
more than half of the students described the
method they would use at home. The methods
and techniques were from among those used in
class, on different occasions, but students were
able to identify those more suitable for the
topic and for their learning style, thus showing
strong metacognitive abilities and highlighting
the success of our endeavour, as previous
research showed that combining metacognitive
strategies is one of the most important
metacognitive abilities.
The last question required the students to
assess themselves and give themselves grades
for their activity during each class. After the
first session, most of them evaluated their
activity with 8 (the range being from 1- the
lowest to 10 the best mark). The grades
increased gradually, up to 9 or 10 in the last
class, thus showing students greater selfconfidence and feeling-of-knowing.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Metacognition seen as the ability to reflect
on what you do or do not do as a learner can
bring about changes in the way of learning.

Students may develop self-regulatory learning
skills in an unconscious way, but specific
training of the metacognitive abilities is the
one that provides academic success. One of the
strategies of raising metacognitive awareness
is using a reflective journal, as shown in the
present study. But this is just one of the
techniques that can be used for this purpose.
Also, metacognitive strategies should be
practised on a regular basis and, as Olson and
Johnson (Olson & Johnson, 2012) highlight,
writing journals should become a weekly
routine in order to meet its purpose, along with
a descriptive feedback offered each time by
the teacher.
Among the limits of this study, we include
the limited representativeness of the sample
(students from one faculty and only girls),
which may be overcome in future studies,
expanding this research to more groups of
students, from different faculties.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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COMMUNICATION BARRIERS IN THE

WORK OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELLOR
Elena HURJUI
Department of Psychology and Pedagogy, Institution: Spiru Haret University, Braov, Romania
Abstract This paper attempts to draw attention on the importance of communication in the
classroom, as a means of solving conflicts and on the method to solve future conflicts through student
participation in the counseling program.
Communication is an open process, influenced by many factors. The concept of "barrier" in the
communication process designates several categories: barriers related to the system, process, message,
reception, understanding, acceptance, action.
Communication blockages could have such intensity so as to produce noticeable differences
between the information transmitted and the message perceived. Ineffective communication leads to
loneliness, conflicts, family problems, professional dissatisfaction, psychological distress, physical illness
and even death when communication is completely disrupted.
The lack of conflict resolution skills was observed in students who had inappropriate
communication style.
Being a student these days is a difficult task. During this period the requirements and
expectations of society accumulate, becoming the source of many conflicts and tensions.
Working with students represents an important and beautiful activity, but a very difficult one. To
be a true teacher means understanding the needs, the way of thinking of the students and acting
thereunder when teaching the lesson.
In classes where the ability to solve conflicts is reduced, most of the time is spent on solving such
conflicts that arise during breaks and during the day.
Appropriate means of communication contribute significantly to choosing the adequate conflict
resolution strategy.
Keywords: communication, conflicts, barrier, information, message, inefficient communication
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research is to
analyse to what extent there is a significant
influence of offering counselling services for
conflict resolution on the ways of resolving
541
future conflicts and aggression of students that

participate in that program.
The following specific objectives
emerged from the general objective:
- analysis of conflict resolution
techniques in a group of students
- analysis of aggression in a group

of students that did not attend the counselling
program
- analysis of conflict resolution
techniques after attending the counselling
program
- analysis of the behaviour of a
group of students during the counselling
sessions aiming at solving conflicts
- analysis of aggression in a group
of students that attended the counselling
program
This research was performed on a
batch composed of 62 students.
A questionnaire was applied on
student/student conflict situations and an
interview.
We used two batches of students
(namely two classes). On the first category we
applied the questionnaire on student/student
conflict situations and after a period of time
(one week) we applied a survey.
On the second batch we applied the
same questionnaire on student/student conflict
situations.
Subsequently
the
students
participated in a counselling program (3
sessions of 3 hours each).
In this research we relied on the hypothesis
that the influence of collective counselling
activity for conflict management on
appropriate solution techniques and students
aggression exists and can be validated.
2. THE INSTRUMENTS USED
WERE THE FOLLOWING: THE
INTERVIEW
AND
THE
QUESTIONNAIRE.
We identified and analysed the

educational environment where the classroom
activity
is
conducted,
focusing
on
communication issues. In this regard we
developed a questionnaire.
The questionnaire for the analysis of
organizational
and
communicational
environment is structured on questions and
answers defining trust, work satisfaction,
group cohesion.
It provides information on:
o identification of problems at group
level
o definition of desired performance

level
o construction of a training program
that guides group performance to the desired
level.
The results obtained allow us to
consider that at students group level, although
the psychosocial environment is functioning,
characterized by high trust in the teacher and
themselves, strong collective opinion, good
adaptability, high normativity and professional
training, there are communication and
relationship problems between team members
that affect it often.
Tensions and even conflicts are present
and ideas and initiatives are often not
expressed.
There are a number of organizational
issues that need attention; they may not be
very serious at this stage, but preventive
measures must be taken before problems
escalate to problems difficult to repair.
Analysing the results obtained by the
subjects, we identified specific problems, such
as:
1. Deficient communication due to
insufficient inter-knowledge of all team
members, to the tendency to turn dialogue into
monologue, stereotypes in the ways of
transmission and presentation of information,
the use of high tone, lack of attention or skill
in directing and controlling the dialogue.
2. Relationship difficulties between
team members due to the difference in skills
and habits, difference of opinions, preferences,
aspirations.
One of the elements with great
influence on psychosocial environment is
communication,
and
more
precisely
communication.
The
interpersonal
development of this type of communication is
essential and plays a special role in the
organization.
Good
interpersonal
communication will lead to the development
of appropriate behaviour, favourable for
positive development of the work group.
The planning phase of the change
process consists of defining precisely, starting
from the diagnosis of the situation, the most
appropriate actions to achieve the desired
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change. The planning phase can be guided by

the answers to three categories of questions:
Questions
regarding
project
feasibility ("Is the intervention project
accepted by all persons involved?")
- Questions regarding the selection of
change strategy ("Which is the intervention
strategy?", "Which will be the intervention
areas?", "What exactly will aim the change
process?");
- Questions regarding the programming
of the intervention ("What will be the start?",
"Who are the persons in charge and resources
necessary for each action?", "Which will be
the results evaluation criteria and how will
the evaluation be conducted?").
Optimization
of
psychosocial
environment by improving interpersonal
relationships and communication irrespective
of individual behaviour based on the idea that
interpersonal relationships within the work
group and communication can be developed in
a positive way through games and group
dynamic exercises.
Ameliorative
psychological
intervention on organizational environment.
The training program resorts to the
group of students and aims at creating new
opportunities to change and develop the
group.
The methods are interactive, chosen
based on the problems identified, relying on
the experiences of participants and providing a
broad framework for dialogue and interaction.
The program means carrying out a
series of exercises and dynamic group games
resulting in communication and networking
between group members.
Group members are directly involved
in the practical actions without theoretical
thoroughness.
543
Each group member shall practice and

experience different roles required by the
situation, shall participate in decision making.
The
program
includes
3
communication practice sessions.
The impact of the program on the
group: noticeable changes in attitude,
behaviour, motivations that influence in a good
way the professional activity.
To achieve the objectives and methods
proposed, we will use the interview and
questionnaire to identify and analyse potential
problems. Both methods are approached from
the view of the school counsellor, whose task
is to solve this kind of problems.
We will present you hereafter the way
the research was conducted through
counselling interview. First we will present this
type of study, and then we will illustrate how it
is applied, with the objective to integrate
marginalized
and
undecided
students,
regarding their choice of future profession
within the majority group.
Brammer and Macdonald describe very
comprehensively the essence of individual
counselling, which involves two steps: creating
client-counsellor relationship and facilitating
change (positive action), all in a context
defined by work alliance. The authors express
their views in a paper that became the basis for
all counsellors who want to become effective
practitioners: "The Helping Relationship,
Process and Skills", in its sixth edition in 1996.
This presents the conditions to achieve a level
of interpersonal relationship that would allow
facilitating change and development: the
counsellor must implement special personal
qualities and develop a range of appropriate
attitudes, while the client responds with
confidence and availability. The authors call
the counselling relationship as helping
relationship, support relationship. Basically,
during the individual counselling process, a
point of utmost importance is represented by

the collection of information from the client.
The intake interview is presented by
Hackney and Cormier as a crucial element to
achieve a desirable level of efficiency in the
counselling relationship. Presented and
described both as a start time for clientcounsellor information sharing and as a
method of assessment, the intake interview
(also called history interview) is different from
other discussions between the client and the
counsellor and involves collecting information
on the general identification data of the client,
its lifestyle, current issues, personal and
family history, recommendations, etc.
Findings:
Through his/her way of thinking, how
he relates to himself/herself, the interviewed
subject has a positive attitude, which is highly
important for his/her professional life. Positive
thinking can help move forward, to succeed in
life and be happy.
By attending one of the school
counselling meetings, the subject reinforced
the belief on his decision to choose football
career, gaining trust in his own forces. Now,
he can be determined in exposing to his
colleagues his option for the football career.
3. FINAL CONCLUSIONS
The art of communication is not a
natural process or a skill we are born with. We
learn to communicate. Therefore we need to
study what we learn in order to be able to use
our knowledge more effectively. Any
communication
involves
creation
and
exchange of meanings. These meanings are
represented by signs and codes. It seems
that people have a real need to "read" the
meaning of all human actions. Observing and
understanding this process may cause us to be
more aware about what happens when we
communicate.
Counselling provides support to the
individual in exploring and understanding
his/her own identity, supports him/her in
developing strategies for problem solving and
decision making. In counselling four
directions derived for the problems approach
of problems that individual may face during
its evolution: intervention in crisis situations,

ameliorative
intervention,
prevention,
formative and development intervention.
Individual counselling is a personal
interaction between the counsellor and the
subject, during which the counsellor assists
the subject in solving mental, emotional or
social issues. Individual counselling is
conducted in sessions providing maximum
confidentiality, which allows exploration of
problematic ideas, feelings or attitudes. The
counsellor and the counselled person form
together a team.
Group
counselling
involves
a
relationship between the counsellor and a
group whose members have a common
problem. The counselling process leverages
the experience and knowledge of each
counselled person. At group level, a social
network is established through which, the
methods and plans to clarify the current
situation, leading to the individualization of
the problem are developed for each individual.
This type of interaction contributes not only to
the development of the individual but to the
development of the group as a whole. In group
counselling a sense of community based on
the need for affiliation, membership is
crystallized, clarifying desires, needs and
options, and positive self-realization of each
member is related to group dynamics. Group
counselling objectives aim at creating an
environment to develop participants' ability to
obtain information and skills, to develop
constructive attitudes.
Since educational counselling is a
complex process, this process shall be
following certain steps and techniques
depending on the problem and the personality
of the counselled person.
The initial step in counselling involves
establishing an effective relationship between
the counsellor and the student. Establishing
this relationship is absolutely necessary to
create positive change. Only acceptance and
trust offered by such a relationship provides
this. Formulating together goals on
behavioural changes, decision making skills
and eliminating negative thoughts is also a
step that must be performed. At this stage it is
very important for the student to receive
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signals that he/she is accepted as he/she is,

with the problems he/she has. This is
indispensable in order to proceed with the
counselling process. Also in this stage
summarization has a special role: together
they highlight the essential elements, keeping
in focus the main issues and being able to
glimpse some options.
The second step in counselling will
proceed to assisting the child to develop social
interests, cooperation and communication with
others. Focus is set on helping the children to
know and evaluate themselves. Warm
environment and empathy shall be provided
without
excluding
interpretations
and
constructive confrontation. At this stage
information shall be used as working
technique, meaning that a lot of information
will be directed from the counsellor to the
child. Also the use of suggestion can be very
helpful for the student. Possible options can be
suggested that will add to those already
identified by the child and even methods, ways
that may be taken into consideration. The
technique of addressing questions is useful
because it can help much in the way of seeing
things and to highlight certain issues that
otherwise might remain unknown.
The final stage in counselling will focus
on directing the childs attention on
constructive acts and behaviours. Specific
procedures will be taught, action plans will be
developed starting from the simplest ones to
the most complex ones in order to adopt a new
behaviour. At this stage confrontation will
provide support to children to assume their
responsibilities. Encouragement is one of the
best ways to help the child achieve its needs
and to assimilate new behaviours.
During the established relationship, the
counsellor and the student should not forget for
one moment that they are partners engaged in a
545
joint development effort, characterized by

individual goals, and common objectives:
- work closely with the counsellor during
the assessment of counselling needs and
own potentialities;
- assume personal responsibility regarding
involvement in the counselling process
Finally, we can judge that the
importance
of
individual
counselling
relationship is a major one in the profession of
the counsellor. Counsellor trainers all agree
that the experience in individual counselling is
a necessary stage for the next step, group
counselling. In fact, all the other roles of the
counsellor
(consultancy,
training,
organizational development) are based on
communication and support skills that a
counsellor can only practice during individual
counselling.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adler
B.R.,
Rodman
G.
Understanding Human Communication, New
York.(1985).
2. Bban, A. (coord.). Consilierea
educaional. Cluj- Napoca. (2001).
3. Birkenbihk,
Vera.,.
Antrenamentul comunicrii sau arta de a ne
nelege. Bucureti: Ed. Gemma Pres. (1997).
4. Butnaru, D. (coord.), Consiliere i
orientare
colar.
Ia i:
Ed.
Spiru
Haret.(1999).
Helena,
Faire,
5. Cornelius,
Shoshana, tiina rezolvrii conflictelor.
Bucureti: Ed. tiin i Tehnic. (1996).
6. Deutsch, M. Educaia pentru o
lume panic n Psihosociologia rezolvrii
conflictelor. Ana Stoica Constantin. Iai: Ed.
Polirom.(1998).
7. Dumitriu, Gh. Comunicare i
nvare. Bucureti: EDP.(1998).
8. Egan, G., The skilled helper: A

systematic approach to effective helping,
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.(1990).
9. Grant,
W.,
Rezolvarea
conflictelor. Bucureti: Editura Teora. (1998).
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_
Rogers;
11. http://www.who.int/en/;
12. Jigu, M., Consilierea carierei.
Bucure ti: Editura Sigma. (2001).
13. Levine, M. Effective problem
solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
(1994).
14. Peretti, A. Tehnici de comunicare.
Ia i: Ed.Polirom. (2000).
15. Slama-Cazacu, T. Stratageme

comunicaionale i manipularea.Ia i: Editura
Polirom. (2000).
16. Stoica
Constantin,
Ana.
Psihosociologia rezolvrii conflictelor. Ia i:
Ed. Polirom. (1998).
17. Toma, Gh. (coord.). Dicionar de
orienatare colar i profesional. Bucure ti:
Ed. Afeliu. (1996).
18. Tran, V., Stnciugelu, I.., Curs de
teoria comunicrii. Bucureti: Editura Facultii
de Comunicare i Relaii Publice "David Ogilvy".
(2001).
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COUNSELING OF CHILDREN COMING FROM DISADVANTAGED

ENVIRONMENTS TO PREVENT FAILURE AND AVOID SCHOOL
ABANDONEMENT
Elena HURJUI
Abstract The democratization of social life imposes education preparing children and
adolescents to face their limits and with the condition of satisfying personal needs in the context of
reciprocal social relations. The existence of students who do not adapt to the requirements of the
educational environment represents the reality of any educational system. In Romania, this phenomenon
is highlighted by the low school grades, low test scores, second examinations and grade repetition,
absenteeism and school abandonment.
The significant proportion of students with school difficulties requires the reassessment of this
problem and finding new solutions for preventing school failure in disadvantaged children by the ratio
between the institution and their individual and family characteristics. Individual determinants of school
difficulties are often backed-up by the institutonal determinants and cause some children to enter the
downslope of failure or partial achievement of learning potential. Through a proper task mediation, by
encouraging the transfer from similar learning activities, by learning strategies and concepts, through
personal development activities and optimization of emotional and social skills, the child may acquire the
ability to overcome the typical performance level and to access a higher performance level.
Keywords: communication, conflicts, barrier, information, message, inefficient communication
1. INTRODUCTION
Purpose of the research
This study aims at counseling children
from disadvantaged environments by applying
a customized intervention program and
investigating the opportunities for personal
development to increase adaptation capacity
to a specific context of learning to overcome
school difficulties and to avoid school
abandonment.
547
The research objectives are the

following:
To identify the initial socio-emotional
development levels and three cognitive
functional domains: attention and
executive
functions,
language,
sensorimotor functions in children
from the experimental and control
groups.
To develop cognitive functions in the
three domains (attention and executive
functions, language, sensorimotor

functions) and socio-emotional skills in
children by applying the customized
intervention program.
To evaluate the neuropsychological
development in the three domains
established and the socio-emotional
skills of children after applying the
customized intervention program.
To define the utility of customized
counseling programs for children from
disadvantaged environments.
Research hypothesis
By implementing a customized
intervention program during counseling hours
with
children
from
disadvantaged
environments, the reduction of school
abandonment as well as the appearance of
continuity between pre-school and school
levels is achieved.
Research subjects:
This research was conducted on a total
of 100 children aged between 5 and 8 years
old, enrolled in regular schools.
2. TOOLS USED IN THIS RESEARCH
a)Developmental neuropsychological
assessment NEPSY 1
NEPSY is a tool
intended to assess neuropsychological
development of preschool and school children,
created by Marit Korkman, Ursula Kirk, Sally
Kemp. The test was developed in three phases:
experimental, standardization and validation,
during 1987-1997, in the United States of
America.
Standardization
of
neuropsychological
assessment
of
development-NEPSY battery on Romanian
population was conducted in 2005, by SC
COGNITROM-Cluj Napoca.
The most common types of
assessments with NEPSY tool concern:
a) neuropsychological status of the
child;
b) extended or selective assessment for
a deeper analysis of specific cognitive
disorders;
c) full neuropsychological assessment.
Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S. 2007. A

developmental neuropsychological assessment.
b) Socio-emotional adaptability
assessment scale
In order to assess the socio-emotional
adaptability and the socio-emotional maturity
level of preschoolers we have designed the
socio-emotional adaptability assessment
scale.
Objective: To identify strengths
(resources) and weaknesses (vulnerabilities) in
preschool children.
Customized intervention program
This program provides an insight on how
we can help children become happy, to have
an unconditional self-acceptance and to
become active subjects in their own learning
process. The program will provide a range of
real life situations that are applicable to
children from all socio-economic and cultural
environments. Different situations will be
addressed: poor performances in tests or at
school, dealing with unfairness and rejection,
coping with disruptive family situations and
inducement to violence and school
abandonment by the group the children belong
to. The activities will use the game as a
method of teaching and learning to make the
children aware that they are in a learning
situation and to determine them to use rational
thinking skills, to develop unconditional selfacceptance, to experience problematic
emotions and to stop destructive behaviors.
The methods used are inspired by classical
psychodrama (J.L. Moreno) and from the
structural-cognitive
changeability
theory
(mediated learning) of Professor R.
Feuerstein.
The program contains "exciting
lessons" adapted both to educational
framework and to counseling framework and
presents a stimulus activity adapted to the
development level, aimed at developing the
skills necessary to cope with this stimulus and
containing summarizing questions and
sequences which allow children to make the
transition from intellectual insight to the direct
application of concepts and skills in real life.
The ascertaining experiment, as a
preliminary step of the research, aimed at
identifying age, gender, neuropsychological
development level and socio-emotional
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development level differences of the subjects

in the two groups.
We started from the assumption that
cognitive functions can be developed and
streamlined to optimize the integration of
children from disadvantaged environments in
order to overcome school difficulties and to
avoid failure and school abandonment by
initiating training to compensate gaps and to
ensure the development and intellectual
acquisition of children, by implementing a
customized intervention program.
With reference to the purpose of the
present research, that of counseling children
from disadvantaged environments to reduce
absenteeism
and
to
prevent
school
abandonment, we recorded the values of
school attendance where the children are
enrolled.
The analysis reveals the following
results: 12% of the subjects in the
experimental group and 8% in the control
group had a low frequency, 68% of the
subjects in the experimental group and 62% in
the control group had an average frequency,
and 20% of subjects in the experimental group
and 30% in the control group had a high
frequency.
First, we were interested to see if the
experimental group and the control group are
equivalent in terms of the degree of
neuropsychological development of children,
given that the assignment into groups was
done randomly. In order to verify this, the
subjects from the two groups were tested
using NEPSY battery of tests, measuring three
complex cognitive domains selected from the
five domains of the test.
To achieve the objective of identifying
the initial neuropsychological development
level in the three cognitive functional
domains: attention and executive functions,
language, sensorimotor functions of the
549
children in the experimental and control

groups, we executed graphs showing such
development levels, by using SPSS statistical
processing program.
We associated to this objective the
following hypothesis: we suppose that
initially, between the two groups of subjects
there were no significant differences in the
three basic cognitive domains: attention and
executive functions, language, sensorimotor
functions. Following the analysis and
interpretation of data, this hypothesis was
confirmed.
Upon a first data analysis we obtained
for the mental operation diagnosis test the
following results:
The recorded low scores (52% of the
the control group - well below the desired
level, 46% of the subjects in the experimental
group and 48% in the control group below
the desired level) reflect deficits in the ability
to assume and to generate new solutions to
problems and to plan the strategy. Difficulties
encountered in visual and auditory attention
tasks suggests that the subjects are deficient in
terms of attention - poor attention, impulsivity,
or both. For the third level, the limit level, the
results obtained (2% of the subjects in the
group) show poor attention and vigilance for
repetitive tasks, impulsive reactions or
difficulties in applying complex rules. None of
the subjects in the two groups is included in
this domain at or above the desired level.
In the domain of language the subjects
did not reach the desired and above the
desired level corresponding to age category. In
the category well below the desired level 6%
of the subjects in the experimental group and
4% in the control group were included, in the
category below the desired level 74% of the
the control group were included, and in the

category limit level we found 20% of the
the control group.
Low scores in this domain of language
reflect generalized speech and language
disabilities, learning disabilities that are based
on language, i.e. scarce perception and
auditory- phonological analysis which
negatively affects language understanding and
learning. The difficulties in accessing
language labels can be caused by poor
updating of sound - symbol associations and
of the spoken word - written word links
involved in learning how to read and write.
Following
the
analysis
and
interpretation of data, the subjects showed
values below the average for their age, as
follows: 38% of the subjects in the
group were included in the category well
below the desired level, 38% of the subjects in
the experimental group and 44% in the control
group showed values below the desired level,
and in the limit level 24% of the subjects in the
group were included.
Poor performance in this domain
indicates
difficulties
in
organization,
sequencing and quick and accurate monitoring
of fine digital movements, difficulties
associated with the language, reading
difficulties and attention disorders. Also, we
can conclude on the existence of difficulties in
fine motor coordination required to reproduce
positions - inefficient processing of tactile and
kinesthetic information. For subjects included
in the lowest levels, the presence of a high
degree of impulsivity, a constant lack of
planning and estimating the degree of
difficulty of the task are obvious.
During the preliminary stage we were
interested in the degree of socio-emotional
maturity of children. To assess the socioemotional adaptability of children we
designed a specific psycho-diagnostic tool:
Social and emotional adaptability assessment
scale in children.
The following results were obtained in
the sociability dimension that includes
relation, participation and receptivity items:
40% of the subjects in the experimental group

and 36% in the control group are included in
the low level of sociability category, 52% of
the subjects in the experimental group and
58% of the control group are included in the
average level category and 8% of the subjects
in the experimental group and 6% of the
control group are included in the high level
category.
This dimension measures the ability of
social integration of children providing them
with rules, habits, ways of thinking and
spatial-temporal frames in accordance with the
social environment in which they develop.
The high percentage of subjects included in
the low and average level of socialization
requires intervention in order to increase
adaptation to the social group.
The results obtained in the dimension
involvement as engagement and active
intervention capacity in a task, resulting in
increased individual performance, with the
items: compliance with rules, curiosity,
initiative, are distributed as follows: 66% of
the subjects in the experimental group and
62% in the control group are included in the
category low level of involvement, 34% of the
the control group are included in the average
level category.
Independence, expressing the will,
emotional stability, self-confidence were
measured in the self-esteem dimension. The
results obtained are included in two categories
only, namely 76% of the subjects in the
group are included in the category of low level
of self-esteem, 24% of the subjects in the
experimental group and 22% in control group
are included in the average level category of
this dimension.
From the above observations and
presentations it results that there are no
significant differences between the children in
the experimental group and those in the
control group in terms of how they were
evaluated by experts and hence in the degree
of socio-emotional adaptability.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
3. CONCLUSIONS
Through this paper I wish to
emphasize the importance of counseling
children in forming their personality and in
their preparation for life.
The increasing number of school failures
and abandonment, of delinquent or unhealthy
behaviors, of emotional disorders among students,
indicate that the school should be doing much
more in this direction. To meet these real needs,
the Ministry of Education and Research proposes
in the new National Curriculum the introduction of
the optional study discipline Counseling and
Orientation for all three levels of schooling:
elementary, secondary school and high school.

The new study discipline meets the basic
needs of any child and adolescent: selfknowledge, communication skills, creativity,
decision-making and problem solving.
Conclusions after applying the
customized intervention program on
children.
Present life exigencies, the need to
cope with complex problems and changes in
various activity sectors have made adaptability
a priority issue.
This social background supposes
education preparing children and adolescents
to face their limits and with the condition of
satisfying personal needs in the context of
reciprocal social relations.
Children do not learn through
abstract concepts and pure reasoning but
through feelings and involvement. Thus,
affection becomes the channel for cognition.
551
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to Cognitive Education. Theory and
Applications. Londra: Routledge. (1997).
2. Bban, A. (coord), Consiliere educaional
Ghid metodologic pentru orele de dirigenie
i consiliere. Cluj: Ed. Ardealul. ( 2001).
3. Cadet, B. Psychologie cognitive. Paris: In:
Press. (1998).
4. Clinciu, A.I. Chestionar de inadaptare
colar. Braov: Lux Libris. (2005).
5. Elias, M., Tobias, S., Friedlander, B.
Inteligen a
emo ional
a
copiilor.
Bucure ti :Ed. Curtea Veche. (2002)..
6. Feuerstein, R. Instrumental enrichment and
the concept of cognitive modifiability.
Baltimore: University Park Press. (1980).
7. Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, R., Kozulin, A.
The ontogeny of cognitive modifiability.
Jerusalem: ICELP. (1997).
8. Feuerstein, R.S., Falik, L., Rand, Y. The
Feuerstein
Instrumental
Encrichment
Program. Jerusalem: ICELP. (2006).
9. Ivey, A., Simek-Dowing, L. Counseling
and Psychoterapy: Skills, Theories and
Practice. Enblewood Cliffs Nj: Prentice Hall,
Inc. (1980).
10. Kopciowski Camerini, J. Laprendimento
mediato. Orientamenti teoricied esperienze
practiche del metodo Feuerstein. Brescia: Ed.
La Scuola. (2002).
11. Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S.
Evaluarea neuropsihologic a dezvoltrii.
Manual de administrare.
Cluj-Napoca:
Editura Cognitrom. (2005).
12. Korkman, M., Kirk, U., Kemp, S.
Evaluarea neuropsihologic a dezvoltrii.
Cluj-Napoca: Editura Cognitrom. (2007).
13. Malim, T. Procese cognitive. Bucureti:
Ed. Tehnic. (1999).
14. Piaget, J., Noam, Chomsky, Teorii ale

limbajului. Teorii ale nvrii. Dezbaterea
dintre Jean Piaget i Noam Chomsky. Politic,
Bucureti: Ed. Politic.(1988).
15. Slvstru, C. (1994). Logic si limbaj
educaional. Bucureti: E.D.P.
16. tefan, C.A., Kallay, E. Dezvoltarea
competenelor emoionale i sociale la
precolari. Cluj-Napoca: Editura ASCR.
(2007).
17. Toma, Gh. Orientarea i dezvoltarea

carierei la elevi. Bucureti: Editura Casa de
Editura i Presa Viaa Romneasc,. ( 2003).
18. Vrsma, E. Educaia copilului precolar.
Elemente de pedagogie la vrsta timpurie.
Bucureti: Ed. Pro Humanitate. (1999).
a. La lutte contre lchec scolaire: un dfi
pour
la
construction
europenne,
www.eurydide.org.
b. www.jvis.com/links/counselor.htm - (
links-uri pentru consilieri)
552
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
IMPACT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON EDUCATION:

PERSPECTIVES
Diana ILIOI*
*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, Henri Coanda Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: The alteration of the modern worlds principles, the relativization of values, the vanishing of
references, the invasion of the new and of the unpredictable, the hallucinating promotion of quantity and
appearances to the detriment of quality and core values, the indeterminism and uncertainty are only a
few of the traits that characterize the contemporary world and that hold an impact on the human
condition. In this context, the very status of pedagogy, as a science and art of education has modified,
whereas the perspective of enlightenment over the paideic action has come to an end. Within the
managerial type of school, learning becomes a mere transfer of useful data for the final purpose of
graduating and not a process in which actors enjoy the process itself. The paradigm of the managerial
type of school transforms the relationship educator educated, from a deeply human relationship into a
contract-based relationship. The application of European quality standards in the field of education
imposes the surpassing of mimesis, amateurism and improvisation and, not the least, a change of
mentality in all those concerned about the quality of education.
Keywords: quality management, contract-based school, education paradigm, humanist psychology
The alteration of the modern worlds

principles, the relativization of values, the
vanishing of references, the invasion of the
new and of the unpredictable, the hallucinating
promotion of quantity and appearances to the
detriment of quality and core values, the
indeterminism and uncertainty are only a
few of the traits that characterize the
contemporary world and that hold an impact
on the human condition. In this context, the
very status of pedagogy, as a science and art of
education has modified, whereas the
perspective of enlightenment over the paideic
action has come to an end. There are voices
553
claiming that we are now witnessing the death

of pedagogy and the increasingly emphasized
tendency, on behalf of the academic
community, to make the move from
education, perceived as pedagogy, to
education regarded as management. (Michael
R. Allen The Death of Pedagogy).
Following the same trend, Pascal
Brukner states: The more pertinent is the
hierarchy of schooling institutions, based on
their results, the more they become nothing
else but factories producing customers and not
free human beings, which finally equal the
destruction of schools.
The perils are also noticed by the

French thinker, Jean_ Franois Lyotard, who
realizes that the spiritual formation of a human
being (Bildung) falls under desuetude and the
process of knowledge is excessively
pragmatic. Within the managerial type of
school, learning becomes a mere transfer of
useful data for the final purpose of graduating
and not a process in which actors enjoy the
process itself. The paradigm of the managerial
type of school transforms the relationship
educator educated, from a deeply human
relationship into a contract-based relationship.
In this scenario, the professor or educator
becomes and administrator of data-goods and
concentrates his or her attention toward three
directions:
1. teaching identifies with goods- delivery,
which needs to be wrapped, to the extent
in which data and its belonging abilities
need to be well organized and delivered to
be consumed (passively) in measured
doses;
2. the delivery process has to be well
planned and organized;
3. the information organization and the
institutional organization hold the same
objective, clearly defined and quantifiable:
passing of exams.
The topic of quality and the formative
meaning of education are omitted.
The allocation of such a role to an
educator has overwhelming effects on medium
and long terms. On the one side, there occurs a
de-professionalization of educators, and, on
the other side, individualized education makes
room for routine and external limitations
imposed by passing exams, which becomes a
priority, and a target in itself.
In this context, the role of the student is
reduced to a buyers role that has to be
seduced by means of nicely looking
merchandise. The same contract- based
relationship is to be met in between school and
society: the school provides society with
individuals well equipped with the necessary
competences for its reproduction and
maintenance. School thus becomes a
manufacturer whose product is the very
graduate that stands for a person who passed
pre-established
exams,
under
optimal
conditions. The very examination tools fall

under standardization. Predominant are
examinations of factual type, the education
market being invaded by books and other
materials containing multiple-choice tests and
quizzes. The educator turns into a
troubleshooter of shortcomings, he or she
supervises the successful passage of his/her
clients through the bed of Procrustes: An
<<odd>> student who does not match
typologies
benefits
from
a
special
<<treatment>>, as if he raised a quality issue.
His adjustment is experimented, whereas
correction is looked for, and, should all efforts
be useless, the student is abandoned and the
process of education is continued (Michael R.
Allen The Death of Pedagogy). Deficient
products are often concealed, in order to
preserve the image of the institution on the
market. The institutions promotion takes over
the trend of commercial advertisements, meant
to attract financial resources and gaining of
popularity by means of specialized personnel
in public relations, but who are unaware of the
area of education.
Pascal Brukner warns about: Although
school constitutes the place where certain
useful preparations occur, which later on will
be commercialized, it has to continue to
facilitate the learning of some disciplines, free
of cost, and which are related to ones very
personal accomplishment (Misery of
Prosperity).
The famous American philosopher and
pedagogist, John Dewey, criticized the
redundant, erudite and disconnected from
reality school, and promoted the idea of
progressive education, seen as reconstruction
and continuing reorganization of experience,
excluding any prescription of determining,
external model. In Democracy and
Education, a reference work for the twentieth
century
pedagogy,
Dewey
perceives
democracy as shared experience. Starting
form this assertion, education itself, in the
spirit of democracy, implies an individuals
self-improvement, and more than that, his
participation. This is the weak point of the
entrepreneurial
school
that,
ignoring
pedagogy, ends up ignoring the very core of
democracy.
554
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
The contemporary education takes over the

tensions and dysfunctions of society in its
whole. Analysts discover the status of
confusion,
hyper-bureaucratization,
depersonalization,
demoralization
of
personnel, emotional weariness, fall of
infrastructure, curricular stagnation and
violence as being characteristics of the
education system, which represent, at the same
time, the mirror image of the contemporary
world.
In a society based on money, placed under
the tyranny of economy, all activities are
filtered through the cost-profit ration,
including education. Nigel Blake criticizes the
approach to education as market economy,
which distorts the specificity of education,
reducing its chances to oppose deviations and
dangerous tendencies of society (technicism,
consumerism etc.).
The
economic
perspective
and
management applied to education result in the
aggressive reduction of the teaching action and
educational
relationships
depth
and
complexity, of schools culture and ethos. The
industrial type of management cannot become
a paradigm for the educational reality
administration, without ignoring the human
infinite diversity and the human excellence.
The antidote could not have come but from
the field of humanities. Thus, an ample
process of establishing a new educational
paradigm has begun, and it was designed so as
to diminish the radicalization of consequences
of modernity, while improving the human
condition, paradoxically subdued to hardships.
The post-modern paradigm of education
belongs to the interpretative movement of
humanities and education sciences and it
consists of the existential-humanist paradigm
and the interactional one.
The existential-humanist paradigm reflects
the societys effort to recover the human side
555
(homo-humanus Karl Jaspers) by

promoting the education centered on people
and based on the humanist psychology.
At the core of the humanist psychology
lies the human being, considered to be a free
being that possesses a growing and
development potential in need to be valued
through education. An emphasis is laid on the
uniqueness and the infinite diversity of the
human beings, on their freedom to choose and
to build their own existential path.
In this context, the abusive use of
scientific, statistical, exclusively quantitative
methods is considered to be inadequate for the
study of the human being.
The role of psychology and, implicitly, of
education is to help people to maximize their
potential of psychological growth and to
support them in reaching their psychic and
social maturity. Moreover, the humanist
psychology offers an optimistic perspective on
human beings and their becoming, and is able
to increase their pedagogical optimism, whose
efficiency has already been proven in the
educational action.
Nevertheless,
knowledge
and
understanding of the human being, together
with his entire personal and relational life, of
his subjective and conscientious experience,
do not represent a purpose in itself. They are
but the premises for the drawing of action
methods for the purpose of surpassing internal
or external obstacles, and appreciating
personal potential.
Starting from the humanist psychology,
new models of psycho-pedagogical action
have been designed, and their common trait is
the
individual-centered
approach,
an
individual found in a double status: object of
formation but also subject of his/her selfformation.
To the opposite pole are the supporters of
standards application and of recommendation
for quality assurance in education. They

appreciate that any rejection act reflects
isolation, lack of realism or lucidity. Denial of
criteria is not justified so long as these criteria
hold only an orientation character and are
perfectible.
Although quality in the industrial era is
approached exclusively in relation with the
technical field, (something that may be
controlled, incorporated within a product as
the result of manufacturing), after the Second
World War, through voices of E. W. Deming
and J.M. Juran, we witness an expansion of the
term, a new interpretation, outside the
manufacturing process. Going beyond this
utilitarian meaning of the term, quality aims at
activities, processes, organizations etc., giving
them some attributes capable to satisfy specific
requirements. Thus, the term is used in
reference to the quality of a university,
consisting of the quality of education activities
taking place within the university.
Even though the idea of evaluating
organizational performances of universities is
European, it came to be used on the American
continent as well. At the middle of the
twentieth century, Sir Arthur Norrington,
Chairman of the Trinity College of Oxford
proposed a classification of universities into
three categories, based on their value standards
(quality of educational processes), proposal
that led to numerous oppositions. Still, the idea
is accepted in the USA, where an agency is
founded College Connections and fifty
publications take care of rating the best
American universities. Only in 1998 are
debated reconsidered in England, and in 1999,
sixteen indicators of performance are applied
to universities.
Education quality standards need to be
clearly formulated, they should be clear and
concise, but realist, that is, they must be
applied to the school realities at a specific
time. These standards constitute an important
instrument for the education institution
management, but also for the teaching staff
and students engaged in the educational
process. Their teleological value lies in the
clear formulation of objectives to be reached.
Where do I want to reach? How do I reach
there? How do I know that I reached there?
They are an extrapolation of any teaching

action, irrespective of the nature of the
contents transmitted. Following the same
manner, the rule of 3Ms (methods, means,
materials) can be applied so as to identify the
necessary resources for the accomplishment of
the objectives proposed.
The closest to the core of education are
the standards regarding the personal dimension
(human), including behavior and attitude
within the educational endeavor of those
involved in it. These aspects, harder to be
quantified, are finally reflected in the quality
of education. Ones personal set of values,
philosophy of life, attitude toward the human
being, toward self, own profession etc. are
dimensions belonging to the human nature and
which have an impact on the quality of the
actions performed.
The harmonization of the education
actors expectations (teachers-students) is also
an
important
aspect
holding
major
consequences
in
the
quality
field.
Accomplished
expectations
lead
to
satisfaction, whereas unaccomplished ones
become
source
for
frustration
and
disappointment. Even though these standards
are the result of the economic and managerial
thinking application within the field of
education an activity profoundly spiritual
the heart of the issue remains connected with
the human psychology. Those who design and
apply into practice their projected ideas are the
people. In the absence of an anthropological
approach, there is the risk that the issues of
quality in education remain a mere slogan, an
abstract requirement, an extra load of
bureaucracy, with no effect on the real world.
The basic principle of the quality
management is Describe what you do and do
what you describe! Therefore, any significant
change in the quality of education starts with
the teachers. These are the ones to apply what
they do. We belong to the former stage:
describe what you do, which results in
emitting some impressive quantities of
documents that nobody has the time to apply
into practice. We are caught in this whirlpool
of documents like in a trap, our own trap that
consumes our powers.
556
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Maybe the system in itself is not a bad

one, yet, the manner in which it is applied is
wrong. The mechanical application, lacking
criticism, of some models and their
implementation within the Romanian space
reveals not only incompatibilities but also
weaknesses of the Romanian people, which
Constantin Radulescu Motru spotted. The
Romanian thinker identifies the lack of
perseverance as a characterisitic of the
Romanian soul, which becomes visible in the
nineteenth
century,
once
with
the
reorganization of the Romanian state. At that
time, the professional improvisations epoch
started, through imitations from other foreign
nations.
The application of European quality
standards in the field of education imposes the
557
surpassing of mimesis, amateurism and

improvisation and, not the least, a change of
mentality in all those concerned about the
quality of education.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dewey, John (1973). Democra ie
i
educa ie, Bucure ti: EDP.
2. Motru, C. R. (2012). Psihologia poporului
romn, Bucure ti: Paideia.
3. Nica, Panaite (2000). Managementul
calit ii i ierarhizarea universit ilor
romne ti, Phare, Universitas.
4. Stan, E. (2004). Pedagogie postmodern,
Ia i: Institutul European.
558
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
TRAINING PROGRAMS APPROACHES IN THE CONTEXT OF ADULT

EDUCATION. CASE STUDY ON A TRAINING PROGRAM IN
DEVELOPING ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCES
Nicoleta LIOIU *
* Teacher Training Department, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: The European strategies in education focus on key competences as autonomous elements of
personal and professional development to be supported by specific learning activities and patterns. One
of these key competences at European level is represented by the entrepreneurial competences. From this
perspective, the need for communication and collaboration, for exchange ideas and experiences in order
to harmonize the training programs approaches is obvious. This paper is aimed to present the lesson
learnt after implementation of professional development training program on entrepreneurial
competences and the benefits for all involved, in the context of adult education. This training program
was developed throughout a European project, coordinated by the University Politehnica of Bucharest
and represents a suitable solution to transfer good practice in training field and to support mutual
learning, as specific practices in adult education and professional development, particularly. During 3
years of implementing this European project, among other specific activities aimed to promote the
entrepreneurial culture and increase the awareness, a training program in entrepreneurial field was
designed, authorized and implemented, as a key element of sustainability. The training program has
benefited of comprehensive curricula, in terms of knowledge and skills, and consists of 10 modules
focusing on development of entrepreneurial skills and competences and is addressed to employers,
employees and persons who want to start an independent activity, in order for them to get support in term
of counseling and expertise in entrepreneurial field.
Keywords: adult education, training program, entrepreneurial competences.
1.
THE ROLE OF TRAINING
PROGRAMS IN ADULT EDUCATION
From an organizational perspective,
professional development has to ensure that
the performance improvement needs are met,
generating, in this way, some adaptation and
compromise of the main adult education
principles. The application of these principles
requires practitioners to experience and
manage effectively the tension created
between adult learning characteristics and
organizations performance principles. For this
559
reason, any initiative in designing and

implementing
professional
development
training programs has to take into
consideration the key assumptions about adult
learners, defined by the Eduard Lindeman
(1926), statements which focus on the
following aspects, commented by M.S.
Knowles [4]:
Adults are motivated to learn as
they experience needs and interests that
learning will satisfy; therefore, these are
the appropriate starting points for
organizing adult learning activities (i.e.
professional
development
training
programs).
Adults orientation to learning
is
life-centered;
therefore,
the
appropriate units for organizing adult
learning are life situations, not subjects.
Experience is the richest source
for adults learning; therefore, the core
methodology of adult education is the
analysis of experience.
Adults have a deep need to be
self-directing; therefore, the role of the
teacher is to engage in a process of
mutual inquiry with them rather than to
transmit his or her knowledge to them
and then evaluate their conformity to it.
Individual differences among
people increase with age; therefore,
adult education must make optimal
provision for differences in style, time,
place, and pace of learning.
Moreover, defining adult education as the
process of adults gaining knowledge and
expertise based on theirs goals, we need to
take into consideration the phases of the adult
learning planning process. The four phases set
up by the R. Swanson in 1996 [4] are referring
to:
- Need in order to determine what
learning is needed to achieve goals.
- Create strategy and resources to
achieve the learning goals.
- Implement the learning strategy and use
the specific resources.
- Evaluate the attainment of the learning
goals and the whole process of reaching
them.
From another perspective, one of the main
objectives the European policy in education
and training set out in the strategic framework
for European cooperation in education and
training ET 2020 [2] is focused on
improving the quality and efficiency of
education and training by enabling all learners
to acquire the basic skills and competences
needed for their employability by encouraging
cooperation between all sectors of education,
training and the world of work. This specific
important objective, emphasized at the
European level, might be achieved even using
professional development training programs
560
and European educational projects focused on

human resources development as useful and
adapted implementation tools.
2. EDUCATIONAL PROJECTS AND
THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
PROGRAMS
In line with the social and educational
policies promoted at the European level, one
of them already mentioned above, there is an
important direction in educational projects
dedicated
to
the
human
resources
development,
particularly
Sectorial
Development (SOP HRD), to emphasize,
among other objectives, the role and benefits
of
professional
development
training
programs. One example is represented by the
professional development training program in
entrepreneurial competences field, designed
and implemented through the European project
Development
of
the
entrepreneurial
competences - an efficient alternative for
adaptation to the labour market in the
information
society
(SOP
HRD/92/3.1/S/62353). This is a project
financed by the European Community through
the Sectorial Operational Programme Human
Resources Development (SOP HRD) 2007
2013, Priority Axis 3: The adaptabilitys
growth for employers and IMMs, Key Area
of
Intervention
3.1:
Promotion
of
entrepreneurial culture.
During 3 years of implementing this
European project, among other specific
activities aimed to promote the entrepreneurial
culture and increase the awareness, a
profesional training program in entrepreneurial
field has been developed, authorized and
implemented, as an important argument in
ensuring sustainability of the projects
activities.
The specific project objectives, correlated
to the main activities, were aimed to: (a)
increase the awareness and promotion of the
entrepreneurial mind
through public
information campaign, networking between
different categories of beneficiary as well as
the development of a study which refers to
entrepreneurial opportunities correlated with
the new occupations on the labor market; (b)

support and provide counseling and expertise
in entrepreneurial field by carrying out the
specific
activities
of
Entrepreneurial
Assistance
Center;
(c)
develop
the
entrepreneurial skills and competencies in
order for a number of 500 persons to start
business by specific activities and training
programs; (d) certify 95% participants of the
professional
training
programs
in
entrepreneurial field; (e) ensure the
appropriate conditions, study facilities and
educational resources for all participants of
training program by using the dedicated eLearning platform.
3. CASE STUDY ON TRAINING
PROGRAM IN ENTREPRENEURIAL
FIELD
As we already mentioned, a professional
training program has been developed
throughout the project, based on the main
findings and results of the empiric study
Entrepreneurship opportunity, ability,
innovation, and future, focusing on
entrepreneurial opportunities development,
with specific reference to the new
occupational domains on market labor and to
the dimension of entrepreneurship in Romania.
The training program has benefited of
comprehensive curricula, in terms of
knowledge and skills, in an attempt to cover
the major areas of interest in order to provide
support and assistance to someone interested
to start a business/independent activity.
For this reason the training program
includes ten modules with different
perspectives, as follows: 1. Entrepreneurial
culture; 2. The business and the legal
framework; 3. Business plan; 4. Innovation in
business; 5. Strategic Management; 6.
Marketing; 7. ICT supporting your business;
8. Project Management; 9. Human Resources
Management in start-up business; 10. What an
entrepreneur must know about finance?
The training program, as the listed modules
suggest by names, is aimed to familiarize
participants to main contents and information
needed for setting up an overview on the
entrepreneurial field in order for them to
561
develop and practice entrepreneurial skills and

competences. In line with these ideas, the
increasing ability of participants to put in
practice various, creative and practical
business ideas became one key issue of the
training program, focusing on practical
applicability of the modules in the real life
contexts and situations.
The training program was based in its
design on the key aspects of a general
framework outlined in the financial proposal
of the project, basically referring to the
principles of entrepreneurship in information
society; ABC in business and the development
of a business plan; culture, motivation and
entrepreneurial attitude; strategic management
and marketing; risk management; ethics in
entrepreneurship
and
competences
development; creating social networks; labor
markets trends and opportunities of
development; relevant legislation supporting
the business competition.
For each module of the training program
was developed a specific manual, which was
distributed to the participants and uploaded to
the dedicated e-learning platform of the
project. The study materials and the
complementary educational resources have
been designed by the experts according to the
specific features of the adult learning
accessible content and a friendly format,
which facilitate individual study, but also
stimulate the dialog and debates during the
face to face interactions in training sessions.
All these materials and resources are still
available on the project e-learning platform,
having a user-name and password for access.
The training program has been accredited
by the National Authority for Qualifications
and implemented during the period March,
2013 June, 2013, involving 20 trainers and
153 participants who completed the program
out of 168 selected to start the courses. The
attendants have been organized in six groups
G1-G4, persons who want to start an
independent activity and G5-G6, employers
and employees, distributed in two locations.
Each group has covered 105 training hours,
as follows: 20 hours for theory concepts and
85 hours for applications, including individual
study. Moreover, 50 hours (20 hours -
teaching activities and 30 hours practical

activities) out of those 105 training hours of
the program, have been designed as face to
face activities, during of 8 training days (i.e. 3
alternative weekends spread out on 5 weeks).
The rest of the training hours, according to the
accredited technical proposal, worked out in
individual study sessions and applications
facilitated by the e-learning platform,
dedicated to the training program.
The training program ended in June 2013
with a graduation exam, and all those
promoted have been received a certificate,
recognized by the Ministry of National
Education and the Ministry of Labor, Family,
and Social Protection.
Moreover, after the completion of the
training program, the participants benefited of
two counselling/coaching sessions for each
group.
4. IMPACT STUDY AND RESULTS
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Medium
Level
High
Level
VeryHigh
Level
Figure 1 - Level of beneficiaries satisfaction
In the above diagram it is significant that

the low level receive no answers from all
those 143 respondents to the questionnaire and
participants to the training program, and the
last two options of the answers, high level
and very high level registered 91,61% of the
total appreciations.
120
In order to evaluate the effect of the

implemented activities, a projects impact
study has been developed. Based on the data
collected by questionnaire and focus-group
instruments and analyzed on different topics
with relevance for the main activities
implemented (i.e. networking, information
campaign, Entrepreneurial Assistance Center,
training program), conclusions have been
drawn and shared with all the beneficiaries
during the closing project conference.
The specific objectives of the impact
analysis imply the correlation between the
results and proposed objectives for the main
activities, and the identification of the next
directions for action, in terms of project
sustainability. The good lessons learnt from
the project experience will become the starting
points for planning the next steps in action
plans.
As far as the training program is concerned,
the main findings emphasize high levels of
beneficiaries satisfaction and, respectively,
appreciation of the program quality, as the
following diagrams show, taking into
consideration the two locations involved for
the six groups of trainees.
562
100
80
Location2
60
Location1
40
20
0
Good
VeryGood
Poor
Figure 2 Training programs quality
Referring to the other findings of the

impact study, the quality of training program,
in terms of contents/modules (the Figure 2),
the number of beneficiaries who answered
according to the descriptors good (30,7%)
and very good quality (68,53%), cumulative,
leads to an impressive percent of 99,3%.
Majority of these respondents have declared
that they started courses with high
expectations, which have been met after the
training program completion (59,5%) or they
had different initial expectations, but the
quality and accuracy of information, the
examples used and the educational resources
provided and accessible on the e-Learning
platform, have convinced them to appreciate

the training program contents quality as very
good (9%).
These arguments are only a part from
those which recommend the training program
in developing entrepreneurial competences as
an
important
element
of
projects
sustainability.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The project impact study focused mainly on
levels of objectives attainment, but not
forgetting the entrepreneurial opportunities
development, with specific reference to the
new occupational domains on market labor.
Many respondents considered the project as
very applied, a challenging experience,
open mind experience which stimulated
learning of entrepreneurship fundamentals,
an experience which motivated participants in
their will to become entrepreneur etc.
Moreover, in their opinion, the professional
training program in developing entrepreneurial
competencies has contributed substantially to
provide participants better opportunities for an
active, adapted participation on the actual
labour market, flexible and inclusive.
Overall, no educational institution teaches
just through its courses or workshops; no
corporation teaches just through its in-service
training programs (). They all teach by
everything they do () and this argument
leads us to place increasing emphasis on the
importance of building an educative
environment
in
all
institutions
and
organizations that undertake to help people
learn [4].
This line of reasoning has led to the
conclusion that beyond the training program
implementation, in terms of courses and
modules taught, the real profit for everyone,
trainer or trainee, is the innovative approach
put in practice, with a flexible structure, in a
warm atmosphere, stimulating communication
and feeling expression, emphasizing on
developing and using resources, based on a
functional collaboration.
Summarizing, the professional training
program the paper presented, is the main
benefit for all those persons who promoted it
563
and its replication is also a key issue for all

those
are
willing
to
learn
about
entrepreneurship and business plans, or to
improve their entrepreneurial competences.
REFERENCES
1. Council conclusions of 12 May 2009
on a strategic framework for
European cooperation in education
and training (ET 2020), 2009/C
119/02, Official Journal of the
European Union, 28.5.2009.
2. Craft, A. Continuing Professional
Development, Routledge Falmer,
USA, 2nd edition (2000).
3. Knowles, M., Holton, E., Swanson, R.
The Adult Learner, Routledge
Publishing Company. USA, 7th
edition (2012).
4. Litoiu, N., Negreanu, M. (Eds.).
Entrepreneurship opportunity,
ability, innovation, future, Printech
Publishing House, Bucharest (2013).
5. Marquardt, M. J. Building the Learning
Organization, New York: McGrawHill (1996).
6. Recommendation of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 18
December 2006 on key competences
for lifelong learning, L 394/10
Official Journal of the European
Union 30.12.2006.
564
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
THE EDUCATIONAL PARTNERSHIP

THE PARENT-STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP
Roxana Viorica MAIER

Universitatea de Vest Vasile Goldi din Arad, Arad, Romnia
Abstract: The present study has its roots in the desire to find solutions for a better teacher-student-parent
relationship. When we bring the subject of education into discussion, we find ourselves in a potential
space, the one of our development and of our all possibilities to fully round our inner selves. This space
develops and increases through the mediation of the meeting we all have, as students, with the one being
our teacher. But this world, this space is not complete if the process of our completion as individuals is
not attended by our parents, involved in an educational partnership relation. Thus, the child-parentteacher team traverses phase after phase, building a relationship within which the child manages to
develop and complete his inner self. The present study brings forward issues which are quite common
during puberty and adolescence increased aggressiveness and faulty relationships. The objectives of the
present study are to reduce the level of aggressiveness at a class level, as well as between students and
teachers, and to attract parents into being educational partners alongside their childrens teachers. The
sample used for the research was formed by a class of eight graders and their parents, observed during
an intervention done at the level of both groups.
Keywords: education, educational partnership, student, parent
THE TEXT OF THE PAPER

In a broad meaning any type of education
derives from an implicit or explicit conception
about the child, his psychology and about
learning methods [1]. (Radu, 2001, page
317). In a narrow meaning, education means a
magical encounter lasting for several years,
with the potential space of our development
and with the one being the modeller of this
space- the teacher. Seen from this point of
565
view, the teacher is a being who wants to

transmit, who has knowledge to share, who
insists in seeing beyond appearances and what
the student decides to show at a given
moment. Precisely because of this, the teacher
has such a huge responsibility and his aim is
so high and difficult to attain. The
kindergarten and the schooling years are a
period of discovery, first of the exterior,
physical reality, then of the human one and
finally of the students own reality. This
endeavour is facilitated by an authentic
communication and individual understanding

of the real meaning of development and
growth, all these having their basis in the
student-teacher relationship. The child passes
from an imaginary world (we are playing
mother and father, at the doctors, at school,
etc.) into the actual reality, he begins to
understand its way of functioning and the rules
which have to be obeyed; he starts learning
how to adjust to various difficulties and how to
replace fictional and strictly subjective
attitudes with others, which are objective and
realistic. On this route, the child will be
supported by his/her parents, teachers and the
peer groups each having a different share of
influence, in accordance with the childs age.
These sequences of personal growth
are rounded through education and through
interaction with others. On the temporal axis
of our development, most of this process
unfolds having as a central space the family,
closely seconded by school, where we spend
on an average ten, twelve or even seventeen
years. The child builds his own image by
reference to others, through the mirroring and
assigning effect, followed by the awareness
and understanding that certain traits, attitudes
and values are of his own. The interiorised and
personalised information is used to understand
and assimilate his own identity as a result of
the reactions which other people have towards
him [2]. (Mitrofan, 2004, page 32).
The development of each person from
childhood to adulthood passes through the
educational system as a training institution.
The teacher has the responsibility to guide the
student on a route that is at the same time
suitable and progressive for him/her. Thus, the
teachers great task is to discover what is
suitable for the student.
As a teacher, one is responsible for
assisting the student and in his/her turn, the
student is responsible for the way in which
he/she walks along the shown route, where he
discovers, seeks and finds what he needs. But
nowadays, this route is passed in high speed,
with almost absent parents, with dedicated and
enthusiastic teachers or on the contrary with
engrossed or even sad educators, living
without paying attention to emotions, without
accessing them and without having a genuine
communicative act. Thus, it is even more
important for education to regain its real sense

of determining the growth, development and
formation of valuable individuals. Thus, it is
of utmost importance for the parent to be
asked to make a team with the teacher for the
childs sake. Everything starts from simple
habits of a healthy lifestyle, which gradually
turn into growth, development and wise
choices for a life as fulfilled as possible, when
the child turns into a fully grown individual.
Puberty and adolescence are difficult
periods into our development. According to
Zlate the teenager faces a series of new needs
or the needs described in the previous periods
undergo an important change: the need to
know, to be affectionate, to belong to a certain
group, to be independent and the need to have
models to look up to. The need to know is
present starting with the early school age; this
is joined during puberty by the need to create
which turns during adolescence in the need to
create with a social value. The kindergarten
and primary school pupils need to imitate
turns into the desire to be unique during the
first phases of adolescence, followed by the
teenagers need to express himself/herself as a
personality [3]. (Zlate, 1994, page 158).
The present study makes reference to
the 13-14 year old age group and its issuesunequal development between boys and girls,
increased aggressiveness, increased personal
vulnerability, self-image formation, etc. and all
the situations triggered by these issueslearning,
relationship,
communication
difficulties, good or less fortunate decisions.
The research was approached by taking
into consideration two dimensions:
Of building a secure space in a class of
students
overwhelmed
by
aggressiveness; of decreasing the class
level of aggressiveness and of
improving the relationship that the
students had with their teachers.
Of attracting parents as educational
partners through parenting activities.
The expected results of the present
research are the genuine expression of
feelings, difficulties, of the relating
methods at a group level and of wishes to
change; all of them being doubled by
socializing at a class level and by the
parents involvement in the whole process.
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Objectives:
Identification of start indices in order
to construct and reconstruct the class
reality (with reference made to the
childrens reality doubled by the
teachers reality).
Highlighting the aspects that can be
improved, as well as the indices that
need to be kept under observation in
order to make the change (decrease of
the aggressiveness level, a better
relationship with the class teachers, and
a better relationship with the
classmates).
Attracting parents in establishing a
closer relationship with the school.
The hypotheses of the study:
The class aggressiveness level
decreases as a result of the intervention
The dimensions of the class
relationships are changed after the
personal development classes (through
relationship we understand the
teachers-students relation and the
students-students relation)
There are important differences in the
class relationships after the parents
involvement in parenting activities.
Sample Description
The sample of the present study
consisted of a class of eight graders
from an elementary school located in
the capital city and their parents.
Research Tools
The tools used during the study were
provocative tools used in personal
development and a questionnaire which
targeted the personal expectations
deriving from the research meetings.
Results and Discussions
The first part of the research had two
phases: the first phase consisted in
567
administering a questionnaire to parents and

the second phase consisted in the initial
assessment of the group. The questionnaire
that was applied to the parents targeted a few
of the childs interests and also the parents
expectations from the meetings that I was
going to have with the class. The initial
assessment of the class revealed the following
malfunctions:
increased aggressiveness
dysfunctional relationships among
students and between students and their
teachers
absenteeism
non-participation in group activities (in
general, not in those that were
conducted by me)
faulty communication- difficulties in
following the rules of the group,
difficulties in expressing their real
thoughts (the students refused to
express their opinion on various
problems of their class, even when they
were told that their written answers
were to be kept anonymous)
low levels of responsibility
The questionnaire administered to the
parents highlighted through its results that
these had great difficulties in believing into a
positive change and that their expectations
were scarce.
By communicating with others the
child manages to get a distance from the actual
reality, and his experience enriches gradually,
as his rapports with reality are increasing in
number (). As the childs communication
processes are developing and are becoming
more and more complex, in all their
components, there arouses the possibility to
describe and analyse the surrounding reality
[4]. (Golu, Ioni, 2009, page 18).
The exercises proposed for the

following phases of the research allowed the
children to explore the space of their own
image and of the role which each had within
the class, as well as to discover their personal
resources. A few examples of the exercises
used during the research, include: I am youthe exercise targets the students ability to
focus on details, the ability to reproduce a
message as exact as possible, the ability to
select those messages which are relevant for
his/her own description; My qualities and Ithe exercise targets the students ability to
connect with his/her own qualities, the ability
to make the difference between his/her own
image and the one reflected by the others, the
differentiation capacity when choosing the
qualities that represent him/her; The Squigle
drawing exercise which targets the students
ability to understand the difficulty of
establishing a relationship in the absence of
words, the students ability to decipher a
message with the help of a drawing; whether
or not there is a difficulty in letting yourself
being led by somebody elses message;
Modelling the Group the exercise targets
the students ability to model their class and to
discover the elements that make it a functional
or a dysfunctional one, as well as their ability
to choose the change that would be the most
suitable for them, for the given moment; The
Labels- the exercise targets how labels are
build up, their number, which of them are
more adherent than the others and ways to
remove them.
The results obtained during the present
research were mostly related with the groups
dynamics- a better communication among
students, the boys tried and even succeeded in
being less verbally aggressive and the ones
who were considered as being the bullies of
the class managed to behave differently. After
the first progress at a class level and after
certain students and the whole class
accountability on several tasks (and not only
on tasks but also on carrying out the task and
the change), it was observed a first change in
the class image at the level of the relationship
with the teachers- after meeting the students
for three times, the first progress was
highlighted by the class teachers.
The next step was to give this change a

permanent aspect. This step was only partially
carried out because after eight weeks of
meetings with the class, the parents decided to
interrupt this endeavour temporarily.
An aspect that frequently appeared in
all students stories was the time spent with
their parents- the results point out the amount
of time they spend with their nanny or even
by themselves. Another aspect which was
noted by the students themselves was that they
lacked self-control, common sense,
desire to change and responsibility.
Having these results, those from the
questionnaire administrated to the students
(which had the same questions as the ones
addressed to the parents and thus, the
comparison of the given answers pointed out
how well the parents knew their own children),
as well as the results from the exercises
applied during the meetings, the class tutor and
I convened the parents for a meeting. After the
analysis of the questionnaires and the results
obtained during the exercises done with the
whole class, parenting meetings were
proposed. The topics addressed were:
understanding the specific features of early
adolescence and the difficulties that might
arise due to this process, positive discipline
what fixed tasks does your child have at
home, which are the family rituals and
which is their purpose, which is your childs
role within your family, what does quality
time mean, etc.
The class meetings led to an
improvement into the class behaviour, to a
better group dynamics, to more productive
communication and to a partial improvement
of the students academic results. The
meetings with the parents led to a better
communication between these and their
children, to a better relationship with the
school and to the parents involvement in their
childrens activities.
Any authentic educational process is
committed in the perspective of a spiritual
meeting between people and it implies a
certain dynamics, a succession of quests and
findings of two beings who have a surplus or a
request, who have something to give or to
receive [5]. (Cuco, 2008, page 15). Thus, I
am convinced that within this educational
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
system, which seems to have lost its meaning,

one can still identify the desire of certain
teachers to offer answers to those who seek
them and to attract as many educational
partners as possible, in order to round their
students education and training.
CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The parents involvement as educational
partners has led to significant improvements in
the students behaviour at both class and
school level. Starting from a situation, in
which the parents and the teachers were
present side by side into the students life only
during the parents meetings, we have
managed to involve the parents into their
childrens school life. This resulted into a
series of common extra-curricular activities
unfolded both within and outside the school
perimeter. Within this space, especially
created for education, the target is on gradual
growth, development and discovery of the
abilities, resources and strategies through
which the student becomes a complete adult
and the teacher ascertains that the chosen
occupation is in fact a calling, a completion
done as each generation passes by. This
process is more efficient if the parent succeeds
in following it continuously. It is precisely for
this reason that my research on creating
abilities for the students and their parents
targeted the making of parent-student-teacher
educational partnership.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The present study started from the
premise that the student-parent-teacher team
has a greater efficiency than the studentteacher team. Thus, the first limitations of our
study appeared- the parents availability to
work and their time in general is limited and
569
because of these aspects their presence at the

proposed activities was most of times
insufficient. Because of the absence of some
parents or to be more precise, due to their
sporadic presence the results and the pursued
objectives lacked a certain consistency.
However, I believe that the greatest
shortcoming of the class activity was the
limited presence. Although, the results were
positive and they were recorded quite fast, thus
showing the students and their parents
availability to work, change in a certain
environment is not enough. What counts more
is to give this change a permanent character. If
we consider that the intervention usually has
three levels: the strategic one (which targets
the correct choice of the goal), the tactic one
(which implies the correct choice of the
method needed to solve the problem) and the
internalization of the change, we may state that
in the case of the present study, the class
activities covered only the first two levels.
REFERENCES
1. Radu, N. et al The psychology of education,
Bucharest, Romnia de Mine Foundation
Publishing House, (2001), pg. 317
2. Mitrofan, L. Basic Information on Social
Psychology, Sper Publishing House,
(2004), pg.32
3. Zlate, M. Introduction in Psychology, ansa
Publishing House, Bucharest, (1994), pg
158
4. Golu, F., Ioni, C. Practical Applications
of
Childs
Psychology,
personal
development as an alternative education
programme, Sper Publishing House,
(2009), pg. 18
5. Cuco C., Education-love, edification,
completion, Polirom Publishing House,
Iasi, (2008), pg. 15
570
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION- A PREMISE FOR A HARMONIOUS

EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Roxana MAIER, Angela BLOGU

Abstract: The aim of the present study is to be a brief insight into the world of primary school children,
(grades I-IV) through the stories created and invented by them. The research is based on the assumption
that the development process of any child can be facilitated through creative methods and the first step to
achieve this goal is to gain access to the childs world. In order to obtain the necessary data for our
study, we proposed art-therapeutic group meetings, which had the purpose to activate the childrens
resources and inner potential, to improve the student-school relation, the parents-children relation, as
well as the parents-children-teacher (primary school teacher) relation. By applying the principle of
social-constructivism, according to which reality is built through conversation, we initiated a process
of building and rebuilding the childrens reality,soastoturnitintoanindividualspaceofknowledge,
selfknowledgeandpersonaldevelopment.
Keywords: story, child, personal resources, school, self-knowledge
1. INTRODUCTION
The present study has as its starting point the
numerous transformations undergone by the
primary school student throughout the school
adjustment process and during his/her change
from an ordinary child to a responsible and
involved student.
There are numerous experimental
proofs which demonstrate the crucial role of
inhibition in any activity subjected to
interference. The inhibition is a general label
applied to a group of mechanisms which have
the purpose to deactivate or partially eliminate
the answer or the metal content and to reduce
or eliminate the interference of the current
load which contains irrelevant information
(Miclea, 1999).
571
A deliberate implementation or
removal triggers the processes of cognitive
inhibition. Any deliberate mental control is
inherently associated with a process that
determines the diminishing of ones attention
and the elimination from a persons conscience
of any informational flow which might
interfere and endanger the achievement of our
intention. The starting point for the two
complementary processes is our intention to
get engaged in a mental control: one process
aims to implement attention, while the other
aims to inhibit any collateral informational
flow (from external stimuli to thoughts)
(Miclea, 1999).
The counter-intentional effect is the
opposite effect initiated by an intention to
control a state or a behavior;
The situation in which, the more we

strive to obtain something, the more
determined we are to succeed, not only do we
fail, but the higher the chances are to obtain
the exact opposite effect. [1]
According
to
Miclea,
the
implementation of an intentional state involves
three different types of processes:
a) An activation or executive mechanism,
which has the purpose to activate the
mental contents which are congruent
with the desired mental states.
b) An inhibitive mechanism aimed
towards the deactivation of irrelevant
information
and
of
additional
processing flows.
c) A metacognitive mechanism which
assesses the functioning of the other
two mechanism as well as the subjects
own efficiency.
This model predicts that the counterintentional effect is more powerful in those
characterized by low levels of self-efficacy
and by deficient inhibitory mechanisms.
The primary school period is marked
by numerous changes like, the adjustment to
another working rhythm, a sequence of the
work and relaxation periods totally different
form the one in nursery schools, a different
relationship with the classmates and with the
class teacher and a higher workload than in
nursery schools. Thus, the children need to
internalize the related rules, to have their
behavior more strictly controlled and to
understand in a different way the human
relations.
We use to say that in most cases our
thinking is oriented towards achieving a goal
like: problem solving, behavioral control or
the updating of some information. There are
also moments (when we do not have a precise
purpose) of relation, boredom when a certain
mental content is scanned semantically. When
there is no precise purpose, a random trait of
the content (an image, a thought, a desire, an
emotion) is exemplified and a rapid search of
the relevant information connected to the trait
is performed. Thus, one can extract from
his/her memory a thought connected to this
and the process is repeated until one realizes
that the thought has a specific purpose; this is
the moment in which the subroutine of the
purpose achievement is activated. When the

intended mental control, competes with
processes that need less resources, the
probability to succeed is considerably higher
when compared with tensed, stressed, timepressed situations. The additional mental tasks
will increase the possibility of having counterintentional errors. Thus, in order to go through
this age period (primary school) in an
appropriate manner, it is more than welcomed
any support which facilitates the childs
understanding of all changes which he/she has
to face and handle.
The available cognitive resources are
always limited and insufficient. Any mental
process, intentional control included, has to
compete with other processes which need
resources. Thus, it is advisable for the primary
school student to have the best possible
contact with his/her own resources. The
metacognitive process refers to the cognitive
representations and to the propositional
attitudes which humans have about their
capacity to implement an intention to control
and about the efficiency of the respective
control. It also includes the conscious and the
unconscious feedbacks, which humans receive
while or after the implementation of an
intentional mental control. All the received
information is included in a general scheme
about the ability to succeed in general or when
in a similar situation (Miclea, 1999).
A series of theories emphasize the
inhibitory inefficiency of children in the
context
of an
incomplete
cognitive
development, characterized by susceptibility
towards inefficiency. Thus, Dempster claims
that the resistance to interference represents a
basic cognitive function which affects
performance in various types of tasks. Among
the experimental tasks which demonstrate
sensitivity to interference one can include the
ones that imply the switching of attention or of
the type of given answer, the competition
between stimuli or answers, respectively the
changing of conditions necessary to administer
reinforcement.
The optimal functioning at the level of
the prefrontal cortex is done during early
adolescence, the childs difficulty to resist
interference being caused by the immature
development of the prefrontal cortex. Thus, the
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resistance to interference represents a basal

cognitive process, which is extremely
important for the understanding of individual
differences and development. The time span
between six and ten years old or the end of the
childhood age is in fact the period of
early/primary schooling. The first four
schooling years, even if they follow
immediately after the nursery school years,
bring major changes in a childs daily routine
and in the events that govern his/her life
(Bonchis, Secui, 2004). In spite of these
changes, the child does not have the necessary
robustness. The child is sensible, instable and
gets tired quickly (Schiopu, 1997).
A reason is the main cause of a certain
behavior. However, not any cause is a reason.
The childs development towards the
formation of his/her personality is mirrored by
a series of reactions and manifestations
occurring in the behavior he/she displays. The
child might have the proper attitude, he/she
might display diligence or he/she might
express a greater or a lesser desire to learn. In
other circumstances, the child might display
nervousness or laziness (Oance Ursu, 1998). It
is of utmost importance to understand the
factors which influence the changes in a
childs behavior (Cretu, 2003). At the basis of
the childs attitude are various reasons,
through
which
we
understand
the
representations or the ideas which determine
the action necessary to fulfill a certain need or
an interest. The individuals of a society are
trained to enter an organization, an activity
branch and eventually the labor market[2].
Some psychologists claim that the pre-school
student will manage to assimilate a content of
knowledge or to assimilate a certain way of
behaving, on condition that he/she unfolds a
pleasant, attractive and accessible activity
(Bonchi, Secui, 2004).
573
The reasons behind an activity are not

always evident to the child. Family life is in
fact the first school of emotions and feelings
for any child [3].
Towards the end of the pre-schooling
period, the child learns under the influence of
the impulses given by the adults around him,
due to his desire to comply with his/her status
of future student, which attracts him/her and
also because of the desire not to upset his/her
parents (Simon, 2004). Gradually, the childs
motivation is increased by the nursery school
teacher and then by the primary school
teacher. Their psychological place and role is
well defined for the children. The requirement
to learn in order to satisfy a sort of family or
personal identity feeling and to keep the
parents affection and the others respects,
remains a basic motivational structure for
children and it is in general more tensional
than motivational learning triggered by other
types of motives (chiopu, 1997). During the
nursery school period the child finds
himself/herself at the intersection of three
types of environment: family, nursery school
and the social one, this last one being
observationally crossed (the street, the shops,
the means of transport, etc.). When the child
reaches the primary school age, the dynamics
of these environments changes and so does the
childs reaction to them. Although, integrated
in the same social life, the three components of
the environment ask the child not only to
adjust his/her behavior to systems which have
different requirements under different tutelage,
protection and affection conditions, but they
also create a more profound apprehension of
the diversity of the world and life in general, a
more dense and complex decision making
process, deep emotions, curiosity and a
profound desire to learn in unusual
circumstances (Cosma, 2001). During the
schooling period, the child will switch from

being a simple observer of the social life, to
being actively involved in it. If in the
beginning he/she is a mere spectator of the
surrounding world, through the diversification
of his/her house chores and not only, he/she is
involved in various processes which take place
every day. By going through these processes,
the child learns the skills that are necessary for
various tasks, becoming more and more
prepared for a complete, independent adult
life.
Starting from these theoretical aspects,
the following general objective of the study
was established: the picturing of primary
school education through its essential
dimensionsschool
adjustment,
the
conversational and relational space.
Work Objectives:
1. Identifying
the
differences
in
perceiving reality according to the
subjects age.
2. The enrichment of the relational and
conversational space with the help of
stories and exercises leading to the
childs understanding of his/her
position within the class, his/her
relation with the end product-the story,
the conscious reporting to others, a
better relations with himself/herself
and a more efficient group dynamics.
Work Hypothesis:
1. Enrichment of the experience of
reality is different according to the
subjects age.
2. Enrichment of the conversational
and relational space by means of
group intervention.
Sample Description
The study was done on students from
four primary school classes in Arad, as
follows: one first grade with a students
average age of 6,89, one second grade with a
students average age of 7,65, one third grade
with a students average age of 8,04 and one
fourth grade with a students average age of
9,34. The number of students in each class was
as follows: first grade (12 girls and 13 boys, 25
students in total), second grade (11 girls and
12 boys, 23 students in total) third grade (13
girls and 10 boys, 23 students in total) and the

fourth grade (11 girls and 10 boys, 22 students
in total).
Study Tools
The tools used during the study were:
Early Schemes Inventory (scale for
insufficient self-control), taken after Bouvard
(2002), The story with a given beginning
and The six-step story. The story with a
given beginning is a tool that aims to help the
child discover and be aware of the
relationships extant in his/her family of origin
and of his/her role in that family. The six-step
story is a tool that aims to help a child deepen
his/her self-knowledge, starting from building
up a character and following his/her
adventures, the way he/she relates to
dangerous situations, supportive characters,
the way he/she fulfills the given tasks and the
way in which he/she finds positive solutions to
various situations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Hypothesis number 1. Starting the
study from applying to each class the Early
Schemes Inventory, the results point out the
significant differences extant between classes,
concerning the insufficient control, as it was
expected (F=13,215 to p=001). By identifying
the differences extant between classes, we
proceeded towards establishing the objective
for optimizing the control for both task
achievement and the relational space.
The story with a given beginning.
This exercise allows the children to explore
the space of their own families and the role
they have within them. If during the first
grade, it is more obvious the dependence a
child has towards one of his/her parents, the
children become more independent as their age
increases. The building of the story pointed out
the differences extant in the relationship
between children and parents from the point of
view of both the distance (greater in the case
of older children) and closeness towards one
of the parents. An element that appeared
frequently in all the stories was the one
referring to the time that the parents used to
spend with their children. The results pointed
out the amount of time that the children spent
with their nanny or even by themselves.
574
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
These results can be related to the number of

times the support character occurs in the sixstep story. Thus, in the case of children who
display dependence on one of the parental
figures, the support characters were either the
mother or the father. However, in the case of
children who spent most of their time with
another person (grandmother, nanny or a
family friend) the support characters were
usually the embodiment of their friends. The
discussions that followed the building up of
the story clearly highlighted the differences in
family life, ways of spending leisure time and
the time spent working, playing or just having
a talk. A problem that was observed at the
level of all classes was the little amount of
time that the children spent with their parents
and the numerous hours spent in front of the
computer or being connected to various
modern gadgets. When it came to leisure
time, the results pointed out that most children
were practicing a sport (basketball, football,
dancing, etc.) but beside this activity, none of
them was involved in any other type of
outdoor activity.
The six-step story. The first step of
this technique is to ask the child to describe
the main character of the story. The first
graders were asked to draw the character
because they did not know how to read and
write. The results pointed out that the children
perceived their body scheme, and in most
cases the gender assignment was done
correctly. The second, third and fourth grade
students made up more elaborated descriptions
and it was possible to observe a transition from
physical descriptions typical for lower grade
students, to a description that included the
characters feelings and affective traits. The
story continues with the building up of a
mission in which the main character needs
support and he/she needs to use his/her own
575
resources so as to end the mission with a

happy ending. Most personal resources were
grouped around a few characteristics, such as:
well-behaved, industrious, good. There were
other characters having characteristics, such
as: ambitious, strong, kind, clever, etc. At the
first grade students, one can observe the
existence of a more restricted list of qualities
which evolves and ramifies as the children
grow older. This is a normal thing due to the
childs subsequent development and the
guiding lines he/she receives in the school
relationships
concerning
the
desirable
behavior. During the group sessions, we
constantly
pointed
out
the
positive
characteristics, as well as the possibility to
make a change if the children found out that a
certain aspect was not functional or did not
meet their expectations.
Hypothesis number 2. When it came
to the relational and conversational reality, the
exercises focused on highlighting the reality of
the class and the role and the place each
student had within it. It was observed that the
description of actions, characters and scenes in
the story became more elaborate as childrens
age increased. That could be partially
explained through the acquisition of new
words, which enriched the childrens
vocabulary but also to the fact that most of the
children read and some of them were literary
gifted and even had an inclination towards
presenting the world in a metaphoric way.
However, the differences that appeared from
one week to another were due to the working
methods having been used. Thus, it was
observed an evolution of the childrens
creativity; in the beginning the stories were
short and had few details but as the time
passed by and the children attended more story
workshops, their stories became longer and
contained plenty of interesting details. This
evolution can be explained through the

formation and development of skills, and
acquirements during the workshops. The
children learnt how to present real life objects
and notions, and how to render the deepness of
human relations (the discussions that followed
each story offered additional data about how
each student perceived reality). The workshops
also favored a continuous work of creation.
The exercises proposed during the research,
facilitate the childrens access towards their
feelings, self-knowledge and the exercising of
their analysis and auto-analysis abilities. The
story analysis makes the difference between
how the personal resources are structured as
years pass by, and also points out how these
resources are used. A very interesting aspect
was related to the children becoming
conscious of the resources they had. The
results of the present study were discusses
during parents meetings held at the level of
each class. When working with the parents we
focused on methods necessary to be applied in
order to offer the child the quality time he/she
needs and on ways to support the child
overcome the difficulties encountered at
school. The parents were invited to parentschildren workshops, during which we focused
on helping the parents discover their childrens
leisure activities and how the children
perceived the parents presence at the
respective activities.
CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The challenge of a story creates a
working space that facilitates the access to the
inner-self, to the discovery of a group relation
model, to the understanding of the role, which
the children perceive and actually have within
their peer group and in the relations with the
adults around them. The feelings experienced
during the exercises proposed by the
researchers, were also explored. The working
methods were chosen on the basis of the
childrens age and thus, they were easy to be
applied. The discussions which took place
throughout the research pointed out the
childrens possibility to make their own
constructions and to be responsible for their
own change. They also pointed out that it is

necessary for the parents to be involved in the
class and extra-curricular activities alongside
the class teacher.
REFERENCES
1. Miclea,
M.
Brain,
Cognition,
Behavior, volume IV, (1999), page 29
2. Barus Michel, J. Giust
Desprairies, F, Ridel, L. Crisis- A
Clinic Psychosocial Approach, Polirom
Publishing House, Bucharest, (1998),
page.15
3. Elias, J. Tobias, ST.E. Friedlander,
B.S., Emotional Intelligence in Child
Education, Curtea Veche Publishing
House, Bucharest, (2002), page 5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Bonchi, Secui Psychology of Human
Ages, The University of Oradea
Publishing House (2004)
2. Cosma, T., Parents Meetings in
Elementary
Schools,
Polirom
Publishing House, Iai, (2001).
3. Creu, D., The Development of the
Motivation for Learning, Sibiu,
Psihomedia Publishing House, (2003)
4. Elias, J. Tobias, ST.E. Friedlander,
B.S., Emotional Intelligence in Child
Education Curtea Veche Publishing
House, Bucharest, (2002)
5. Miclea,
M.
Brain,
Cognition,
Behavior, volume IV, (1999), page 29
6. Oancea Ursu, Gh., Heredity and
Environment in the Formation of
Human Personality, All Publishing
House, Bucharest, (1998)
7. chiopu, U. Introduction in PsychoDiagnosis, Printing House of the
University of Bucharest, (1976).
8. Simon, A.M. Parental Counseling,
Polirom Publishing House, Bucharest,
(2004).
.
576
THE EFFECTIVE TRIAD: IMPACT, DIGITAL CONTENT AND ADULT

EDUCATION. A CASE STUDY APPROACH
Loredana Manasia*, Alina Bozon**
*Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania,
** Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: Lifelong learning, continuous learning, accessibility and quality of education and training
systems in Europe play a decisive role in attaining the development of knowledge-based society. The
paradigm of e-learning is expansively growing in adult education. The purpose of this paper is to assess
the impact of e-learning and digital technologies in adult education. To achieve this goal a research study
was conducted. The study proposed in this paper aims to point out the answers to the following questions:
Does the digital content bring significant changes in adult learners? Is this type of educational content
valuable for adult training? What are the contexts and conditions to produce effective learning by using
digital content and technologies? The paper consists of four parts. The introduction is focused on the state
of the art regarding e-learning, digital technologies and adult education. The second section describes the
research design: research problem and questions, research goal and hypotheses, research methodology,
research instruments and data analysis procedures. Furthermore, the third section discusses the research
results. The fourth part reveals the conclusions of the study.
Keywords: adult learning, digital educational content, impact assessment
1. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT

The European society crosses a period of
profound social, economic and educational
changes, whose main goal is the transformation
into the most competitive and dynamic
knowledge-based economy worldwide [3, 5].
Knowledge and innovation are its most
important strengths comparing to other
economies. Lifelong learning, continuous
learning, accessibility and quality of education
and training systems in Europe play a decisive
role in attaining the development of
knowledge-based society. The process of
lifelong learning requires the ability to follow,
continue learning and to organize ones own
learning process. The key competences such as
577
linguistic skills, mathematical abilities and

digital technologies (ICT) use are necessary to
acquire processes and assimilate new
knowledge and skills. European citizens are
facing new barriers: linguistic and multicultural
skills are becoming increasingly important on
the European labor market and in European
societies developed on a wide variety of
traditions and cultures. New technologies
change work processes requiring additional
skills, stimulating the advance of knowledgebased economy [3]. The complexity of work
responsibilities generates the need for updating
and restructuring professional or technical
competences, but also cross competences, socalled life skills.
In this context, adult education is an element

of support and necessity for professionals who
need to integrate and to practice efficiently in
different professional and organizational
environments. From the perspective of learning
organizations, the investment in people is one
of the effective ways of increasing the
productivity, competitiveness and efficiency of
the employees. Trilling and Fadel [5] reinforce
this thesis by arguing the 21st century brought
remarkable
changes
to
professional
environments. As the authors note, there are
four powerful forces leading instructional
designers to create new learning contexts,
namely knowledge work, thinking tools, digital
lifestyles and learning research. These four
forces act in a double direction: they create the
need and supply the tools and learning contexts
to support new ways of producing learning. Elearning expresses best tools, environments and
opportunities to respond to the professional
needs.
The paradigm of e-learning is expansively
growing in adult education. However, the lack
of clear and reliable evaluations limits the
appropriate use of this innovative approach [4].
The answers the scholars have to formulate are
not only related to the cost-effectiveness of elearning.
The study proposed in this paper aims to
point out clearly the answers to the following
questions: Is e-learning effective? For what
groups of learners? How do different learners
respond?
Thus, the study translates in concrete results
the impact of e-learning, namely digital
educational content hosted by a learning
management system (LMS) in adults training.
To support and clarify the research goal and
methodology, the paper states the following
definition of impact in the field of adult
training: the measurable results arising from
the existence of an e-learning strategy that
demonstrate a change in the learning activity
for which the resource is intended. In addition,
the term ICT or digital technologies refer to a
collection of computer-based technologies to
support teaching and learning, communication
and collaboration [1].
In order to assess the impact of e-learning in
adult education, a research study was
conducted. The context supporting this study
refers to a number of public employees using a

LMS and digital educational content
(multimedia resources) to train their selves. The
content was designed by following the phases
and processes stated by the ADDIE (Analyze,
Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate)
instructional design model [1]. Fig. 1 presents
the chain processes of the mentioned model.
Fig. 1 ADDIE model
Analyze
Evaluate
Implement
Design
Develop
The following section describes the research

methodology and focuses on training sessions.
2. DESIGN OF THE STUDY
2.1 Research problem and questions. The
design of this research study was guided by the
need of answering two main questions:
A. Does the digital content change
something in adults learning activity?
B. Is this type of educational content
valuable for adult training?
In other words, the study will answer the
question: Which is the impact of digital content
in adult learning activity?
The research problem gathers two important
aspects, operationalized as research variables:
digital content, on one hand, and impact, on the
other hand. As argued before, the impact is
operationalized through a set of indicators
measured during the implementation of the
research project.
2.2 Research goal and hypotheses. The
goal of this research is to investigate the impact
of digital content on adult learning activity,
focusing on motivation, performance, attitudes,
and interests.
To achieve this goal, objectives and targets are
linked to this goal. The usefulness of specific
objectives is to guide, at a practical level, the
research implementation. In the context of the
578
study, the following general hypothesis (Hg)

can be formulated:
Hg: Use of the digital educational content in the
training process leads to a higher degree of
efficiency in training. Research hypotheses
operationalize Hg by referring dependent
variables, namely motivation, performance,
attitudes, interests, and learning outcomes, in
relation to the digital content.
2.3 Research methodology. The research
sample included 242 professionals working in
the public sector participating in a training
program based on the use of learning
management system and educational digital
content. The sampling design followed a
theoretical and realistic approach based on the
criterion of relevance [2]. All the public
servants were purposefully selected based on
their jobs profile.
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 describe subjects gender
and age distribution. Most of the investigated
subjects are females, with a relative balanced
age distribution.
Fig. 2 Subjects' gender distribution (N = 242)
43%
57%
Female
Male
579
Fig. 3 Subjects age distribution (N = 242)
22%
34%
20%
24%
25 - 30 y.o.
31 - 35 y.o.
36 - 40 y.o.
41 - 45 y.o.
Data collection procedures. The study

followed a correlational design implemented in
three phases: a) phase 1 consisted in profiling
the participants; b) phase 2 refers to trainings
delivery; c) after the training session, the
participants were re-tested. In the following, we
briefly describe the three phases of the project.
The profiling phase consisted in applying
different instruments to assess knowledge,
motivation, attitudes and interests on learning,
and expected outcomes. Before entering the
formation program, the participants were tested
to identify their level of ICT skills. All the
subjects benefited of a training session
regarding the use and features of the LMS.
Thus, it can be assumed that participants had a
comparable level of LMS usage skills. The
participants completed a self-administrated
knowledge test regarding their technical
competencies. Learning, motivation, attitudes
and interests were assessed by using dedicated
questionnaires and interview protocols. The
collected data was an input to design the digital
educational content.
The second phase focused on training
delivery. The training comprised both
asynchronous and synchronous instruction
strategies [1]. The total duration of the training
was 120 hours of instructional time, from which
40 were dedicated to synchronous learning. The

participants benefited of a virtual classroom
LMS module, where an instructor guided them
to solve general and specific tasks, where they
could ask questions and discuss the previous
topics.
The training goal was to improve both cross
and technical competences. This goal was
refined after conducting the needs analysis [6]
as the first part of the ADDIE instructional
design model. The needs analysis process
revealed the participants were willing to
improve their ICT skills (such as using text
processors, data mining tools, internet
searching), but also communication and
negotiation skills. Communication in foreign
languages represented a significant needs area.
Regarding technical skills, the participants
attended courses on quality management,
financial management, European funds,
performance management and project
management. According to their level of
information on these topics, the participants
followed the modules either for beginners or for
advanced learners.
The courses addressing cross competences
proposed the same level of difficulty for all the
participants, excepting the foreign language
courses (designed based on the European
language framework).
During training sessions, the participants
were able to share with their fellows by using
the forum module or with their instructor by
accessing the email or chat services. To
facilitate self-paced learning, the training
courses by the following structure. A course
comprises several learning sessions. One
learning session equals an hour of learning time
divided into learning objects (LO) with a
duration of 5-15 minutes each.
The training covered 8 months. Traffic
reports revealed that participants were logged
in for at least 2 to 3 hours per week.
After conducting the training, the subjects
were re-tested in order to evaluate the impact of
the program. A hybrid research methodology,
blending traditional quantitative and qualitative
research
methods
(questionnaires
and
interviews) was preferred to support the
correlational design.
2.4. Research instruments. Many different
methods and tools can assess the impact of
digital technologies on adult learning. As

argued before, learning motivation, attitudes,
interests and performance operationalized the
impact of ICT. A qualitative and quantitative
mix of research methods and tools instrumented
both testing moments (before and after the
training program).
Firstly, knowledge tests were applied
through the LMS platform. To understand
better motivation, attitudes and interests on
learning, two research instruments were
designed: the LIMA questionnaire and an indepth interview protocol. LIMA questionnaire
comprised two scales [7], namely motivation
scale (MS) and attitudes scale (AS). The MS
scale [7] focused on both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, comprising items guided by
previous qualitative research [7]. The AS scale
encompasses other five subscales: enjoyment of
learning, self-confidence, control of the
learning process, self-concept as a cognitive
subject and relevance of learning. The 50 items
of LIMA questionnaire were Likert rated,
having a good internal consistency of each scale
(MS Chronbachs alpha = .89, AS
Chronbachs alpha = .87).
The in-depth interviews aimed to explore
deeper the participants opinions on learning
motivation and attitudes. The interviews were
conducted after applying the knowledge tests
and LIMA questionnaire.
After the training program delivery, the
participants were re-tested by using the same
instruments. In addition, the interview protocol
included a section dedicated to learning the
experience in digital environments.
2.5. Data analysis procedures. To analyze
narrative data collected through in-depth
interviews, content analysis was performed.
Content analysis supposed a systematic coding
operation.
Statistical analyses were conducted to
analyze quantitative data. The psychographic
segmentation (based on K-Means cluster
analysis and factorial analysis) reveals three
segments of learners, according to their
learning motivation and attitudes: a) the
Hunters; b) the Lurkers and c) the Hobbyists
(Error! Reference source not found..
The Hunters have low intrinsic motivation,
looking to achieve future career aspirations, to
gain qualifications or to satisfy employers
580
requirements. Financial support or incentives

are a powerful method to motivate Hunter
employees.
Fig. 4 Clusters distribution (N = 242)
Hobbyists
14%
Hunters
32%
motivation. The means calculated for all the

structural elements of learning motivation
indicate a gap between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. There is a statistically significant
difference between them, p = .002. The subjects
respond better to financial or material rewards
than they do to personal gain, which is not a
productive behavior for learning efficiency.
Table 1 Learning motivation before training
(N=242)
Lurkers
54%
The Lurkers are extremely low motivated to

improve their personal or professional skills. If
needed, they will involve in a training program
just to earn some instant gratification (such as
promotions or bonuses). The Hobbyists are
intrinsic motivated, willing to participate in
training programs in order to share with their
fellows, to develop technical capacities or
become more competitive. In addition, the
Hobbyist think financial incentives are an
appropriate way to acknowledge their personal
efforts.
The following section of the paper discusses
other clusters characteristics.
3. DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESEARCH
RESULTS
The frequency analysis revealed that an
impressive majority of subjects (96%) low
motivated lo learn and increase professional
capabilities. Depicting the composite score of
learning
motivation
showed
relevant
differences among the structural elements of
motivation. Table 1 synthesizes values of
statistical indicators relevant in conducting a
diagnosis of subjects level of learning
581
Learning motivation
Mean
1
St.
dev.
Min.
Max.
Learning motivation
To achieve future career
aspirations
To gain qualifications
2.57
.27
1.75
3.25
3.49
1.13
2.00
5.00
3.45
1.14
2.00
5.00
For personal development
1.96
0.82
1.00
3.00
2.58
1.11
1.00
4.00
2.05
0.85
1.00
3.00
2.01
0.80
1.00
3.00
By a style of learning or
learning environment
2.00
0.80
1.00
3.00
For entertainment and interest

As an employer requirement
As a productive use of time
By financial support and
incentives
To widen options and increase
opportunities
1.93
2.93
2.06
3.99
0.79
1.38
0.81
0.81
1,00
1.00
1.00
3.00
3.00
5.00
3.00
5.00
2.48
1.12
1.00
4.00
To develop skills, experience

and knowledge
By receiving professional
support, information, advice
and guidance
By receiving support from
peers
Learning attitudes are consistent with

subjects low learning motivation (Table 2).
Table 2 Learning attitudes before training (N=242)
Learning attitudes
Enjoyment of learning
Self-confidence
Control of the learning process
Self-concept as a cognitive
subject
Relevance of learning
Mean
St.
dev.
Min.
Max.
3.32
3.27
3.25
3.19
0.76
0.77
0.82
0.73
1.50
1.50
1.67
1.33
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.83
3.17
0.84
1.33
5.00
The means calculated for all the five

subscales regarding learning attitudes indicate a
relatively positive attitude, but not strong,

enough to support self-regulated and effective
learning.
Consistent with quantitative data gathered
through LIMA questionnaire, qualitative data
point out relevant behaviors to sustain the need
to change the strategy in adult learning. As
argued in a previous section, the three
psychographic segments of teachers, Eraser
teachers, Wood teachers and Sharp teachers,
will guide the discussion of the empirical
results.
Learning attitudes and motivation vary
among the three psychographic segments.
The Hunters do not have a clear career path,
and they are always looking for better
opportunities. They agree to learn is relevant if
it increases the opportunities for promotion or
other types of career advantages. The Hunters
are young professionals, aged 25-35, both
females and males. They do not enjoy learning
but have a well-defined self-concept as
cognitive subjects. In their opinion, learning is
relevant if widens options, increases
opportunities or is an employers requirement.
In addition, the Hunters focus on improving
their qualifications portfolio. Otherwise, they
do believe adults can learn and adapt to new
employment contexts.
Unlike Hunters, Lurkers are low motivated
persons, who do not believe adults are able to
learn. Learning is not a specific activity for
mature professionals as they identify their
selves. Thus, Lurkers have a negative
perception on their selves as cognitive subjects.
Most, they feel learning is a requirement, a will
of the employer and they cannot control this
process. Financial gains and material incentives
act as strong extrinsic motives to support
learning. Comparing to other two segments of
subjects, the Lurkers hardly initiate the learning
process as an intrinsic need. Unlike Hunters,
Lurkers have a clear career path, feeling they do
not need to change anything or to look for
greater opportunities. The Lurkers are mature
professionals, aged 35-45 (most of them are 4045 years old), mostly females. In the context of
the study, it was expected this category would
show the greatest resistance in adopting the
digital technologies in training.
The Hobbyists are the smallest segment in
the investigated sample. They perceive learning
and training as an intrinsic need, in order to

increase personal and professional capabilities.
The Hobbyists are highly self-confident. They
affirm learning and training are powerful tools
to become more competitive in the work field.
However, learning is not an organizational need
only, but an individual one. This category of
subjects manifests interest in learning for
personal development too. In their opinion,
collaborative learning is as useful as individual
learning. Hobbyists are intrinsic motivated;
their training activity non-related to job
requirements sustains this fact. Outside of the
work environment, most of the Hobbyist
attended at least one course for personal
development in the last three years. The
Hobbyists are mostly young males, aged 25-35.
The results in the knowledge tests are
consistent with the data collected through the
LIMA questionnaire and interviews. Fig. 5 and
Fig. 6 describe subjects results according to
their results on knowledge tests.
Fig. 5 Subjects distribution according to
knowledge tests results (N = 242)
Between 5
and 6,9;
33%
Between 7
and 8,9;
37%
Between 9
and 10; 16%
Lower than
5; 13%
The most of the respondents (70%) have

average performance on knowledge tests. They
obtained grades between 5 and 8.9.
Fig. 6 Psychographic segments distribution
according to knowledge tests results (N = 242)
LURKERS
28
HUNTERS
35
HOBBYISTS
33
582
58
14
51
14
67
Lower than 5
Between 5 and 6,9
Between 7 and 8,9
Between 9 and 10
As expected, The Lurkers are the subjects

with the lowest performance. Most of them
(58%) have grades between 5 and 6,9.
The Hobbyists and the Hunters have good
performance: 67% of Hobbyist are between 9
and 10 while 14% of Hunters obtained the same
performance.
The training program addressed both
technical and transversal competences. At the
end of the program, subjects were re-tested.
Statistical analysis reveals there a significant
difference between the two measured moments.
Table 3 and Table 4 present the values of
learning motivation and attitudes variables after
the training program.
The
training
program
improved
participants learning motivation (Mean 2 >
Mean 1). Unlike the variables regarding the
extrinsic motivation for learning, statistical
analysis flag significant differences between
the components referring to intrinsic
motivation.
Table 3 Learning motivation after the training (N =
242)
Learning motivation
Mean
2
St.
dev.
Min.
Max.
Learning motivation
To achieve future career
aspirations
To gain qualifications
3.20
3.93
0.36
0.84
3.20
3.93
0.36
0.84
3.51
1.09
3.51
1.09
For personal development
2.95
1.41
2,95
1.41
To develop skills, experience and

knowledge
By receiving professional
support, information, advice and
guidance
By receiving support from peers
3.50
1.07
3.50
1.07
2.99
1.43
2.99
1.43
2.98
1.43
2.98
1.43
By a style of learning or learning

environment
2.57
1.16
2.57
1.16
For entertainment and interest

As an employer requirement
3.07
3.01
1.35
1.42
3.07
3.01
1.35
1.42
As a productive use of time
3.12
1.35
3.12
1.35
By financial support and

incentives
To widen options and increase
opportunities
4.06
0.82
4.06
0.82
2.67
1.30
2.67
1.30
583
For instance, before the training program,

learning for personal development was not an
important motive to support learning (Mean1 =
1.96). The training program changed
participants perceptions in a positive direction,
and they declared that they could improve their
personal capabilities by learning (Mean2 =
2.95; Mean2 > Mean1, p = .000). Other
improvements point the entertainment and
interest as motives for learning. Before the
training, most of the subjects did not agree that
learning in adult age could be enjoyable
(Mean1 = 1.93). By using digital technologies
and appropriate digital educational content,
they changed their opinions (Mean2 = 3.07, p =
.000). The t-test is significant for the pair
learning motivation before and learning
motivation after the training (t = 22.153, p =
.000). Expressing the results of the study in
terms of the size effect, confirms the hypothesis
that ICT has a positive impact on adult learners
motivation. Cohens d value (d = 2.09)
indicates that the training program had a very
large effect on participants learning
motivation. Lurkers and Hunters are the
subjects who improved best their learning
motivation. In addition, the use of ICT had a
positive impact on attitudes on learning. All the
means calculated for the five subscales of
learning attitudes are greater than those before
starting the program are. Self-confidence raised
after using digital technologies for learning
(Mean2 = 4.42, Mean1< Mean2).
Table 4 Learning attitudes after the training
program (N = 242)
Learning attitudes
Enjoyment of learning
Self-confidence
Controlling the learning
process
Self-concept as a cognitive
subject
Relevance of learning
Mean
St.
dev.
Min.
Max.
4.31
4.42
4.35
0.50
0.45
0.40
2.27
3.17
3.32
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.39
0.47
3.17
5.00
4.36
0.53
2.27
5.00
Great changes of the self-confidence

variable were measured especially for Lurkers,
the category of subjects characterized by the
lowest values of this indicator.
The t-test is significant (p = .000) for all the
five pairs referring to the scale of attitudes on
learning. Table 5 summarizes the size effect of
the training program on learning attitudes.
Table 5 Size effect indicators
Pairs
Pair 1 Enjoyment of
learning
Pair 2 Self-confidence
Pair 3 Control of the
learning process
Pair 4 Self-concept as a
cognitive subject
Pair 5 Relevance of
learning
t- test
Cohens
d
Size
effect
21.433
1.54
Large
25.557
22.294
1.84
1.64
Large
Large
23.294
2.67
Large
22.000
1.72
Large
As argued in the first section of this paper,

the impact encompasses also the learning
performance (learning results). If before the
training program most of the participants
registered average performances, the training
program best improved Lurkers and Hunters
technical performances. The Hobbyists scored
better in courses addressing cross competences.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The research confirmed the general
hypothesis (Hg) that the use of ICT in adult
learning has a positive impact. The results are
visible for all the psychographic segments we
were able to identify, namely Lurkers, Hunters
and Hobbyists. However, to give an answer to
the research question asking on whom ICT has
a greater impact, it is possible to conclude that
Lurkers and Hunters had the most visible
changes in their learning behavior. They
increased intrinsic motivation for learning,
discovering that learning is enjoyable and can
be more effective in collaborative contexts. The
fact the training program blended both
asynchronous and synchronous learning
sustained the development of self-confidence
and self-perception as a learner. At the
beginning, the Lurkers expressed that they are
not able to learn and their work environment is
not so demanding. However, the training
altered their perceptions in a positive way.

Lurkers and Hunters discovered ICT supports
them to ask questions and receive a piece of
advice without being uncomfortable in such a
situation. For the Hobbyist, the training was an
opportunity to change their perceptions on the
work environment. Pre-test results revealed the
Hobbyist believe the work environment was not
so learning supporting. Collaborative tools
offered the contexts to share with their fellows
and discuss issues and options. In this way, new
opportunities were created.
To conclude this research results, the digital
technologies have the potential to support adult
learning, but further research is needed.
REFERENCES
1. Adscliei, A.. Instruire asistat de
calculator. Didactica informatic. Iai :
Polirom (2007).
2. Emmel, N.. Sampling and Choosing Cases
in Qualitative Research. A Realist
Approach. London: Sage Publications
(2013).
3. European Commission - Eurydice. Key Data
on Learning on Innovation through ICT at
school in Europe 2011. Bruxelles (2011).
4. Leinenbach, J.. E-learning Management.
Iai: Polirom (2007).
5. Trilling , B., Fadel, C.. 21st Century Skills.
Learning for Life in Our Time. San
Francisco: Joessy-Bass A Wiley Imprint
(2009).
6. Vaughn, R. H.. Manualul trainerului
profesionist. Planificarea, livrarea i
evaluarea programelor de instruire.
Bucureti: CODECS (2008).
7. Department for Business, Innovation and
Skills. Motivation and barriers to learning
for young people not Education,
Employment or Training. www.gov.uk.
[online].
Available:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publicatio
ns/motivation-and-barriers-to-learning-foryoung-people-not-in-educationemployment-or-training (February 2013).
584
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IMPLICATION OF PARENTAL AGGRESSION IN CHILDREN

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Aurelia MORARU
Psychosociology Faculty, Andrei Saguna Constanta University
Motto. Human being need love. Life without tenderness and without love is nothing but a dry
mechanism,creakingandheartbreaking.(VictorHugo)
Summary. The researches made in psychotherapy field have proved the importance of childs
relathionship with his group affiliation and with his family, as a prereqiusite for balanced development
of childs personality and his social optimal integration. Based on this researches, we have found that the
best predictor for a harmonic childs development is given by the relationship seted between child and his
family members and the effective communication within family. For the investigation we aimed to
specifically evaluate how the child relates to other family members using structured psychological
interviw and observation, we have continued the investigation of the personality using clinical evaluation
instruments and for the personalitys restructuring we used individual and family psychotherapy. Our
desire was not only to determine and to investigate the causes of the disorder but also to implement
psychological activities in order to improve child behaviour. We have considered that the relathionship
that they have and effective communication can lead to personality rebalancing and to a good
intergration both in the family and in the psycho-social area (school).
Keywods: aggresion, children, parents, psychotherapy, personality, behaviour.
1. Introduction
In psychology is especially used the
concept of aggression while in sociology it is
used the concept of violence .
The aggression is related to the bellicose
nature of a person. This concept characterize
the dynamism of a subject that does not run
because of difficulties or fight. (Psychology
Dictionary, 2000). For many psychologist the
agression is closely related to frustration: a
child who is not free to play, clamp because
585
his anger or offend people around him.

Aggressiveness in children is manifested also
when he has profond dissatisfaction or when
the affection is missing him, he is not valuated
or he does not sleep enough. When parents
assess to the children certain standards on
learning or discipline and the child cant reach
them the parents extremely punish them, these
can lead to revolt or breaking-up the childs
personality. Learning this aggressive role is
another issue in child and adolescent
aggression manifestation. When talking about
adolescents the aggression have a central
place. Certain questions appear every time we

talk about aggression: does it develop
individually or in group? Does it have
common causes for all ages and some specific
causes for teen-agers? The researches show
that the aggression is not specific only for
adolescents, since Antiquity the aggression is
described as a particular disposition of this
period of time. In this stage of life, there are
psysical, psychic and internal disturbances
leading to that distinctive effervescence
regarded as normal for adolescents. The
aggressivness is felt by the adolescents even
when it is not active as a psysical or verbal
behaviour (Clerget Stephane, 2008). The
adolescent feel the aggression even outside
him when he attache his own aggression to the
others. Thus, Ariana belive that her teachers
have somenthing against her, in fact is about
internal elements who projects to other people.
External elements are family and school
environment. The children and teen-agers are
extremely sensitive to family and school
violence. The violence of the adolescents has
economical and political causes, this causes
resonate with other factors. Another reason
lies in the models offered by mass media, by
movies and materials realized by television
and journalism. The family environment has
an important role in explaning the existence of
aggressive behaviour in pre-school and school
age children. We are loved and we love as a
child in our strong relathionship with our
parents, brothers and sisters. This love confirm
the idea that we are appreciated and important.
The opposite of love is hate, the rejection. The
person who does not feel loved is frustrated,
has a state of anxiety. Who can live without
love, appreciation, understanding and respect?
For the child, love is a requirement for
growing and for an healthy and harmonious
development. Love is the nurture for the soul
of which human being need to exist. The child
will hardly survive and he will feel troubled
and lonely without love. The smile,
appreciation, attention can be as effective as
money or sweets (Bandura, 1969).
Any kind of abuse on children lead to
serious behaviour disorders, to delay in
psysical and emotional development and
occurrence of psysical and verbally aggression
in relationships with others. The child absorb

the emotions with all his senses and if senses
tell him that he is wanted, loved and
important the child know who he is and what
he represents in this life, avoiding to always
look for love proofs from those around him.
The abnormal behaviour and poor
communication are rooted in issues related to
poor communication. For the range of the
child we must observe the context and the
moment of its occurrence, consequences of
behaviour. An action is maintained by its
consequences, therefore it is necessary to
change the attitude to promote and mantain a
new behaviour.
2. Parental behavioral training
Most family therapist have as a working
hypothesis that the family not the individual is
the problem, so that the whole family is
convinced to solve the problem (Michael P.
Nichols 2005). On the other hand, it is also
accepted the parents point of view that the
child is the problem and the therapists meet in
sessions with only one parent and the child.
Guess whos missing? We assert that a child
has a problem but not the child is the problem.
Working hypothesis: the root of the
childrens problems consist in providing
inconsistent or innapropriate consequences for
behavior problem (Patterson & Brodsky,
1966) and the failure to support positive
behaviour (Patterson & Forgatch, 1995).
The training consist in strengthen the
change in small steps. Family management
involves the agreement between parents to
make some changes due to the changes made
by their children. Giving and taking rewards
and punishments based on childrens
behaviour (sending them in their room, sitting
in the corner).
3. Nonviolent communication
Is a powerfull process that inspire human
connections and compassionate actions.
Known as Giraffe Language nonviolent
communication can help prevent and resolve
conflicts and to improve communication and
needs satisfaction. It provide practical
instruments that can be applied in educational
institutions in bussiness area and in industry,
586
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psychosocial industry , politics and family

(Marshall B. Rosenberg, 2005).
Nonviolent communication teach us
empathy and honesty language, thereby
increasing goodwill, it is also described like
the language of the soul. It help us to avoid
an aggressive language which may hurt souls
awakening human being resentments and
reducing confidence with decreased selfesteem. We learn throughout our life
experineces that we are responsible for our
choices, for the content of our language, the
way we speak must have as a reason the
symapthy rather than fear, the guilt or shame.
4. The effects o
f non-violent
communication
- strenghthening the capacity to build
relationships
based
on
compassion,
appreciation and respect;
- the power to cleary hear the feelings and
the needs of others;
- developing the ability to clearly formulate
requests that can enhance the chance to get
what we want;
- prevention and resolution of conflicts;
- shorting the thinking pattern that lead to
anger and depression.
5. Educational measures to reduce
aggressive behavior
- valorization of desirable behavoiur in
terms of social and moral values;
- providing a healthy environment in which
the child can receive care, support and
affection;
- the parental couple, family have to be a
model;
- child and family counseling.
6. Goals of psychotherapy
- dismantling symptoms and improve
behaviour;
587
- unlocking the resources and awaking

latent potential with their effect of individual
development;
- developing alternatives;
- reduce aversive behavior;
- increasing family hapiness by forwarding
positive behaviors;
- effective, authentic communication skills;
- learning the art of negociation;
- learning to solve problems in a
constructive way;
- develop new interests, interest for each
other, increase family cohesion.
7. Case study: Andrew
Anamnesis: Andrew is a 9 years old child
with superiour intelligence. His parents are
intellectuals, busy all day with their jobs
having performance in their career. Andrew
has two smaller brothers who were bred by
grandparents and nanny, the parents were
coming home late in evening. Andrews
mother has supervised his homeworks in the
evening when she was available. The father
does not communicate enough with Andrew
because he comes late in the evening and tired
and he go in his office to perform certain
activities such as the documentation for his
profession or reading. Father is paying
attention to how the child is fed and he impose
certain requirements on food choices and body
weight. Andrew is bored during the class, he is
playing like a clown, he aggress his classmates
and he hurt his grandparents talking bad with
them. Grandmother and the nanny informed
his father about his acts of indiscipline and he
was punnished for his behavior with critics
and beating. Recently Andrew has beaten his
grandmother and the nanny. He is taking
medication prescribed by the psychiatrist but
the violent behavior was not changed. When
father come at the office with Andrew, the
child keeps a certain psysical and emotional
distance, he seems to not be attached by his

father.
- family therapy
grandparents.
Psychosocial factors thet caused child

aggression
- lack of affection and time of the parents;
- the high requests of the school and family
for learning and behavior;
- the frustration because of the diet imposed
by his father;
- the criticism, nagging and depreciation of
the child by grandparents and parents;
- conflict of parents in the presence of the
child;
- psysical and emotiobal abuse of the
father.
The effects of psychotherapy

- rebalancing the personality and its
restructuring;
- redefinition of certain labels and
behaviors;
- spending quality time with parents;
- effective communication with the family;
- reduce the conflicts between parents and
avoiding this in the presence of child;
- improvement childs behavior and his
integration in the classroom.
Clinical and psychotherapeutic strategies

- psychological evaluation by the family
test, tree test, raven test;
- therapeutic scenarios, stories and
metaphors;
- modeling, drawing;
- therapy centered on goals and solutions;
with
parents
and
8. Bibliography
1.
Michael
P.
Nichols,
Family
Psychotherapy, 2005
2. Marshall B. Roseberg, Be a good parent,
Elena Francisc Publishing, Bucharest, 2005
3. Stephane Clerget, Adolescence crisis,
Tree Publishing, Bucharest, 2008
4. Norbert Sillamy, Psychology Larousse
Dictionary, Enciclopedic Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2000.
588
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THE
TEENAGERS AND YOUNG BEHAVIOUR, DETERMINATION

AND SELF-ADJUSTING VALUES
Aurelia MORARU*, Adina MORARU**
* Andrei aguna University, Psychosociology Faculty, Constana

** Clinical psychologist/psychotherapist -Psychology Office Adina Moraru, Bucureti
Abstract: The values and their organization during teenage years represent an impotant acquirement
for personality and their impact have importance both short and long terms regarding persons
behaviour during the life. We consider the determination an essential element in choosing certain values
for teenage years. Organization of the character who constantly express in different contexts of life
depends on how human values organize in this sensitive period of life of each person, even if this values
remain at a subconscious level, they represent reactions that preced and direct human behaviour. The
motivation for choosing the theme and performing the research is expressed by the interest that we have
for this age and for the proper organization of the values. We started from the premise that the values
constitute a capital, perhaps the most valuable of the human being and according this, the human can
be shown in good advantage; in this way, he adjust to social contexts in a suitable, flexible and realistic
way, he create successful socio-professional and interpersonal relathioships and live in harmony with the
other people. Hoping that this study reveals in an authentic way the essence of the psycho-moral values
internalisation, we wish we can contribute to socio-psychological education of teenagers. They represent
the basis of future society and certainly they will bring their contribution in maintaining and creating
positive attitudes for the values promoted by romanian society. The purpose of research is to identify and
to orientate personal and interpersonal values.
Key words: teenager, behavior, determination, values, character, self-adjusting, personality.
1. INTODUCTION
This work can be considered as a possible
reflexive and critical-constructive exercise
about the problems of adolescence, the
teenagers being a category/sample of youth,
most explosive, most researched and
interdisciplinary approached.
The adolescence crosses everywhere today
a non-values, challenges and incertitude
troubled world.
Romanian teenagers quickly follow the
adolescences crisis.
589
The reversal of values in transition society

disturb the creation of personal system of
values with consequences for practical
behavior of each person and for choosing the
way of self-achievement.
The work that we have developed
attempted to approach this world in a
psychological and pedagogical perspective
without neglecting axiological, sociological
and anthropological perspective.
2.DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
The origin of the adolescence is in the latin

verb adolesco-ere, which means to grow
up, to develop, to become strong and it
emphasize the biological maturation and
psychological development specific to this
age. The adolescence is a transition stage that
connects the child phase with the adult phase,
the self and its elements: psysical, sexual,
vocational, moral spiritual are now defined.
The moral-spiritual identity, refers to ethical
dimensions of each person, to the principles
that will guide him during the life, to all that
means spirituality. It is the stage when moral
development reaches self acceptance level,
from voluntary compliance to ethic, it force
preconventional stage the acceptance of
decisions to avoid the punishment and
conventional conformity with the role- the
acceptance of decisions in order to maintain
the relathionships. (L. Kohlberg).
The adolescence is between 14 and 20
years, and it is followed by post-adolescence
untill 25 years old (Creu,T., 2003, p. 297); it
is characterized by many changes and
transformations, and for this reason it was
considered by de J.J. Rousseau a second
birth or an essential moment in human
psychic developmet according to N. Lehalle.
The behaviour is a term introduced in
scientific psychology by Pierre Janet, and it
means the acvity and the action, internalsubjective and external-motive and always
considering the unity between psychic and
behaviour. (as cited in P. Neveanu, 1978).
Janet introduced in psychology the concept of
behaviour, this meaning all visible
manifestations oriented to outside, and also
meaning all invisible processes for organize
and control it. More precisely, the behaviour
represent all the acts of an individual from the
simplest(movements) to the most complex
(reasoning), goal oriented and full of
meanings. According to the french
psychologist, the behaviour unifies and
synchronizes as an unity the behaviour and the
subjective innner life.
The determination is a superior form of
psychological adjustment, it represent one of
the highest levels of mental determination.
(Zlate, 2000, p. 215). We consider very
appropriate to put the determination in the
system of adjustment/selfadjustment forms
and mechanisms, whose main role is to

optimize the behaviours in order to achieve a
particular objective with adaptative value.
Voluntary action is an action in the
present which synthesize the archeology of
the system and its reflexive capabilities (so it
is complex and it is singular and personal) for
action in a rational and present reality and to
initiate beyond reason itself (Beauvois, J.L.,
Ghiglione, R., cited Zlate, 2000 ,p. 215).
The character is a self-regulating system
of values, attitudes and traits, it appears as a
relatively stable element, also having an
adaptative value. For Klages, the character is
nothing but
the determination morally
organized. Other authors
define
the
character as the characteristic of personality
enlightened by intellect, supported by feeling
and directed by determination to take an
attitude toward reality (Zisulescu, S.,
Caracterul, 1978).
The values
are explicit or implicit
conceptions about what is desirable
(Vlsceanu, L.,). They are not direct
observable, it involve cognitive, evaluative,
social, cultural, spiritual, emotional elements,
and are relatively stable over time. They can
determine behaviors and attitudes, they are
determined and also determine the features of
socio-cultural milieu, are interconnected with
other values. The changes in romanian society
had an impact in the structure and the
functions of the family and in fixing the values
at teenagers and young people (Moraru, A.,
2006). The values are existential milestones
of a person that help us to make choices
raported to certain standards.
Personality constitute a dynamic
organization of psychopsysical system, which
determine a characteristic way of thinking
and behavior (Allport, G., 1991).
3.1. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
(1.) Identifying the main personal values
that are currently accepted by the teenagers;
(2.) Setting the dynamic of personal and
interpersonal values as subjects get older and
acquire another professional status;
(3.) Identifying the personal and
interpersonal values specific to boys and girl.
590
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3.2. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

(1.) Main hypothesys: It is a ssumed that
there are cores o
f specific values at
adolescence and these are influenced by
gender.
(2.) Secondary hypothesis: It is
presumed that the age of teenagers is a
differentiator/modulator factor in terms o f
values orientation.
3.3. RESEARCH SUBJECTS
The study was conducted on a total of 97
subjects, high school students from Bucharest
and Constanta, we also explored in a realistic
way the values of youth. In terms of
biological gender, a total of 31 subjects are
males (32%) and 66 girls (68%). The sample
contains more girls than boys due to the
humanist characteristic of high schools and
universities where we applied the instruments.
3.4. RESEARCH TOOLS
Quantitative
3.4.1. Inventory of interpersonal values,
SIV Questionnaire.
The research was
centered on a questionnaire pre-tested and
validated by the Center of Applied Psychology
in Paris.
This tool tries to provide measurements for
a category of values, interpersonal values:
Dependence (S);
Conformity (C);
Social Consideration (R);
Independence (I);
Benevolence (B);
Order/Management (L)
3.4.2. Adolescents significant values
list: We built an instrument that includes a
number of 40 values that subjects must
prioritize according to the importance they
attach to the value. The hierarchy is made
according grade 10 to the most important
value, grade 9 to the value on the second place
591
and so on until grade 1 considered as the less

important value for the subject.
Only 10 of the 40 values presented will be
noted, according to their importance, the scale
could be assimilated to those ordinary
Qualitative
3.4.3. Focus group
3.4.4. Case study
3.4.5. Descriptive dimension
All qualitative tools emphasize personal
biography and social side.
3.5. RESEARCH RESULTS
Table no.1 Subjects distribution
according to their gender
Gender
Valid
Masculin
Frequency
31
Percent
32,0
Valid Percent
32,0
Cumulative
Percent
32,0
100,0
Feminin
66
68,0
68,0
Total
97
100,0
100,0
Figure no.1 Structure chart of subjects

distribution according to their gender
Regarding the age, the 97 studied subjects
are betweeen 13 and 26 years old, average age
is 18,5 years, median is 18 years and modul is
18 years. The amplitude of this distribution is
13 years, and standard deviation is 2,53 years.
Table no.2 Subjects distribution

according the
age
tendency. Subjects age

distributed variable.
is not a normally
Statistics
Subjectsage
N
Valid
Missing
97
0
18,57
18,00
18
2,533
,882
,245
1,445
,485
13
13
26
18,00
19,00
Mean
Median
Mode
Std. Deviation
Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness
Kurtosis
Std. Error of Kurtosis
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Percentiles
33,33333333
66,66666667
Figure no.2 Bar chart of subjects

distribution according the age
The distribution is asymmetrical positive

(Skewness=0,88;
Standard
Error
Skewness=0,24) subjects with small age are
prevalent and leptocurtica (Kurtosis=1,44;
Standard Error Kurtosis=0,48) distribution
have a large uniformity age around central
that
Main hypothesys : It is assumed
there are cores o
f specific values at
adolescence and these are influenced by
gender.
Meaningful values list for teenagers
indicates us the orientation of subjects in
terms of personal values that they choose.
Table no.3 The choices and rank average for values list
Statistics
Valid
Missing
Mean
Adaptability
11
86
5,82
Truth
29
68
4,55
Affection
16
81
5,81
Ambition
26
71
3,92
Good self-image
Self-Control Good leader
19
9
11
78
88
86
6,00
5,33
4,64
Good
Successful
11
Communication
Career 31
86
66
7,27
4,90
abilitues
Marriage
and family
35
62
3,54
Statistics
N
Mean
Valid
Missing
Money32
65
Earnings
5,41
Moral
11
behavior
86
5,36
Conscientiousness
Courage
8
40
Dignity
18
Open
to new
13
Discretion Balance
2
13
89
57
79
84
95
84
5,50
5,08
5,06
4,77
7,00
6,92
592
Empathy Generosity
1
21
96
76
5,00
5,10
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AFASES 2014
Statistics
N
Mean
Valid
Missing
Indulgent Impartation
1
18
Confident
8
Initiative
8
Education Freedom
19
30
79
96
89
89
78
67
6,00
5,00
7,25
4,63
6,74
5,60
Mediator of Problem solving

conflicts
Patriotism Persuasiv
5
2
2
oriented 5
92
92
95
95
6,60
7,00
5,00
7,50
Statistics
Help for
Power
N
Mean
Valid
Missing
Amiability
Patience
7
38 to influence
20
Respect
35
59
90
77
62
person in
10
need 87
5,84
7,14
6,85
6,00
6,90
Meaningful values list for teenagers

indicates us the orientation of subjects in
terms of personal values that they embrace.
Using a simple frequency analysis
we found according to the tables and graphs
that the size of courage has the largest
number of choices, 40. Next is friendship
with 38 choices, the respect, the marriage
and the family each with 35 choices,
money earnings with 32 choices,
successful career with 31 choices and
freedom with 30 choices.
Significant personal values choosen by
the subjects of research, in order of the
importance, are:
1.
Courage
2.
Friendship
3.
Respect
4.
Marriage and family
5.
Money earnings
6.
Successful career
7.
Freedom
593
Delicacy
10
Humility
3
Solicitude
1
Tolerance Vigilance
7
14
87
94
96
90
83
5,40
5,00
8,00
2,14
7,29
Chioces
40
35
30
25
20
Alegeri
15
10
5
0
Courage Friendship Respec
Marriage and Money

family
Succesfull
career
Freedom
earnings
Figure no.3 Bar chart for the most

frequent values.
Insignificant values
located opposite,
chosen by the researchs subjects are:
1. Problem solving orientation
2. Mediation of disputes
3. Humility
4. Discretion, patriotism and persuasion
5. Empathy, communion and solicitude.
For all other significant chosen values, the

subjects are oriented in the area of theoretical
average and they are not directed to a certain
value pole.
4,5
4
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
Ranks Average
0,5
10
Communion
Solicitude Empathy DiscretionPatriotismPersuasionHumility MediationProblem
of conflicts
orientation
solving
8
7
6
5
4
Figure no.4 Bar chart fo the less frequent

values
We used test t Student for compare the
average of the population with the average of
a sample to analyse whether the rank average
of a value is significantly different from 5,5.
Apart from the cases when the choices had
extremely low values, we could observe a
number of three values where the average of
ranks is significantly different from the
theoretical average.
Table no.4 Significant differences
depending on the
theoretical average.
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 5.5
Ambitie
Casatoria si familia
Vigilenta
Rabdare
t
-2,830
-3,818
2,210
2,736
df
25
34
13
19
Mean
Sig. (2-tailed) Difference
,009
-1,577
,001
-1,957
,046
1,786
,013
1,350
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-2,72
-,43
-3,00
-,92
,04
3,53
,32
2,38
Although Ambition and Marriage and

family, are in the system of values of the
subjects (because of the number of choices),
they are significantly moved to lower places,
the average of ranks is significantly different
from the theoretical average (t(25)=2,83;
p<0,01 for Ambition and t(34)=3,81; p<0,01 for
Marriage). Vigilence and Patience are
significantly different values from the
theoretical average, this time they are strongly
valued (t(25)=2,21; p<0,05 for Vigilence i
t(19)=2,73; p<0,05 for Patience).
Therefore, among all the values that have
met a number of choices to become
representative, it is shaped a pole of strongly
rated values (with significant scores over 5,5)
in the sense of Vigilance and Patience and a
pole of marginalized values (with significant
scores under 5,5) in sense of Ambition and of
Marriage and family.
3
2
1
Courage Friendship Respect
Marriage and
Money
Succesful
earnings
Family
Freedom
Ambition
Vigilance Patience
career
Figure no.5 Significant differences

depending on the theoretical average
According to the first hypothesis we
have shown the existence of a values center
for teenagers. To see how these values are
sensitive to biological gender of the subjects
we used the t Students test for independent
samples where we compared the averages of
ranks obtained by boys with those obtained
by girls.
In the table above we note the
existence of three values that differentiate
between boys and girls, as follows:
Self-control is significantly better
valued by girls than it is for boys (t(17)=2,39;
p<0,05);
Marriage and family
significantly
better valued by boys than it is by girls
(t(33)=2,64; p<0,05);
Vigilance is better valued by girls that
it is by boys (t(12)=2,86; p<0,05);
The choice of values depending on
subjects biological gender
According to the first hypothesis we
have shown the existence of a values center
for teenagers. To see how these values are
sensitive to biological gender of the subjects
we used the t Students test for independent
samples where we compared the averages of
ranks obtained by boys with those obtained
by girls.
594
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
Table no.5 Significant diferences between boys and girls in terms of value orientation
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
Self-control
F
Equal variances
assumed
Sig.
,018
,894
Equal variances
not assumed
Marriage and family
Equal variances
assumed
t-test for Equality of Means
-2,397
3,633
,065
Equal variances
assumed
,068
Equal variances
not assumed
2,644
,034
33
,012
10,748
-2,865
,050
12
,014
8,547
-2,865
We can declare that the first hypothesis is

confirmed. Indeed we find the existance of
some values centers oriented to positively
valuate and negatively valuate some values
and some of these values can help to
distinguish the subjects gender.
,028
7,988
2,205
4,031
Sig. (2-tailed)
17
-2,550
Equal variances
not assumed
Vigilance
df
,020
Of the 97 investigated subjects a total of

58 subjects are small age subjects (59,8%) and
39 subjects are big age (40,2%).
Table no.6 Subjects
according the age group
distribution
Age group
Secondary hypothesis
It is presumed
that the age of teenagers is a
differentiator/modulator factor in terms o f
values orientation.
Because the subjects age is a
continuous variable with the median placed at
18 years old, we can consider all subjects
under 18 years old small age and all subject
after 18 years old big age. The result is a new
categorial variable that distinguish between
two category of subjects and with which we
can study the effect that age group determine
over the values system.
595
Valid
Small age
Big age
Total
Frequency
58
39
97
Percent
59,8
40,2
100,0
Valid Percent
59,8
40,2
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
59,8
100,0
Figure no.6 Subjects

according the age group
distribution
To verify the relation between personal and
interpersonal values of the subjects we used
Pearson bivaried correlation coefficinet.
We note that there is a significant
correlation between interpersonal values and
two personal values Marriage and family, and
Courage.
There are significant correlations, mild and
negative between marriage and dependence
(r=-0,36; p<0,05), and between marriage and
management (r=-0,34; p<0,05). The persons
for who marriage and family represent an
important value obtained lower scores at
dependence (oriented to dependence pole) and
also low scores to management (this value is
not dominant in interpersonal relathionships).
The courage, as individual values is
significantly correlated, positive and strong
with all interpersonal values. Thus the
correlation between courage and dependence
is r=0,57; p<0,01, between courage and
conformity r=-0,64; p<0,01, between courage
and social consideration r=0,67; p<0,01,
between courage and independence r=0,61;
p<0,01, between courage and benevolence
r=0,59; p<0,01 and between courage and
management r=0,58; p<0,01.
The subjects which strongly valorize the
courage they appreciate the independence in
interpersonal relationship, are non-conformist
(the only negative correlation), they valorize
the social consideration, they are independent,
kind and they tend to manage.
There are not significant differences
regarding the interpersonal values between
boys and girls or between two age groups.
Because the relations between courage as
personal value and interpersonal values are
very strong, we propose to predict the value of
the courage based on the scores obtained at
interpersonal values. For this purpose we used
linear regression as a statistical method where
we built a number of six hierarchical models,
corresponding to six predictors determined by
the inventory variables
of interpersonal
values, by which we will study the multiply
relation between them and criterion,
represented
by
courage
The age of subjects is an important factor

influencing the value orientation. To show
this, we used t Student test independent
samples.
Table no.6 Age differences in valuing
successful career
Casatoria
si familia
Dependence
-,366
,575
Sig. (2-tailed)
,031
,000
35
40
Pearson Correlation
,315
-,646
Sig. (2-tailed)
,065
,000
35
40
Pearson Correlation
-,331
,679
Sig. (2-tailed)
,052
,000
N
Conformity
N
Social consideration
N
Independence
35
40
Pearson Correlation
-,281
,610
Sig. (2-tailed)
,102
,000
35
40
Pearson Correlation
-,322
,597
Sig. (2-tailed)
,059
,000
N
Benevolence
N
Management
Curaj
Pearson Correlation
35
40
Pearson Correlation
-,340
,581
Sig. (2-tailed)
,045
,000
35
40
We noticed the existence of one single

value which make a significantly difference
between the subjects with samll age and the
subjects with big age (t(29)=3,24; p<0,05).
It is about successful career, where the
subjects with big age valuate it significantly
stronger compared to small age subjects.
Therefore, we can say that the second
hypothesis of the study was confirmed.
Table no.7 Corelations between personal
values and interpersonal values
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
Successful career Equal variances

assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
,182
Sig.
,672
t-test for Equality of Means
-3,155
-3,248
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
29
21,335
,003
,005
596
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
.
Table no.8 The validity of six hierarchical regression models
ANOVAg
Model
1
Sum of
Squares
96,897
Mean Square
96,897
Residual
195,878
38
5,155
Total
292,775
39
Regression
124,023
62,011
Residual
168,752
37
4,561
Total
292,775
39
Regression
148,932
49,644
Residual
143,843
36
3,996
Total
292,775
39
Regression
157,835
39,459
Residual
134,940
35
3,855
Total
292,775
39
Regression
157,853
31,571
Residual
134,922
34
3,968
Total
292,775
39
Regression
159,963
26,660
Residual
132,812
33
4,025
Total
292,775
39
Regression
df
F
18,798
Sig.
,000 a
13,596
,000 b
12,424
,000 c
10,235
,000 d
7,956
,000 e
6,624
,000 f
a. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence

b. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism
c. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration
d. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration,
Independence
e. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration,
Independence Benevolence
f. Predictors:
(Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration,
, Bunavionta
Independence Benevolence Management
g. Dependent Variable: Courage
, Conducere
After the analysis of the variance, we find

in the table number 8 that all six models
significantly explain the variance of criterion.
The most powerfull model is the model with
six predictors. Of the 292,77 variance of
criterion (sum of squares), the regresiv model
explain 159,96, and 132,81 are not explained.
This model is significant (F(6,33)=6,62;
597
p<0,01), this determine us to study it to

exactly identify its predictive power.
Table no.9 The summary of six regression models

Model Summary
Change Statistics
Model
Adjusted
Std. Error of
R Square
R Square
R Square
the Estimate
Change
F Change
,575 a
df1
df2
Sig. F Change
,331
,313
2,270
,331
18,798
38
,000
,651 b
,424
,392
2,136
,093
5,947
37
,020
,713 c
,509
,468
1,999
,085
6,234
36
,017
,734 d
,539
,486
1,964
,030
2,309
35
,138
,734 e
,539
,471
1,992
,000
,004
34
,948
,739 f
,546
,464
2,006
,007
,524
33
,474
a. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence

b. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism
c. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism,Social Consideration
d. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, Independence
e. Predictors: (Constant), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, Independence, Benevolance
f. Predictors: (Constant), ), Dependence, Conformism, Social Consideration, Independence, Benevolance, Management
Analysing the summary of models, we see

that the best model is the fourth (with four
predictors), able to explain 48,6% of creiterion
variance (R2 ajustat=0,48). The inclusion of
the fifth predictor determine the decrease of
the predictive power to 47,1% and the sixth
predictor disturb the model, this having a
prediction power of only 46,4%.
Only the first three independent variable
significantly contribute to the prediction
power of the model, as the hierarchical
statistics indicate. Thus, the first predictor,
dependence, explains 33,1% of Courage
criterion (R2 changed=0,33) and this
predictive power is significant (t(1,38)=18,79;

p<0,01). The second predictor brings an
information of 9,3% which explain the
criterion, information is also significant (R2
changed=0,09; t(1,37)=5,94; p<0,05). The third
predictor has also a significant role, bringing
8,5%
information
(R2
changed=0,08;
t(1,36)=6,23; p<0,05).
The information brought by the fourth
predictor, are not significant and dont
improve the predictive power of the model.
Knowing this we decided to use, to write
the regression equation, the fourth model, the
model with the highest prediction strenght.
598
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Table no.10 Regression model coefficients

a
Coefficients
Model
4
(Constant)
Dependence
Conformism
Social consideration
Independence
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
-8,749
7,236
-,056
,083
,160
,135
,627
,217
-,198
,130
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
-,279
,748
2,554
-,903
t
-1,209
-,675
1,182
2,890
-1,520
Sig.
,235
,504
,245
,007
,138
a. Dependent Variable: Courage
In this model, the most important predictor

of courage is social consideration, (=2,55;
t=2,89; p<0.01), followed by independence
(=-0,90; t=1,52; p>0,01), conformism
(=0,74; t=1,18; p>0,01) and dependence (=0,27; t=0,67; p>0,01).
Regression equation is expressed in gross
notes:
Courage=-8,74 -0,05Dependence +
0,16Conformism + 0,62Consideration
0,19Independence
Or, expressed in standardized notes z:
Courage=
-0,27Dependence
+
0,74Conformism + 2,55Consideration
0,90Independence
4. CONCLUSIONS
The adolescence is able to appropriate

values and to be guided by values;
At adolescence age values centers are
crystallized. The teenagers have choosen for

certain significant values, such as: courage,
friendship, respect, marriage and family,
money earnings, successfull career and
freedom. They placed other values at opposite:
settlement of disputes, humility, discretion,
persuasion, empathy, communion and
solicitude;
599
There are some differences in their

structure in girls than boys;
Self-control is significantly better

valued by girls than it is for boys;
Marriage and family

significantly
better valued by boys than it is by girls;
Vigilance is better valued by girls that

it is by boys;
Age is an important variable in

creating the teenagers values determining the
orientation to differentiated values; teenagers
over 18 years old are more interested about
career than are the teenagers under the age 18;
The values are continuously structured
and restructured at the age of adolescence,
they represent a continuum, this process is
flexible and complex;
The interactions between educational
models of family, school, group of friends,
society, are very complex in human
personality edification and in values selection
and creation.
The study of psycho-socio-pedagogical
and personal factors involved in values
creation is extremely complex;
This study suggest as way of psychosocio-pedagogical
intervention
the
identification and promotion of those
significant aspects that have a direct impact in
human personality creation from birth to

adolescence and even after this;
We also propose educational, training
and deviant correction on values psychosocio-pedagogical problems;
At adolescence age the individual
begins to assert his own identity in relation
with the others, seeking to become original,
they dont agree the uniformity;
The teenagers filter the way to relate
with the values and through will they selfadjust their behavior, compared with previous
ages when the family had the essential role in
values orientation.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
(1.) Setting the educational process by
which children learn since childhood to
distinguish between good and bad, the family
and the school have the essential role;
(2.) Restoring the Romanian cultural
values;
(3.) Recreating the morality base;
(4.) Promoting Romanian perennial values
through various cultural and educational
programs, both in schools and in media;
(5.) Exposure to positive models which
have an impact in human personality shaping;
(6.)
Psychosocial
intervention
by
organizing conferences and workshops with
topics focused on values;
(7.) Consistency in education;
(8.) The young people must be educated in
order to understand that they have to socialize
in groups that promote desirable social values
and awareness the influence that the group
exert on the individual;
(9.) Reducing the exposure to negative
behavior models and to the television shows
which promote the violence and non-values;
(10.) Media have a very important role in
the direction of positive information and
modeling of human personality through
publication and broadcasts content.
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C.
(1968),
The
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personality, Thierd edition, Pacific Grove,
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E.,
(1998).
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Psychology
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Scientific
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S.,
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22. ZAMFIR, C., VLSCEANU, L.,

(1993), Sociology Dictionary, Ed. Babel,
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South West, Australia.
602
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INSTANCES OF FEMINITY IN THE NOVEL VOICA,

BY DE HENRIETTE YVONNE STAHL
Daniela NAGY*
*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, Henri Coanda Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: Feminism and femininity have often been confused in relation with literary works. The
confusion consisted of attributing feminine characteristics to writings belonging to female writers.
Literary criticism has managed to clarify these two distinct concepts, and even to identify elements of
masculine writing in female authors. The novel under scrutiny, Voica, by Henriette Yvonne Stahl
displays a range of facets of femininity; nevertheless, the manner of writing is purely masculine, the
author appealing to the psychological observation, using a masculine-like language for the novels
dialogues and preserving an external realism. Apart from the gender differences, absorbed by the
supreme power of creation, the literature written by women offers a new perspective, freed from
constraints, an inner image of the topic of femininity, an autonomous space, populated by original and
very interesting characters, who appear to have been taken out from the real world.
Keywords: feminism, feminity, feminine writing, masculine writing, literary feminism
1. INTRODUCTION
Feminism and feminity are two distinct
concepts disputing supremacy in the areas of
ideology and literature, but which harmonize
with each other due to their common concern
to confer the woman a new identity and a
visibly modified and improved status.
Although feminity represents a social
construct, it is made up of both social factors
and biologically created ones. Based on the
famous feminist manifesto, launched by
Simone de Beauvoir, in 1949 - Le Deuxime
Sexe 1 , feminity has its origin in biology 2 . If
Although Mrs. de Beauvoirs manifesto appeared 25

years after the novel under our scrutiny was published,
the saying One is not born a woman, but becomes one
will be used for analyzing various literary works written
by women, both from a psychoanalytical perspective
and from socio-psychological or linguistic-semiotic
ones.
603
feminism was a powerful movement and it

advocated for vital rights, through appeal to
numerous fields of activity, from mythology to
psychoanalysis and sociology, feminity was
accepted as a literary matter, capable of
highlighting the colors of life and of providing
women with their former charm and vitality.
The vision of women was permanently
influenced by ideologies and by the status that
women held within the society of that time, so
that feminist ideas also penetrated the literary
field, but the aesthetic factor prevailed and the
virulence of ideas was diminished to the point
that they did no longer represented a purpose
in itself. Literature that was written by women
approaches feminity in a manner different
from male writers perspective. Subjectivity,
sometimes excessive, turns into a negative
anatomy is destiny, in Sigmund Freuds acceptance
trait; the topic of feminity condition becomes a

pursuit of happiness, in most of the cases, and
this very instance leads to the replacement of
the narrative by an array of sensations. The
French feminist researcher, Hlne Cixous
identified a feminine writing (criture
fminine) or a feminine expression at the
crossroads of poetry, magic, madness, in other
words, outside the dominant masculine
logocentrism. 3 Nevertheless, Cixous did not
exclude the possibility, which was proved,
through Joyces works, among others, that
men writers could write in this manner, too. As
long as the womans feelings are realistically
rendered, the writers gender is irrelevant; the
only relevant issue will be the aesthetic
reception of such literary works. From this
perspective, although all feminist novels focus
exclusively on women characters, not all of
them manage to highlight psychological
figures, capable of walking out of the pages of
the book and entering their readers minds,
while remaining imprinted in their memory.
And this happens because some of the writers
struggle too much to catch the stream of
consciousness of their female characters, to the
detriment of the work of art, in itself.
In case of the Romanian literature from
the beginning of the twentieth century, novels
written by women writers did not enjoy an
objective criticism. On the one side, this was
due to that times reticence of the male
criticism toward the women writers abilities
to write literature (perceived as a males
talent); on the other side, the very absence of
women critics had led to that reality, and not
the least, the social, economic and political
factors contributed to the false perception that
writing was the mens job only. Nonetheless,
women writers were tolerated within the world
of letters, some of them were more intensely
made public, whereas most of them got
marginalized, then completely forgotten, even
by the simple act of not republishing the works
that had enjoyed a positive reception at the

time of their first publishing.
The novel Voica by Henriette Yvonne
Stahl, the authors debut work, was met with
enthusiasm by Mihail Sadoveanu and Garabet
Ibrileanu, both writers sensing a promising
artistic potential in the young woman writer.
At the time of Stahls issuing her second
volume, of short stories, Aunt Matilda,
Perpessicius joined the criticism of the epoch,
in the manner of appreciating and confirming
Henriette Yvonne Stahls talent, while almost
fifteen years after the publishing of her first
novel, Eugen Lovinescu included the writer in
the third volume of his History of the
Contemporary Romanian Literature, in the
chapter dedicated to The stream of
consciousness epics. Still, certain nuances of
misogyny are present in the critical works of
the above mentioned critics, not in the mode of
a negative association of the writing with its
authors gender, but, on the contrary, in the
meaning of a recognition of the power of
Stahls pen, of her power of impartial,
distanced observation, of her psychological
introspection, yet, in a masculine manner. This
approach is extremely interesting in relation
with Stahls perception among her male peers
of the time. Sadoveanu, Ibrileanu or
Perpessicius never made any reference to
feminity or feminism when writing about
Henriette Yvonne Stahl; only Lovinescu did
mention about a feminine plot, in what
femininity holds as its most specific trait, in its
sexual pathology, with all of its wanderings
and nervous shocks, with all the absurdity of
opposite attitudes, yet, treated in a virile
manner, without romance or sentimentalism,
but his appreciation was in relation with
Stahls novel The Star of the Slaves (1934).
Even so, the novel Voica displays a
broad range of instances of feminity, feminity
perceived as a sum of feminine feelings and
social behaviors in relation with the place, the
time and the human interaction.
2. INSTANCES OF FEMINITY
Hlne Cixous was the first to coin the phrase feminine

writing in her essay Laugh of the Medusa (1976), in
which she asserted: A woman must to write her self:
she has to write about women and to bring women back
within the art of writing, from which they have been
driven away as violently as from their bodies.
Generally, in Henriette Yvonne Stahls

novels or short stories, feminine characters
display a crisis of identity, namely the crisis of
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their feminine identity. The authors merit is to

have managed to depict, in a very realistic and
genuine manner, this crisis generated, in many
instances, by the heroines own figment,
although most female characters possess a
strong, sharp lucidity. On the other side,
characters crisis is related to their need to
reach the depth of self. The lack of prejudice
of the female characters in Henriette Yvonne
Stahls novels, their fragility in front of public
judgment, confer them a certain feminine
dignity. In relation with the masculine world,
feminine characters possess a specific selfsufficiency, which stands for a quest for their
own identity. In their relation with love, one
cannot even affirm that these characters are
disappointed. They manage to overcome the
border of disappointment caused by random
love that was offered to them. Suffering,
sadness and disappointment are but various
manners of profoundly searching for the self.
In Voica, Henriette Yvonne Stahl
presents the instances of feminity both from a
feminine perspective and a masculine one;
still, the manner of her writing is doubtlessly
masculine, characterized by objectivity,
realism, psychological observation, emotional
impartiality, and schematism. Thus, from the
masculine viewpoint, we have identified the
instances of the ordinary woman (mother,
wife, sister-in-law, virgin), of the devilwoman (temperamental), those of the
adulterous woman, the materialist woman;
whereas from the feminine perspective we
have recognized the instances of the fertile/
sterile woman, the impure/ victim, the woman
victim of prejudices, the emancipated woman.
Apart from these instances, and beyond
gender-related appreciations, we could add an
instance of the woman that behaves socially,
in relation with her time, with the place and
interaction with other human beings.
Hence, the ordinary woman, in her
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posture as a mother, represented in the novel

by Ana and Stoiana, holds the role of
satisfying the needs of the other people
surrounding her: these needs manifest at the
same time with this womans power of selfsacrifice (for her children and husband). The
wife satisfies the worldly craves of her
husband, without any opposition, with a sense
of resignation and consolation that it is
supposed to be like this, for he may find
some other woman, maybe a virgin. Voice,
for example, is not concerned about the fact
of being used (in fact, there is not explicit
mentioning of this attitude), but she is worried
that the mere fact of neglecting her husband
and household may lead to separation, and
through this, to the loss of commonly
acquired goods with her life partner. Her
sister-in-law, the wife of Dumitrus brother,
temporarily replaces the runaway wife, yet, it
is not because she would like to consolidate
family relationships, but out of mercantile
interests, for the sake of obtaining something
from the more affluent relative.
The devil-woman is not depicted by Henriette
Yvonne Stahl in a romantic manner, but a very
realistic one. This category also includes
Voica and old Ioana. Voica is a temperamental
woman, in her relationship with Dumitru she
will not accept his refusal to give her those
two acres of land in exchange for her taking
care of his illegitimate child, whereas toward
her sister-in-law, Floarea, Voica does not
manifest any understanding, compassion or
mercy at all, so long as the latter aspires to
her social status and goods. Old Ioana is sold
to money and for the money sake, she is ready
to intervene in the destiny of marriage between
Voica and Dumitru, although indirectly,
through a man she knows. The instance of
the adulterous woman is concisely presented
by Anca, the little girl who looks after her step
brother. This time, the young ladys
intervention and supplementary questions

come to render the cruel truth: the little girl
has a step father and does not manage to
understand why her natural dad died. From the
perspective of her tragic experience, she
speaks about her woman neighbor Floareas
runaway with Vasile, as about trivia, but still,
she is influenced by the comment of the adults
around her. Therefore, Anca perceives the fact
that Floareas cheated husband got crazy as
something natural and a good reason for his
running away, too. The materialist woman is
portrayed against the severe life conditions,
immediately after the First World War. Voica
defends her possessions with an animalic
obstinacy,
sister-in-law,
Floarea
takes
advantage of the domestic shortcomings of her
brother-in-law, Dumitru and hopes to obtain
something in exchange for some house chores,
old Ioana keeps her money at her breast for
rainy days-, and even the doctors wife does
not refrain herself from taking away
everything that comes to her hand, from the
sick womans house. The doctors wife also
displays a cheap careerism, she dresses herself
without refinement, but she pretends to belong
to the high class: a lady.
The instances of the fertile woman or her
opposite, the sterile woman are this time
presented from a feminine perspective. Stoiana
gives birth to a child every year, whereas
Voica cannot give birth, just like her sister.
Fecundity and sterility make victims of both
two women, equally: Stoiana suffers from
child delivery and she would like some advice
not to remain pregnant again; Voica knows her
handicap, she is aware of a womans nature
and the role she holds in her home, and,
consequently, she has to accept her usband
illegitimate child. The impure woman, victim
of emotional blackmail and equally of the rural
communitys prejudices, the bride without a
name, accept with resignation to be married to
a widowed man, with two children. Mention
should be made at this point that the bride is
the only woman in the novel who is not given
a name. it is possible for the author to have
intended, by this, to generalize the sensual
womans victimization, through the prejudices
of those people composing a patriarchic
society, insensitive and loyal to some primitive

mentalities.
The instance of the emancipated woman is
proved by the manner of action of the young
Lady, in relation with the other women of the
village: detachment, superiority, education,
belonging to a superior social class; but also
by the presence, in the middle of peasants, of
Maria, the young Ladys personal servant, a
young woman, aspiring to a social status
which she will never reach. Marias
superiority is reflected only by some items of
town-like clothing; by wearing them Maria
differentiates herself from the vestimentary
kitsch of the local women peasants.
Henriette Yvonne Stahl manages to
depict these facets of feminity through
psychological observation, using a masculine
language for the dialogues of the novel while
preserving that external realism mentioned by
the Garabet Ibraileanu. Inner introspection
differs radically from the one used by Virginia
Woolf, by appeal to the interior monologue,
steady time-mobile space; Stahl rather uses
relations between characters; she uses nature
description to complete her feminine
characters feelings in the novel.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Beyond the gender differences
absorbed by the stupendous power of creation,
the literature written by women offers a new
vision, freed from constraints, an inner image
of the topic of feminity, an autonomous space,
populated by original and interesting
characters that appear to have been cut out of
the real life.
Although Henriette Yvonne Stahl did
not manage to be remarked within the
Romanian literature of the interbellic period at
the same value as Hortensia PapadatBengescu, maybe that the appreciation of her
writings would have been different if she had
been lucky enough to have her works
republished. Some of her novels were only
printed in the edition princeps, and her
tumultuous private life, the influences and
consequences of her cohabitation with her two
husbands Ion Vinea and Petru Dumitriucontributed to the superposition of the authors
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public image over her image as a writer, which

was to the detriment of the latter.
The novel Voica is not necessarily a
work of art, yet, it holds the merit to have been
among the first works created by the woman to
whom the label of literary feminism was
associated.
3.
4.
5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Beauvoir, Simone de. (1949) Le deuxime
sexe, Paris, Gallimard (trad. rom Al doilea
sex. 1998. Bucure ti: Univers;
2. Ibrileanu, Garabet. (1979). Studii literare.
607
6.
Bucure ti: Minerva;

Lovinescu,
Eugen.
(1968).
Istoria
literaturii
romne
contemporane.
Bucure ti: Editura Academiei;
Stahl, Henriette Yvonne. (1957). Voica.
Bucure ti: Editura de stat pentru literatur
i art;
The Women and Language Debate: a
sourcebook/ edited by Camille Roman,
Suzanne Juhasz, Cristanne Miller. (1976).
Rutgers University Press
Zaharia Filipa , Elena. (2004). Studii de
literatur feminin . Bucureti: Paideia.
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A STUDY ON THE TRAINING AND FORMATION NEEDS OF

TEACHING STAFF IN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES
Gabriela Carmen OPROIU *

** Associated Professor PhD., Teacher Training Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest
Abstract: The role and importance of continuous teacher training and formation has become increasingly
important within the context of present preoccupations for quality in higher education institutions.
Teaching staff in universities is represented by professionals that need to be permanently preoccupied
with their continuous formation and training, in order to develop both their scientific and their
methodological and psycho-pedagogical competences. The present paper present the results of a study on
the teaching staff in several higher education institutions with technical profile in Romania. The study
aimed to identifying the continuous formation and training needs, including the interest in professional
training, the domains where this is a must, the competences that need to be developed. Also the concrete
means by which formation is identified. The results of the study demonstrated the necessity of a coherent
system in professional development in technical higher education.
Keywords: technical higher education, professional training, professional skills, teaching
1. INTRODUCTION
European policies regarding professional
development in the case of teaching staff in
technical and vocational institutions represent
one of the domains of priority for the
European cooperation by education [1]. Thus,
there is particular concern at European level in
order to develop professional skills required
teaching staff from universities [2].
Within this context, the main condition for
quality education is represented by continuous
training and formation for the teaching staff in
universities.
Teaching staff in universities have a
particular
profile,
generated
by
the
professional roles they have. Their profile and
competences are complex, owing to the
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multitude of activities in which they are

involved (teaching activities, research,
guidance). Considering these aspects a
university professor needs to be a very good
specialist in his field, a good researcher, but
also an innovator and a model from the
didactic point of view. Besides the abovementioned roles, he or she is - first and
foremost - a teacher whose didactic
competences are formed and permanently
trained.
As a conclusion, alongside professional
competences, a professor needs to have
acquired general and specific teaching
competences, either by completing the psychopedagogical program, or in an empirical
manner, as a result of his experience in
working with students.
On the other hand, as a result of the fact

that knowledge becomes outdated very
rapidly, and of the changes that occur in
society and on the labour market, formation
and training should become a continuous
process, organised in higher education
institutions as well. So, university teachers
involvement in training programmes becomes
a necessity.
It is a well-known fact that secondary
education benefits from a coherent system by
which teachers are continuously trained,
whereas teacher training in higher education
institutions is a matter of personal choice, and
is completed, in most cases, by ones personal
efforts.
Unlike secondary education, where there is
a less rigorous selection of teachers, the
selection criteria for teaching staff in higher
education system are more restrictive, because
the graduates with the highest grades and the
best results in research are selected. As a
result, the human resource is more valuable
and better motivated. This is the reason why
the involvement of this social and professional
category in continuous education which
demands the elaboration of specific learning
programmes. It is necessary that these
programmes must be adapted to the
participants particularities and focused on
their specific needs.
The present paper presents the results of a
study regarding the formation needs of
teaching staff in technical universities.
the questionnaire made up of 12 items, most of

which are closed items. The questionnaire was
applied online to the members of the target
group.
Since the present paper does not constitute
itself as an exploratory study, it should be
mentioned that, due to the reduced number of
respondents, its conclusions cannot be
generalised.
In order to highlight the formation needs in
technical universities, a non-probablistic
sample was used, comprising 60 university
teaching assistants, lecturers, associate
professors and professors, all of them holding
permanent positions in the universities where
they teach: University Politehnica of
Bucharest, Valahia University of Targoviste,
University of Bacau, Politehnica University of
Timisoara, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu.
The respondents teach mechanical, electrical,
chemical and computing disciplines.
The target group presents a certain degree
of heterogeneity, determined by age, scientific
title and experience in teaching certain
technical disciplines. The respondents
structure shows that they have various
scientific titles, the distribution according to
this criterion being as follows: 57% are
lecturers, 20% are associate professors, 16%
are teaching assistants and 4% are professors
(figure 1).

The study aims at giving a realistic picture
of the involvement of teaching staff in
Romanian universities in continuous formation
and training activities. Also, the extent to
which the teaching staff in technical
universities are informed on the existent
formation offer in Romania is presented. At
the same time, in the paper the necessity of
introducing a national formation system that
addresses the needs of university teaching staff
is identified.
The research can be included in the
category of quantitative studies; as a research
method, we have used the questionnaire-based
inquiry. As a research instrument, it was used
Figure.1 Scientific title
The great number of lecturers who

participated in the study demonstrates that they
are very much interested in their formation and
training at this particular moment in their
career. As regards experience, the sample
consists of 41% respondents that have been
teaching in university for 11-20 years, so they
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are still during the accumulation and formation

period (figure 2).
Figure 4. Importance of professional formation
Figure 2.Experience
As regards the taught disciplines, most

participants teach mechanical disciplines
(41%), whereas 27% teach chemical disciplies
and a mere 16 % teach electrical and
computing disciplines (figure 3).
Figure 3. Specialty
A first issue that the study addresses is the

respondents opinion on the importance of the
formation and training activity among
teaching staff in technical universities. Almost
all the respondents (98%) considered it of
utmost importance or important, whereas a
mere 2% deny its importance.
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The same percentage (98%) state their

willingness to take part in formation
programmes, whereas 2% are not interested in
attending any formation programme.
When asked on the reasons why they
would like to attend formation courses, the
answers were diverse. Thus, 26% wish to
acquire new teaching and specialty
competences, 23% are interested in experience
exchanges with other colleagues (which is
perfectly natural, since we cannot find practice
examples at higher education level, the
teaching staff being isolated, both in their
teaching activity and in research). We
remarked the interest in professional
development for 22% of the respondents. A
mere 2% expressed their interest in obtaining
professional credits as a result of their
attending formation courses, or admitted that
they were determined to participate by the
recommendation of the head of the
department. Thus, we can notice that the
respondents are animated by intrinsic
motivation, as, for them, professional
formation is - to a great extent- a result of their
wish for professional development and
advancement, without being imposed by
anyone.

Table1. Motivation for attending the formation
programme
Motivation for attending the
%
formation programme
Acquiring teaching and technical
26%
competences
Interest in professional
22%
development
Developing Personal portfolio
11%
Obtaining of professional credits
2%
Recommendations of department /
2%
faculty management
Exchange of experience
23%
10%
Curiosity
2%
Others
Among the sources of information on the

formation and training programmes we should
mention friends, colleagues and collaborators
(38%), the universities they belong to (28%),
but also the internet (specialized sites) 17% or
the conferences they participate in (16%)
(figure 5).
We can conclude that the respondents are

in favour of formation and training by their
direct participation in formation courses, in
order to improve their teaching and specialized
skills, by participating in seminars, themed
events or workshops and are less in favour of
individual study and attending conferences. An
interesting fact is that only 2% would call a
mentor. We can notice the respondents
interest in their training in a formal
environment, by acquiring information from
their colleagues, rather than by individual
study or personal research.
Regarding the frequency of formation
opportunities, 61% appreciated they are rare,
whereas a mere 2% appreciated these
opportunities appear often; 6 % could not give
any answer (figure 6).
Figure 6. Frequency of formation opportunities
Figure 5. Information sources
Another item of the questionnaire referred

to identifying the most effective means of
professional formation and training. The
answers were centralised in table 2.
Table 2. Training means
%
Training means
18%
Training to improve teaching skills
18%
Training for specialized skills
12%
Self-study
Participation in professional
13%
conferences
Participation in seminars, themed
18%
events, workshops
Exchanges with other professionals in
19%
the field
Call a mentor
2%
Other
1%
Another item referred to the types of skils

that should be developed by the respondents
participation in formation courses.We could
notice that the respondents are mostly
interested in developing their specialised skills
(75%), but also with improving their
communication with students, using modern
teaching techniques and approaches (61%),
and using equipment and multimedia products
in teaching, learning and assessment. Certain
aspects, such as communication in foreign
languages and learning specific methods of
scientific research should be improved by
professional formation courses. More than
65% of the respondents are genuinely
interested in project management, whereas a
much smaller percentage are interested in
entrepreneurial competence.
When asked about the criteria they take
into account when they choose the formation
programmes, 19% indicated the topic of the
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course, a second criterion being the costs that

the formation implies (17%). Other important
criteria are the formation period and the period
of ongoing (17%). The answers are reflected in
figure 7.
Figure 8.The extent to which the educational offer

fulfills the formation needs
Figure7. Selection criteria for courses participation
67% of the interviewed teaching staff

appreciated the necessity of a coherent system
of continuous formation, whereas a mere 2 %
did not consider it necessary.
When asked about the number of formation

programmes they participated during the
previous 5 years, 76% specified they had
attended 1-2 programmes and 8 % had
attended more than four programmes. An
encouraging fact is that all respondents had
attended at least one formation programme,
owing to the fact that formation programmes
have been organized with the support of
European projects for the last 3 years.
For the question To what extent does the
professional formation/training offer at the
level of the Romanian education system fulfill
your needs for personal development? the
answers were ambiguous, as 39% answered
excellent, whereas an equal percentage
answered fairly satisfactory. 4% considered
the present offer fulfills their formation needs
only to a very small extent.
613
Figure 9. The necessity of a coherent continuous

formation system for teaching staff in universities
at national level
3. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn,
as a result of the present study:
- teaching staff in universities, irrespective
of their scientific title, are aware of their needs
for formation and professional development,
both in their specialties and related to
teaching;
- although their motivation is different and

varies from professional development,
experience exhange to the acquisition of
specialised knowledge, most of them are
intrinsically motivated, being aware of their
formation needs and willing to evolve
professionally;
- the information on the formation offer is
rarely available; the main sources are
colleagues,
specialised
websites
or
communication
sessions,
conferences,
seminars;
- the formation ways are mostly
represented by meeting specialists in the same
field or related fields, workshops, the
respondents being less interested in
professional formation by individual study;
- their formation needs include both
communicating with students, and using
equipment and multimedia products in
teaching, learning and assessment ;
- they are particularly interested in
acquiring project management skills, foreign
languages and research methods, but they did
not manifest much interest for entrepreneurial
skills;
- the courses are selected by topic, but also

by cost and the ongoing period.
We can conclude that there is an explicit
necessity for the teaching practitioners
formation at university level, which requires
the existence of a formation system, similar to
the one at secondary level, in order to enable
their professional evolution.
REFERENCES
1. Commission staff working document,
Lisbon Strategy evaluation document,
Brussels, 2.2.2010l.
2. Communication from the commission to the
Council, the European Parliament, the
European economic and social committee
and the committee of the regions,
Implementing the Community Lisbon
Programme: Fostering entrepreneurial
mindsets through education and learning,
Brussels, 13.2.2006.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY IN CLINICAL

PRACTICE
Maria Dorina PACA

Assistant Professor Ph.D, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Trgu-Mure
Abstract: Experimental neuropsychology is an approach which uses methods from experimental
psychology to uncover the relationship between the nervous system and cognitive function. The paper
work aims to emphasize the importance of neuropsihology in the clinical practice. Mental health
practitioners need working tools. Facilitates the clinicians work. In practice neuropsychologists tend to
work in research settings (universities, laboratories or research institutions), clinical settings(involved in
assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological problems), forensic settings or industry (often as
consultants where neuropsychological knowledge is applied to product design or in the management of
pharmaceutical clinical-trials research for drugs that might have a potential impact on CNS functioning).
Keywords: neuropsychology, central nervous system, brain, behavior, symptom
1. INTRODUCTION
Neuropsychology, called by some
authors Neurophysiology, terms that do not
overlap completely, study the relation between
the central nervous system structure and
implementation of various functions, processes
and mental activities. Neuropsychology arose
from the necessity to understand the
relationship between the structure of the
nervous system and mental activity in order of
deciphering physiological mechanisms of
human and animal behavior. One must know
the structure and physiology of the nervous
system.
By function we mean the embodiment
of the activity of various structures. So the
structure is the material support of the
615
function, and the function is the manifestation

of the structure. Each structure belongs to a
certain, or certain functions and determine the
structures changing function and vice versa,
appropriate structural changes induced
functional changes. Neuropsychology is a core
discipline of psychology. However it is not a
separate science in the traditional sense, but
only in the field of research at the confluence
of numerous biological sciences as
neuroanatomy,
neurophysiology,
endocrinology, pharmacology, physiology, cell
biochemistry, genetics.
2.1 Methods and techniques of
investigation in neuropsychology
To investigate the relationship between

the psyche and brain, there are three major
categories
of
methods:
physiological,
anatomical and psychological. In this context
we are interested basically in psychological
methods. Neuropsychological investigation
should not be limited to neurological
investigation methods, but must involve
psychological ones.
The great complexity of human
psychic system required the development of a
wide variety of research methods and
procedures. Among these, four appear to be
essential for neuropsychological investigation:
activity products analysis method, the method
tests and laboratory experimental methods,
genetic and comparative method.
Activity products analysis method is
used for knowing the motivations, interests
and creative availability of the person. The
method
has
been
introduced
in
neuropsychological to determine the general
mental development, in order to distinguish
between abnormality and normality and a
more efficient professional and orientational
selection. The test can be used both as a
diagnostic tool and as a research tool . A
problem with the tests is their huge number
(estimated 10,000), which leads to difficulties
in the selection and interpretation (eg, general
intelligence test Binet-Simon test aperceptiv
theme (TAT) Rorsarch, 16-PF (Cattell)
Eysenck test, etc.). Laboratory and
experimental method involves a rigorous
control of the independent variable and the
conditions for the experiment (method widely
studied during experimental psychology).
Important is that the transition from
one stage to another in terms of psychobehavioral development is supported and
linked to the transition from a lower to a
higher level in the structural-functional
organization of the brain (eg, myelination).
The logical-mathematical method, the

logical-formal method and Cybernetics are
used in situations where we intend to shape a
particular psychological process.
We can say that it is well known that
psychological determinism of diseases can
reach up to a 50%. On the other hand, it is
believed that about 65% of diseases have a
purely psychosomatic basis.
It is also known that there is a close
relationship between the immune system and
mental health. The effect of positive or
negative emotions on the body's resistance to
disease is known from ancient times. In a
different compartment of the hormone and
neurotransmitter research brought new data
regarding the role of these substances in
behavioral adjustment. It is known that
different brain regions deliver substances that
annihilate pain, substances that are often more
effective than morphine.
2.2 Cerebral hemispheres
Are directly involved in the
construction of psychological mechanisms
and processes.
The frontal lobe is involved directly in
the mechanisms of affective behaviors.
Affective disorders are known in frontal lobe
lesions. Also in the same injury can occur
irritability, drowsiness, lack of initiative, along
discrete personality disorder. We are talking
also of mood and character disorders
consisting in increasing affective tone with
euphoria and eroticism, alternating with phases
of melancholy not least with psychopathic type
reactions. Disorders relates activity the
external physical activities and mental
manifestations. There is a gap between the
patient and the outside world, the poverty of
relationships and the absence of reactions to
external events. Add apathy, indifference to
pain, akinetic mutism and can lead to coma
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and death. Intellectual Disorders relates,

involving attention and memory. Can range
from confusion, disorientation temporo-spatial
state of perplexity to dementia.
The parietal lobe is in relation to the
functions of proximity and gnosis, the body
schema and language. In parietal lobe lesions
appear three types of disorders: praxis
disorders, ideomotor apraxia, dressing apraxia.
Perception disorders of own body size and
posture. Language disorders - leading to
sensory aphasia.
caused by various diseases of the

hypothalamus. Anger is emotional-behavioral
expression, caused by the damage of
ventromedial hypothalamus. By contrast, the
stimulation of the posterior region of the
hypothalamus cause reactions of fear and
horror. The hypothalamus adjusts the behavior
in three ways: coordinates the autonomic and
affects endocrine and motor behavior
component, generate appropriate behavior
to affective state the intensity of each
behavioral act.
2.3 Adjusting emotionally affective

behavior
These conclusions were drawn from

experiments on animals. Inhibitory mechanism
of behavior is related to the frontal lobes
cortex, but the exact pathways are not well
established. It is assumed that the
hippocampus integrates all motor and
endocrine responses involved in emotional
behavior, while the telencephalon suppressing
emotional responses to inconsistent and
insignificant stimuli .Telencephalon is the
connection of the hypothalamus with the
external world, which allows manipulation of
autonomic and endocrine system and
appearance
of
appropriate
emotional
expressions in response to external conditions.
It is known that physiological

expression of emotion depends in part by the
sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic
nervous system and that the hypothalamus is
one of the main centers that integrates the
peripheral autonomic system in the complex
activity accompanying somatic emotional
expression. Anger and fear is the most
common behavioral disorders in adults and
Excessive or uncontrolled sexual

behavior is a rare manifestation, which puts
many questions and that may occur in relation
to damage of the hypothalamus, limbic system,
and the telencephalon. It appears that
hypothalamic lesions produce hipersexual
behavior associated with excessive anger and
desire. Decreased libido is also a common
symptom found in the hypothalamus diseases,
The temporal lobe is in relation to

memory, consciousness and emotionalaffective life. Can be observed feelings of
sadness, fear of death, feeling of loneliness,
anger and violence, personality changes,
somnolence, catalepsy, amnesia and partial
breaking of reality.
The occipital lobe is in functional
relationship with the perception of time and
movements, the visual space, memory and
mood disorders.
617
especially in males. In conclusion, the

hypothalamus is not only a core engine for
autonomic nervous system, but is an important
integration of various information necessary to
ensure appropriate responses, consistent and
well organized, both autonomous and somatic.
individuals
with
neurological
or
developmental problems.
A neuropsychological evaluation is
essential for obtaining school-based services,
testing accommodations for college entrance
examinations and accommodations in ones
place of employment.
REFERENCES
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Test results will establish a baseline of
current functioning that can be used as a
marker to assess the progress of
pharmacological, surgical, and rehabilitation
efforts as well as determine the course of
cerebral dysfunction and recovery.
Neuropsychological testing can help in
planning and developing remedial education,
rehabilitation and vocational programs for
1. Chiri , A., Curs de neuropsihologie,

Bucharest University (2008).
2. Dnil, L., Golu, M.,
Tratat de
neuropsihologie, Vol. I., Publishing House
Editura Medicala, Bucharest, (2000).
3. Gabbard, G., Tratat de psihiatrie
psihodinamica, Publishing House Trei
(2007).
4. Stanciu C., Introducere in psihofiziologie
Integrarea Neuroendocrin, Publishing
House Editura Fundaiei Romania de
Mine,
Bucureti,
(2000)
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF PILOT ACTIVITY

Mihaela PUNESCU*, Clara Maria NEACSU**
Psiholog, UM 01838, Boboc,
Lt. Psiholog, UM 02470, Buzu
Abstract: The hereby paper is part of the studies and research initiated to define, evaluate and
analyze the concept of " the flight activity ", especially within those areas involving high-risk activities,
during which errors may occur and lead to catastrophic consequences, such being the case of aviation, as
well. We used a variety of documentary sources, the most relevant and up to date, and many of the issues
are accompanied by examples and statements on real situations resulting from our experience gained
both as an aviation psychologist and an associate instructor in the Department of aviation within Aurel
Vlaicu Air Force Training School, Boboc
Keywords: flight activity ,abilities, satisfaction
During 2009 we have conducted a study that

would analyze the activity of pilots, not only
from the psychic processes point of view
during the actual flight, but also from the point
of view of educational and organizational
demands, that are to be controlled by the
human factor. Our main purpose was to
analyze the flight activity from the point of
view of pilots, doctors and psychologists.
Thus we have asked them to identify which
are the psychological, physical and
organizational demands they have to cope
with. The first step was to apply a
questionnaire aiming some points such as:
planning the flight, the abilities and qualities
required by the flight activity, the obstacles
they have to outrun, the satisfactions of the
flight activity, the dangers to which they are
exposed, the unadvisable traits and the
compensation factors, the means of
professional development and the job they
would like to reshape in case of medical
unfitting.
I. When talking about educational
demands, our participants have identified
the following:
solid
theoretical
and
practical
619
knowledge (general and occupational

culture);
high level of aeronautical knowledge
(aerodynamics,
meteorology,
navigation, aeronautical medicine,
aeronautical psychology);
steady flight skills (in order to achieve
this point, students must attend a
sustained physical, theoretical and
practical training);
solid
information
about
the
recuperation techniques in case of
tiredness;
the ability to recognize the importance
of some apparently secondary factors
during flight missions (airplane
specificity, the influences of flight
ambience, the influences of personality
traits of each crew member);
information about healthy life style
(these are extremely important in order
to avoid accidents due to stress or
tiredness);
permanent
professional
training
(specialization sessions, refreshment
sessions);
solid self-assessment techniques.
9 Spatial representation and topographic

ability.
II. Steps of flight activity
Receiving the mission

Making a plan
Prioritization
Theoretical preparation of the flight
Identifying the matrix of risks
(acceptable risks)
Mass-briefing
Preparing the flight activity
Performing the flight activity
Following the prior plan
Permanently assessing the present
status;
Permanently predicting the future
status;
Permanently assessing their own
performance;
Assessing acceptability of present and
future status;
Identifying small tasks which may
amplify the level of acceptability (of
present and future status);
Assessing available resources;
Assessing both their own actions and
their effects;
Identifying proper future actions and
predicting their effects;
Choosing a plan or an action;
Following/applying the flight plan and
assessing the effects of the actions;
Reassuming this steps up to the end of
flight session
Solving particular situations
Assessment
of
flight
sessions/
debriefing
III. Required qualities

Sensorial qualities
9
9
9
9
Average rated:
Space orientation (ability to determine
the distance and direction to the target
point);
Ability to assess correctly the distance,
the size and the shape of objects;
Ability to assess correctly the speed;
Ability to observe airfield (adequate
inspecting-exploring strategies).
Motor abilities
Highly rated:
9 Motor coordination;
9 Ability to control muscle exercise
capacity;
9 Reduced response time.
Average rated:
9 Movements reliability;
9 Automation skills;
9 Rapid reorganization of motor
skills;
9 Rapid accommodation of motor
skills to air traffic demands.
Attention qualities
9 Post voluntary attention (the skill of
paying attention);
9 Stability;
9 Concentration
(resistance
to
distractions);
9 Distributive;
9 Volume.
Intellectual qualities
Highly rated:
Highly rated:
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
Good visual acuity;

Good colour discrimination;
Good peripheral acuity;
Good visual accommodation to dark;
Good visual
accommodation to
twilight conditions;
9 Normal hearing acuity;
9 Normal tactile, proprioceptive and
kinesthetic acuities;
general intelligence above average;

ability to adapt to new situations;
spatial and topographic memory;
motor memory (needed for flight skills
learning).
Average rated:
9 ability
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to
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hazardous/crisis situations;
9 ability to balance properly both their
own resources and workload demands
during working hours.
Motivational and emotional traits
Persistence;
Strength;
Independence;
Timeliness ability to deliberate
quickly during a complex emergency
situation;
Personality traits
Highly rated:
Resistance to stress;
Conscientiousness;
Punctuality;
Meticulousness;
Team spirit;
Flexibility.
High organizational stress;

Flight requires a lot of time spent away
from family;
Stress due to potential impairment
(medical or psychological);
Stress due to physical factors (noise,
vibrations, accelerations, radiations,
toxic substances);
IMC flight missions.
V. Satisfactions
The pleasure derived from the passion

of flying
Satisfaction of a well done job
Professional fulfillment
Appreciation from colleagues
Special social status
Recognition of the ability to be pilot
Money
The unique character of the work
The noble character of the work
Acquiring new information and skills
Adrenaline
Identifying with the job itself ( "Job
that characterizes me" )
VI. Hazards
Average rated:
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
Will qualities
9
9
9
9
9
9
IV. Difficulties or unpleasant aspects
9 Being passionate about the flight;

9 Emotional stability;
9 Emotional maturity.
9
9
9
9
9 Persuasive.
Sincerity;
Responsibility;
Reliability;
Composure;
Discipline;
Self-assessing ability;
Self-criticism;
Empathy;
Sense of humor;
621
Death
Spondylosis
General bone problems / fractures
Decreased hearing
Injuries, burning and cutting lesions
Irradiation
Intoxication
Temporary or permanent disability
Psychomotor disorders
VII. Teamwork Implications
Management
Collaboration
Documents preparation
Goals setting
Establishing execution details
Tasks allocation in order to achieve the
ultimate objective with minimum
effort
Crew coordination
Co-pilot instruction
Technical computing and navigation
data
Data collection
Information sharing
Survivors "Recovery"
compensated
IX. Conversion professions
Pilot in other institutions / companies
Manager
Air traffic controller
Sports instructor
Any profession related to aeronautics
X. Means of professional training
Factors to be avoided:
Fatigue
Stress
Professional frustrations
Alcohol consumption
Drugs consumption
Medication
Negative affective mood
Psychological discomfort both at home
and at work
VIII. Qualities and compensatory factors
Individual study
Continuous practice
Greater number of flight hours
Systematic
training
on
flight
simulators
Training qualification courses with
pragmatic content
Maintaining sobriety
Training in various weather conditions
Attending all types of training (training
for instrument flight)
Comprehension of new methods of
training
Conformity with flight training
methodology
Level courses
Centrifuge training
Bilateral exercises with experienced
pilots
REFERENCES
Experience
Physical resistance
Mental strength
Regular activities / Physical exercises
Intelligence
Adaptability
Time management
Appropriate lifestyle
Calmness
Ability of detachment from problems
("A certain amount of detachment")
Proper rest
Avoiding alcohol
Proper nutrition
Understanding coming from third
parties
Creating a proper working climate
Power of concentration
Deficiencies
that
cannot
be
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A PREGNANT TEENAGER.
ASSESSMENT, DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION 15 YEARS LATER
Aurora SIMIGIU, PhD student
* Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: This study focuses on the evolution of the life of a teenager mother. Her personalitys
assessment takes place 15 years after she gave birth to her first child and captures her history (data
obtained through a semi-structured interview), psyco-diagnosis and items that require psychotherapeutic
intervention .
We consider important the personal assessments of a mother watching back on her teenage life as
a longitudinal approach captures the causal elements of life experiences. The psychological evaluation
was performed with NEO FFI, FFNPQ (personality test), DAS (test for relationships in a couple) and
PAXonline for assessing anxiety.
The purpose of this qualitative research is part of the desire to find answers to the following
questions: How does a teenage mother assess the decision she took 15 years ago? Does she regret it?
What impact did this decision have on her life? How is her psychic now? What can be done now to
optimize her life, from a psychological point of view? We hope this study brings more knowledge on these
life situations, more and more frequent in Romania nowadays.
Keywords: adolescent, mother, anxiety, neuroticism, case study
1. INTRODUCTION
If the pregnant teenager has been
studied in terms of case study, of counselling
and prevention strategies, based on the
fundamental theories on maternity stated by
Freud, Bowbly, Lebovic, and Winnicott or on
the online intervention (Simigiu, 2012,
Simigiu, 2013), we now approach the same
issue from another perspective - that of a
teenage mother in a longitudinal approach.
Looking back to a teen mother, 15
years later, we ask ourselves the following
questions: does she regret her decision to keep
the baby? How did this decision affect her
life? How would she advise her daughter, now
a teenager, too, if history repeated itself? How
vivid in her soul is the wound caused by the
babys father who abandoned her when she
625
was most in need of help? To what extent does

she believe that childhood influences have
contributed to the state of pregnancy in
adolescence? Does that experience turn her
now into an overprotective mother with her
teenage daughter? How did she resist familial
and social pressures? What does she think that
can be done to prevent accidental pregnancy
during adolescence, now having a considerable
life experience?
Our research objectives were:
2.1. Identifying the consequences of early
pregnancy;
2.2. Establishing a therapeutic intervention
plan after the diagnosis.
We used the case study method with a

research design that uses the interview for data
collection. The overall assessment of
personality was achieved by using licenced
NEO FFI, FFNPQ and DAS as well as anxiety
screening tools (Paxonline, 2013).
The interview guide consisted of
several sections, including: date of birth and
data on the family of origin, traditions and
cultural context in which she grew,
identification of possible social factors that
have marked her evolution, education, data on
her teen love and pregnancy, life after she
gave birth, and the impact of this event on her
life scale.
The three tests were administered
under license and score by Test Central which
provided psychological profiles in PDF
format. The first two are built on the Big Five
personality model, one being a verbal
personality test (NeoFFI) and the other, a
nonverbal test (FFNPQ).
Both have 60 questions requiring an
application time of approximately 20 minutes
each. Neo FFI measures neuroticism,
extraversion, openness to new experiences,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, negative
self-esteem,
negative
emotionality,
socialization, activism, conscientiousness,
mental flexibility, courtesy, productivity and
organization factors. The test shows the
evolution of these factors in the future and
occupational clusters, too. FFNPQ, a
nonverbal
personality
test,
measures
neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness and openness to new
experiences factors.
Regarding DAS (Dyadic Adjustment
Scale), it measures the quality of the
adaptation of the partners in dyadic marital or
consensual relationship. Its author is PhD.
Graham B. Spanier and the scale was adapted
to the Romanian population by Dragos Iliescu
and Ligiana Petre in 2009.
DAS is a clinical assessment tool
internationally recognized as one of the most
widely used tools for evaluating satisfaction in
couples. Although both partners are tested
with it, if the goal is couple therapy or
counselling, it can be applied only to one
partner for purposes of diagnosing the quality
of the dyadic relationship, which we did in the
case study. Our goal was to identify the

subjects degree of satisfaction in the couple,
relationship that led to a pregnancy.
DAS is an assessment tool that consists
of 23 items. Each item is rated by only one
answer, chosen from a given list. DAS
includes four subscales: consensus in couple,
couple satisfaction, couple cohesion, and
emotional expression.
We used paper and pencil version of
the test. We used manual rapid scoring form,
then transferred it to the profile sheet, where
scores are represented visually and compared
with the corresponding normative sample.
Conversion to T-scores is automatically done
using the scoring form.
Anxiety was tested with the screening
tools created for PAX (Cognitrom - Cluj
Napoca, Paxonline, 2013), based on diagnostic
criteria from the DSM-IV-TR, also consulting
ICD-10. Each criterion was included as a yes /
no question and the specifications for each
criterion (severity, specific symptoms, etc.)
were recorded based on multiple answers. The
report was automatically generated by
fulfilling DSM-IV-TR criteria for each
disorder, then adding a description of the
specific symptoms reported by patients. The
algorithm used to generate this report is
similar to the protocol described in SCID.
4. DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS,
AND INTERPRETATION
Data acquired through the semi-structured
interview
R. A. is 34 years old, unmarried, she
has two children, and is retired on medical
reasons (stage II cervical cancer with a
surgical intervention).
Data on her family of origin
Her childhood was a normal one, in a
family with three children, she and two
younger brothers. R. A. was not a desired
child, which can be seen throughout her life, as
she has never been close to her mother.
Her coming into the world (through an
unwanted pregnancy) ended her mothers
career, who was professional handball player.
As this happened during the communist
dictatorship, when women could not decide on
their own body, she had to keep the pregnancy
and gave birth to the child. R. A. remembers
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her mother had always told her that she ruined

her life and career.
Her father, instead, wanted the baby
very much. He was an officer. A martinet, who
beat her and but loved her at the same time. He
died at 44 of internal bleeding. R. A. was in
the tenth grade and she was pregnant at that
time, but he didnt know it when he died.
The climate at home was not the best.
Parents often quarrelled and got violent, but
R.A. believes that the mother was the one who
caused these conflicts and the beating she
received was deserved.
Traditions and cultural context
R. A. recalls the celebration of
Christmas which was very important for her
father, who used to buy a tall-to-ceiling tree
every year. She is doing the same now. She
remembers how he would take her to the
puppet show, only her, as she was his favourite
child and he would buy her toys. R. A.
remembers that they were not a religious
family as her father was sergeant major and he
never attended church sermons so the children
did not go, either.
The influence of social factors
She remembers her mother watching
TV and not being too interested in her
children. Only her father loved her mother,
although he often beat her, which the mother
deserved as she was rude. She believes that the
most traumatic childhood event was the day
she found out about her step-brother. She
knew that her father had been married before
her mother, but she did not know that a child
resulted from that relationship. When he rang
at the door and she opened it, it was as if she
saw her father. It was a striking resemblance
that troubled her. R. A. was not happy for
having a brother, she was afraid of losing the
place of the favourite child in her father's
heart.
627
Then another huge trauma was the

birth of her first daughter. She had a
relationship with a 14 year old boy from the
neighbourhood. She wanted very much to be
loved, so that she cleaned his house and did
anything she could to be accepted by him and
his family, but this did not happen.
She got pregnant at first intercourse.
They did not know to protect themselves and
she realized relatively hard that she was
pregnant. Her boyfriend drove her away, his
family disowned her, and she was alone and
frightened but she wanted to keep the
pregnancy. The hardest part was that they
called her slutty and told the neighbourhood
that is not that boys child.
Her father never found out she was
pregnant. She has mixed feelings now. On the
one hand, she knows that she wouldnt have
wanted to hurt him and embarrass him, but on
the other hand she is sorry he did not get to
live the joy of being a grandfather. He knows
that after beating her soundly, he would have
eventually forgiven her.
Her mother found out about the
pregnancy only after she gave birth to her
daughter. She insisted on giving the baby up
for adoption but she did not want that. R.A.s
support came from an aunt who took her from
the hospital and bought baby clothes.
From the hospital, she went home with
the child. Her mother glared at her and the
baby. She had to immediately get a job as a
bartender at night and stayed at home for two
months, then went to Austria and Switzerland
for 2 years where she had the same profession.
Longing for her daughter was overwhelming.
She sent money home and bought her a lot of
dolls, but her daughter called her auntie
when they met. That made her stay with her, a
decision she regrets now.
Importance of education
She believes that education is very
important in life, even more important than
love, because it is the only one who can offer
an independent living. She has been living
with another man for the past 10 years, a man
that reminds her of her father. He often beats
her, but she says he loves her, too. She has no
regrets on having decided to give birth to her
eldest girl and she often scolds her for not
learning enough.
She would have liked to follow her
fathers footsteps in career, but she said the
pregnancy ended her dream, just like she
ended her mother's dream by coming into this
world. She thinks this is their fate. She says
that if her mother had wanted her and loved
her, maybe she would not have repeated the
ninth grade, when he ran away from home for
two days and she would not have fallen in love
with the wrong boy so early in life. Her
biggest regret is that she did not finish school
and returned to Romania after two years of
living in Switzerland.
Love and work
She does not want to talk about love
because she does not believe in it anymore. It
was a negative experience for her that taught
her that love comes together with pain. She
has a low opinion of men. All her life was
ruined because of them. She got cervical
cancer also because of men. She says she is
going to die because of them. He hates men.
Major life themes
The decision to keep her first born
child was a crucial decision, the hardest she
ever took in her life. She proved to manage it
and she did not regret what she had done. Her
two girls are her only achievements. She
regrets that she lied to her father and he died
without knowing that he would be a
grandfather. Her priority in life now is to stay
healthy and to see her girls grow up.
Vision of the future
She wants to get better and to leave the
man she is in a relationship with at the
moment, who is the father of the second girl,
as he beats her badly, he is possessive, jealous,
locks her inside the house, does not give her
any money, terrorizes her and cheats on her.
She says that she had some happy
moments in life, but few. She does not leave
him because she has no income and the little

girl needs a father. She wants to go back to
Switzerland, to work and to take the girls with
her. Only there she was happy.
Psychological assessment
The large amount of neuroticism (96),
the negative self-esteem (99) and negative
emotionality (99) induce a picture of a person
showing intense emotional reactions with
respect to stimuli that normally would not
trigger such emotions.
She has an emotional state that
fluctuates frequently, she is irritable,
depressed, impulsive, anxious, nervous,
vulnerable, unstable, agitated, introverted,
submissive, confused, lonely and pessimistic,
and she has the structure of a victim. It is
possible that this grim picture to be
emphasized on the background of the
diagnosis of incurable disease she is struggling
with.
R. A.s mental flexibility is very low,
with a share of 5 on a scale of 1-100. It is
possible that for this reason she can poorly
adapt, knowing that such people try to shape
their behaviour according to the requirements
of social and religious morals. Her teen
pregnancy and trying to hide it created large
intra-psychic conflicts, the effect being greater
share of neuroticism and confusion.
By combining the high score on the
neuroticism factor and the lower score in
extraversion, there resulted a pronounced state
of pessimism, which alters significantly her
life quality.
Her maladaptive defence style is
generating conflicts in relationships with
others. She frequently uses dysfunctional
defence mechanisms such as repression, denial
or other reactive patterns. Such people
generally do not analyse or think about their
own problems, having difficulties in
verbalizing their emotional states, even when
they are of high intensity.
Combining the high neuroticism score
with the high agreeableness score imprints a
shy character anger management, sketching a
victims profile. This explains why although
constantly assaulted by a partner, she prefers
to forgive him every time.
She has difficulties in indicating
discontents, confusion being a feature of her
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personality. She frequently directs anger

inward, not knowing what to do with it.
The DAS questionnaire shows poor
scores on all measured components. It seems
that in the couple that resulted in this
pregnancy there is a lack of consensus on the
important factors for the relationship, a lack of
sexual satisfaction as well as while a high level
of frustration.
The anxiety test is positive for
posttraumatic shock and generalized anxiety.
The cancer diagnosis marked her profoundly
because it came suddenly at a young age.
Graph 1 . Evolution of the personality traits
629
The chart above illustrates the

evolutionary trend of personality traits
measured by us. The high share of neuroticism
seems to decrease. Most traits were measured
on a downward trend, R.A.s psychic energy
being reduced possibly because of the daily
struggle with an incurable disease.
5. CONCLUSIONS
At 34, still young, R. A. has to face the
spectre of death, suffering from an incurable
disease. Retired on medical reasons, with two
girls from two different relationships,
emotionally abused in childhood, she keeps
the victim's behavioural pattern and accepts to
be abused and financially supported by a man
who reminds her of the father to whom she
had ambivalent feelings.
She believes that life has passed by her,
without knowing love, although she wanted
fulfilment in love early, but her teenage
pregnancy brought the most painful betrayal.
Her life was full of frustration, having
to fight for acceptance of her child, and then to
leave the country and the girl in order to earn
money for raising the child. So she lost her
daughters early childhood, but also her
affection, when she came home her daughter
was closer to the grandmother who became
like a mother to the girl.
The fact that in childhood love was at
packaged with violence confused her as an
adolescent, marking negatively her subsequent
choices in love relationships. She repeated the
parental model because it was the only model
she knew. Being initially unwanted by her
mother led her to seek adolescent love in an
inappropriate way. The lack of information on
sexual topics led to an unwanted pregnancy,
without being at all ready to be a mother.
The
psychological
evaluation
emphasizes neurotic tendencies, negative selfesteem, negative emotionality, generalized
anxiety, which all make it difficult for R. A. to

adapt to the status of mother, wife and patient.
The therapeutic intervention plan
aimed at a cognitive-behavioural approach on
the Paxonline platform, as follows:
Reducing
neurophysiological
hyper
activation through autogenously training and
physical exercise
Reducing distress associated with trauma
recall through the expressive writing
technique
Progressive
mental
exposure
and
desensitization
Optimizing the problem solving process
Correcting the dysfunctional conscious /
unconscious thinking
Reducing the avoidance behaviour through
the method of exposure
Increasing sleep quality
Developing positive emotions
Developing assertiveness
Developing time management skills
Reducing the symptoms of depression
associated with anxiety (ICAR procedure)
REFERENCES
1. ***PAXonline. Diagnostic
i evaluare
psihologic
ini ial.
https://paxonline.ro/?q=diagnostic_si_evalu
are_psihologica (2013).
2. Adams, G., R., Berzonsky, M., D. (coord.).
Psihologia adolescen ei. Ia i: Editura
Polirom (2009).
3. Graham, B.. Scala de adaptare n cuplu:

manual tehnic, trad. Iliescu, D., Petre, L..
Cluj Napoca: Sinapis. (2009).
4. Papalia, D., E., Wendkos, S., Feldman, R.,
D.. Dezvoltarea uman. Bucure ti: Editura
Trei. (2010).
5. Simigiu, A.. Teen pregnancy prevention
through outdoor sports, International
Scientific
Conference,Youth
in
the
perspective of the olimpic movement,
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of
Brasov, Series VIII ART SPORT nr.1/2013
(2013).
6. Simigiu,
A..
Online
Psychological
Counselling of the Pregnant Teenager,
International
Scientific
Conference,
eLearning and Software for Education,
(2012).
7. Simigiu, A.. Teen pregnancy. Factors.
Options.
Consequences,
AFASES
Scientific Research and Education in the
Air Force (2012).
8. Simigiu, A., Henter, R.. Meta-stereotypes
Concerning Teen Pregnancy, AFASES
Scientific Resarch and Education in the Air
Force (2012).
9. Yin, R.K. Studiul de caz. Iasi: Editura
Polirom. (2005).
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CHALLENGES OF IRAQI INTELLIGENCE IN POST-SADDAM ERA
Constantin-Ioan STAN*, Ecaterina CEPOI**

*Col. PhD Associate Professor Carol I National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania
stanconstantin03@yahoo.com
**PhD Candidate, Carol I National Defense University , Bucharest, Romania

cepoi.ecaterina@myunap.net
Abstract: In the majority of post-war Middle Eastern countries, marked by authoritarianism, frozen
political systems, constant destabilizing attempts and revolutions against official order, intelligence
services have become pillars for power preservation, constantly transgressing their specific objectives in
order to become control and repression instruments against both internal and external threatening
elements. Ba'athist Iraq comes as a classic example, since the new elites led by Saddam Hussein develop
and extend security and intelligence services (Mukhabarat, Istikhbarat, al-Amn al-Amm, al-Amn al-Khas
etc.), transforming them into systems with multiple tentacles, modelled by interests at the level of tribes,
clans, regions, sects, through which the regime controls an entire political and social structure, and
diffuse information throughout the complicated Middle East and internationally. After the military
campaign from 2003, all intelligence services are dissolved by new installed Iraqi government following
an advice from US officials, in order to establish new structures. In the entire post-Saddam era however,
the structures faced an infinitely complex system of threats to national security, deriving from terrorism,
insurgency, organized crime and generalized violence, from competition and rivalry between them, and
from representation of competing interests at political or confession level: Shia, Kurdish, Sunni actors,
as well as the ones between US and Iran. Taking into account the increasing authority of Nuri al-Maliki
and the projection of Iraq's destiny in a regional conflict with multiple actors, e.g. Iran, Saudi Arabia,
US, Turkey, the new Iraqi intelligence services are permanently constrained to rethink their operational
strategies and fidelity both at national and international scale.
Keywords: Iraq, intelligence, Saddam Hussein, Nuri al-Maliki, Mukhabarat, Istikhbarat, Sunni, Shia
1. BETW EEN NATIONAL S ECURITY

AND DE FENDING THE REGIME:
INTELLIGENCE SE RVICES DURI NG
SADDAM ERA
Development and extension of intelligence
services and security structures are closely
related to Iraq's specifics, as a country situated
at the confluence of multiple internal
631
(political, ethnic, sectarian, tribal) threats and

external tensions, conflicts at regional and
international levels. After modern Middle
East's formation, First World War and then
decolonization, the majority of newly created
states faced serious problems in defining a
stable political and security structure,
confronting coups, revolutions, political
instability, continuous interference from
external powers, social and economic crises,

and community challenges and so on. This
entire collection of factors will determine the
characteristics of an environment subjected to
permanent insecurity, rivalry and conflict,
imposing the development of a highly
competent intelligence system capable to
defend both national interests and ruling
regimes. Similar to Ba'athist Syria, Iraq offers
after 1968 a clear example of state in which
security and intelligence services become a
pillar
supporting
authoritarianism and
repression as well as control of both
government and society. Modern and
contemporary Iraq inherits a history of fierce
violence and in order to better understand its
background and consequences on internal and
external stability, one must consider the
fundamental role that intelligence services
played and will play in limiting or, on
contrary,
developing
conflict
and
disequilibrium. Until its fall in 2003, Saddam
regime built a complex security and
intelligence services, whose main role was to
defend the regime and its main leader
especially [2]. Due to a continuous competition
and mutual control, their tasks were
overlapping considerably. Both, were led by
members of president's family or clan and
doubled by professionals chosen through
rotation from elites, in order to balance
interests around Saddam and to avoid an
eventual excessive influence and power within
mentioned services.
The first Iraqi intelligence service, General
Security Service (Mudiriyat al-Amn al-Amm),
was created in 1921 during British mandate.
Since then, it permanently served as an
institution dedicated to internal security
control, an instrument used by different
regimes to preserve order and prevent internal
threats. After Ba'ath Party's rise in 1968, alAmn al-Amm is quickly transformed into a
repressing force used against inside and
outside groups considered rivals (communist
movement, Shia and Kurdish movements), as
the party was incorporating factions yet not
trusty to clan's president, Muhammad Ahmed
al-Bakr or to Saddam Hussein. The second
Iraqi intelligence service, al-Istikhbarat alAskariyya (Military Intelligence Directorate -
MID), was created once Iraq released itself

from
British
mandate
and
gained
independence. Until the 8th decade, it was
coordinated by Defence Ministry in order to,
later, enter under direct supervision of the
president, like all other services. Main MID
functions covered both internal affairs
(monitoring military officers, protecting
military
objectives,
counterinsurgency,
infiltrating Shia and Kurdish movements,
supporting terrorist or militant foreign
movements)
and
external
collecting
intelligence and other operations (aiming
Jordan, Gaza, Syria, Iran, Gulf States mainly).
After a failed coup in 1973, attempted by
General Security Service chief, Nadhim Kazar,
intelligence
services
are
profoundly
restructured; the event underlines Saddam's
complete domination together with his trusty
group [14]. Asking KGB's help, he starts
modernizing al-Amn al-Amm and transfers
some of its responsibilities to a new created
general intelligence service, Mukhabarat.
General Security Service remained under
Defence Ministry until the 8th decade, when it
would be transformed into an autonomous
agency reporting directly to Presidential
council. Along with other services, al-Amn alAmm, was led during Saddam by his clan
members or trusted characters, recruited from
Tikrit area or surrounding Sunni regions. Its
last director, Rafi Latif Tilfah al-Takriti, was
installed in 1997, and after regime's fall in
2003 remained free, being considered after
2004 an organizer of Iraqi resistance in the
Sunni triangle.
In 1973, Saddam founded another new
security and intelligence structure, the General
Intelligence Department (GID) - Dairat alMukhabarat al-Amma. It represented the
institutionalization of his personal security
system dated back in 1964 (al-Jihaz al-Khas
The Special Apparatus, becoming in 1968, alJihaz al-Hanin The Yearning Apparatus),
inside Ba'ath Party [1]. Anchored both in
political and president's private life, GID is the
first service to defend his clan's interests and
concomitantly coordinate foreign intelligence.
Led by president's family members or elites
from Tikrit, it coordinated internal action of
other services (monitoring Ba'ath, population's
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surveillance, combating Shia and Kurdish

opposition, monitoring foreign embassies and
foreign visitors, counter-espionage) as well as
external (collecting intelligence, sabotage and
terrorist acts against neighbouring countries,
supporting groups hostile to competing
regimes).
The most influential agency was Special
Security (al-Amn al-Khas) officially
denominated as Special Security Directorate
(Mudiriyyat al-Amn al-Khas), Special Security
Apparatus
(Jihaz al-Amn
al-Khas)
or
Presidential Intelligence Apparatus (Jihaz
Mukhabarat al-Raisa). It was founded in
1982, due to war against Iran and a failed kill
attempt against Saddam, firstly as an
organisation securing the president and his
group by selecting loyal members of General
Security, Mukhabarat and Istikhbarat. After
1984 it extended, becoming an autonomous
service; most of the members came from
Tikrit, Huwayja, Samarra, as exclusive Sunni
regions. Special Security was in its first years
linked to Kamil brothers, president's cousins
and sons-in-law: Hussein Kamil, back then
Minister for Military Industrialisation as the
official to recruit first forces from the other
intelligence services and which together with
Saddam Kamil managed the service until their
getaway in 1995. After 1992 however, Saddam
Husseins son, Qussay [5], supervises the
service. Special Security quickly became,
directly or indirectly, a super-service meant to
serve as superior intelligence processing
centre, controlling other intelligence services
and the two major para-military structures the
Special Republican Guard (al-Harras alJamhuri al-Khas) and Saddam's Fedayeen [6:
44-52]. The fidelity of this praetorian security
service was well reward: according to time's
records, the salary of a Special Security
section chief was ten times higher than one's
from Military Intelligence and five times
higher than one's in a similar intelligence
633
position at other services. Similarly, al-Amn

al-Khas was directly involved in managing
unconventional arming programs as well as
complicated relations with
UNSCOM
inspection
commissions,
successfully
camouflaging documents and objectives.
After the Gulf War, a new structure is
formed, in 1992, incorporating elements
from Istikhbarat
al-Askariyya,
directly
coordinated by the Presidential Palace and
from Military Security (al-Amn al-Askari). Its
role consisted in supervising and controlling
armed forces and officers' loyalty, especially
under the circumstances created by coup
attempts. It is the case of a tragic attempt, for
example, initiated by CIA and supported by
the exiled Iraqi general Mohammad Abdullah
Shahwani as member of the opposition party
National Alliance, and after 2003 director of
the newest intelligence service. In June 1996,
Mukhabarat discovered the coup dEtat he
initiated and comprised other 200 Iraqi
officers: 80 officers are executed, among
which two of Shahwani's sons.
The entire net of services not only shared
tasks and competence areas, but competed and
supervised themselves continuously, by crosschecking intelligence and constantly fuelling
suspicion in order to eliminate any possible
threat oriented against the regime. Every
matter was consequently considered a
surveillance and security issue, including not
only the society but also its political, military,
intelligence and security elites. The closer
some persons were to Saddam and his clan, the
more control was exerted upon them; regime's
survival was ensured on Saddam's capacity to
permanently keep key positions for his family
or loyal clan members. Starting the 8thdecade
of last century, intelligence, and security
services became personalized and tribalized;
parallel, informal ones, under direct
supervision of Saddam or his sons [3] double
its official structures. Among them, one can
mention: The Special Protection Apparatus

(al-Jihaz al-Himaya al-Khasa) - designated to
protect the president and his residence, the
Special Republican Guard (al-Haris alJamhuri al-Khas) incorporating 15.000
soldiers, the Special Security Committee (alMajlis al-Amn al-Khas), Saddam's Fedayeen
and so on. Totally, the entire system was
counting over 150.000-200.000 members.
Finally, the National Security Council (alMajlis al-Amn al-Qawmi), also known as the
National Security Bureau (al-Maktab al-Amn
al-Qawmi), served as coordinating entity for
the other intelligence and security structures.
Far from representing a structure like the
others, its role was to control and coordinate
operations, complicating the puzzle, and
stimulating competitiveness and rivalry. Led
Saddam Hussein himself and sometimes
delegated to Qussay as in charge for solving
directly problems, the Council was formed by
representatives of the five important
intelligence services as well as members of
Presidential Palace's Secretariat, like Abid
Hamid Mahmud as Saddam's main
collaborator and adviser, with an important
coordination role.
2. NOWADAYS CHALLENGES FACED
BY IRAQ'S INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM
Saddam's fall in April 2003 led to
dissolution of the entire political and security
system created by Saddam's old regime, as
decided by the American governor of Iraq,
Paul Bremen, and Coalition Provisional
Authority, in their will to wipe out Ba'athist
past and set the basis for a new institutional
and political nation building. By CPA no. 2
Decision, dated May 23, 2003, all entities
are abolished, meaning the entire defence and
security system: army, intelligence services,
Special Forces, paramilitary troops. Strongly
argued afterwards, the decision worsened
security conditions in Iraq, not only through
abridging the state of its instruments, but by
leaving 350.000 officers and soldiers without
any professional perspective or earning means,
in an increasing economic crisis [12]. A
significant part of the intelligence services'
members, especially Sunni, will form the
resistance soon after, directed now against

foreign forces and new political structures. In
June 2003 already, insurgency will encompass
a significant part of Sunni Triangle in terms
of nationalist and Islamic ideology; it is
doubled by the emergence of a challenging
current from the Shia community, led by
Muqtada al-Sadr. Consequently, the security
perspective worsens rapidly in Iraq: on top of
Sunni and Shia insurgency, increasing
violence
reaches
social
dimensions,
determined by poorer living standard and
deterioration of socio-economic conditions
generally [11].
Multi-national Force troops from Iraq
prove themselves insufficient and especially
incapable to assume operations for ensuring
population's daily security; reinstalling police
and security forces is difficult to complete.
Therefore, militias arise, grouped around
political parties and movements, as well as
ethnic and confessional groups (Shia, Sunni,
Kurdish, and Turkmen) or tribal. Political and
administrative live, institution rebuilding, are
based on formalizing community logic,
favouring the rise of Shia and Kurdish actors
while bringing the role of Sunnis to periphery.
All of these favoured a fast reinstatement of
security and intelligence services, meant to
limit Sunni and Shia insurgency and on larger
scale to attenuate the development of Sunni
jihadi movements. Finally, the new security
and intelligence system had to stop massive
foreign destabilizing tendencies exerted by
regional powers like Iran, Syria, Saudi Arabia,
which take advantage from the momentary
lack of security structures and quickly start to
seed influence networks, political clients, and
militants [18].
The pressing need for a local intelligence
structure, capable to support MNF-Iraq's
efforts, determined CIA and MI 6 to gradually
recruit members of the ex-structures,
especially the ones covering anti-Iran and antiSyria intelligence, whose professionalism was
vital. This nucleus, comprising mainly Sunni
officers, did not interfere initially with the
temporary Iraqi government Iraqi Governing
Council (IGC), dominated by Shia and
Kurdish influences. It becomes official in
April 2004, once the new integrated security
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and intelligence structure is operational:

National Security Council (Majlis al-Amn alWatani). The latter, led by Paul Bremen
initially and then set under the authority of
Iyad Allawi as Iraqi PM, rapidly became a
confrontation reason between different
political forces from IGC, as Allawi was
confronting already Shia Islamic parties.
Shia camp will support Mowaffak al-Rubaie
as national security adviser. As an al-Da'wa
member, in close relations with 2005 elected
Iraqi Ibrahim al-Jaafari, al-Rubaie was
suspected to pro-Iranian sympathies. In
response, Iyad Allawi as secular Shia
exhibiting pro-American opinions will form a
new rival structure surrounding prime
ministers institution: Ministry of State for
National Security Affairs (Wizarat al-Dawla
li-Shuoun al-Amn al-Watani). In the following
period, especially under Nuri al-Maliki, it is to
become the main interface and instrument
situated between political power and
intelligence services [15].
As first acknowledged intelligence service
after Saddam's regime, in April 2004 it was
denominated as Iraqi National Intelligence
Service (Jihaz al-Mukhabarat al-Watani)
INIS, and placed under the supervision of
Muhammad Abdallah al-Shahwani, the exleader of failed coup back in 1996. With Sunni
and Turkmen roots, married to a Shia wife
and elected as deputy on Kurdish lists, the CIA
client al-Shahwani was in the eyes of his
American protectors the perfect reflection of a
system exhibiting national, trans-ethnic and
trans-sectarian inclinations, meant to ensure a
local intelligence interface, sustaining
Coalitions efforts to pacify the country, stop
insurgency and set the basis for a new, stable
political and security order [7]. However, since
its very beginnings, INIS did not enjoy a
privileged position and had to successively
face opposition exerted by interest groups
coagulated around new political actors or Shia
635
groups. As CIA creation, trained and

financially sustained with over USD 1 billion
until 2007, INIS followed two main directions:
infiltrating jihadi movements and limiting
Iran's influence. It tried to overpass the logics
of community partisans which affected the
formation of new military forces and police
and to keep a national dimension, massively
recruiting members (from Sunni camp
predominantly and ex-members of the Ba'ath
services) that will be trained in Jordan and
Egypt [13].
Situated under Interior Ministry, INIS does
not the right to perform interrogation or arrest
according to its status, the main task being par
excellence intelligence collection. Its double
role, e.g. counterinsurgency and blocking
Iranian activities (Teheran's initiatives for
supporting and training militias and Shia
groups), exposed it quickly to retaliation.
Starting 2004, INIS officers have become
targets for Shia death squads. Furthermore,
service's autonomy, US support, the relative
increased number of Sunni members and antiIranian actions would raise anger among the
new Iraqi political authorities, installed after
January and December 2005. Along with his
assignment as prime minister, Nuri al-Maliki
tried to found parallel structures in order to
completely control military, police and the
entire ruling structures. Consequently, AlMaliki will grant a large support to Ministry of
State for National Security Affairs (MSNS)
and its director, Sherwan al-Waili, in order to
form his own parallel intelligence structure as
an alternative to INIS and its influence. In fact,
the tacit conflict between intelligence services
is the expression of an Iranian-American
battle, carried out on Iraqi soil between two
systems serving as proxy for foreign interests.
MSNS has built a service comprising more
than 5000 officers, serving primarily alMaliki's interests rather than national interests,
being equivalent to Special Security Service
(al-Amn al-Khas) under Saddam. Without a

proper legal status, MSNS is dominated by
Shia camp and serves as a surveillance
instrument for internal politics, oriented
towards al-Maliki's opponents and Sunni
representatives.
As the reconstruction of Iraqi security and
military forces was advancing, new
intelligence services rises starting 2006. In the
frame developed by Interior Ministry, National
Information and Investigation Agency
(Wikalat al-Maalumat wa al-Tahqiqat alWataniyya), as a structure similar to FBI,
focused on domestic intelligence and
empowered to operate arrests as well. Under
Ministry of Defense, General Directorate for
Intelligence and Security (Al-Mudiriyat alAama lil-Istikhbarat wa al-Amn) is founded,
active both internally and externally. As if not
sufficient, Joint Headquarters uniting the three
services (Iraqi Army, Iraqi Air Force, Iraqi
Navy) founded its own service, M2 - Military
Intelligence Directorate (Mudiriyat alIstikhbarat al-Askariya), following DIA model
and responsible for collecting and processing
military intelligence. Finally, in addition to
MSNS, al-Maliki initiated the founding of
another intelligence service, under primeminister's direct authority and reporting only
to him: the Office of Information and Security
(Maktab al-Maalumat wa al-Amn). Led by
Abu Ali al-Basri, loyal to al-Maliki, OIS's role
and resources are not clearly defined; it serves
as a supplementary instrument in facing his
rivals [13].
The main disadvantage of all agencies is
however the lack of coordination, while, on a
larger scale, the rivalry between them reflects
the divergent interests of political groups
supporting them, both internal and external.
Although two institutional structures are
created for coordinating intelligence activities,
(at inter-Ministry level: National Intelligence
Council al-Hayat al-Wataniya li al-Tansiq
al-Istikhbari, at operational level: National
Intelligence Cell - Khaliyat al-Istikhbarat alWataniya), the intelligence proficiency
remains low after Saddam era, severely
affecting the capacity to limit security risks
and threats, coming from both interior and
exterior. Their division in factions and
partisans eliminates any attempt to assume a

coherent and unified strategy, in the context of
increasing Sunni insurgency action and jihadi
movements, starting with al-Qaeda in Iraq.
Deficiencies arise at legislation level, as well
as institutional and operational. There are no
central data bases, as they are distributed at
regional level, preventing the authorities from
efficiently tracking terrorists' and militants'
displacement across the territory. Each agency
has its own intelligence network and sources,
information
sharing
being
limited;
furthermore, processing is difficult since
intelligence analysis capacity and prioritization
according to urgency level is limited. Many
terrorist act or violent actions are not blocked
in time, although their happening is imminent,
due to slow decision making and reaction
mechanisms. A major cause is represented by
lack of professionalism and recruiting based
on corrupted criteria favoring ethnic and
sectarian selection. If INIS took advantage of
the experience ex-Saddam officers had, the
intelligence structures created after 2006
comprise members without professional
aptitudes or experience, vital for facing a very
difficult nowadays Iraq.
The main obstacle in post-Saddam Iraq
remains however a rivalry between the two
main structures INIS and MSNS [10]. Led by
CIA and US, INIS tried to limit the increasing
influence Iran exerted upon Iraq, with direct
negative consequences upon its officers.
According to Stratfor, that quotes INIS
officials, more than 500 of its officers have
been assassinated, mostly by Iranian agents or
intelligence forces while more than 700 have
been imprisoned by al-Maliki regime [17].
MSNS is meanwhile accused by US and INIS
to have served Iranian interests. After alWaili's run from Iraq, in the 90s, he
maintained close relations to Iranian and
Syrian
intelligence
service,
partially
confirming the allegations. The profound
disruption determined by sectarian motivation
(INIS is mostly Sunni) and external interests
was only partially covered with al-Shahwani's
resignation in August 2009, as a protest
against al-Maliki's increasing authority and
usage of intelligence resources against his
rivals. General Zuheir Fadel al-Ghirbawi was
636
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
designated the new director of INIS but his

relation with al-Maliki followed the same
route marked by tension and limited
collaboration. Iraqi prime-minister together
with his loyal group, e.g. MSNS members
especially, try to limit INIS's anti-Iranian
attitude and control the service from inside, by
increasing the number of Shia officers in INIS
and balance power controlled previously only
by Sunnis [16]. Considering the election
campaign from 2010 and the incipient revival
of a Ba'ath movement, al-Maliki led a strong
action for eliminating many of political and
sectarian rivals, along with other hundreds of
politicians, intelligence officers, accusing them
of membership in the old structures [8]. The
action was obviously taken against Sunni
rivals that might have ran for the elections or
support other candidates. From intelligence
services other than the ones led by primeminister's regime (INIS, Defense Ministry,
Interior Ministry, M2), 376 officers were
dismissed in February 2010, from which 190
belonging to INIS. M2 director, Alaa al-Amiri,
tried to resist and was dismissed as well. With
no exception, all of them were experienced
professionals but Sunni. They are replaced
with inexperienced Shia officers, members of
prime-minister's party al-Da'wa, some of them
being even ex-refugees in Iran during Saddam
regime, sustaining therefore Iran's influence
[9].
The process had two major consequences.
On one hand al-Maliki increased his personal
domination on the entire intelligence field,
military and security services, where he
delegates own clients. He refuses to appoint
ministers for Defense and Internal Ministries,
taking over the two portfolios. Consequently,
all intelligence services along with state's
important institutions are dominated and
politicized by al-Maliki, like in Saddam's era,
but as Shia, not as Sunni any more. On the
other hand, Iraqi intelligence and security
637
services weaken and become incapable to

approach increasing security issues the country
faces for the past 3 years. Lack of coordination
and professionalism, influences exerted by US
and Iran, officers' politicization and sectarian
division, constant political interference in
decision making and corruption affect the
entire Iraqi intelligence activities. Influenced
by the Syrian crisis, Iraq faces after 2012 an
increasing Sunni challenge addressed through
radical jihadi movements, which united
themselves and join the Syrian ones, leaguing
new transnational structures like al-Qaeda in
Iraq and Syria (ISIS). In front of these new
insurgency movements and large scale terrorist
attacks in Baghdad and against Shia
objectives or official forces, meaning military
troops, police, intelligence officers, Iraqi
authorities can only admit their incapacity and
lack of professional resources now, without
any option for limiting negative effects of
anterior decisions [4].
The actions presented previously have
weakened the operational capacity of alMaliki's intelligence services. Himself a
discrete supporter of the Assad regime,
through an almost recognized alliance with
Iran, in a total opposition with regional Sunni
countries and challenged not only by the Sunni
population in his country but by a part of the
Shia parties, al-Maliki still relies on the
authoritarian power system built in the last 8
years, so well-known in Iraq's political culture.
Unlike Saddam regime however, current
regime's intelligence services are extremely
unstable and fragile, fractured by internal
fights and incapacity to handle a deteriorating
security environment. As proven by the
amplitude of last year terrorist attacks, the
authorities were unable to control Sunni
insurgency in al-Anbar province, al-Qaeda's
fierce violence and its attacks in Baghdad
(Abu Ghraib prison on July 22, 2013, and
liberation of hundreds of jihadists). As a
consequence of political power's failure to

build a coherent and unified security system,
Iraqi intelligence are bypassed and incapable
to handle security related events.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The general chaos at both information and
operational levels, within the military security
and intelligence institutions, is extremely
dangerous in a very tense national context and
especially in a volatile regional one, marked
by denominational fractures and by an
exacerbated violence. In addition, 2014 is an
election year, which can mark the
disappearance of the power system built with
so much attention by al-Maliki for eight years,
or can reconfirm it. Both alternatives, contain
a strong potential turning point, firstly, due to
the lack of political unit that will drive the
country toward a crisis, as in 2010, aggravated
now by the fractures between Sunnites,
Shiites, Kurds, and even among themselves as
communities; secondly, by the fact that, while
in power, al-Maliki will continue the same
strategy towards exclusive domination of the
field decision-making, thus intensifying the
opposition's violence against him. In this
complex environment, the role of intelligence
services is vital. They have today, more than
ever in the Iraq's history, a decisive role not
only in facing security threats, using only their
own resources in order to defeat any danger
against the state, and especially towards
population, but also in being attached
sufficiently to the national interests in a such
way that Iraq will not fall back into civil war,
or even more, fracture.
REFERENCES
1. Al-Marashi I., An insight into the mindset
of Iraq's security apparatus, Intelligence
and National Security, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp.
1-23 (2003)
2. Al-Marashi I., Iraqs security and
intelligence network: a guide and
analysis, Middle East Review of
International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2002)
3. Al-Marashi I., The Family, Clan, and
Tribal Dynamics of Saddam's Security and
Intelligence
Network,
International
Journal
of
Intelligence
and
CounterIntelligence, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.
202 211 (2003)
4. Al-Marashi I., Iraqs security outlook for
2013, ISPI Analysis, No. 197 (2013)
5. Baram A., The Iraqi armed forces and
security apparatus, Conflict, Security &
Development, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 113-123
(2001).
6. Baram A., Building Toward Crisis: Saddam
Husayn's
Strategy
for
Survival,
Washington: The Washington Institute for
Near East Policy, Washington (1998).
7. Bennett G., Iraqs Security and Intelligence
Structures: More Problems, Conflict
Studies Research Centre (May 2006)
8. Blanche E., Maliki takes control, The
Middle East, pp. 12-15 (January 2010)
9. Cochrane M., Malikis Authoritarian
Regime, The Institute for the Study of War
(2013)
10. David Ignatius, A Sectarian Spy Duel in

Baghdad, The Washington Post (June 14,
2007)
11. Hashim A. S., Insurgency and CounterInsurgency in Iraq, New York: Cornell
University Press (2006).
12. International Crisis Group, Iraq: Buildind
a New Security Structure, ICG Middle East
Report No. 20 (23 August 2003)
13. International Crisis Group, Loose Ends:
Iraqs Security Forces between U.S.
Drawdown and Withdrawal, Middle East
Report No. 99 (26 October 2010)
14. Kahana E., Suwaed M., Historical
Dictionary of Middle Eastern Intelligence,
London: Scarecrow Press (2009)
15. Rathmell A. et al., Developing Iraqs
security sector: the Coalition Provisional
RAND
Authoritys
experience,
Corporation (2005)
16. Shashank Benghali, WikiLeaks: Maliki
filled Iraqi security services with Shiites,
McClatchy Newspapers (December 3,
2010)
17. Stratfor, An Uncertain Future for Iraqs
Intelligence Services (January 11, 2012).
18. Wilcke C., A Hard Place: The United
States and the Creation of a New Security
Apparatus in Iraq, Civil Wars, Vol. 8, No.
2,
pp.
124-142
(2006)
638
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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DEATH IN THE ROMANIAN CULTURE

CASE STUDY PRESENTATION/ ADLERIAN APPROACH
Mihaela Alina STATE

Cabinet individual de psihologie 1BV4243/TEL. 0770595825
Abstract: To live with death can be considered a pun, but basically it constitues a starting
point for reflections upon death. In time, people everywhere have been preoccupied with
questions regarding death, loss, immortality. Thoughts about death affect life in various ways.
Some are threatening and scary, others are useful and inspiring. The thoughts about our own
death or that of close ones cause sadness, anxiety. Death threatens everything that we know and
appreciate. The meanings that we attribute to death and the reactions to these meanings are
different for each individual. The perception of death is socially determined, with significant
differences in different cultural areas. These differences appear as a result of some religious,
cultural convictions, of the environment in which the man lives, of the family atmosphere, of the
emotional climate. Attachment lies at the basis of any connection. A person who does not know
how to become attached, will never know to separate either. If the relationship of attachment has
been uncertain, then the separation phases are lived improperly and the mourning labor is not
solved. There are people who do not get attach at all, for fear of separation, there are people
who get too much attached, they are very adhesive and they experience separation in a very
difficult way. In any relationship, there are four phases: attachment, connection, separation and
mourning. If the mourning process is not accomplished, the person will not be able to get
involved in another relationship and will not connect in an authentic manner, it will be just a
substitute for the lost bonding. If mourning and grieving are not accomplished, the person will
stay mentally blocked in the past. This shows the persons inability to integrate the loss and to
move on, to adapt to a life without the deceased one .In this paper I will present the case of a
patient I have worked with in psychotheraphy from an Adlerian perspective, assisting her in
grieving the loss of her son, offering therapy and support psychological assistance to allow her
to adapt to a life without her son.
For ethical and professional reasons, the

patient will be called VICTORIA, this being
just a literary nickname. Victoria came to the
I.
CASE STUDY PRESENTATION
Case description:
639
office after being previously scheduled by

phone by her best friend at the time. He asked
me to see her telling me that Victoria really
needed to talk to a psychologist, since her son
brutally died in a traffic accident. The accident
happened about a month before the meeting.
Socio-cultural aspects:
Victoria is a woman who raised her child on
her own since he was six years old, forming
together a single parent family. Her family was
a modest family, living in the countryside, in a
mountain area, accustomed to nature and
destiny hardships. The family was Romanian,
of Orthodox religion, with higher education.
Now Victoria is living in a small town in the
central part of Romania, she has established a
business on her own, she has a medium- high
socio-economical status, and she is 44.
Case conceptualization:
I received Victoria nervously. She came in
awe, in true pain obvious from her whole
being. She was not a person, but a source of
tears and a pair of blue eyes around which a
human being could be seen. I was shocked by
her appearance, her speaking, the way she kept
her sons photo and she was aking: have you
ever seen such a beautiful child? ...
In an odd way, I felt, from her very first visit
to my office, an extraordinary force which was
hidden behind this huge pain. There was so m
uch passion, so much real feeling, that I knew
that together we would be able to redirect this
vital force to the path of rediscovery and
personal reconstruction.
Victoria spoke about her son, about the fact
that he was the result of a failed marriage, that
he meant her life, her reason for being, that all
her efforts as a single mother were directed
towards her sons shaping and development.
Dan was an amazing cild. Talented, sportive,
poet, a good student, a good friend, very loved
by his colleagues, an exceptional child.
Victoria was tormented by feelings of guilt.
She was sorry that due to her continuous work
and her special efforts, she could not spend
enough time with Dan lately. I asked her to tell
me about her sons results.
She proudly showed me some of his lyrics. I
asked her who was responsible for the
evolution of this child? Who contributed to his
raising and becoming? Who made sure that
640
this child became a beautiful, responsible

character, with a social interest, generous and
upright, appreciated and loved by all the
people he met? Who supported him in his
educational actions? Who ensured his
participation in sport competitions? Who stood
by him when he succeeded and when he
failed?..... Victoria understands the idea. She
knows that without her efforts, her maternal
dedication, Dan could not have become what
he was. For the first time she says, she
manages to change perspective and the feeling
of guilt is diminishing. I talk to her about the
difference between being guilty and feeling
guilty. But we are just starting the
journey........I need to state the fact that
Victoria has begun psychotherapy and we
started together searching and descovering
personal, internal resources, without using
medication.
Slowly, Victoria starts to reveal herself, the
therapeutic alliance is built and widens more
and more. Personally, I think that a good
therapeutic alliance brings about the success of
every theraphy. From my chair, I gradually
and deeply entered Victorias life, and later on
her lifestyle.
Thus, I found out that Victoira and her son
fought Death long before this appeared. Six
months before the accident, after some
periodic control, Dan was under suspicion of
leukemia. He was admitted to different
hospitals, several meetings with well-known
doctors, from the capital and even in the best
medical centres, took place.
Blood tests were not conclusive, the medical
approaches were confusing, they could not
give a definite diagnosis. Victoria was
struggling, searching, trying to find answers
and she was praying. The last months of her
existence, before the accident were tormeting
and she kept running between hospitals, cities,
churches. She was looking for solutions and
she tried everything to save her son.
Meanwhile, Dan got acquainted with the
feeling of being caught in the claws of
death....One way or the other, even before
meeting actual Death.....Until one day, when a
dedicated doctor, discovered that Dans
illness was in fact a lab mistake, given by a
substance which was less used in medical labs.
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Therefore, back to life. Until the fatal day,

when the dark character dashed into her life
when she was not even thinking about it. And
now in the psychotherapy office, she was
confused, angry, lacking faith, without any
existential purpose.
Together we followed a long and difficult
road, with ups and downs, blockings and
decodings, with understanding and question
marks, but never giving up. Together we
underwent the specific stages of grieving, I
dealt with denial, I assisted and helped to
honour her fear, to manage her protest, we
stepped together towards acceptance and
understanding, then the fight, the rediscovery
of the self and the creation of a new meaning
in life.
Then I followed the step of knowing Victoria
starting with early childhood, since every
person creates her/his own personality,
lifestyle, starting with her/his birth. From the
interaction with the environment in which he
is brought up, the child observes and draws
some conclusions. He learns what to do, how
to do it, to feel, to think. He establishes
purposes to be fulfilled. All these landmarks
are created unawares, and then they shape the
way we operate every day. In fact, our lifestyle
reflects our personality. To understand her
better, for her to know herself better, I tried to
discover her lifestyle. What the parental
figures meant to her, or any other adult
representative figures from her childhood,
family atmosphere, family constellation, birth
order, gender realtionship perceived as a child,
convictions which were created at that time,
but which intefered with her growth. All these
aspects are lifestyle components, they speak
about moving through life. Our conviction
system represents the bone system for the
body. That is support. Convictions help us be
what we are, but some of them, shaped under
the form of early experiences, tend to be in
641
our way at some point in life. Then we do not

get along anymore, we do not find ourselves,
we cannot get back the way we were and we
cannot choose a direction in life. This is why it
is important to discover these convictions that
intefered with our growth and which do not
match the actual life situation. Then I did
research on how my patient approached life
tasks, like intimacy, family, friends and social
network, work. I was interested in her
memories of her accomplishments and last but
not least in her early memories. Our memory
is selective and it is full of meanings. Not by
accident, during some moments of our life we
think of some memories and not others.
Remembering is just a metaphor of the actual
situation of our life, it shows the emotion
present at that moment, the way towards which
we are turning or what we are running from, it
shows our qualities, resources, our strenghts
and sometimes even solutions to the problems
we are facing. Victoria underwent a period
during which she could not bring childhood
memories into therapy. Her return to her own
past was a very difficult task. A strong
emotional blockage kept her still, not allowing
her to go back in time. With the help of
therapeutical stories, psychodramatic methods
and discussions with the inner child, I found
out that when she was 12, she had been abused
by a family member. Another rage, another
rebellion, other torments of the child who,
from an early age, dealt with loss, learnt to live
in suffering, assimilating it and impregnating it
within the coordinates of her life. For her joy,
trust, other peoples appreciation, other
peoples good will, were unknown. And
unawares, we turn to those people and
situations that confirm and validate our
convictions. Victoria understood this aspect of
her life, and she understood the choices she
made throughout her life. This pattern of
thinking with the unconscious purpose of
suffering turned towards her ex-husband, that

she separated from when Dan was 6. A man
who validated her conviction about men and
marriages which are unhappy. Then Victoria
managed to unlock some memories, she spoke
about meaningful dreams, all being entrance
gates, access gates towards knowledge and
self-understanding.
My intervention plan took into consideration:
1. The acceptance of the loss reality.
2.Working with suffering: going through the
stages of mourning, assisted management of
anger, working with aggressive energy,
working with the self, emotional expression.
3. Adapting to a world from where the
deceased person is missing.
4. Emotional re-focusing (going on with life).
5. Rediscovery of personal resources,
qualities, internal strenghts and their value.
6. Adjusting convictions which intefered with
the persons growth and the understanding of
mistaken purposes.
7. Lifestyle improvement and creating a new
meaning in life.
8. Optimal approach of life tasks as a result of
analysed lifestyle.
In the psychotherapy approach of this case I
had the following guidelines as principles of
my interventions:
Pain is an individual process, each
individual deals with loss in an
original and unique way.
Pain is an opportunity of inner
development, as a result of limitexperiences we dicover the richest
inner resources.
Pain can be manifested in an
environment which provides safety for
the grieving person
Pain cannot erase an unwritten natural
law: we are genetically programmed
for life
I will futher present the summary of
my patients lifestyle, realised with the
help of Adlerian methods and
techniques. I used the lifestyle
inventory, a working instrument that I
used not only to collect data, but also
as a possibility of psychotherapy
642
intervention. What is the lifestyle of a

person and how does it help to know it
in an psychotherapy approach? I
further present some clarifications
meant to facilitate the comprehension
of the process:
The lifestyle of every individual is a singular
matrix of thought, feeling and action, which is
unique
and
represents
the
context
(Zusammenhang) in which all the specific
manifestations
must
be
considered.
(Shulman&Mosak, 1995). In time, Adler
named it guideline, life plan and then lifestyle.
Lifestyle components:
1. about what it is (our individual self
and the reality we deal with)
The self:
It comprises: sense of the body (what I is),
identity (who I am), self-image (what I am),
self-esteem (what quality I have), the self as an
object (what affects me).
The image of the world or Weltbild:
It is a set of convictions about everything that
is external to the self. It comprises:
- convictions about life in general;
- convictions about the social world
from culture and especially from
personal convictions.
2.
about the values and behaviours that

we will follow to solve what it is
The ideal self (guide):

- It is the ultimate purpose of that
persons life;
- orientation point for guiding
themovement line;
- the effort in this direction is
endless;
Moral judgments:
- the ideals judge what is important
or not, good or desirable;
- basic ethic attitudes are considered
more or less an individual
psychological matter rather than a
result of mass propaganda or social
systems.
Methods (how to be done)
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3.
there are methods used consistently

during that persons life, as
behavioural techniques for the
effort to reach the main purpose;
every main purpose can have one
or more methods, and similar
methods can be found associated
with different purposes;
Lifestyle influences: Lifestyle
influences
are
biological,
psychological and social.
THE SUMMARY OF FAMILY

CONSTELLATION VICTORIA
A second child in a family of two children
and psychologically the second born, the
daring, rebel, impulsive Victoria was raised in
the family trying to do everything to get what
she wanted. Unlike her brother,S. arrogant
and proud, hidden rebel, superficial and
withdrawn, Victoria found her special place by
being self-confident, creative and humorous,
the artist in the family during childhood.
The atmosphere in the family was tense,
conflictual and intimidating, and the family
values were education and religion.
The male model offered by the father, M.,
was that of the dominant, powerful, handsome,
but very tough, violent man with a strong
justice sense and a great will to impose power
and supremacy and to have them
acknowledged.
The female model offered by the mother,
B., was that of the complex, evolved mother, a
mixture of contrasts, fire and rock, full of
force, energy and though strong, very
understanding and kind to the loved ones. She
spread around much affection, was open to
communication and her main concern was for
her children to be well taken care of.
643
The female model was completed by the

grandmother, a good and kind person who
always had something put aside for Victoria.
Later, a good and elegant teacher, charitable
and understanding, she completes the feminine
portrait in Victorias life.
The gender relationship was a tense one,
in which the man was violent, dominant,
aggressive and hostile, provider and financial
source for the family, and the woman took
care of the house, children and did not allow to
be criticised in society and give up an unhappy
marriage. Her children were above all, and the
woman puts up with everything for their sake.
THE SUMMARY of early recollections
(interpretation)
I receive joy and silence in my life and
special things come to me. The woman works,
shares and brings peace and silence in my life.
The woman works a lot, but not in vain.
I know that good things are kept
somewhere, in a corner for me and I am happy
to receive them in a special way..
Everything shines when I win, I know to
be special and to reach the top and be above
all.
THE MAIN PURPO SE (not aw are
of)_:
I try to be different and to do things in a
special way; I know how to run when I
identify danger.
The others are against me, they are
aggressive towards me and they use me.
Life is tough and hostile, a battlefield, a maze
through which the woman has to find a way
out.
Therefore I try to push away those who come
in my way, I have learnt to fight bare-handed,
to run and to defend myself, to work a lot to
earn my safe place in the world, somewhere
above the others.
IDEAS W HICH INTERFERE WITH

GROWING:
1.
V. thinks that the man must be
proud of what the woman does.
2.
V. thinks that men must be
dominant to be strong.
3.
V. thinks that the woman must be
petrified to resist in life.
V. thinks that the woman must not
4.
give up when confronted with some difficulty,
she is built and meant to fight.
5.
V. thinks that you can measure
your force by provoking fight or inviting to
fight.
6.
V. thinks that the others are unfair,
use her and abuse her.
7.
V. thinks that marriages are
unhappy.
8.
V. thinks that the woman is meant
to work very much and at any cost, it is the
only way to reap success and to enjoy it.
9.
V. thinks that you must do
everything to be above all, only than you can
be safe.
THE M
OST M
EMORABLE
OBSERVATION:
The family is a place in which the man is
bad, tough, violent and he brings a lot of
sadness and unhappiness.
QUALITIES AND STRENGHTS:
1. V. is brave and tenacious, she is a true
fighter.
2. V. is intelligent and she has the right
strategies at hand at all times, she finds the
right solutions to the problems she deals with.
3. V. is not defeated by anything, she
fights all the way, she is a warrior.
4. V. is a dreamer, creative and with a
high aesthetic sense.
5. V. has leader qualities, she is a good
organiser, she always knows what she has to
do.
6. V. is ambitious, perseverent, tends to
reach her aims.
7. V. has a sense of humour, is flexible
and open to new horizons.
8. V. is feminine and beautiful, she knows
how to glow in front of the others when she
wants it.
9. V. is adventurous, willing to explore
and to know.
644
10. V is generous and honest.

11. V. can create projections, making her
own comfortable world and isolated
from the hardships of the world.
The implications of the psychotherapy
approach/ Conclusions
An important aspect for V. was to understand
the mistaken position that she had adopted
towards the world, through her experiences in
early childhood. Giving up hostility, she
learned to receive and not just to offer out of
the fear of being rejected, she considerably
improved her social relationships, she
approaches the task of friendship in a more
confident way, and she has built a real support
network. Surprisingly, using her qualities and
internal strenghts (no one saw me like this
she says with tears in her eyes), she rebalances her self-esteem and she has the
courage to imprint a new direction to her
professional life. Today she is studying
psychology, a totally different field as
compared to her professional activity, she is a
second year student and she has very good
results and she has passed all exams with
flying colours. To commemorate her son, she
chose to do something useful for the living
ones. She organises and sponsors every year a
sport championship for gifted children in the
county teams, who play professional football,
like Dan did. The sport championhip offers a
honorary cup bearing her sons name, and
thus, every year, Dan is present among those
children, who play in his memory.The event is
already well-established, filmed, awaited and
every year Victoria manages to give happy
moments, honour, trust and courage to the
children participating in this competition. It is
a method of true commemoration of the son
beyond old rituals, customs or preconceptions,
it is a method of much interest and social
utility, that Victoria thought of when she
discovered her resources and internal
strenghts, creativity and generosity. Adjusting
wrong convictions, self,life, world-conceptions
helped her redefine her feminity, accepting her
position towards the world and towards the
man. This womans evolution in life was
governed by rebirth despite multiple losses. Of
course, there are moments of breakdown,
severe sadness, mourning, especially around
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AIR FORCE ACADEMY
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AFASES 2014
important dates in the calendar, during the

winter holidays, but these are her sacred,
intimate, isolation and praying moments, that
she manages today with trust and a lot of
courage. Her choice is called LIFE and
PRESENCE.
Adlerian psychotherapy is a psychotherapy of
encouragement, of
respecting the mans
individuality and approaching it in a holistic
way. Just like in medicine Hippocrates said
that there is no disease, there is a sick
person, a concept of uniqueness is necessary
in the psychotherapy approach. Individual
suffering remains unique, the suffering of a
mother who lost her child is comprised in a
development of the unnatural. Everything that
contradicts normality is difficult to understand,
to accept, and I think that this idea is to be
found irrespective of the culture, religious
aspects, dogma and rituals of a community.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Adler, A. (1995).
Bucureti: IRI.
Sensul
Vieii.
645
2. Adler, A. nelegerea
Bucureti, 2009
vieii,
Trei,
3. Frankl E. Viktor, Omul n cutarea

sensului vieii, Meteor Press, Bucureti,
2009
4. Mosak, H. H. and Shulman, B. H.,
Manual for Life Style Assessment.
Bristol: Accelerated Development.
5. 1995,Zani, Bruno, Palmonari, Augusto,
Manual de psihologia comunitii,
Polirom, Iai,
6. 2003,Mitrofan, Iolanda &colaboratorii,
Cursa cu obstacole a dezvoltrii umane,
Polirom,
7. 2002,Kohlrieser, George, Soluionarea
conflictelor i creterea performanei,
Polirom,
8. Iai, 2007,Profesor preot Branite, Ene,
Liturgica general, Ed. Institutului Biblic
i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe
Romne, Bucureti, 1993
9. Diacon David P.I., Cluz cretin, ed.
Episcopiei Argeului, 1994
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COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION, RECIPROCITY IN THE

PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP
Marilena TICUSAN
Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University of Spiru Haret, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: Throughout the parenthood, the priority is and shall remain at all times to ensure the
physical, mental and emotional health of the child. The balanced development of the children is
determined by adequately meeting the needs involved by different development stages of the children.
Often the parents feel helpless in their capacity, being unable to identify the actual needs of their children
or approaching them wrongly, thereby generating negative effects that can sometimes mark for good the
behavior of the future adult.
Ill-treatments applied to the minor are actions of the parents or of the person to whom the child is
entrusted for raising and education, actions that seriously jeopardize the physical, intellectual or moral
development of the child. Todays generation has a much faster development rhythm. Todays children
are the future adults; the responsibility for their education lies with their parents and teachers, but the
society is not relieved from such responsibility. For the parents to successfully accomplish this
responsibility, support is required from the community, from the entire society. The parents represent the
key-elements in ensuring the observance of childs rights, as the child spends the most of the time at
home, and the parents or the adults fulfilling the role of parents have the most significant influence on
shaping the childs psyche and personality, whether they are aware of this or not.
Keywords: responsibility, influence, family climate.
1. INTRODUCTION
Each family has its own place, but also its
own role in the progress of the society. The
family as the primary element the child takes
contact with and remains the permanent and
fundamental landmark in the condition of the
individual, in manifesting civic, moral and
behavioral attitudes. The human being is the
being whose relationship depends essentially
on communication and given this, its building,
reliability and vocation cannot be explained
outside the exchange of messages. Through
communication the individual is humanized,
forms and develops its personality in a
647
continuous assimilation process of social

experience in an unlimited variety of contents
and forms. Understanding its position in
different circumstances and providing
appropriate answers, means catching the way
to process the information provided by the
environment.
2. THE PARENTS-CHILD
RELATIONSHIP
2.1 Theoretical approach.
Communication is the binding element of
any group and the essential link between its
members. It has a number of vital functions on
the group: it adjusts individual behaviors,

allows the existence of influence and
domination, it facilitates the delivery of
performance by the groups in fulfilling their
tasks, it ensures group cohesion, it values the
group, it represents a socio-cultural unity
element making the group to become a
reference for the individual. The need for
lifelong learning became evident and was
structured amid concerns for adult education.
Lifelong education triggers many institutions
and means provided by the society. Thereby a
permanent shaping of human personality is
obtained, both through the various levels of the
educational system and through the
instructive-educative and cultural actions
addressed to all age groups of the population,
in particular to the adults.
The family is an educational factor that
guides the human being for the longest of
his/her life. The child lives most of its time in
the family, where they learn the language,
customs and civilized behavior, this is why we
say that "good family upbringing in early
childhood" has a decisive role on the
subsequent building of its personality. The
high educational potential of the family is
conditioned by the structure, material and
cultural level, by the relational and emotional
atmosphere in the family (harmony between
spouses, normal life, good organization), by
their responsibility towards the education of
children. The family is the first social
environment for development and fosters the
establishment of contacts of the child with the
society, where the child receives the first
education elements. One of the main features
of the family is that it provides stability and
strong affection, promoting thereby learning.
Common knowledge is that in a family the
mother represents affectivity and the father the
authority. The question in this regard is to
establish a balance and a safe environment
conducive to the harmonious development of
the child. Unfortunately, the living conditions
of children in our country are stressful, the
parents are overwhelmed by the worry about
the future, by the job insecurity on the one
hand, and on the other hand the divorce, child
abuse and aggression manifested on children
represent several negative aspects in the
normal, natural development of the child. The
preparation of parents or of potential parents to

achieve the educational competences represent
one of the objectives of the school system. In a
family where mutual respect prevails,
manifesting stability and where its members
are satisfied by the results of interactions, the
child is central. The existence of a child carries
a positive meaning, but complicates the
bidirectional relationship between the spouses,
turning it into a tridimensional one. The child
exerts its influence on the family, restructuring
its activity, requiring adaptive change. Under
normal circumstances this does not lead to an
imbalance of the family, but to a new
organization, imposed by goals considered by
the parents worthy of their sacrifices.
Dysfunctional families usually have
affected communication patterns, family
balance is severely disturbed by the existence
of conflicts. Just one flaw of the family is
enough to affect the psychic life of the child,
resulting in a number of drawbacks, including
the difficulty in its dominant activity; mental
or moral trauma may arise, the child falling
through in psychiatric disease states, in
reprehensible conduct. Parents easily accept
that they may not be perfect, but would like
some perfect children to meet their own moral
or behavioral ideal. Parents must accept the
child as he/she is, with strengths and
weaknesses, to love and support him/her
unconditionally. Every family has its own
style of education, which is mainly dependent
on parenting style, referring to the action
method of the parents over the children and
may be harmonic or disharmonic unity
between personal education styles of both
parents.
Within every family both spouses have
to act as one over the child and to avoid
adopting educational strategies that might
influence negatively the childs behavior and
to contribute to smooth building of its
personality.
Many times parents are not able to
solve their own problems with their own
children. They use excessive authority,
violence, do not communicate enough with
their children or are indifferent and do not
notice when their children have problems.
Family and parent education targets
those actions aimed at practicing educational
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function and at developing effective

communication and interaction practices in the
family. As a subsystem of lifelong learning, it
responds to specific, actual needs and offers
alternate ways and conditions for selfeducation. Parent-children communication
poses serious problems because parents born
and educated in a world with rigid
conceptions, have children born in a world full
of movement and change.
Information and training of parents on
child schooling requires each parent to know
its legal obligations on the education of the
child, the importance of its attitude for its child
school success, the methods to collaborate
with the school.
There are numerous situations where
work is needed to inform and educate parents
including:
o Complexity of child development at
different ages;
o Educational roles the parents have and
need to have;
o Development of the quality of interindividual
relationships
in
the
community;
o Maturity and development of social
responsibilities;
o Partnership with the child in various
affective disorders or other disorders;
o Prevention of problem situations, of
education and development risks.
Studies have shown that a so-called good
parent is one who manages to respond
appropriately to their child's needs, by not
developing obedience but the respect of
individuality and autonomy from the earliest
ages.
Permissive
relations
determine
inaccurate, aggressive and disobedient
behaviors, the authoritative relations cause
obedience and lack of initiative and selfesteem, and the overprotective relations tend
649
to determine passive behavior, addiction and

unresponsiveness.
2.2 Research dates.
Information and training of parents
regarding child schooling requires, at least, for
each parent to know its legal obligations on the
education of the child, the rights it has for the
education of the child, the importance of its
attitude for its child school success, the
methods to collaborate with the school.
Parenting is evolving, and what used to
be fit for our parents is no longer adequate for
today's children. We need to rethink the way
the role of parents is understood and their
communication with the child, as well as the
coherent and organized support to achieve
them.
This research aims at highlighting the
role of parents in child's education, namely the
effect of parental education on communication
and their behaviors in relation to children.
It is based on the hypothesis that
parental participation in educational activities
will lead to acquiring skills and abilities in
terms of educating their own children,
resulting in changing the education method of
children within the family and at school.
Questionnaires were applied to parents,
children and teachers, regarding the awareness
of the need to educate parents, explanation of
the answer and group interview targeting
information on child education methods, new
knowledge learned by the parents, problems
faced and other issues.
This
research
is
ascertaining.
Considering that parental education directly
impacts
children,
questionnaires
were
provided to parents and children, as well as to
teachers involved in the education of the child.
The research subjects were chosen from
Brasov. Predominant ages are between 31-35

years, namely 22.37% and between 25 and 30
years - 15.23%, as seen in the chart below
(Figure 1).
Ageofparents
5,8%
7,12%
2,3%
15,25%
Figure 1.
By analyzing the age of the parents a

big age difference is observed between the
child and the parent. This is particularly
important since the differences between
generations become more visible, the parents
of this generation of children being raised and
educated by completely different moral and
spiritual values . In the last decade the family
has undergone major changes due to socioeconomic conditions. Although the following
analysis of the responses of parents and
teachers
regarding
the
quality
and
collaboration between them is rated as good,
there are a number of problems that hinder the
teachers work and depend largely on the
parents. Some parents believe that educating
children is the exclusive responsibility of
teachers, they take their children to the
kindergarten casually, have different ideas
about educating children than the teachers, do
not have time to communicate with the
teachers, are protective or over-protective
towards their children and this hampers their
relationship with the teacher, do not have time
to attend parent meetings, misunderstand
information about the kindergarten and the
children, have exaggerated expectations from
the kindergarten and the children. Also,
teachers believe that parents should respect
them more, to take into account their
comments and suggestions, considering that if
parents show them more respect this will lead
to the same behavior from the children. In
terms of collaboration of the kindergarten with

the family, most teachers mentioned: parent
meetings, daily discussions (given that parents
come every day with their children in
kindergarten), home visits. Other activities
mentioned were: roundtables with invited
persons, joint activities for the manufacture of
materials, toys, trips with the children and
parents, demonstrations in which parents can
see the child's knowledge in relation to that of
the group, the development level reached by
the child. As a novelty the parent clubs, parent
resource center are mentioned, which could
include a wide range of services provided to
parents: special hotlines, expert advice offered
by psychologists, teachers, doctors. The most
effective technique for controlling behavior is
linked to encouragement which states that the
behavior resulting in the desired consequences
will repeat itself, namely that if a child likes
what is happening as a result of its behavior, it
will tend to repeat such behavior.
Unfortunately many parents, without realizing
it, criticize, nag and punish more than they
should, failing to notice the good things done
by the child, contributing thus to the
aggravation of the child's behavior. To obtain
good results it is important that encouragement
or reward appear as an immediate reaction, to
react with enthusiasm and to repeat the process
many times. It is much more effective to pay
attention to the behavior. This behavior should
be punished or verbally praised at the right
time. Behaviors that constitute problem for
parents are personality disorders: the child is
stubborn, distrustful, shy, hesitant, cranky,
moody; and discipline problems as the child
does not comply with the rules: does not sleep
in time, is messy etc.
Given that these behaviors refer to
preschool children and the child's personality
is built at this age, behavior problems are
normal, such as: distrustful, shy, hesitant.
Parents should intervene by using verbal praise
for the child to create a positive self-image.
Recent research has shown that both children
and adults who respect themselves and have a
positive image about their person will be selfconfident. Most parents cannot help
themselves to tell the child words such as: you
are bad, stupid, lazy, cocky, fool, ridiculous,
clumsy, etc. All these statements of parents
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and teachers make the child to feel humiliated,

ashamed, unhappy and to doubt its value. Such
feelings begin to appear in childhood and are
still nurtured by a performance-oriented
society. Results affect self-image of the person
and its whole life.
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The child tests its parents love through
its behavior, so they often are bewildered and
exasperated and will interpret certain
behaviors as disrespect. When a child
misbehaves means that one of its needs was
not satisfied. It often checks the parents
authority through different behaviors. The
child needs to learn from practical examples,
as long as its ability to think abstractly has not
yet been developed. Our own character traits
are reflected in the lives of our children.
Behavioral psychology has found that
changing the response to a particular situation
can lead to a major change in the whole
situation, i.e. if parents change their attitude
towards a certain behavior, it will change the
childs behavior as well.
Times have changed, but human
relationships that represent the basis of
building the character have not. Children need
parents to provide them a warm home, love
and guidance, effective communication, a
close relationship to set the beginnings of the
human.
The education of parents contributes to
their social and spiritual emancipation. Socioeconomic changes in the early 20th century, the
transformations undergone by the married
couple, the family as core of the society,
require parent education to prevent negative
effects on the child development.
651
The number of single-parent families

has significantly increased, the standard of
living is low due to the high rate of
unemployment, the number of abandoned
children has increased, school dropout
increased, the number of cases of children
abused physically, emotionally or sexually
increased. In all these cases the family is no
longer the optimum environment for child
development. Parents concerned with the
major issues of survival can no longer provide
the child affection, warmth, joy of childhoodnecessary elements for the balanced
personality development of the child.
Information,
awareness
and
involvement of parents in their own child 's
education and development is not just their
problem , but it must become a concrete,
systematic and permanent action for all
categories of professionals working with
children, of the central and local authorities, of
NGOs, communities and civil society in
general. Parent education should become a
constant professional concern of teachers and
psychologists. It is necessary to strengthen the
collaboration between the family and the
educational institution (kindergarten, school),
to create a flexible system in the
communication and collaboration relation with
parents, to achieve harmony in child education
outcomes optimization efforts. Parents should
be aware of their responsibility in child
education, to consider kindergarten and school
as a reliable partner in this noble task.
REFERENCES
1. Abric,Jean-Claude.Psihologia comunicrii,
Editura Polirom, Iai, (2002).
2. Bunescu, Gheorghe, Alecu, Gabriela,
Badea, Dan - Educaia prinilor, strategii
3.
4.
5.
6.
i programe, Editura Didactic i

Pedagogic, Bucureti, (1997).
Eysenck, Hans, Eysenck, Michael,
Descifrarea comportamentului uman,
Editura Teora, Bucureti, (2001).
Kidd, James Robbins, Cum nva adulii,
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti,
(1981).
Mitrofan, Iolanda, Mitrofan, N.,. Elemente
de psihologie a cuplului, Casa de Editur i
Pres ansa S.R.L., Bucureti, (1996).
Pun, E., Potolea, D.,. Pedagogie.
Fundamentri teoretice i demersuri
aplicative, Editura Polirom, Bucureti,

(2002).
7. Pnioar, I. O.,. Comunicarea eficient,
Editura Polirom, Iai, (2006).
8. Schneider, Meg F.,. Educaia copilului
meu n 25 de tehnici care nu dau gre,
Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, (2003).
9. Van Pelt, Nancy L.,. Secretele printelui
deplin, Editura Pioneer, Tg.-Mure,
(2001).
10. Ziglar, Z.,. Putem crete copii buni ntr-o
lume negativ, Editura Curtea Veche,
Bucureti, (2000).
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SCHOOL DROPOUT IN CURENT SOCIETY

Marilena TICUSAN
Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, University of Spiru Haret, Brasov, Romania
Abstract: School abandonment is a plurifactorial phenomenon, and his degree of seriousness is
highlighted by the ease with which it occurs, namely: family disfunctionality, entourage, the student's
performance in relation to the teacher or the individual as a system. All this can lead on short term to the
appearance of school failure, resulting in school dropout. The dropout risk is higher for micro group
represented by the family, whose normal and efficient functioning is essential for child development.
Without being a reality of last period, school leave gained particular proportions in recent years and
presents an upward dynamic. The prevention activities are complex because it requires specific
interventions that will reduce the phenomenon of school drop, actions that will limit or eliminate where
possible, the causes of dropouts.
Keywords: abandonment, family disfunctionlity, communication
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern man is gradually adapting to
transformations of the entire society, the real
possibility of progress and development being
influenced and especially conditioned by
education. School dropouts represents a
serious issue facing higher education. It is a
complex phenomenon within the educational
environment that is represented also in a
broader context, taking into account the
following dimensions: economic, sociocultural, ethnic, psychophysiological and
pedagogical. During the transition period, it
was found that students in increasing numbers
tend to leave the educational system. They are
surrounded by hostile family climate, careless
and disinterested attitude of the parents for the
school, an institution that is no longer a
priority and not provide and guarantee a job.
The massive emigration to the Western states,
causes improper care from parents, who offer
their children freedom of movement, which
653
inevitably leads to decreased school

performance, behavioral disorders and finally
almost certain failure and school dropout.
2. STUDY ASPECTS
2.1 General aspects. The pressure group,
its negative implications, the risk of exposure
at drug consumption and other forms of
dependence, associated with weak and
inconsistent educational methods, curriculum
overload, dysfunction in the assessment and
grading, fear of exams, and others are just a
few factors that support this phenomenon.
The students avoid confrontation with these
factors of stress and discomfort by running
from hours; the absenteeism becomes a social
issue that, uncontrolled, has serious
implications for the entire society. Not only
the phenomenon is important in itself, but also
its consequences.
The inability of students to keep up with
the best colleagues in school , discipline
problems , poor social relationships with class

teacher and parents, will lead to the unability
to adapt to the demands of society and rigors
of life. These students, will abandon surely the
school before completing a full cycle and
obtaining skills that can maintain and promote
professional competences. The reasons of
dropout are closely linked to the socio economic transition and the period of crisis
and recession. According to national statistics,
in recent years, the dropout rate has increased
to an alarming percentage, placing Romania
on the first place in Europe in this regard.
Each abandonment has a personal history,
student faces a number of difficulties which
result from the himself, family, school,
community. The instability of the educational
system is due to fluctuations at economic and
political level. The development of Romanian
society after 1989 was influenced by changes
in democratization and the transition to a
market economy in the context of a prolonged
economic crisis.
In families with low incomes and high
unemployment, most often, the children are
abused, abandoned, they do not develop
normally (both physically and mentally) and
have health problems, thus increasing the
chances of school drop and juvenile
delinquency. In Romania, there is a disparity
between urban and rural communities
concerning the economic, social and cultural
background. In terms of dropout from school
there is a discrepancy, and the major share
being held by the rural community. In rural
areas remains a certain lack of interest, passed
on from one generation to another, and a
relatively low cultural level. This lack of
interest is seen among those who are still at
school, grade repetition being an important
indicator in this respect, with a major
percentage in rural areas.
There are causes of psycho-physiological
dimension that complement the dropout
phenomenon, supposing two dimensions that
complement each other. The anatomic and
physiologic
causes
concern
sensory
deficiencies as sight and hearing disturb
speech development, which has long-term
negative effects on reading and writing. When
language disorders occur, they appear based
on other deficiencies, such as physical or
sensory, existing personality disorders, in most

of the cases intensify. At people with hearing
and vision deficiencies, speech disorder
creates additional problems in the process of
social integration due to the absence or poor
understanding of speech or compensatory role
in structuring representations of the word, in
both cases with a risk of reducing social
relations,
given
the
difficulties
of
communication and understanding of the
message between the parties. The quality of
school life and education influences the
dropout rate. From the pedagogical point of
view, educational method is approached as a
set of strategies, models concerning the ability
of favorably influencing by the use of
adequate
educational
resources,
the
development of the personality of each
individual. The causes of pedagogical type,
relate to the quality of school life, to the
relevance of teaching methods adapted to
students' cognitive style, to the characteristics
of the evaluation of educational and vocational
guidance, and to the openness of the school to
community problems.
The teaching causes are frequent and
diversified, being found both at the school and
family level. In school the most significant
causes are:
-incompatibility of teacher - student ,
teacher personality can provide psychological
realities stimulating and mobilizing or
conversely, frustrating, stressful and inhibitory
-deficient educational styles, consisting of
intellectual and nervous overload students with
excessive teaching tasks
-improper teacher-student communication
through subjective evaluation, arrogance and
threats which humiliate the student.
The school is not a friendly environment
for all pupils and has no effective means of
facilitating the integration of students of other
ethnicities. Gradually, it becomes a medium
for reproducing social and ethnic inequality.
The manifestation of covert discrimination
acts in local school space, gives unequal
treatment from some teachers at students in
cause and do nothing but to increase and
highlight the existing phenomenon.
In family atmosphere, the role of
parents is crucial, both emotionally as well as
pedagogical. Poor attitudes of some parents
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who do not allow the child to gain autonomy

and the requirement in terms of schooling,
wanting to become the best of the best,
generate child active or passive opposition in
conduct. This opposition and resistance,
generalized or focused on school, will
eventually overwhelm the child and lead to
abandon. However not loaded school program
influences negatively, student attitudes
towards school, but rather inadequate program
requirements. The knowledge from the point
of view of utility, are not related to the present.
2.2 Study dates. We live in a time when
each individual in society is assessed,
prioritized and diagnosed according to socioprofessional skills. These skills are formed by
covering a long process of training and
education. The education is one of the most
important services that a company offers to
children. The adaptation to accommodate the
children at school requires pedagogical
requirements necessary to maintain and
improve the morph-functional, psychoemotional and social integrity balance.
The radical change in his life, sudden
changes accompanying the new age in the
development of childhood can cause him a
shock. Overwhelmed by the requirements of
the school will adopt a withdrawal behavior in
itself, stubbornness, negativism. His relations,
as he knows the family, acquires new
dimensions, new school environment is a
colder climate more hostile towards the family
or in the nursery, where the child feels
comfortable.
The positive family climate determines the
effectiveness of educational influences having
vital importance in social and cognitive
development of the child. The parents, through
their authoritarian, permissive or indifferent
attitude develop children positive or negative
cognitive skills. Following the years of
655
education received in family, children will

develop their own personality and will be
more or less prepared for the extensive process
of becoming adults.
The poor communication in the parent-child
relationship can generate a number of
problems, the child loses confidence in grownups and retreats into an imaginary world,
resulting in a decline in school performance
and behavior disorders. In families with social,
financial or occupational problems, some
parents adopt domestic violence, physical
punishment measures applied to the child
being devastating. The frequent application of
inappropriate punishment will lead to
disruption of communication.
The purpose of this research is the
identification and mitigation of factors that
trigger and maintain the dropout phenomenon.
The research objectives aim at advising the
students on the verge of dropping out of
school, increasing students' motivation to
attend courses, trust and collaboration among
students, parents and teachers.
The assumptions of the study are: students
from disadvantaged families present a higher
risk of school abandon; lack of motivation for
the attendance at courses increase the dropout
rate; hostile family background can change
child behavior in school. The subjects of the
research are: students with very weak situation
in school, with absences exceeding the limit
allowed and parents of children at risk of
dropping out of school
The research was developed by applying the
document
analysis,
observation
and
investigation on the basis of questionnaires.
The teacher perceives this job to be demanding
and stressful at the same time. He feels
sometimes that he is overwhelmed, working
hard and the results are below expectation, and
he feels that he has sacrificed in vain without
any acknowledgement. In each class, there are

students which create problems of indiscipline,
disturbing the lesson. He noted that punishing
them in some way, does not solve the problem
and continued supervision of unruly students
will deprive their colleagues of attention.
Applying new ideas, demonstrating tact in
teaching and involving pupils in school
activities, may increase the discipline in the
classroom and automatically bring a positive
change in their behavior.
Without counseling, family problems or
school, the pupil will find difficult to integrate
into the community and will not adapt to the
requirements of attending courses of society.
The lack of motivation is induced by the lack
of interest of parents towards education. The
majority of parents neglecting their children
are not interested in the school situation,
believe that school is useless and unprofitable.
In turn, children build their negative self
image, their performance in school becoming
weaker, and becoming unable to adapt to the
school. The student has his own perspective on
school,
considers
some
material
as
unnecessary, which does not help with
anything in life. Education has no value for
him, forced by their parents to perform certain
jobs that bring income, the child will consider
school as an additional burden. The temporary
absence of a parent, or both, mentally
unbalanced child, who feels alone and
abandoned, confused and disoriented, loses
confidence in himself, does not learn enough,
causes school failure. Total lack of supervision
reinforces the feeling of abandonment of
children by parents and they become insecure
and introverted. Student unsupervised by
foster parents feels rejection on all that
belongs to school, will miss for the start a few
hours and after that, will miss several days in a
row.
This is inevitably followed by the integration
in various deviant groups, where they adopt
attitudes characteristic to delinquent activities.
Finally they give up on school life, considering
abandonment as an act of protest, as a
rebellion against society and the indifference
mixed with hatred of school. The lack of
proper communication, the total neglect of the
needs of the child and the need to find
confidants in those around him, will cause
school failure. Tensed family environment,

frequent quarrels and lack of affection in
couple alter adversely the child's behavior.
Repeated violence causes an unfavorable
environment for normal development of the
child. The emotional shock suffered by the
child will lead in time to emotional instability,
causing depression and anxiety. This is
manifested physically by nausea, vomiting and
abdominal pain and psychically by a feeling of
insecurity, panic (fear, fear of punishment, fear
of being locked alone in the house, so on...).
The students will depart school forever, and
chances of returning to school are void.
Leaving education triggers a process of mutual
rejection-student school, as evidenced by all
the research conducted on dropouts. Ideally,
the school should adopt an attitude of
encouragement, not rejection for the students
who learn more difficult. The grade repetition
is not a saving solution, the maximum penalty
being a total exclusion from the system. The
statistics show that most of those who
remained repeaters do not returned to
education, leaving school for the street. As for
the children, most of them want their parents
to be more patient and understanding, few
perceive their parents as best friends. It
appears that most children have only demands
on family and school, they want total freedom,
they think they deserve it but do not want to
give anything in return. For them school does
not have importance, and teachers do not
receive respect. They enter in conflict with
school authority, became lazy, do not make the
effort to acquire knowledge devoid the
accountability for the school. In turn, parents
say that because of prolonged program of
employment, are forced to neglect their
children, spend some time with them, leaving
them largely unsupervised. They would like a
better communication with their children, but
encounter fierce resistance when trying to give
advice or an opinion.
3. CONCLUSIONS &
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The developing of effective policies in
support of families in need of material support,
reintegration of children who risk being
marginalized and professional training of
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teachers, are just some efficient measures

needed in education. The education is vital for
uneducated child that will not be able to
integrate into society; without child attending
school to become a social individual, he will
be unproductive and will have no future.
The focus on measures to support poor
families is the main lever that can reduce the
extent of this phenomenon. There should be
vigorously promoted a climate of support and
social measures being adopted in all schools,
from both rural and urban areas. The main
mechanism of socialization is education, the
school is an education institution and the
family is the first child's educational
environment. The collaboration between
family and school is a priority, as a
prerequisite for combating school dropout. The
establishment of partnership strategies,
including teachers, parents and students should
mobilize and motivate students in order to
obtain success in school. The responsibility of
building this strategy rests on teachers who the
need to develop initiatives in this regard.
Schools should work with the family, it is very
important that the family is fully involved so
as to make this partnership to work and be
effective.
REFERENCES
1.
Anghelache, Valerica. Managementul

schimbrii educaionale. Iai: Editura
Institutul European (2012).
657
2.
Boco,
Muata-Dacia.
Instruirea
interactiv. Iai: Editura Polirom (2013).
3. Chelcea, S.,. Iniiere n cercetarea
sociologic.Bucureti:Editura
Comunicare.ro. (2004).
4. Ciot, Melania-Gabriela. Educaie i
societate. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Eikon
(2012).
5. Ciot, Melania-Gabriela. Managementul
educaiei. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Eikon
(2012).
6. Cuco, C.,. Educaia. Experiene, reflecii,
soluii. Iai: Editura Polirom (2013).
7. Enchescu, Eugenia. nvarea continu.
Aplicaii
la
educaie
i
nvmnt.Bucureti: Editura Universitar
(2011).
8. Joia, Elena. Metodologia educaiei.
Schimbri de paradigme.Iai: Editura
Institutul European (2010).
9. Miller, G. John. Cum s formezi caracterul
copiilor.
Metoda
responsabilitii
personale. Iai: Editura Polirom (2013).
10. Neacu, I.,. Introducere n psihologia
educaiei i a dezvoltrii. Iai: Editura
Polirom (2010).
11. Neamu, Cristina. Deviana colar. Iai:
Editura Polirom (2003).
12. Vallieres, Suzanne. Trucuri psihologice
pentru prini. Educaia adolescenilor,
Iai: Editura Polirom (2013).
12. Videanu, Gabriela. Educaia la frontiera
dintre milenii. Bucureti: Editura Politic
(1988).
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THE ROLE OF THE FEUERSTEIN INSTRUMENTAL ENRICHMENT

PROGRAM IN THE SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
CHILDREN
Otilia Anca TODOR *
*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, Spiru Haret University, Brasov, Romania,
Mediated learning theory was operationalized through the 14 instruments of Feuersteins
methodwhich in their turn were articulated in a so-called "instrumental enrichment program"
(Instrumental Enrichment, or IE). The program aims directly at some cognitive functions, often short in
people with learning difficulties: the ability to compare structures, to findanalogies and differences, the
ability to model and materialize, to generalize, to plan, to abstract, to orient in space and time, the
capacity to establish analogic, serial numeric relationships, etc., visual and numeric memory, graphical
representation capacity. By the attractive, unconventional presentation method, theinstruments motivate
both children and adults to perform exercises and overcome thinking difficulties. Theinstrumentation of
childs thinking with elements helping to mobilize and adjust its own thinking will aim to create its
intrinsic need to use higher intellectual ways in solving its school and social problems. Childs strive to
make autonomous intellectual activity will increase its degree of independence and will change its own
perception of itself as autonomous cognitive personality.
Key words: mediated learning, cognitive modifiability, mediation criteria, learning potential.
1. INTRODUCTION
Objective: The socio-emotional
development
of
children
in
the
experimental
group
through
the
Instrumental Enrichment Program.
Hypothesis
: It is assumed that the
application of the Instrumental Enrichment
Program will lead to significant differences in
terms of socio - emotional development in
children in the experimental group.
Research
group: This research was
conducted on a total of 200 school children,
aged between 8 and 10 years, enrolled in
regular schools in Brasov. The research group
consists of 100 children with Special
Educational Needs and 100 nonSEN children,
659
each category being divided, at its turn, into

two groups, i.e. the experimental group (50
subjects) and the control group (50 subjects).
Experimental design: This experiment
consisted of three phases: ascertaining
experiment,
formative
experiment
and
evaluative experiment and was conducted over a
period of 24 months. The initial and final
evaluation were performed using the "I am "
test, and the intervention was conducted with
five tools from Feuersteins Instrumental
Enrichment Program. The formative experiment
was conducted over a period of one school year
and ended with the final evaluation period. The
intervention with the IEP instruments was
conducted in two weekly sessions of 1 hour and
30 minutes each.
The formative phase of the

experiment was conducted in the Elementary
school no. 3 of Braov.
I AM PERSONALITY TEST
Adapted by Ursula chiopu and Mielu
Zlate (M. Zlate, 2002), useful in comparative
studies by age, profession etc., the test reveals
the representation of various features and sides
of personality, emphasizing its structures.
In essence, the test consists of an essay
that the subjects have to write about
themselves. The students are required to
consider as many topics of self-knowledge as
possible, the teacher drawing the attention of
the students that knowing themselves means
not only writing down the name, age, gender,
some personality traits, or some favorite
activities, but infinitely more. On this occasion
other self-knowledge topics can be listed and
discussed as well, suggesting that the reference
in self-portrayals to as many of them as
possible, mentioning the personal way of
being in relation to them, avoiding the
reductions to one to two subjects, which equals
to poor self-image, represent important criteria
of self-knowledge depth and authenticity.
The primary analysis of essays written
by children was based on Self-knowledge Grid
that contains 17 topics listed below with the
name and meaning.
1.
Identity
2.
Physical appearance
3.
Psychical traits.
4.
Performance in school and at
work
5.
Preferences, desires
6.
Relationship system
7.
Views and experiences
8. Searching for self.
Isolation and self-confidence.
9.
10. Adaptation and social
integration.
11. Need for self-help and selfimprovement
12. Attitude toward self.
13. Table of values.
14. Conflicts and contradictions.
15. Self-ideal.
16. Reflected self.
17. Status of the person.
In its personalized form, the
Instrumental Enrichment Prog ram (IEP)
appears as a set of exercises focused on the use

of 14 instruments, with controllable valences
in mental capacity development. The
instruments as creativity exercise software
modules (Guilford, Torrance, Parnes and
Nicola) are relatively neutral to the study
disciplines; they do not target the acquisition
of specific knowledge, but the building of
mental skills, cognitive orientation engines
in different situations.
In
presenting
the
Instrumental
Enrichment Program reference is made
commonly to class-group, as the recipient of
its application, but the Instrumental
Enrichment Program can be used in various
situations. Each instrument focuses on a
specific cognitive function with utility in a
wider range with more difficult levels of
abstraction.
In a synthetic formula, the program
involves three fundamental elements of mental
structure:
cohesion between the parts of
total; to use in a wide and
broad way the experiences
acquired
in
specific
situations;
structural
plasticity
in
adapting and strengthening
own mental activities;
self-reproduction - the ability
to change for an act of
autonomous
will;
the
symmetric or the hard drive
self-regulation
(selffulfillment) in personology.
In this research the formative
intervention was achieved by using five
instruments from IEP 1 :
a. Organization of points
b. Spatial orientation I
c. Comparisons
d. Images
e. Family relationships
Table 1 Frequency of answ ers in
the test Who am I? posttest phase
Topics/su
SEN SEN
Non
NonSE
The instruments have been described based on the

Internal use manual, created by Reuven Feuerstein and
adapted by Jael Kopciowski
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btopics of
selfknowledg
e
Identity
Con
trol
Experi
mental
SEN
Cont
rol
N
Experi
mental
50
50
35
46
Physical
appearan
ce
Performa
nce in
school/at
work
Preferenc
es, desires
48
40
38
29
27
39
34
47
22
31
35
49
Relations
hip
system
Views and
opinions
Searching
for self
Isolation
and selfconfidenc
e
Adaptatio
n and
social
integratio
n
Need for
self-help
and selfimprovem
ent
Attitude
toward
self
Table of
values,
16
24
31
47
17
19
32
14
18
39
43
22
15
18
23
46
12
19
33
11
22
39
19
21
43
beliefs
and faiths
Conflicts 10
and
contradict
ions
Self-ideal 15
Reflected
self
Status of
the
person
23
26
47
29
31
49
16
18
37
21
25
42
From the analysis of Table 1, which

presents the frequency of occurrence of selfknowledge topics contained by socioemotional development level assessment,
information can be extracted on the subjects
degree of familiarity with the self-knowledge
process and its ability to convert subjective
states into clear and lucid thoughts, on the
level of awareness of their strengths and
weaknesses and the intention of correction of
negative traits.
The IEP intervention between the pretest
and posttest phases of the experiment led to
increasing socio-emotional adaptability and
involvement in self-knowledge process,
moving from cautious and reserved attitude in
expressing feelings, thoughts, feelings to the
description without omissions, consistent and
diversified of subjects dimensions and
dominants. Thereby it is highlighted the fact
that the intervention on the cognitive system
leads to development of self-knowledge and
self-evaluation, insight and critical thinking.
We note that the frequency of identity
criterion increased in childrens essays, which
highlights a greater need for display, thus
strengthening the identity as a prerequisite that
will ensure uniqueness of the individual, the
661
need for affiliation and identification with a

group of age, gender or employment.
The decrease, in the posttest phase, of the
frequency of the information on physical
appearance and how it is perceived by the
subject, reflects the decrease of egocentric
trends or those of exaggeration to concrete.
Related to the same feature, original essays
reflected an expansion of the physical ego and
inferiority complexes with or without coverage
in physical ego. Initially, this topic of the scale
has been frequently shown in the answers
listed briefly, in a single sentence, which
reveals that subjects showed uncertainty and,
therefore, self-display. The same criterion is
found in essays in the posttest phase, this time
expressed in ample sentences, which include
detailed descriptions, highlighting the desire
for self-knowledge.
The third topic in the scale concerns the
performance in school or at work. Compared
to the initial phase, the frequency of
occurrence of this criterion in the posttest
phase is increased, demonstrating the
increased availability of subjects to learn and
work, adopting positive attitudes towards
performances obtained, the latter reflected in
personality traits such as honesty, selfacceptance, need for self-improvement, etc.
Regarding the preferences and desires of
the subjects, only those related to leisure time
or close in terms of time to the moment of the
discussion, were present in the initial phase,
highlighting poverty and shallowness of
interests, unilaterality of concerns and low
level of involvement in their practical
realization. Posttest phase highlights the
frequent occurrence of vocational preferences
and deep desires, with a greater perspective,
revealing an increase in the level of
intellectual development, proved by the
extension and depth of listed interests.
Regarding
the
relational
system
described in the childrens essays, the posttest
phase presents an increased frequency of its
occurrence, revealing socio relational
availability, the need for affiliation and social
integration, increased inter-relational potential,
selective relationships, deep and stable, based
on personal criteria.
The opinions and personal experiences
occurred rarely or never (SEN group children)
in the initial essays of children, and later, in

the posttest phase, their frequency increased,
especially in the experimental groups (SEN,
nonSEN), resulting therefrom, as Zlate M.
(2002) says, the need for privacy, for
fulfillment and achievement through another,
for protecting privacy. From here emerges also
the insecurity of emotional experiences and a
certain mental tension in some difficult
moments in the existence of subjects that
require an effort to adapt and adjust.
Regarding the search for self, the
frequency of occurrence in the initial phase is
very low in both groups of subjects, then in the
posttest phase, this significantly increases in
nonSEN
children, especially in the
experimental group, which leads to say that
after mediated learning activities, children
show tendencies towards self-knowledge and
self-discovery, they become aware of the
complexity and difficulty of self-knowledge
process.
The criterion isolation and selfconfidence, which provides information on the
introspection and self-confidence trend, but
also on the difficulties of adaptation and social
integration, recorded decreases in gross
frequencies between the observational and the
evaluative phase of the experiment. This
highlights that initially children were hiding
increased tensions in adaptive plan and a low
potential for social networking.
The adaptation and social integration
criterion is closely related to two of the criteria
mentioned above: the relational system and
search for self. This shows availability for
learning and playing social roles, the desire to
join social groups and to participate in social
life. Low frequencies of occurrence in the
initial essays, indicate some difficulties of
social integration and their growth in the
posttest phase becomes significant for
assessment
attitudes,
support
and
understanding of the behaviors of others. The
cooperation spirit, both on horizontal, with
colleagues and friends, and on vertical, in the
relations with adults is also asserted.
For the criterion Need for self-help and
self-improvement an increase in the frequency
of occurrence in the posttest phase is noticed,
highlighting the necessity of change for the
better the personality. Initially, the utterances
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expressing this need emanated strength,

nonconformity and a trend for mental
encapsulation, subsequently they turned into
statements that rendered the need for
qualitative, content and tinge change of
personality.
For the attitudes towards themselves, the
increase of gross frequencies in the two
phases, the initial and the final one of our
experiment, expresses a shift towards self,
becoming comfortable with insight, with
subjective analysis - based on criteria systems,
the need for genuine self-knowledge.
Superlative
adjectives
impregnated
expressions illustrate the existence of slight
excitement and overstatement trends.
The table of values, beliefs and faiths as
the topic of socio-emotional evaluation grid,
recorded significant increases in posttest
phase, especially in the experimental groups
(SEN and nonSEN). If initially the topic was
frequently expressed by conditional sentences
(I am ... if ....), demonstrating a certain degree
of mental immaturity and low frustration
tolerance, subsequently the same topic is
expressed in extended sentences, which
demonstrates the existence of superior
motivating agents of behavior, intellectual
flexibility and increased opportunities in
achieving own generalization arising from
own experiences.
Inner conflicts and contradictions of the
individual, important for the development and
future of the personality, increase in frequency
in the posttest phase, demonstrating the
engagement of personality in the process of
development.
Ideal self, closely related to the topic
preferences and desires, recorded significant
increases for all subjects included in the
experiment, which entitles us to conclude that
at this age the individual develops by reference
663
to a model or ideal prototype, the individual

becoming able to orient and focus in one
direction even if it is transient, modifying to
suit personal or influence group preferences.
The criterion Reflected self highlights
the capacity of self-knowledge and the need
for self-definition in relation to others.
Increased frequencies between the initial
moment and the final one of the experiment
highlights an increase in the capacity of selfassessment from others points of view, but
also to be dependent on the opinions of others.
The Status of the person reveals the
necessity to stabilize statutes, to acquire new
ones or to overcome the old ones. Again
frequencies change upward in posttest phase,
providing information on the nature of the
statute, its certainty or uncertainty.
The objective of this research aimed
at
evaluating
the
socio-emotional
development of children, after applying IEP
and led us to produce the following two
ideas:
- by increasing the cognitive
capacities socio-emotional self-control was
strengthened, namely the voluntary
inhibition;
- the increase of self-esteem and
involvement are expressed in epistemic
curiosity of children and inferentialhypothetic thinking;
The objective aims at evaluating socioemotional development in children after IEP
intervention, associated to the hypothesis
based on which: the application of IEP will
lead to recording significant differences in
terms of socio-emotional development between
the two groups was reached, and the
hypothesis was confirmed.
REFERENCES
10. Feurerstein, R., Hoffman, M., (1995),

Instrumental Enrichment Teacher's
Manuals, ICELP, Jerusalem
11. Feurerstein, R., Rand, Y., Feurerstein,
R.S., (2005), La disabilit non un
limite. Se mi ami costringimi a
cambiare, Firentze, Libriliberi
12. Feurerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hazwood,
C., Jensen, M.B., et al., (1985), LPAD Learning Potential Assessment Device
Manual, HWCRI, Jerusalem
13. Feurerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hoffman,
M., (1979), The dynamic assessment of
retarded performers: the learning
potential assessment device (LPAD),
Baltimore, University Park Press
14. Gouzman, R., (1997), Major problems
of blind learners using tactile graphic
materials and how to overcome them
with help of the FIE Braille program,
ICELP, Jerusalem
15. Mara, D., (2004), Strategii didactice
n educaia inclusiv, Ed. Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti
16. Minuto, M., Capra, A., Rossi, C.,
(2009), La mediazione nei processi di
apprendimento il metodo Feurestein
nel mondo, Otto, Torino
17. Minuto, M., Ravizza, R., (2008),
Migliorare
i
processi
di
apprendimento, Erickson, Gardolo
Otilia,(2014)
Feuerstein
18. Todor
Method,
Editura
Universitii
Transilvania, Braov.
19. Todor
Otilia,(2014)
Feuerstein
program,
experimental
research
design,
Editura
Universitii
Transilvania, Braov .
1. Feuerstein, R., (1980), Instrumental

enrichment and the concept of
cognitive modifiability, University Park
Press, Baltimore
2. Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, R.,
Kozulin, A., (1997), The ontogeny of
cognitive modifiability,
ICELP,
Jerusalem
3. Feuerstein, R., Klein, P.S., &
Tannenbaum, A. (1991), Mediated
learning
Experience
(MLE).
Theoretical,
psychological
and
learning
implications,
Freund
Publishing House, London
4. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., Feuerstein,
S.R., (2006), You love me!!... Don't
accept me as I am, ICELP, Jerusalem
5. Feuerstein, R., Martinez Beltran, J.M.,
(1998), The theory of structural
cognitive modifiability, Bruno, Madrid
6. Feuerstein, R.S., Falik, L., Rand, Y.,
(2006), Creating and Enhancing
Cognitive
Modifiability:
The
Feuerstein Instrumental Enrichment
Program,
ICELP Publications,
Jerusalem
7. Feurerstein, R., (1996), Mediated
Learning in and out of the Classroom,
Pearson Education, Inc. Stylight
8. Feurerstein, R., et al., (2005), La
teoria di Feurerstein i suoi sisteme
applicativi una raccolta di contributi,
Milano, trad. it. a cura di Associazione
Connessioni
9. Feurerstein, R., Falik, L., Rand, Y.,
Feurerstein, R.S., (2002), The dynamic
assessment of cognitive modifiability,
ICELP, Jerusalem
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COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND R. FEUERSTEINS CONCEPT ON

MEDIATED LEARNING
Authors: Otilia TODOR
Abstract To avoid the exclusion of vulnerable children from the education system and to provide
them opportunities for social adaptation, Professor Feuerstein has developed the theory of "mediated
learning" and operationalized it in order to be used in the educational practice. Feuersteins
Instrumental Enrichment method (IE) is part of cognitive education category and focuses on that part of
education which is highly capable of change: the child and the childs teacher. This method is
successfully used in over 30 countries around the world, developing independent living skills and
personal autonomy skills for thousands of students.
In order to ensure progress on the

rising curve of civilization, any postmodern
society needs high level social and
professional skills. Also, the democratization
of social life formulates the desire of
education for all those called to participate,
with equal rights, to the social life decisions.
This social background requires an
education that prepares children and teenagers
to confront their own limits and conditioning
the satisfaction of personal needs in the
context of social reciprocity relations. For the
children and young persons in difficulty,
integration ways and methods are planned into
the social flow.
The reality is that in any educational
system there are students who do not adapt to
the standard curriculum. In Romania, the
phenomenon is emphasized by low school
grades, low test scores, examination resits and
665
repeated school years, absenteeism and

dropout. These events are identified by the
concepts of "school difficulties" and "school
failure".
The concept of school failure has
no unified definition as it targets a fact that
depends on the organization of the
educational system, on the objectives of
education and evaluation procedures. In
terms of scope, this concept embodies
learning difficulties and students status at
the end of a schooling level. In terms of
"intensity", failure can be massive or partial.
In terms of duration, the failure may be
transient or permanent. In terms of direction
the failure may be reversible or ireversible.
Organizing the underlying causes of school
failure the frequently invoked causes to
justify the phenomenon can be determined,
namely
institutional
and
individual
determinants.
In an educational system focused
on the contents of study disciplines, the
teachers showed increasingly reduced
availability to the particular needs of the
children.
In
such
conditions
the
representative classes of the school
population showed learning or habituation
difficulties to the program imposed by the
school system, difficulties that led to the
dissatisfaction of the teachers, of the parents
and of the students. The search of the factors
that led to this situation and the accusation
of the teachers for the failures of the
children was born out of the use of medical
buffer to monitor the issue of school
difficulties, with the idea that those who do
not respond adequately to school
requirements cannot be consideres as normal
and deviate from the rule of statistical
majority. For mass education, most
problems are created by the students with
limited intelectual performances and by the
students with exceptional performance level.
These categories can hardly be included
within the limits imposed by the standard
curriculm and show specific school
difficulties.
The significant proportion of
students with school difficulties require the
reassessment of the issue and finding new
solutions to prevent school failure in
underprivileged children in the relationship
between institutional environment and their
individual and family characteristics.
Individual
determinants
of
school
difficulties are often backed up by the
institutional ones and cause for some
children their enrollement on the descending
curve of failure or partial achievement of the
learning potential. This raises a legitimate
question: "Why is the risk of school failure
emphasized throughout schooling for some
students?"
New educational systems try to
answer this question by optimizing child
development through education that
organizes "inputs", so that "outputs" of the
cognitive system to be richer. To ensure
children an internal benefit through school
learning, all behavioral acts should become

intellectual operations.
The
theoretical
premises,
objectives and methods of a program
oriented toward this direction materialized in
the content of this study. This study is
enlisted in the cognitive current that has
been expanding for the last two decades, its
core being an advanced psycho-educational
intervention tool.
According to I. Manolache,
cognitiave education programs came into
practice
about
two
decades
ago,
substantiated by older and newer orientatios.
The precursors of these programs are Jean
Piaget and Lev Vigotki. A third author of a
learning theory, Reuven Feuerstein, has
capitalized his concepts in a worldwide
known intervention system under the label
"Instrumental Enrichment" with the logo I.E.
This program was implemented in about 30
countries and owes its success to the fact
that it promotes a pedagogy of success of a
large number of people, given the increased
demands imposed by insertion media.
COGNITIVE EDUCATION
As tolerant as the society may be
towards people with learning difficulties, it
shall always value the intelligence and
cognitive performance. Any modern form of
education that takes into account the
individual genetics, promotes reaching the
highest
possible
level
of
cognitive
performance.
Identification,
assessment,
development and education of cognitive
functions question the nature of human
capacity, the value of parenting and the
opportunities to influence child development
as well as the relationship between the
concepts of potential and mental functions.
These broad topics can hardly be limited to the
notion of stimulation or education of
intelligence. However, we must note the
growing recognition in the literature of the
importance of cognitive, motivational and
personality factors stimulation factors such
as the ability to pursue a goal, cognitive
learning strategies, courage, cooperation,
involvement in the task, curiosity, motivation 666
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which
together
influence
cognitive
performance.
Confidence in intellectual processes
capacities changeability does not mean
underestimating genetic influences on
intelligence. On the contrary, we start from
considering genetics as a factual situation.
Theoretical explanations of the cognitive
activation
phenomenon
are
provided
traditionally in terms of the relationship
between genetics and the environment. The
eternal issue of the relationship innateacquired, important for both the human, social
and health sciences, was resumed at the end of
the last millennium and now, at the beginning
of the new millennium, in the hope that the
place of general principles will be taken by
specific data and methods. The genetics,
however important it may be, and however
relevant are genetic research data on twins,
adoption or otherwise, does not explain the
great variability of human nature.
Psychological
research
of
environmental influences and their relevance
to the field of education tries to respond
increasingly more to the challenge launched
by Piaget, to avoid generalizations on
valuation of family and environmental
influences and finding concrete ways to
change the cognitive development progress of
a child.
The concept of cognitive education
From the theoretical perspective,
cognitive education is linked to the concepts
of intellectual potential and of the proximal
development area (Vygotski, 1971), plasticity
and adaptability of the brain (Luria, 1961,
Cohen, 1982, Changeux, 1983), mediation and
changeability (Vygotsky, 1978, Feuerstein,
1980, Nyborg, 1983). In Vygotsky's view,
cognitive mediation means the acquisition by
667
children, in their own social context, the

cognitive tools needed to solve problems
(primarily of the problems related to school).
Thus, higher process cognitive development is
based on mediated collaboration by verbal
interaction. Based on these concepts, we can
assert that cognitive education is a facilitating
intervention, intentional, from the learning
environment, intervention that leads to
intellectual development and cognitive
changeability in the child. Cognitive education
is led by a teacher interested in improving
some aspects of cognitive functioning
systematically, by virtue of a methodology
based on the learning psychology.
R. Feuersteins mediated learning theory
Feuerstein said that: the person who
mediates the learning process enriches the
interaction between the child and the
environment with elements that do not belong
to the actual situation, but are part of a world
of meanings and intentions derived from a
variety of attitudes, values, goals and means
transmitted through culture."
Feuersteins Instrumental Enrichment
method (IE), is part of the category of
cognitive education and focuses on that part of
the education that is highly capable of change:
the child and the childs teacher. The main
objectives of this method are:
To increase the skills of teachers that
can provide children life experiences
significant for their cognitive growth.
The development of main cognitive
skills by: promoting notional language
development
of
children
and
adolescents with learning difficulties;
provision and acquisition by children
of the instrumental conceptual systems
with which they can understand the
world and can adapt to it better, can
acquire and operate new knowledge

and can show creativity in their entire
activity.
Teacher awareness of its power to
drive the learning capacity of students.
The specificity of Feuersteins concept
and method is the emphasis on the adult role
in the emergence of progress in children
thinking and learning abilities. The parent, the
teacher or other intervening person thus
becomes the organizer of such life experiences
that lead to cognitive training and its structural
changes. Mediated learning experiences
explain the diversity of human nature and its
ability to change.
Although he emphasizes rather quite
enough the cognitive aspects of changeability,
Feuerstein does not ignore at all the affectivemotivational and social aspects. Cognition and
emotion are two sides of the same coin, says
Piaget. Feuerstein considers cognition as the
"royal road" of changing the function of the
individual. Once the individual has been
provided with an adequate vocabulary, with
accuracy and comparative behavior, with good
hypothetical thinking and correct ways to
draw conclusions, it shall be able to gain more
emotional insight and other experiences.
Cognition must reach motivation. Due to
mediation and acquisition of mediated
learning experience "difficult children" often
completely change their behavior. The
Instrumental Enrichment Program (namely IE)
is a set of instruments systemically composed
that create mediated learning experiences.
The application of the Instrumental
enrichment method may be an answer to
issues raised by the necessary changes in the
content and aims of education. As the
European Commission asserts in "Towards a
cognitive society" (1995) the White Paper of
education for European societies in transition
now, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium - a
deep transformation of the education system,
of the teachers way of thinking and working
is required, but also a concern for improving
the learning ability of children. These changes
are necessary given that a significant number
of children are not provided with the
educational needs in the existing system of
education. The recommendations of the said
White Paper, target inter alia, the

development of children learning capacity,
through development of the learning to learn
skills. As a result, some governments like
Spain and Belgium have introduced explicitly
the "learning to learn skills" and the "learning
social skills" in their educational programs.
Reuven Feuerstein believes that there
are two main learning ways: the first by direct
approach and the second by mediated
experiences. The differences in cognitive
development cannot be explained only by
genetics differences, nor by environmental
influences by factors such as socioeconomic
status of parents, cultural differences or family
origin. Without denying the existence and
relevance of the mentioned factors, Feuerstein
refers to these conditions as distal factors of
differential cognitive development. What
really produces a difference is the proximate
factor which Feuerstein called the Mediated
learning experience. This is defined as the
quality of interaction between the person who
learns and develops and the persons tat
provide support in development (Fig. 1), such
as teachers, parents, caretakers that interpose
between a stimulus from the environment and
the individual, to ensure that the stimulus is
perceived, mastered and integrated accurately.
Changeability is a natural feature of the
body: "the connections network (nerve) is
constantly changed internally by hormonal
changes and other physiological changes that
occur during growth, and externally, by
learning experiences. This feature of the
human psyche is not only a prerequisite for
development, but also a result of external
influences on the individual. According to
Feuerstein (1998), changeability depends on
the quality of interac tions between children
and adults that surround them and educate
them, quality that can be characterized by
intentionality,
transcendence,
meaning
mediation, reciprocity, responsibility etc.
Led by their own intentions and based
on their own cultural background, mediators
filter and select specific mediation stimuli,
organize and classify the selected stimuli
within a particular context, adjust the reactions
of the mediated person, interpret stimuli and
give them meaning and get motivation and
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interest - all in a way to increase efficiency of

learning.
Children learn much through direct
exposure to the stimuli. They learn much by
imitation and identification. But mediated
learning is a different way of learning than
direct exposure to stimuli. Basic cognitive
functions are created through mediated
learning experiences that manifest as a means
of adapting to a changing world.
The European Commission has made
some important suggestions in its White
Paper, called "Towards a cognitive society"
(1995). This charter states that: in order to
avoid exclusion and provide optimal
opportunities for all students, especially to
those who are on the verge of elimination
from mainstream schools as they were not
able to meet the demands of the curriculum,
schools should not be limited to teaching skills
and knowledge, but should invest more in the
development of general cognitive learning
skills. This involves changing the goals of
education. For adaptation, children must learn
how to learn. This requires the development of
appropriate cognitive skills, for example
information identification and development
and for communication own solutions must be
found. Children must also learn how to work
together.
Cultural deprivation and cognitive
functions
Mediation is the main method by
which culture is transmitted from one
generation to another. The natural trend of
each generation of all ethnic groups is
mediating the cultural wealth of the younger
generation, a fundamental necessity and a
generally valid phenomenon. This tradition is
threatened by the current technological,
industrial and urban culture. By lack of
669
availability, of time, of energy, many adults

fail to convey values, cultural meanings,
history and tradition to their children. They no
longer explain their children what they know
about the world, they do not transmit them
their own experiences, they tell them fewer
stories, but let the TV to fulfill this mission;
they no longer sing enough, they dont answer
their children questions. Several factors are
involved: socio-economic poverty, singleparent families, and the domination of
electronic media. In addition, the alienation of
extended family members in large cities due to
mobility and migration, or the temporary or
permanent abandonment of children in
childcare institutions. The result is that many
children are left to learn directly from
environmental stimuli, in the absence of adult
mediation. According to Feuerstein, this lack
of mediation endangers the cognitive
development of children. Thus the most
common cause of learning deficits is,
according to R. Feuerstein, poor mediation
experience received by the children from the
adults.
Mediated learning experience and learning
processes (Mediational Learning
Experience - EML)
Child's independent learning ability
depends on adequate experience for mediated
learning. Only "those best equipped children"
learn on their own. These well equipped
children benefited from mediated learning
experience and therefore they have developed
all cognitive functions required for
autonomous production of information. This is
not the case for most children; they must learn
how to think and analyze problems. Therefore
the teacher must become a mediator rather
than an instructor skilled at teaching specific
content and skills training.
Its never too late to change the

teaching method. All human beings can
benefit from the forms of mediated learning
experiences, experiences adapted to each
individual.
4. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Hoffman,

M. (1979). The dynamic assessment of
retarded performers: The learning
potential assessment device (LPAD).
Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
5. Lidz, C (2000). Dynamic assessment,
Guilford Publications, New York.
6. Miclea, M. (2003). Psihologie
Cognitiv. Editura Polirom, Ed. a II-a.
Bucureti
7. Skuy, M. (2002)- Experiena
nvrii mediate n clas i n afara
acesteia, ASCR, Cluj, Romnia.
8. Veronica Blbie Dezvoltarea
psihic a copilului normal i
patologic- Ed.PIM Iai, 2006
9. Todor Otilia,(2014) Feuerstein
Method,
Editura
Universitii
Transilvania, Braov.
10. Todor Otilia,(2014) Feuerstein
program,
experimental
research
design,
Editura
Universitii
Transilvania, Braov .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. R. Feuerstein (Ed.), Instrumental
enrichment. Baltimore: University
Park Press, 1980; J. M. Martinez
Beltrn, J. Lebeer, R. Garbo (Eds.), Is
Intelligence
Modifiable.
Madrid:
Bruno, 1998.
2. Feuerstein, R. & Jensen, M. (1980).
Instrumental Enrichment: Theoretical
basis, goals, and instruments. The
Educational Forum, 44:401-423.
3. Feuerstein, R., Klein, P., &
Tannenbaum,
A.
(Eds.)(1991).
Mediated
learning
experience:
Theoretical,
psychosocial,
and
learning implications. Tel Aviv and
London: Freund.
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PERSONALITY, IDENTITY AND PSYCHIC MATURITY

Florin VANCEA
University Lecturer PhD, Spiru Haret University, Brasov.
ABSTRACT: This paper aims to study the connection between the identity construction and psychic
maturity as fundamental elements of personality. In addition to the clarification and description of some
important terms like identity, maturity, Self, Ego, the paper demonstrates the relations between
the statuses of identity and the obtained levels of maturity, by means of scientific research. The identity
and the psychic maturity describe in their correlation the archetypal phenomena: Who am I? and The
Great Journey. The Great Journey (individuation, self-becoming, actualization, Self-accomplishment)
is still present among human beings, just as it was in ancient times.
The research demonstrated the essential connection between the identity construction process and the
psychic maturation process. The psychic maturity level reached by an individual depends on the way in
which he succeeds in accepting and going through identity crises, eventually assuming a clear, precise
and authentic personal identity. We cannot talk about psychic maturity as long as the person in question
is not concerned with his/her own identity and either blocks his/her differentiation process in relation to
the identities of the parents, or he/she absorbs some of their identity, consciously or less consciously.
KEY-WORDS: personality, identity construction, identity status, psychic maturity.
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to study the connection
between the identity construction and psychic
maturity as fundamental elements of
personality. In addition to the clarification and
description of some important terms like
identity, maturity, Self, Ego, the
paper demonstrates the relations between the
statuses of identity and the obtained levels of
maturity, by means of scientific research. The
identity and the psychic maturity describe in
their correlation the archetypal phenomena:
Who am I? and The Great Journey. The
Great Journey (individuation, self-becoming,
actualization, Self-accomplishment) is still
present among human beings, just as it was in
ancient times.
Modern psychology is required to lay a
special emphasis on this process of finding
671
ones own identity and of accession to a

certain degree of psychic maturity. These
phenomena should rather be cultivated when
studying personality, instead of being ignored.
G. Allport reinforces the same idea in the
following statement psychology should not
be satisfied with studying an artificial human,
it should also describe and explain the real
man, whose main trait is his individuality [2]
2. IDENTITY FORMATION
Erik Erikson [3] presented the Ego
development theory in order to justify the
interaction
between
historical,
social,
psychological factors and the developmental
factors in personality formation. Erikson
described the major factors that contribute to
the identity formation during adolescence. He
argued the fact that every society provided a
set and programmed period of time for the

identity completion. While he admitted there
were many variations in the duration, intensity
and ritualization of adolescence (its
rhythmicity), he also proposed the idea that
societies offered a psychosocial moratorium
according to which the teenager is expected to
commit for life and to establish a relative selfdefinition. Every moratorium comes along
with crises. A crisis is a normative life event
defining a crucial moment when development
has to change one way or another, thus
generating resources of growth, recovery and
major differentiation. It seems these crises are
benefic, in the sense that they determine the
individual to explore the alternatives offered
by life and achievable through a serious
commitment.
Based on the two dimensions from
Eriksons theory about the identity formation,
James Marcia (1966) [4] conceptualized four
types of identity formation. The two
dimensions include the presence and the
absence of a crisis period and the presence or
the absence of well-defined and stable
commitment to values, beliefs and standards.
Society expects the teenagers crisis period at
youth. Before entering in the psycho and social
moratorium, the young ones do not go through
a motivational identity. Thus, he or she may
not feel the need to explore alternatives and at
the same time they may fail to establish some
ideological commitments. These young people
belongto theidentity diffusion category.
The second category is represented by
young people who report stable commitments,
but have not gone through a personalized
period of crises. They adopt commitments
from others (especially from the parents) and
they did not test the commitments they state to
be appropriate for themselves. They easily
accept others commitments and then they
possess them without adjusting or modifying
them. This process seems to be similar to the
precocious identifications from the childhood.
These young people are tagged in the identity
foreclosure category.
The third category includes young people
who currently express their identity,
preoccupation for identity crises and active
exploration, but who did not reach to their own
self-defined commitments. These young

people are considered to be in the
moratorium.
Finally, the young people who went
through a psychological moratorium and had
performed substantial explorations regarding
the unique and intimate ideological
commitment identification are placed in the
identity achievement category.
By taking over Eriksons ideas, Marcia
shows that identity is an evolving
configuration which tends to enter one or four
situations of identity at any time. However,
over time, the individual may change and may
belong to another category.
3. PSYCHIC MATURITY
In this paper, psychic maturity is
understood in the humanistic psychology
terms of self-actualization and selfachievement. By studying sane and, at the
same time, exemplary subjects, Abraham
Maslow [5] outlined the psychology of
becoming which is based on understanding the
motivation that guides the human to the final
stage of personality development: fulfilling all
potentials. Maslow prefers the term Selfactualization. He defines this concept as an
ongoing process of actualizing potentials,
abilities and talents, of fulfilling a mission
(given by fate, destiny or vocation), the
knowledge of full acceptance of the intrinsic
nature, a permanent tendency towards unity,
integration or synergy. [5] Every human has
this tendency of actualization which leads him
to his own path in life.
When it is not blocked, the actualization
process leads to an integrated, self-achieved
and mature personality with the following
characteristics: a superior perception of reality,
a greater acceptance of others, nature and
oneself, spontaneity, affinity and naturalness,
focus on problems instead of oneself, need for
intimacy and independence, rich variety of
emotional reactions, going through some
peak or mystical experiences, high
identification
with
humanity,
social
interests,
improving
interpersonal
relationships,
balanced
interpersonal
relationships,
democratic
structure
of
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character, increased creativity, resistance to

enculturation.
Carl Rogers [7] shows in his theory that
every human being has a tendency towards
self-actualization. The actualization or Selfachievement is a process, a tendency and not a
finite product. Rogers uses the term selfactualizing person. Personality development
is an ongoing process, a perpetual change that
ends with the person living plenary: the fully
functioning person. According to Rogers, the
person with the plenary functioning has the
following traits:
a. Awareness of all experiences, acceptance
of experiences and emotions (positive or
negative), inexistence of self-defense
mechanisms;
b. Capacity of fully living each moment;
c. Self-confidence;
d. Possibility
to
manifest
freely,
experiencing a feeling of personal power;
e. Increased creativity, spontaneity.
4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHOD
The purpose of this research is to study the
correlation between identity formation and the
levels of psychic maturity. It is a quantitative,
statistical type of research.
Objectives
O.1. To identify instruments measuring the
identity statuses on the one hand, and the level
of psychic maturity on the other hand.
O.2. To determine the existing relation
between the identity statuses and the level of
psychic maturityin the investigated sample.
General hypothesis
In this research, we started from the
hypothesis according to which there is a
correlation between identity and psychic
maturity.
673
Work hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference from
the psychic maturity standpointbetween
subjects withidentity diffusion and those with
identity moratorium.
subjects with identity diffusion and those
withidentity achievement.
subjects with identity foreclosure and those
with identity moratorium.
the psychic maturity standpoint between
with identity achievement.
Study sample
The research was conducted on a sample
of 40 persons, aged 20-40, from different work
fields. No subject selection criterion was
applied. They manifested their desire to
participate in the research and they gave their
consent to participation. The data obtained
from the research are confidential and only
used in this study. The gender repartition of
the sample was: 39% males and 61% females.
The w ork ins truments o f the
quantitative-statistical study were:
1. The objective measure of ego identity
status OMEIS, Adams, Gerald, R. (1998). It
measures the identity statuses. The test
consists of 64 items and was developed
according to Marcias theory.
2. The SLP (Styles of Living Preferences)
personality inventory was elaborated in 1983
by psychologists Gail Maul from the Riverside
City College and Terry Maul from San
Bernadino Valley College in order to capture
the traits mentioned above and established by
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow for an
optimal, integrated person. The scale can

reflect the self-actualization and integration
process of the ego, by studying the way in
which persons react to different life situations.
To this end, it presents a series of 50
situations, each of them with two extremes.
Results regarding identity statuses
The OMEIS test measured the two identity
groups: the ideological identity and the
interpersonal identity, as well as four identity
statuses: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium
and achievement.
a. Ideological identity.
As it can be noticed in fig. 1, 15 subjects,
namely 37.5% of the sample, revealedthe
ideological identity diffusion; 4 subjects,
namely 10% of the sample, revealed
ideological identity foreclosure; 13 subjects,
namely 32.5% of the sample, revealed
ideological identity moratorium and 8 subjects,
namely 20% of the sample, revealed
ideological identity achievement.
Fig. 2. The frequency of the interpersonal

identity statuses
Identity statuses and maturity levels

Figures 3 and 4 present the means of the
scores obtained on psychological maturity
according to identity statuses.
Fig. 3. The mean of the maturity scores

according to the statuses of ideological identity
Fig. 1. The frequency of the ideological
identity statuses
b. Interpersonal identity
As it can be noticed in fig. 2: 17 subjects,
namely
42.5%
of
the
sample,
revealedinterpersonal identity diffusion; 3
subjects, namely 7.5% of the sample, revealed
interpersonal identity foreclosure; 5 subjects,
namely 12.5% of the sample, revealed
interpersonal identity moratorium and 15
subjects, namely 37.5% of the sample revealed
interpersonal identity achievement.
Fig. 4. The mean of the maturity scores

according to the statuses of interpersonal identity
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The results of the research regarding the

correlations between variables
The t test for individual samples was used
when comparing the means of the maturity
scores of the subjects with different identity
statuses. After applying it, the results for the
work hypotheses are the following:
subjects with identity diffusion and those with
identity moratorium.
The statistical processing in SPSS showed
that the differences were significant at the
p=0.013 threshold for the ideological identity
status and insignificant at the p=0.166
threshold for the interpersonal status.
Hypothesis 1 is confirmed for the ideological
status and infirmed for the interpersonal one.
As far as the ideological identity status is
concerned, the maturity level is higher in
identity moratorium than in identity diffusion.
Therefore, the subjects with identity
moratorium are more mature than those with
identity diffusion. When it comes to the
interpersonal identity status, identity diffusion
and identity moratorium do not influence the
maturity level.
subjects with identity diffusion and those with
identity achievement.
that the differences were insignificant at the
status. For the interpersonal identity status, the
differences were also insignificant at the
p=0.307 threshold. Therefore, hypothesis 2 is
infirmed, as there are no significant
differences in any of the statuses and identity
types that could influence the maturity level.
675

with identity moratorium.
status and also significant at the p=0.001
threshold for the interpersonal identity status.
Hypothesis 3 is confirmed both for the
ideological and interpersonal identity status. In
both cases, the subjects with identity
moratorium are more mature than those with
identity foreclosure.
with identity achievement.
p=0.018 threshold for the interpersonal
identity status and insignificant at the p=0.167
threshold for the ideological identity status.
Hypothesis 4is confirmed for the interpersonal
identity status and infirmed for the ideological
one. As far as the interpersonal identity status
is concerned, the subjects with identity
achievement are more mature than those with
identity foreclosure. When it comes to the
ideological
identity
status,
identity
achievement or identity foreclosure do not
influence the maturity level.
Taking into account the confirmed
hypotheses, the general hypothesis according
to which there is a correlation between identity
and psychic maturity is also confirmed.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND
DISCUSSIONS
The research demonstrated the essential
connection between the identity construction
process and the psychic maturation process.
The psychic maturity level reached by an
individual depends on the way in which he

succeeds in accepting and going through
identity crises, eventually assuming a clear,
precise and authentic personal identity. We
cannot talk about psychic maturity as long as
the person in question is not concerned with
his/her own identity and either blocks his/her
differentiation process in relation to the
identities of the parents, or he/she absorbs
some of their identity, consciously or less
consciously.
Consciously assuming the Who am I?
topic and going through the sometimes painful
process of differentiation from parents, as well
as seeking for ones own path are component
parts of psychic maturity.
REFERENCES
1. Adams, Gerald, R. The Objective
Measure of Ego Identity Status. A Reference
Manual (1998).
2. Allport, Gordon, W. Structure and

personality development. Bucureti: Editura
Didactic i pedagogic (1991).
3. Erik, Erikson, H. Childhood and
Society. New York: Editura W.W. Norton &
Company (1963).
4. Marcia, E, James. Development and
validation of ego identity status. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 3, Nr.
5, p. 551-558. State University of New York
at
Buffalo.
http://www.learningtheories.com/identity-status-theorymarcia.html (1966). Available: 28 April 2013.
5. Maslow,
A.
Motivation
and
Personality, Ed. Trei, Bucureti (2007).
6. Mnzat, I., coord. Psychology of Self,
Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti (2000).
7. Rogers. C. R. On becoming a person,
Ed. Trei, Bucureti (2008).
8. Vancea, F., The valences of a personal
development module focused on unification,
PhD Thesis, coord. Univ. Prof. PhD Iolanda
Mitrofan, University of Bucharest (2012).
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INMATES PERCEPTION, MOTIVATION AND FEELINGS TOWARDS

SCHOOL ON EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED IN GIURGIU
PRISON
Petronela Sorina VRBAN*, Florin Marian ANTONESCU**
*Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania,
** Faculty of Social Sciences, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romamia

Abstract: This study is based on the legislative framework that regulates the educational and
psychosocial activities in Romanian prisons, specifically the Law 254/2013 of penal execution and the
Law 1/2011 of national education. The study has as starting point certain researches in the field of
education regarding the way in which is perceived the professor (Fraser, 1996; Wubbels and Levy,
1993), but also the learning activity (Waugh, 2001) and the individuals feelings towards school (Essex,
1997; Wulfsohn, 2000; Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). The study intends to approach another
category of persons the inmates held in Giurgiu Prison, who attends educational activities. For this
study, we selected three types of activities: school, training activities, and educational activities
conducted by the educator of each prison ward in order to identify the way in which the inmates,
according to their age, criminal record and relationships with their families, have different perceptions,
motivations and feelings towards school/educational activities conducted by the Educational Bureau of
Giurgiu Prison. The European Council approved on 13 October 1989 the following: All inmates should
have the right to education; this should include basic education, vocational training, creative and
cultural activities, physical education and sports, social education and library facilities.
Keywords: inmates, perception, motivation, feelings towards school
1.1 Educational activ

adulthood
ities in
The term education of adults is relatively recent,

although historically, since 1919, in the UK was
established the Adult Education Committee.
For centuries persisted the belief that education is
achieved in the first period of human life, i.e. in
childhood. In fact, it was believed that there are
three major sequences of human life: childhood,
characterized by education; maturity, when
predominates work; and old age, which is thought
to be a period of peace and relaxation after so
many years of work. Gradually, the industrial labor
changed the entire content of human life, education
677
being extended beyond childhood. Even the strong

development of university education in the last
century and the beginning of twentieth century,
shows that it was necessary to continue training
and education in adulthood.
The learning process is defined this days from
many perspectives: transformation of individual
psychological consciousness (Piaget, 1987); to
complete and promote changes of human
behavioral organization (Osterrieth, 1986);
changing the positive value of human rational
behavior (Cerghit, 1994); process of assimilation
and practice of information, values and human
actions (Vintau, 1984) etc.

In fact, the learning process is the continuous
construction and reconstruction of an inner pattern
of knowledge, appreciation and action in relation
to the world in which we live. It is also a
humanization process through which individuals
acquire new human qualities with which they can
establish a relatively stable balance with social,
cultural, professional and natural environment.
Psychologists have highlighted some particularities
of adults involved in learning process. Adults feel
the need to be actively involved in determining
what and how they will learn, preferring active and
not passive learning situation. They rely on their
own forces and therefore, prefer to work
independently. Adults have also concrete and
immediate necessities. They become impatient and
nervous when teachers give long speeches on
theory, preferring to see the practical application of
that theory. They are rather task-centered or
problem-centered than topic-centered. This does
not mean that they are not interested in theory: for
them it is important to see also the application of
theory. Adults have an extensive life experience
gained over the years which must be exploited.
individuals, the following question arises: How can

we form a perception of other that will reflect as
much as possible the objective reality?
When we refer to education in prison, we actually

are referring to education of adults.
process
1.2 How does the adult perceive the

teacher?
It is very difficult to get an accurate picture of the
people with whom we develop relationships. In
fact, it is impossible to obtain such a picture, we
can only tend toward the formation of a correct and
more complex image. The difficulty of outlining
the other image arises not only from the
complexity of the perceived object, but also from
the characteristics of the subject who perceives and
the process of perception of other itself (Chelcea,
1994).
Different persons perceive the same person
differently because of the importance they attach to
a different trait and, the different evaluation of that
trait as positive or negative. A teacher can consider
ambition as a quality, while other may consider it a
flaw. Therefore, differences may occur in the other
perception because of the value system of the
perceiver. It was also found that when it comes to
the perception of others, people tend to give more
importance to negative information than to positive
information.
Given how important the accurate perception of a
person is, both in order to optimize the
communication in educational context and in
general, in all social interaction between
One answer will be the following: the achievement

of awareness of individual, promotion of openness
to others, rising the interest in observing
individuals; all these can only be achieved through
education.
1.3 Motivation of adult learning

1. The motivation of learning in adulthood is a
generalizing notion that includes psychological
formations (interests attitudes) and personality
needs (performance/success), which are subject to
lifetime structural and content changes.
2. Motivating adults to learn is a psychopedagogical and socio-economical process
achieved at the level of interference of personality
identities (professional, social-civic, parental, and
marital), work and learning activities, and habitual
dimensions of motivation.
1.4 Adults feelings to
wards learning
Level of development, which refers to physical,

cognitive and personality development and of roles
through the entire existence, is considered the first
indicator of analysis of adult learning. The starting
point is the approaches taken to provide
opportunities for learning and development, taking
into account the differences between the two
notions as they are defined by Pedler et al. (1989):
learning means the increasing knowledge or
obtaining a higher level of already existing skills,
and development means moving into another stage
of being or function.
Feelings towards these two process are related to
the persons that need to learn, their desire to
develop, their extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
The feelings of persons are also related to their
experience with learning.
2. Objectives and hypotheses

2.1 The objectives of the research:
The general objective of this study is to
investigate the differences in perception of
professor-student interaction, feelings towards
school and academic/learning motivation of
inmates held in Giurgiu Prison, according to their
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age, criminal records and contact with their

families.
O.1: To investigate the differences in
perception of professor-student interaction and
feelings towards school according to the inmates
age.
academic/learning motivation according to the
inmates criminal record.
inmates contact with their families.
2.2 The hypotheses of the research:
The general hypothesis of this study is to assume
that there are differences in perception of
families.
I.2.2: We expect to find differences in

I.3: We assume that there are differences in
3. The method:
3.1 The participants:
The study has 100 male participants, inmates held
at Giurgiu Maximum Security Prison, with ages
between 21 and 65 (M=35.16; SD=10.62), which
were the direct beneficiaries of educational
activities designed and implemented by the
Education Bureau of Giurgiu Prison. In the graphs
below we can see the characteristics of our group
as defined by the following variables: age, years
served in prison, criminal record, and types of
educational activities attended.
I.1. We assume that there are differences in

feelings towards school according to the inmates
age.
perception of professor-student interaction
according to the inmates age.
I.1.2: We expect to find differences in feelings
towards school according to the inmates age.
I.2: We assume that there are differences in
perception of professor-student interaction
according to the inmates criminal record.
679
Graph no.1: distribution of inmates by the

educational activities and criminal record.
Chart no. 1 shows three groups of activities that
are designed and conducted by the Education
Bureau of Giurgiu Maximum Security Prison,
attended both by first-time imprisoned offenders
and recidivists. Thus, we see that: in the group of

inmates attending school, 9 are incarcerated for
the first-time and 10 are recidivist; in the group of
inmates attending vocational training courses, 23
are incarcerated for the first-time and 20 are
recidivists; in the group of inmates participating
at educational activities designed and conducted
by the educator of prison ward, 25 are
incarcerated for the first-time and 13 are
recidivists.
Graph no.3: distribution of inmates by age and

criminal record.
Graph no.3 shows three age groups, obtained by
percentile division of age variable: group of
inmates of 21 to 28 years old (M=24.94; SD=1.80),
of which:16 are imprisoned for the first time and
18 are recidivists; group of 29-38 years old
(M=33.38; SD=3.03), of which: 17 are for the firsttime in prison, and 15 are recidivists; group of 3965 years old (M=47.06; SD=8.38), of which: 24
are incarcerated for the first-time and 10 are
recidivists.
3.2. The instruments:
Data were collected by means of the scale:
Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction, Feelings
about School and Academic intrinsic-extrinsic
motivation scale.
Graph no.2: distribution of inmates by age and

number of years served in prison.
Graph no.2 shows three age groups, obtained
by percentile division of age variable: group of
inmates of 21 to 28 years old (M=24.94;
SD=1.80), of which: 9 have served between 1
and 2 years of imprisonment, 21 have served
between 3 and 5 years and 4 have served
between 6 and 20 years of imprisonment;
group of 29-38 years old (M=33.38; SD=3.03),
of which: 12 have executed between 1 and 2
years in prison, 14 have executed between 3
and 5 years and 6 have executed between 6 and
20 years of imprisonment; group of 39-65
years old (M=47.06; SD=8.38), of which: 4
have executed between 1 and 2 years in prison,
10 have executed between 3 and 5 years and
20 have served between 6 and 20 years of
imprisonment.
Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI) was

developed to assess the nature and quality of the
interaction between teachers and students and
(Fraser, 1996; Wubbels and Levy, 1993). The QTI
was developed to assess student perceptions of the
four behavior aspects.
Feelings about School is a 24-item measure of
positive and negative affect regarding school. It
was developed by Essex (1997) based on the
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et
al., 1988) as a questionnaire. Each item is rated on
a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = a
lot to indicate the extent to which the child
expresses the indicated affect.
Academic intrinsic-extrinsic motivation scale
(Waugh, 2001), with two subscales: intrinsic/
extrinsic motivation.
Table 1. The Descriptive statistics of the measured
variables
Variable
Democratic interaction
Supportive interaction
Permissive interaction
Unpredictable
interaction
Feelings about School
Academic intrinsic
motivation
Academic extrinsic
motivation
Mean
4.13
4.05
2.31
2.08
Std.
deviation
1.26
.77
.66
.46
Cronbach
alpha
.77
.66
.65
.63
3.76
3.78
.58
.83
.69
.59
4.20
.84
.63
In Table 1 are: means, standard deviation and

Alpha coefficient, for the scores obtained by the
participants at the scale: Questionnaire on Teacher
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Interaction, Feelings about School and Academic

intrinsic-extrinsic motivation scale. As shown in
the table below: the highest value was obtained at
the scale about conceptions of academic extrinsic
motivation. The lowest value was obtained at scale
unpredictable interaction with the teacher.
4. The results:
Collected data were computed using program
SPSS 13. The results can be observed in tables 2,
3, 4, 5 and 6.
To test the hypotheses of this study were used:
ANOVA statistical procedure and t test for
independent samples.
Levene test (table 2) shows an equal dispersion
between groups only for variable - Democratic
interaction (p =0.507
0.05), Permissive
interaction (p =0.397 0.05), Academic extrinsic
motivation (p =0.930 0.05), Academic intrinsic
motivation (p =0.885 0.05), and Feelings about
School (p =0.937
0.05) but not for other
variables as Supportive interaction (p = 0.04
0.05) and Unpredictable interaction (p 0.001
0.05), which the account was taken in subsequent
interpretation of results.
Table 2. Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Democratic
interaction
Supportive
interaction
Permissive
interaction
Unpredictable
interaction
Feelings about
School
Levene
Statistic
df1
df2
Sig.
.687
97
.506
5.828
97
.004
.933
97
.397
37.992
97
.000
.065
97
.937
Permissive interaction (p = 0.766 0.05). There is

a big difference between the two mean squares
(2.160 and .121) and the other subscale means
squares as: teachers supportive interaction,
teachers unpredictable interaction, academic
intrinsic motivation and Feelings about School,
which is a significant statistical difference, and
because are large samples it can be calculate
Bonferoni test (table 4).
Table 3. ANOVA results for the measured
teachers Interaction, inmates motivation and
feelings about school
Democr
atic
interact
ion
Betwee
n
Groups
Within
Groups
Total
Support
ive
interact
ion
Betwee
n
Groups
Within
Groups
Total
Permiss
ive
interact
ion
Betwee
n
Groups
Within
Groups
Total
Unpred
ictable
interact
ion
Betwee
n
Groups
Within
Groups
Total
Feeling
s about
School
Anova table was analyzed (table 2) and showed

that there is no significant statistical difference
between groups for the variable - teachers
democratic interaction (p = 0.262
0.05) and
681
df
Mean
Squar
e
4,324
2.162
154.300
97
1.591
158.625
99
36.342
18.17
1
23.400
97
.241
59.742
99
.242
.121
43.860
97
.452
44.102
99
2.227
1.113
18.786
97
.194
21.012
99
5.423
2.711
28.837
97
.297
34.260
99
Sum of
Squares
Betwee
n
Groups
Within
Groups
Total
Sig.
1.35
9
.262
75.3
24
.000
.268
.766
5.74
9
.004
9.12
0
.000
As can be seen in Table 4, there are statistically

significant differences in the perception of teacher

as supportive, unpredictable, in the intrinsic
academic motivation and also, in the feelings
towards school. Thus, data show that older inmates
perceive the teacher as more supportive than the
younger inmates. Also, younger inmates perceive
the teacher as unpredictable. We can interpret this
result by saying that in prison, older inmates who
participate in educational activities are intrinsically
motivated than younger inmates, as shown in
Table 4. Older inmates have stronger feelings
towards school than younger ones. Life experience,
longer periods of time spent in prison, participation
at several activities conducted by the Education
Bureau succeeded to create a sense of trust in
teachers/educators. On contrary, the youngsters,
having fewer years spent in prison and fewer and
poorer educational experiences, werent able to
clearly define their expectations from teachers,
having a high level of distrust in them.
Table 4. Class differences in teachers Interaction,
inmates motivation and feelings about school
(Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni test)
mistrust in education system can be seen as

pathways favorable to the development of
recidivism. Regarding the activities carried out
during detention, the majority states that these
activities will not be of much help for them after
release from prison. Indeed, ex-prisoners
reintegration on the labor market represents a real
problem, since in times of economic crisis some
firms have restructured and closed their business,
on the one hand and on the other hand, former
prisoners are rejected when they declare that they
are former convicts. To all these is added poverty,
alcoholism, unemployment, drug trafficking, the
promotion of violence, abuses and discrimination
in the media, which are major scourges of
Romania and also, parts of criminality risk factors.
Table 5. Mean, standard deviations and Tcoefficients for relapse status of inmates in
teachers Interaction, and Academic motivation
scale
Scale
Mean
Democratic
interaction
relapse
status of
inmates
No
Yes
4.01
4.29
Std.
Deviat
ion
1.34
1.15
Supportive
interaction
Permissive
interaction
No
Yes
No
Yes
4.14
3.94
2.39
2.20
.81
.71
.64
.68
1.288
Unpredictable
interaction
No
Yes
1.99
2.21
.46
.42
2.372*
-1.082
1.440
Academic
No
4.45
.82
3.641*
extrinsic
*
Yes
3.86
.77
motivation
Academic
No
4.01
.75
3.326*
intrinsic
Yes
3.48
.85
motivation
* p 0.05, **p 0.001 males (n=57); females (n=43)
In order to test the second hypothesis we used T

test for independent samples. According to Table
5, it resulted statistically significant differences.
Thus, recidivist inmates perceive the teacherstudent relationship with apprehension and
mistrust. Their relapse status also highlights their
mistrust in education system of which most of
them didnt attend it, having, as shown in Table 4,
a lower intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
compared with inmates with no criminal record.
Data points out that the lack of education and
In order to test the third hypothesis we used T test

for independent samples. According to Table 6, it
resulted statistically significant differences. Thus,
inmates who keep contact with their families have
a stronger intrinsic motivation than those who do
not maintain contact with their families. This result
can be explain by the fact that the family is the
fulcrum of all of us, especially in difficult times.
Prison is a pathogenic environment, characterized
by the limitation of rights, dramatic lifestyle
changes, major difficulties in preserving
relationships, all of which requiring the inmates to
maximize their coping skills. Internalization of
tasks and shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
motivation can define a path of rehabilitation as
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long as the inmate recognize his guilt. In this way,

educational activities become enjoyable and the
perception of teachers/ educators turns into one of
support. Thus, the inmates will accept and take
advantage of these activities as long as they will
perceive them as beneficial. This perception come
from the intrinsic desire of individuals to evolve,
but also from their family support.
Table 6. Mean, standard deviations and Tcoefficients for: Contact with inmate's family for
teachers Interaction, and Academic motivation
scale
Scale
Contact
with
family
No
Yes
Mean
Std.
Deviat
ion
.80
.88
Academic
4.28
.935
extrinsic
4.12
motivation
Academic
No
3.57
.84
intrinsic
2.649*
Yes
4.00
.77
motivation
* p 0.05, **p 0.001 males (n=57); females (n=43)
5. Conclusions:
The general objective of this study was to
investigate the differences in perception of
families.
We appreciate that the objectives of this study have
been successfully met as the above presented
results confirmed the hypotheses.
Compared with younger inmates, the older ones
perceive the teacher as more supportive. Also, the
older inmates have stronger feelings towards
school than younger inmates. On contrary, the
younger inmates perceive the teacher as
unpredictable. The recidivists perceive the teacherstudent relationship with apprehension and
mistrust. Their relapse status also highlights their
mistrust in education system of which most of
them didnt attend it, having a lower intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation compared with inmates with

no criminal record.
Inmates who keep contact with their families have
a stronger intrinsic motivation than those who do
not maintain contact with their families. This result
can be explain by the fact that family is the
fulcrum of all of us, especially in difficult times.
These results are congruent with the studies of
gender and educational level differences in
conceptions of learning undertaken by Reinaldo J.
Martnez-Fernndez (2009), Tynjl (1999),
Entwistle & McCune, (2004), Paul C. Burnett,
Hitendra Pillay & Barry C Dart (2008). The most
important results of the study are evidence about
the role of gender and educational level on the
students conception of learning. Therefore, the
findings are limited by their assessments, and
further efforts with the use of different scales and
methods may expand these findings. The study is
based on the legislative framework that regulates
the educational and psycho-social activities
conducted in Romanian prisons. Thus, according
the Law 254/2013 of penal execution and the Law
1/2011 of national education, article 13
Aligned (1) Lifelong learning is a right guaranteed
by the law.
Also, the study has as starting point certain
researches in the field of education regarding the
way in which is perceived the professor (Fraser,
1996; Wubbels and Levy, 1993), but also the
learning activity through the quality of motivating
the student (Waugh, 2001) and his/her feelings
about school (Essex, 1997; Wulfsohn, 2000;
Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988).
As further lines of research, we can consider
several types of activities and we can create on the
basis of the obtained results a project based on
career counseling sessions or support groups for
inmates who are no longer supported by their
families. This study could form the basis of the
project as a feasibility study.
References:
683

(Doctoral dissertation, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, 2000). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 61, 2800.
7. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A.
(1988). Development and validation of
brief measures of positive and negative
affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6),
1063-1070.
8. Brown, M., J., I., (2000). Ph.D. thesis,
Univ. Melbourne.
2. Brok, P. den, Levy, J., Brekelmans, M., &

Wubbels, T. (2005). The effect ofteacher
interpersonal
behaviour
on
studentssubject-specific
motivation.
Journal of Classroom Interaction, 40 (2),
20-33.
3. Brown, M., J., I., (2000). Ph.D. thesis,
Univ. Melbourne.
4. Essex, M. (1997). Childrens feelings
about school questionnaire. Unpublished
questionnaire, Wisconsin Study of
Families and Work, University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
5. Butoi, T. i I.T. Tratat universitar de
psihologie judiciar teorie i practic,
Ed. PHOBOS, Bucharest, 2003;
6. Wulfsohn,
S.
(2000).
Childrens
adjustment to first grade: Contributions of
childrens
temperament,
positive
mothering,
and
positive
fathering
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BECOMING A PSYCHOTHERAPIST
Loredana VCU*
*Faculty of Social Sciences, Eftimie Murgu University of Resita, Resita, Romania
Abstract: Professional development in psychotherapy represents a major impact theory in every
psychotherapists life. For a period of at least four year his professional life will be directed towards
training meetings and his life will change. For a practitioner life goes on according to clients schedules.
This material proposes an approach of a few of the most important aspects of professional development
in psychotherapy, but also the perspective of the future psychotherapist. The aspects underlined represent
the consequence of the trainers activity in an association of integrative psychotherapy training.
Keywords: professional development, psychotherapy, trainee.
1. INTRODUCTION
Training in psychotherapy represents for
many colleagues a desire that can become
reality; still it demands a profound analysis of
numerous factors. In a country in which
psychotherapy has found its way with
difficulty, during the last 24years, a paradox
has appeared: the Psychologists College from
Romania (C.O.P.S.I.) over 30 professional
associations demanded an authorization to
become suppliers of professional development.
Regardless all these, accredited associations of
the forum mentioned represent only a small
number of associations that can start courses
of professional development in different forms
of psychotherapy with a duration of at least
four years.
The Psychologists College from Romania
trusts these associations and recognizes their
right to become suppliers of professional
development in a form of psychotherapy, if
these hold at least four accredited trainers as
main psychotherapists in the therapeutic
training they promote.
685
A superposition of meanings is observed

when there is a talk about competency,
aptitude and capability. Sperry L [4] realizes
delimitation between the concepts mentioned.
a. Competency
The competency refers to the potential or
the capacity to perform and to implicate a
large spectrum of professional capacities given
by an external standard. Among the capacities
needed for a competency the following can be
mentioned: the capacity of a critical thinking,
the capacity to analysis, a professional
judgement in a clinical evaluation, decisions
taken on the basis of an evaluation etc.
Moreover, the competency represents the
capacity to evaluate and to modify a decision
by reflexive judgement. [2]
Kaslow [1] states that through a
competency we refer to aptitudes, attitudes and
the manner in which these are integrated.
Competencies represent interactive of an
integrative knowledge, aptitudes, abilities,
behaviours and strategies, believes, values,
personal dispositions and characteristics,
perceptions of the self and the persons
motivation that make him/her able to fulfil the

objectives proposed.
Clinical practice reflects competencies that
can be evaluated according to professional
standards and which can be developed through
professional trainings. [2] In an ideal manner,
a professional development can offer an
experience of integrated learning where
knowledge, aptitudes and attitudes interact and
become clinical competencies. From the
definitions offered to the term competency five
themes can be generated [4]:
capacity;
integration of knowledge, aptitudes and

attitudes;
competencies that are exercised for the

benefit of others;
the evaluation of competencies is

realized on the basis of a standard;
the competency enhancement and

development is made on the basis of
professional development and through
reflection.
a. Competency vs. aptitudes
In most cases the terms competency and
aptitudes are considered synonyms:
a clinical competency is composed of

knowledge, aptitudes, attitudes and behaviours
necessary for professional practice;
the aptitude is a simple capacity gained

through training but which doesnt hold the
components of attitude or an exterior standard
of evaluation.
b. Capability
The capability represents the persons
conviction that he/she can overcome the
minimum standard of acquisition of a
competency and also expresses the capacity to
change circumstances when knowledge is
extended and performance is improved. In
psychotherapy capability refers to the
endeavour of becoming an expert or a master
in therapy. [5]
The psychotherapy domain is determined
by three factors:
the therapists vocation for psychotherapy;
strategies of developing an expertise;
the manner of exercise of therapeutic
practice.
Becoming a competent professional
supposes the capacity to properly and
efficiently use knowledge, aptitudes and
attitudes in order to perform professional

activity at a high level. Becoming a
professional supposes the acquisition of a
content of competencies. The profess demands
the following of five stages [3]:
a.
beginner the psychotherapist has a
limited knowledge and understanding of how
to analyse problems; he holds a set of
principles and techniques that he applies
without expertise;
b.
advanced beginner psychotherapist - he
has a limited capacity for pattern knowledge
and in the application of intervention
techniques. Moreover, in this stage the
therapists have difficulties in generating
acquisitions for new situations and new
clients. The rules and principles previously
learnt become guidelines;
c.
minimally competent psychotherapist he works independently, he has learnt a
minimum level of competencies necessary for
the practicing of an independent business.
Psychotherapist in this stage can conceive
plans of psychotherapeutic intervention
adapted to the clients needs;
d.
proficient - the psychotherapist has a
greater integrative understanding of the client
and his performance and activity is guided by
flexibility and understanding all therapy
conditions. During this stage, the therapist is
capable to organize professional development
trainings and to supervise other colleagues;
e.
expert - the psychotherapist has a great
intuition and rapidly evaluates cases,
recognizes is interventions must be changed.
The expert therapists professional and private
lives are integrated, being efficient as
consultants and supervisors. He is often
admired by his clients and considered master
therapist.
Competency elements represent key
activities, subdivisions of the activities
described in the competency unity from the
standard of professional development as a
relevant and evaluable result.
The
realization
criteria
represent
qualitative landmarks associated to the results
of activities from competency elements and
are considered to be fulfilled when the
competency elements are correctly and
independently realized by the trainee.
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2.
TRAINING FROM THE PERSPECTIVE

OF THE ASSOCIATION OF TRAINING IN
PSYCHOTHERAPY
The image of a professional association of

training in psychotherapy is realized in time and it
is created by verticality, by a continuous
professional development, by the trainers
professional experience, on one side, and on the
other side by the clients content, professional
training and the trust that they will become what
they have proposed to.
Maintaining a positive image objectively based
on the market of suppliers of professional
development in psychotherapy is one of the main
objectives of a training association.
Another objective of the association of
formation in psychotherapy is to create from
trainees, future psychotherapists, an ethos of the
great family of therapist to which these belong to.
In this process of creation of the ethos, the trainees
are explained that the respect manifested towards
their formation colleagues is also extended to
colleagues from other therapeutic orientations.
Colleagues are remembered that All roads
lead to Rome, that the respect for other
therapeutic orientations express for a future
therapist the respect offered to him. The same
respect is reflected in the relation with the client.
The therapeutic relation is a mutual one, in which
the clients needs are respected and the therapists
qualities
(empathy,
authenticity,
respect,
congruence etc.) represent the main ingredients of
the therapeutic success.
The key to success of an association of training
in psychotherapy is to maintain a standard of
professional and personal development, to offer
clients the maximum possible of trainers
competency. The trainers competency is the
consequence
of
continuous
professional
development, of a solid personal development. In
the same manner as clients are unique, future
therapists found in training are also unique, they
have their own needs for development, and they
are found in different stages of personal
development and have different levels of
687
knowledge. The trainers task is difficult and

maybe his most important quality is relational
flexibility.
With every trainee a unique
professional connection is established and the
trainee being part of a group the connection made
by the trainer with the trainee group is also unique.
The trainer needs updated theoretical training,
being the main person that opens for the trainer an
epistemic knowledge door. The substantiation of
theoretical knowledge transmitted is meaningless
without examples offered by the trainers clinical
practice. The future psychotherapists are adult
persons and leaning for adults is different from
leaning for students. Here an intervention of trainer
therapists ability is observed, to make himself
understood, to transmit the information on the
most appropriate communication channel to the
trainee. The mastery needed to realize the objective
of transmitting information is called pedagogic
tact.
Trainees have the tendency to copy the
trainer, fact which is explained in the beginning of
becoming a therapist, because the external
reference is represented by the trainer and the
supervisor. Still, the external supervisor will be
internalized and the trainee is explained that he
will grow inside his own internal supervisor,
created by his style of therapeutic intervention.
This is the final purpose of the psychotherapists
development, to create his own psychotherapeutic
style.
Ethic and professional codes intervene is there
are serious deviations from therapeutic practice
and from professional development ethics from the
trainers side.
3. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ACCORDING TO THE TRAINEE, THE
FUTURE PSYCHOTHERAPIST
The process of becoming a psychotherapist
trainee is not an easy one. The decision to start a
professional development in psychotherapy
supposes the intervention of more factors: costs,
time and delegations.

Training in integrative psychotherapy is a new
field in Romania. During each module the student
tries to find answers to the most frequent
questions: what is integrative psychotherapy?
and what have we learned in order to become a
psychotherapist?. The first question receives an
answer during each module in a direct and indirect
manner, thus: integrative psychotherapy represent
a form of psychotherapy which has at its basis a
theoretical model, it uses intervention techniques
from different forms of psychotherapy and it is
also based on a therapeutic relation co-created
between the therapist and the client. Training in
psychotherapy and personal development need to
be realized according to a certain standard of
training,
which
contains
the
necessary
competencies for professional development and in
order to become a psychotherapist that knows all
types of psychotherapy.
Each professional and personal development
module desires to develop more competencies
from the training standard, an ideal to be realized
by impossible to realize entirely. Beginner
therapists need recipes of intervention or are in
a hurry to reach objectives with their clients. They
feel that these dont follow this plan they have a
feeling of insufficiency. The therapist patience and
his respect for the clients rhythm are essential in
finalizing a case. The therapists patience is an
aptitude that is formed and cultivated.
Competencies are formed, practices and
refined with each client in therapy. One of the most
important competencies in therapy is the research
competency and it insists on the sensitised and
encouragement of students to start a quantitative
and a qualitative research. During the training
programme the putting down of thoughts is
practiced, in a reflexive research journal, and
during the personal development modules, students
write down their observations in personal
development journals. Trainees are used to writing
down observations in journals (observation is
refined as the main instrument in therapy) together
with the reflection on the internal environment
(subjective) and the external environment
(objective).
One of the future psychotherapists greatest
fears is not having patients, the reason being that
people are not prepared for psychotherapy. The
solving of this problem is an increase of selfesteem in the trainee. Colleagues that have started
their own individual practices of psychology are
encouraged to start courses for short periods of
time, weekly with the implication of parents, the
implication in voluntary activities, participation in
national psychology conferences and the

elaboration of papers. In the same manner, all
colleagues are encouraged to attend weekly
meetings in psychological offices head by them, in
which they can talk about different themes selected
from their work field.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Satisfactions are greater for the trainer, the
supervisor and the trainee or the becoming
psychotherapist at the end of the training
programme. Regardless all this not all colleagues
will practice psychotherapy. Some of them will
give up after the first modules of training and
others continue their training and supervision in
psychotherapy for a personal development and
most of them have two jobs. Little of them will
make a career in psychotherapy. Remaining a
psychotherapist supposes being at an intersection
between theory, practice and research. A
psychotherapist is treated with respect and he is
permanently
preoccupied
with
interviews,
supervision and maintaining a state of mental
hygiene. An association of professional
development in psychotherapy may easily gain
room on the market, but it can lose it in the same
easy manner. Trainers have a great responsibility
in the training and the becoming of
psychotherapist, and the trainees represents the
mirror of development, maintaining and
recognizing the supplier of professional
development.
REFERENCES
1. Kaslow, N., Psychotherapy Bulletin,
President*s Column (2009).
2. Kaslow, N., Competencies in professional
psychology, American Psychologist, (2004).
3. Sperry, L., Highly effective therapy:
Developing essential clinical competencies
in counselling and psychotherapy. New
York: Routledge (2010).
4. Sperry. L., Competencies in Counselling
and Psychotherapy: Becoming a Highly
competent
and
Effective
Therapist,
Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group (2010).
5. Skovholt, T., &Jennings, L., Master
therapists. Exploring expertise in therapy
and counselling. Boston: Alleyn & Bacon.
(2004).
688
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BioSpecter PSYCHOMETRIC SYSTEM OR EXPERT SYSTEM OF

PERSONALITY EVALUATION
Corina Mihaela ZAHARIA, Grigore DUMITRU

Corina Mihaela ZAHARIA Phone +40746119700, e-mail: cmz1959@gmail.com
DUMITRU Grigore, Phone +40722639323, e-mail: dumitru_grigore@biospecter.com,
The expert system of energetic evaluation of

ones personality has as foundation an
electronic equipment (biosensor) and a set of
programs installed on a PC computer.
As the medical thermometer (to measure the
bodys temperature) or tensiometer (to
measure
the
blood
pressure),
BioSpecter Psychometric
System directly
measures on the palm levels a set of physical
parameters (temperature
and
electric
conductibility of epidermis), that by advanced
processing can provide the personality profile
of the measured person;
The Bioscanner is an electronic equipment of
small sizes made in a compact form, in a PC
device structure (peripheral equipment for PC
computers), with the possibility to connect to
any PC computer on USB 2 interface, fact that
does no longer imply a personal power supply,
being very reliable and offering the possibility
of a long time utilisation. The scanning unit is
installed and can work on any PC (Windows
XP, Vista, Windows 7, etc) using a data
acquisition specialised software . This
equipment is used to take over biodata through
the scanning procedure of the electric potential
on the palms level.
689
The biodata acquisition program provides

quick taking over of the information that
compacts in a proper file, preparing it for
advanced processing.
The program of data analysis and advanced
processing, conceived in multiple modules,
easy to access, uses a data basis on which
structure the algorithm of evaluation of the
preliminary data taken over with the scanning
unit is implemented. The advanced processing
of these data leads to a set of parameters
convertible in indicators with psychological
significance. The dimension of these
indicators is scaled on a system of graphical
visualisation and under the form of table
report. The psychological significations of
each determined indicator are being compared
to a set of behavioural patterns based on which
the temperamental structural, respectively the
type of vocation and behavioural style. The
final determinations have a personality profile
very closed to the real one, taking notice both

of the solid aspects and both the most fragile
ones of the personality of the investigated
person.
The principle which represents the foundation
of the operation of this equipment is the
biofeedback (bio-reaction), based on the
correlation between the activity of the cerebral
cortex, the temperature of the palms
extremities and the electrodermal activity
(EDA).
Generally, the biofeedback is assigned to a
procedure by which certain physical-chemical
processes that take place in the organism are
being interrogated with a specialised tool
that has in view the evolution of a parameter
or a set of parameters with significance for the
investigator, in view to diagnose and
normalise such processes. The most
commonplace example of this principle could
be the measurement of the human body
temperature using a thermometer.
Criteria used by BioSpecter Psychometric
System:
The first criterion: In case of BioSpecter
Psychometric System, the measurement of
temperature as parameter correlative to the
activity of the cerebral cortex has in view the
fact that by its structure the human brain is
organised in such manner that the right
hemisphere is associated to the activity of the
left side of the body, and the left hemisphere is
associated to the activity of the right side of
the body. The hands as terminations of the two
parts of the body, are an exceptional source of
information on all the physical chemical
processes that take place in the body,
respectively, by the correlation with the
activity of the two cerebral hemispheres, and
the information on temperature, any its
variation, indicates the contraction or the
relaxation of the smooth muscles around the
blood vessels, that determines how much
blood arrives up to the tiptoes, along which
the measurement sensors are placed. This
phenomenon is correlated to the whole
psychophysiological activity of the person,
690
indicating for example, the stress level, the

intensity of emotions, certain disorders
appeared in the body.
The second criterion, the measurement of the
electrodermal activity (EDA) has in view the
fact that to any external electrical stimulus, the
skin responds with a specific galvanic reply.
This response consists of a measurement of
the phasic activity (acute points and low
points) of the eccrine gland.
The eccrine glad is a type of sweat gland that
flows its secretion through an excretory
channel, which directly opens on the skin
surface through a duct. The eccrine glands are
small glands found virtually in all skin but
predominantly in the palm and plant, being
more numbered that the apocrine ones. Their
secretion product- the eccrine transpiration is
rich of water and NaCl (being a good
electrically conductive solution participation
to the regulation of the body temperature.
Most of the persons are familiarised to the
existence of cold, sticky hands, in stressful
situations, such as meeting new persons or
before a new audience. The coldness comes
from the contraction of the smooth muscles
around the blood vessels (measured by
temperature) meanwhile the humidity is
caused by the activity of the eccrine gland
which secretion is a reply to the emotional and
stress stimuli.
The third criterion is based on the projective
analysis of the cerebral functions on specific
action areas by their correlation to the
temperature and electro-conductibility of the
epidermis on the level of the palm extremities,
simultaneously measured and established in
information of bioelectric potential.
In the context, the projective analysis is a
working method in which the information of
bioelectric potential measured in a certain
point on the palm extremity, considered as
input data, is quantitatively correlated to the
level of activity of a certain cerebral function,
(to which this potential is put in
correspondence, making abstraction of the
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whole causal chain determining the action of

those cerebral function), considered as output
data.
Final considerations
unique arguments in the decisions regarding

the evaluated person and based on them, no
one can limit certain legal rights of such
person.
BioSpecter Psychometric System is:
All the experience achieved by the utilisation

of the described technology enhances the
confidence that our research has the novelty of
a method of knowledge of the human
personality, offering to the future users a very
skilful instrument of investigation and to the
beneficiaries of such evaluation manner, the
possibility of self-knowledge, the prospective
of correct understanding of the multiple
aspects related on the person, in the practice of
individual development and correct integration
in the society by holding a proper work place,
the cultivation of skills and their
beneficial using, the achievement of the inner
equilibrium.
We have also say that the presented system

does not substitute the classical methods of
evaluation of personality, does not substitute
in any way the experience of the psychologist,
but, on the contrary, we hope it comes to
support the psychologist, offering the benefit
of a complementary evaluation by the
possibility of a view of the energy
potential background of the investigated
person, which, getting to know it, can built the
other
strategies
of
evaluation,
counselling, development,
therapy
etc,
reporting it also to such potential.
So, we understand that the technology of
complementary evaluation of personality that
we suggest, is not conferring exclusivity to our
method in the evaluation act, the results of the
investigations with the presented evaluation
system not being taken into consideration as
691
extremely
safe
and
non
invasive measurement
very quick measurement: because the
set of interest parameters are directly
measured by the application of the
palms on the biosensor for a very short
period
of
time,
the BioSpecter Psychometric System
does not use classical evaluation tests,
sometimes long and tiresome, difficult
to cross and with a big dose of
subjectivity with the possibility to
memorise the responses to repeated
tests or more unpleasant, by limiting
the possibility of evaluation of the
cognitive intelligence on the level of
intelligence of the test author;
very accurate measurement: because

the resulted profile of personality is
configured based on the personal
physical
parameters,
directly
measured, in objective manner, the
measurement results placed the
identified type of personality on an

intelligent scale, and the determined
form is the one resulting from this
personal set of parameters without the
possibility to elude the physical
chemical reality of the evaluated
person, out of which this profile is
being deducted;
The
limitations of the
BioSpecter Psychometric System or
Expert System of Personality Evaluation
according to the mental health criterion,
BioSpecter Psychometric System does not
perform clinical tests, being dedicated only
for evaluation of normality:
compatible measurement by scale

correlation, of the classical evaluation
methods: because the measurement of
the set of physical parameters offers
the possibility of their scaling (namely
reporting their values to a calibrated
scale), the distribution of the values of
the resulted psychological indicators
shall also follow a calibrated scale.
The correlations that can be done
between the international indicators
and the BioSpecter Psychometric
System method have as conversion
base this calibrated scale on which the
specialist in psychology may interpret
correctly in the identification system in
which it is, by proper conversion of the
working scale;
integral evaluation of the level of
activity of the cerebral functions, with
the possibility of selection of their subfunctions. So, in other worlds,
BioSpecter Psychometric System does
not measure the experience of the
person but the persons cerebral
functionality, providing correct clues
on the psychophysiological potential,
besides the other aspects that define
the personality.
692
in psychological testing, the system

can not be substituted [1] to other
testing
methods
and
to
the
psychologist experience, therefore
being a complementary tool for the
classical investigation methods. So, if
the applicant thinks appropriate, in
order to register in an individual
development program, we recommend
that the interpretation of the evaluation
reports provided
by
BioSpecter Psychometric System to
be done under the surveillance of a
psychologist;
the evaluations of the minor persons
can be done only with the written
assent of the parents of legal guardian;
testing children is done only for the
purpose to determine values of
indicators had in view by the
psychology specialist related to their
development, knowing that the
personality test does not apply to
children;
the evaluator has the obligation to keep
the privacy on the content of the
evaluation reports, pursuant to the law;
the relevant values from the tables of
these reports can not represent a
medical diagnosis and can not be
considered unique arguments in
placing the work force or in other
decisions related to the investigated
person! For the special evaluations,
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these values have to be used only

together to other sources of
information related to the aspects had
in view. The special evaluations can be
done only by psychology specialists.
The evaluation repo rts genera ted
by BioSpecter Psychometric System can
not be used to classify w ith bad faith the
693
investigated persons, fo r the purpose to

limit certain legal rights!
[1] Author note- Holistique investigation :
In the purpose that it can not be exclusively used for
the purpose to determine a psychological profile. The
psychological testing can have in view, with regard to
the mental health criterion, not only the normality, but
also the pathological manifestations.
AIR FORCE
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FLIGHT SIMULATOR AS AN ESSENTIAL DEVICE SUPPORTING THE

PROCESS OF SHAPING PILOT'S SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Jarosaw KOZUBA*, Adam BONDARUK**
* Eng. pil. Jarosaw KOZUBA, Phd; Faculty of National Defence and Logistic, Polish Air Force
Academy, aabuzo@wp.pl, ** Eng. pil. Adam Bondaruk, Phd; Faculty of Avaiation, Polish Air
Foirce Academy abond2@poczta.onet.pl
INTRODUCTION
Flight simulators 1 play a significant role both in
pilot training and in sustaining pilot currency. The
safety level of modern general, commercial and
public aviation depends largely on simulation
technologies, used not only for training purposes,
Simulation (Latin simulato pretending, imitating).

In the dictionary of contemporary Polish language
the term simulation is defined as creating
appearances, pretending something, appearance,
feigning sickness, artificial reconstruction of a
phenomenon occurring in nature: aircraft flight
simulation. In colloquial language, this term has
adopted a negative sense and means the act of
pretending or feigning something to put someone in
error, or achieve benefits. The simulator should not
be, however, solely with negative or harmful acts.
From the beginning of the 20th century, this word
began to acquire a positive meaning. The immediate
cause of the change in the approach to the concept of
simulation, was the emergence of the concept of
simulation as a research method for determining the
specific phenomena of human activities, machinery
operation, etc. This method is applied whenever
there is the need of the repetition, testing or detailed
preparation of a detailed, complex process without
the involvement of the assets usually participating in
it. The success of research carried out using this
method amounts to the creation of a model of
environmental conditions and the device under test
in a manner as close to the reality as possible. Multiauthor work, Sownik wspczesnego jzyka
polskiego, PWN, Warszawa 1996, p. 1080.
695
but also in air accident investigations, studies of

aircraft design or air traffic simulation and on a
better understanding of the interactions present in
the pilot-aircraft-mission environment system.
Conclusions drawn from the analysis of the
reference literature 2 suggest that the role of flight
simulators increases with the growing complexity
of modern aircraft systems, which means that
simulator training is now an integral part of the
processes of pilot training and professional
development, or conducting the research studies
related to adapting aircraft design to human
capabilities and limitations. Ever increasing degree
of fidelity of representing the pilot natural work
environment by the simulator makes flight
simulators an invaluable tool used in the process of
air accident investigations.
G. Lintern, S.N. Roscoe, J.M. Koncoe, L.D. Segal,

Transfer of landing skills i beginning flight training.
Human Factor No 32/1990; R.T. Hays, J. Jacobs, C.
Prince, E. Salas, Fligcht Simulator training
effectiveness. A-meta-analysis, Military psychology
No 4/1992; R. Leszczyski, System selekcji
kandydatw do Si Powietrznych, Praca badawcza,
WSOSP, Dblin 2000; W. Bezdek, R. Powell, D.
Mays, The history and future of military flights
simulators, AIAA modeling and simualation
technologies conference and exhibit 2004,
Providence, RI, AIAA Paper 2004 5148; N.D.
Macharella, P.K. Arban, S. M. Doherty, Transfer of
training from flight training devices to flight for ab
initio pilots, International Journal of Applied
Aviation Studies No 5/2005; A.T. Lee, Flight
Simulation, ASHGATE, Burlington 2005.
AIR FORCE
FLIGHT SIMULATORS GENERAL

CHARACTARESTIC
How complex has been the development
of simulators can be seen from the example of
the first flight simulator "Aeronautical Link
Trainer", which consisted only of a basic set of
cockpit flight instruments and a very basic
platform for simulating the aircraft movement.
It did not support the function of displaying
the external mission environment for the
pilot3. Modern flight simulators apart from the
faithful reproduction of the internal and
external mission environment can also be
equipped with motion simulation platform.
Modern flight simulator has become the
essential type of ground equipment for pilot
training and professional development 4 .
Currently, it is difficult to imagine modern
flight training without the use of flight
simulators. The effectiveness of practical
training using flight simulators is determined
by a number of factors, including, among other
things, such as: safety, economic, technical,
methodological, etc. Due to the desired level
of simulator training efficiency and flight
simulator versatility these devices must fulfill
a number of functions. The essential, desired
functions of a flight simulator designed for
pilot training and professional development
can include:
Demonstration function it relates

to the enrichment of the theoretical training
process with demonstrating the trainee the
elements of specific procedures, methods and
the uses of aircraft instruments, controls and
systems.
Education function it relates to

such elements as: developing/perfecting
trainees skills and habits with regard to
practical implementation of operations in the
W. Bezdek, R. Powell, D. Mays, The history and

future of military flights simulators, AIAA Modeling
and simulation technologies conference and exhibit
2004, Providence RI, AIAA Paper 20045148.
In the present work, the author refers mainly to
simulators applied in the process of training and
professional development of pilots. It should also be
emphasized that at present simulators are an
essential tool applied in the process of training and
professional development of the remaining air
personnel (aircraft technicians, air traffic controllers,
etc.).
cockpit, the use of operational procedures,

onboard emergency procedures, improving
multi-crew cooperation, and the skills in the
use of aviation phraseology, developing
/perfecting training skills of flight instructors,
etc.
Personality function it is
associated
with
the
formation
and
development of the desired personality and
professional traits of the pilot (trainee),
preparing him for it, among others, for air
mission execution under high workload and/or
time deficit, and in new situations (onboard
and in the mission environment) from the
point of view of the current pilot (trainee)
experience, etc.
Adaptive function it amounts to

improving the pilot (trainee) "recurring"
actions on board the aircraft, including actions
related to complex and emergency situations.
Exercises performed within this function are
particularly important with regard to the
preparation for the execution of the mission
which is new from the point of view of the
pilots current experience.
Research function it is related to

checking the behavior of the pilot (trainee) at
different stages of the planned mission
execution, taking into account the specific
solutions relating to the design, ergonomics,
and automation of a particular aircraft type. It
also amounts to verifying the validity of
theoretical assumptions related to the way of
solving problems onboard the aircraft by the
crew, for example, the validity of assumptions
concerning the crew actions in the event of
certain onboard emergencies. This function is
also applied when it is necessary to confirm
the conclusions of the air accident
investigation boards proceedings, relating to
the causes of undesirable flight-related events.
Selection function it consists in

eliminating permanently or temporarily from
further aviation training those candidates who
have no predispositions (competencies,
knowledge, skills) to work as a pilot/perform
specific flight tasks.
Control-examination function it
allows to carry out control/examination
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exercises in relation to the specific license or

aviation rating 5 .
It should be noted that the effectiveness of
the use of flight simulators in the recruitment,
selection,
training
and
professional
development
of
pilots,
air
accident
investigations, or research is dependent on an
understanding of their capabilities and
limitations that apply to specific areas of
aviation. On the other hand, in the process of
the flight simulator design, it is very important
that the designer, apart from applying specific,
high-tech aviation technologies, should also
strive
to
create
a mission environment model as close to the
reality as possible,
and
take into
consideration the knowledge of human
capabilities and limitations, including those
relating to the ability to perceive and process
information, as well as the cognitive factor
concerning the operational capabilities of the
simulator. Modern flight simulators are also
treated as an essential tool for developing the
pilots ability to "automate" the actions in the
cockpit and for the efficient reception and
selection of signals related to the aircraft
status. Many psychologists hold the view 6 ,
that in relatively simple situations habits can
replace thinking automatic execution of
tasks. In complex, unexpected situations
non-routine air incidents an important role is
played by the quick assessment of the situation
and the appropriate action programming. From
the point of view of situational awareness, the
pilots ability to automatically perform actions
Author's own work, taking into account the specific

functions identified in R. Pielacha, Imitatory
kierowania
samolotami
w
ksztatowaniu
nawigatorw wojskowych, Research Study, PAFA,
Dblin 1994, (in:) Op.cit. R. Leszczyski, System
selekcji kandydatw, p. 58.
J. Terelak, Higiena psychiczna i pilot, MON,
Warszawa 1975, p. 237.
697
on board the aircraft is of primary importance

to the perception, selection and analysis of
large amounts of information within the time
limit and to the construction of the aircraft
status mental images. One of the simplest
examples of such actions is the cockpit preflight check. Research conducted by the author
shows that the time differences between a
trainee pilot and a pilot in continuous
training 7 , can range from tens of seconds to
several minutes, depending on the aircraft
type. Too frequently, especially in the initial
stage of flight training, the preparation of a
future pilot amounts to learning specific
definitions and points of instruction during the
theoretical training course, and learning to
control certain actions (often without
understanding the phenomena of e.g.
aerodynamics and flight mechanics) during the
practical training.
Meanwhile, with the development of
aircraft design, including the more recent
introduction of the solutions relating to the
areas concerning the aircraft management,
pilots initiative and independent thinking
based on vast general and specific knowledge
and practical skills, including the skills
relating to performing certain actions
automatically, become more and more
important for the safety and efficiency of air
mission execution.
In addition to socialization techniques and
teaching techniques, such as brainstorming,
decision-making exercises with a limited
amount of information and in time deficit, an
increasing role is played by flight simulator
exercises. A good example of such activities
Continuous training a term applied to fully trained

air force pilots participating annually in
a training program aimed at maintaining/improving
pilot currency with regard to handling
a particular aircraft type.
AIR FORCE
are exercises in acquiring habits relating to

pilot conduct in the event of an onboard
emergency. By modern flight simulator we
mean a flight training device characterized by
a faithful simulation of both the internal
(aircraft cockpit with instrumentation and
indicators) and the external mission
environment
(everything that the pilot
observes during the flight outside the cockpit),
sound and air services, events changes that
occur during aircraft position in three planes of
reference - pitch, roll and yaw, simulation of
mechanical and functional control system that
allows the aircraft to acquire and consolidate
skills to effective decision-making and the
efficient and secure management of aircraft,
especially in the situation of a heavy workload
and with a time limit. Very important in terms
of forming correct situational awareness habits
is to enable the participation of the pilot in a
training covering receiving and processing the
data to be used in order to create a status
image for particularly complex situations
which may be encountered when executing a
specific air mission.
Therefore, it should be considered
particularly important that the engineerdesigner should understand how big an impact
on the effectiveness of the simulator is its
degree of reality representation in relation to
the type of aircraft operated. The simulator
designer should then apply the technology
which is the most useful from the point of
view of the user to re-create the functional and
physical characteristics of the aircraft and
external mission environment.
Today's flight simulators, regardless of
the nature and extent of their use in flight
training, prove that their designers are well
aware of the fact that a flight simulator is not
just a machine equipped with modern
computer software. Flight simulator designers
also understand that in the design of the flight
simulator particular attention should be given
to adapting the newly created equipment to the
capabilities and limitations of the pilot and his
tasks conducted on a specific aircraft type in a
particular mission environment.
Until the second half of the 1970s, flight
simulators had often been perceived by the
majority of the civil aviation community as a
kind of attraction. Taking into account the
economic factors and impracticality, many

airlines and smaller aviation organizations had
rejected the use of flight simulators for
training purposes. However, with more and
more evidence of the simulator training
effectiveness, commercial aviation sector
became increasingly interested in those
devices. The final breakthrough came during
the oil crisis in the 1970s, when flight
simulators became a widely used training tool
in commercial aviation. In fact, flight
simulators were regarded as a low-cost
training tool, used as an alternative to flight
training. Over the years and with the
development of aviation technology, flight
simulators have become a commonly used
training tool which is also used for basic flight
training of young aviation adepts. Today, we
can say that flight simulators are an essential
element of pilot training and professional
development, regardless of the kind of aviation
and aircraft type taken into consideration.
USEFULLNES OF THE FLIGHT
SIMULATORS IN THE GENERAL
AVIATION PILOTS TRAINING
However, due to the economic aspects
related to the purchase and operation of a
flight simulator, there are still some
restrictions on its use, particularly in relation
to general aviation where trainer aircraft still
remain a major tool used in instruction and
training 8 . The exception is the PPL (Private
Pilot Licence) training, where simulator
training (simulator or FNPT BITD Class) 9
may be substituted for 5 hours of practical
training, and procedural training for IFR
698
The authors have not addressed the training of

helicopter pilots, due to the fact that in Poland, as of
1st July, 2012, only Polish Medical Air Rescue had a
certified FNPT II helicopter simulator. The
remaining helicopter pilot training organizations in
Poland did not use flight simulators. This is
primarily due to the relatively high purchase price
(approx. 650,000) and maintenance costs of the
simulator with a small number of trainees several
people each year. Such a small number of trainees is
primarily due the fact that the cost of training one
candidate for professional license CPL(H) is
approximately 125,000170,000, depending on the
training organization and the helicopter type used in
the training.
Section 1 Part-FCL 1.120 Practise and credits.
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flights, where 55 hours of flight training may

be conducted as: 40 hours of practical
Simulator training (FNPT II class simulator)
and 15 hours of training on a trainer aircraft 10 .
To sum up, in accordance with the current
regulations, 20% of the total practical air
training time of the pilot trained for CPL
licence and IFR rating, can be assigned to
simulator training. However, it is not only
because of regulations that, despite its number
of advantages, simulator training, is rarely
used in daily flight training. The second
limitation is the fact that the vast majority of
training can be conducted using the FNPT-II
class simulator, whose purchase price is
approx. 400,000. In addition, the decreasing
number of air training candidates each year
makes
the
purchase,
operation
and
maintenance of such equipment in general
aviation become increasingly irrational in
economic terms. Because of this barrier, as of
1st July, 2012, only 7 Flight Training
Organizations in Poland possessed FNPT-II
class, and 3 centers BITD class simulators.
Bearing in mind that as of 1st July, 2012, there
were more than 50 accredited Flight Training
organizations, the above-mentioned number of
flight simulators seems to be very modest. On
the other hand, the results of comparative
analysis of the training costs for IFR flights
with and without the simulator use shows that
the first variant is cheaper by more than
50% 11 .
The main argument in favor of a wider

use of simulators in flight training are the
results of studies related to the transfer of
knowledge and skills from the flight simulator
to the aircraft with regard to basic flight
training. Studies carried out so far clearly
confirm the usefulness of flight simulators,
including the simplest (BITD), in the basic
aviation training process. Lintern et.al. 12 in
their research studies analyzed the degree of
transferring the landing skills from the
simulator training to the trainer aircraft at the
beginning of the pilot flight training. The first
group of trained pilots held two simulator
training sessions covering the landing skills
prior to the commencement of practical
training in the air. The second group the
controls did not receive this kind of training
before the start of practical training in the air.
The investigators demonstrated that the first
group of trainees needed approx. 1.5 hours of
training flights less before the first solo flight,
as compared with the second group, which had
not undergone the simulator training. In this
case, we refer to only one, particularly
important and difficult element of air training
learning to land 13 .
13
10
11
Annex 1 to Part-FCL 1.205, pt. 10.

Assuming the cost of one hour of the Cessna-172
flight to be 225 and one hour of the FNPT II
simulator use to be 60, at 40 hrs. of simulator
training and 15 hrs. of practical training conducted
on the Cessna-172, the total cost of the training
would be 5,775. If the whole training were
conducted on The Cessna-172, the total cost of the
training would be 12.375. The analysis was based
on the average price of 1 hour of the Cessna-172
699
12
aircraft flight and 1 hour of the FNPT-II simulator

use as of 1st July, 2012 author's own analysis.
G. Lintern, S.N. Roscoe, J.M. Koncoe, L.D. Segal,
Transfer of landing skills in beginning flight
training. Human Factor No 32/1990, pp. 319-327.
Usefulness of the simulator training for basic
training of pilots was also confirmed by the study
team of N.D. Macharella for further details, see
N.D. Macharella, P.K. Arban, S. M. Doherty,
Transfer of training from flight training devices to
flight for ab initio pilots, International Journal of
Applied Aviation Studies No 5/2005, pp. 25-39.
AIR FORCE
Dennis and Harris 14 examined the impact

of the simulator training on the practical flight
training using Microsoft Flight Simulator
(v4.0) a PC computer-based game program.
Each trainees performed straight and level
flight and coordinated turns for 1 hour. Then,
the trainees commenced practical training in
the air. The results of the comparative analyses
concerning the performance demonstrated by
the trainees who had received a simulator
training session with those who had not
explicitly confirmed that it was easier for the
first group to assimilate the elements of the
exercises which had been carried out before on
the flight simulator. Furthermore, these studies
confirmed the view that simple PC simulators
are an effective tool in the development of
flight skills in the initial phase of flight
training.
On the other hand, the results of the
research study conducted by Vaden and Hall 15
pointed to the fact that the platform imitating
the motion of an aircraft does not serve an
important role in the acquisition of skills by
the pilot. Using the method of meta-analysis
they examined the impact of the aircrafts
plane of motion, which is an integral part of
the aviation simulator, on the development of
the pilot's skills. The study showed little effect
of the use of such devices on increasing the
flight training effects in cargo aircraft pilots .
They also pointed to the fact that the cost of
upgrading the simulator with this feature, as
well as additional physical load experienced
by the pilot during the exercises on a Full
Flight type simulator, do not have a significant
impact on reducing the number of hours of
practical training carried out by the crew in the
air. The authors do not comment on the impact
of this training on enhancing the crews skills
in the use of the available resources during the
flight.
The interviews conducted by the author
with a group of instructors from flight training
organizations in Poland 16 indicate that FNPT2 simulators provide highly effective training
and selection, particularly in relation to the
exercises concerning: IFR flights, emergency
procedures, maneuvers performed by the
aircraft during mission execution, and cockpit
pre-flight check.
Given the above findings, it is possible to
formulate a thesis that modern flight
simulators ensure a high degree of basic flight
training efficiency 17 . Other air training
equipment, due to its purpose and specific use
is not used by
general flight training
organizations.
USEFULLNES OF THE FLICHT
SIMULATORS IN THE COMMERCIAL
AVIATION PILOTS TRAINING
Commercial
aviation
organizations
following the current regulations conduct the
simulator training within the scope of training
for certain aircraft type, MCC, CRM, and
mandatory periodic training. The main
document regulating the air operator's duties
regarding the preparation and professional
development training of the crews belonging
to commercial aviation organizations is OPS1, and Part-FCL1 in relation to the training for
particular aircraft type. As is the case with
general aviation, each flight simulator or air
training equipment item replacing the aircraft
for training and testing purposes must be
certified in accordance with the requirements
applicable to air training equipment 18 . Under
the current regulations, any member of the
flight crew prior to commencing flight
operations below the standard set for Cat. I,
operations outside the standard of Cat. II and
operations within Category II and III 19 must
16
17
14
15
K.A. Harris, D. Harris, Computer-based simulation

as an adjunct to ab initio flight training, International
Journal of Aviation Psychology No 8/1998, pp.
261276.
E.A. Vaden, S. Hall, The effect of simulation
platform motion on pilot training transfer: A metaanalysis,
International Journal of Aviation
Psychology No 15/2005, pp. 375393.
18
19
700
The author conducted research by interviewing a

group of 10 instructors representing the leading
fligcht training organizations which conduct
simulator training.
Training up to CPL (A) license and IFR (A) rating.
In relation to simulators, these requirements are set
by JAR-FSTD A: Aeroplane flight simulation
training devices.
These categories refer to the categories of ILS
(Instrumental Landing System) applicable to certain
airports. The basis of category allocation is the
possibility of making a safe landing at a minimum
cloud ceiling and visibility: Cat. I DH (Decision
Height) no less than 200 ft (60 m) and RVR
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complete the training courses and tests which

use flight simulators. These courses include
reduced visibility operations, including multi
crew cooperation. It is emphasized that MCC
and CRM trainings 20 ought to be conducted
with The maximum use of flight simulators. In
the case of aircraft for which the flight
simulator has not been produced, the operator
must ensure that the phase of simulator
training specific to the visual scenarios of
Category II operations is conducted in a
specifically approved flight simulator 21 .
Moreover, each crew member shall undergo
periodic training and testing appropriate to the
type or variant of aircraft in which he operates
flights. Those trainings are usually conducted
using the flight simulator which corresponds to
a given aircraft type 22 . As part of ongoing
operations the operator must ensure that:
the pilot is not assigned to operate an
aircraft as a member of the minimum approved
crew, either as pilot flying or pilot non-flying,
if during the past 90 days he has not performed
three take-offs and three landings as pilot
flying in an aircraft or in a flight simulator of
the same type/class;
the pilot who does not have a valid
IFR rating is not assigned to perform night
flights as a crew commander, if during the past
90 days he has not performed at least one
landing at night, as pilot flying in an aircraft or

in a flight simulator of the same type/class 23 .
Moreover, each operator is required to
provide transition training involving such
elements as:
ground training and tests concerning
aircraft systems, routine, non-routine and
emergency procedures;
trainings and tests in order to
familiarize trainees with emergency and safety
equipment, which must be completed before
the commencement of the practical air
training. It should be noted that an important
element of these courses are exercises and
tests performed with the use of flight
simulators 24 .
Importance attached to the simulator
training of commercial aviation aircrews in
the above-cited regulations as well as the
results of analyzes relating to the opinions of
pilots from commercial aviation organizations
clearly show that simulator training is an
essential element of professional development
training in this type of organizations. Flight
simulators used in the training described above
facilitate, on the one hand, a continuous
improvement of the flight crew skills, and, on
the other hand, they are a valuable tool to
determine the level of flight crew preparedness
for the tasks facing them. Moreover, taking
into consideration the scale and frequency of
training it is difficult to imagine a commercial
(Runway Visual Range) no less than 2040 ft (800 aviation organization capable of affording to
m). Cat. II DH no less than 100 ft (30 m) and
conduct the training in full using only the
RVR no less than 1,050 ft (350 m). Cat. III has been
subdivided into three subcategories: - IIIa DH = 0- aircraft.
USEFULLNES OF THE FLIGHT
100 ft, RVR no less than 600 ft (200 m); IIIb
DH= 050 ft, RVR no less than 150 ft (50 m); IIIc SIMULATORS IN THE MILITARY
DH = 0, RVR = 0 Developed on the basis of: T. AVIATION PILOTS TRAINING
Compa, J. Rajchel, Podstawy nawigacji lotniczej,
WSOSP, Dblin 2011, p. 297.
20
MCC Multi Crew Cooperation; CRM Crew
Resource Management.
21
Developed on the basis of: Appendix 1 OPS 1.450.
22
Further details, see Appendix 1 OPS 1.950.
701
23
24

AIR FORCE
In Military aviation, which is less

dependent on the financial factor, flight
simulators are widely used in daily operations
and
training
relating
to
the
acquiring/maintaining pilot currency. Flight
simulators used in military aviation can be
divided into two main groups, according to the
tasks performed with them:
1. Simulators for schools and military
pilot training organizations. Their use is
associated with familiarization of beginner
pilots with the aircraft, its handling, navigation
and basic combat missions. They are used for
the selection and training of pilot candidates,
advanced flight training, training of all flight
phases, assessing the implementation of
specific air missions, and crew training and
coordination within the scope of MCC and
CRM training. The syllabus of pilot training
for Polish Air Force Academy (PAFA) officer
cadets includes 120 hours of specialized
simulator training during the four years of
study. The situation is somewhat different in
the case of training/professional development
of jet pilots in the units of the Polish Armed
Forces. Simulators of this aircraft type
alongside handling and navigation functions
support the functions related to performing
combat missions. The number of simulator
training hours depends on the intensity and the
type of tasks performed by the pilot. Apart
from the above-mentioned applications, flight
simulators are treated in air force units as a
valuable tool for preparing to resume pilot
currency and skills in the event of long time
break between flights.
2. Simulators of the Polish Armed
Forces units, where the main emphasis is
placed on improving aircraft handling skills
associated with aerial combat techniques. 25
Individual training tasks carried out in the air
are generally preceded by the training on a
flight simulator which is an exact copy of the
aircraft operated. As a rule, the trainee is
allowed to conduct the tasks in the air after
successfully conducting them on a simulator.
Simulators are used for a variety of reasons,
including those related to the low unit cost of
25
The division of simulators used in military aviation

was made on the basis of: C. Szczepaski,
Symulatory lotnicze, stan i perspektywy raport ,
Warszawa 1998, p. 4.
simulator training hours compared to the cost

of flight hours. U.S. Air Force estimates that
the cost of one hour of training on the C-5
aircraft is approximately $ 10,000, while one
hour of training on the C-5 simulator is $
500 26 . Especially with regard to military pilots
and airline pilots the key advantage of
simulators is the fact that they allow pilots to
perform simulated flight tasks and train the
behavior in non-routine situations, which if
performed on the trainer
aircraft would
involve too high risk of undesirable flightrelated events.
Another reason for the use of simulators
in the Air Force is the knowledge transfer
degree, which is comparable with that
acquired during practical training in the air.
The results of research concerning the aspects
related to the effectiveness of simulator
training clearly show that the knowledge,
skills and habits acquired during such training
exert a direct influence on the pilots readiness
to perform air missions in the air. R. Moorman
et al. conducted research relating to knowledge
transfer involving flight simulator. Their study
covered the period 19571986 27 . The authors
conducted a study using the meta-analysis
method 28 and the results allowed them to
26
T.R. Moorman, The civilian looping military, MS&T

Magazine, No 6/2002, p. 16-20.
27
R.T, Hays, J. Jacobs, C. Prince, E. Salas, Flight
simulator training effectiveness. A-meta-analysis,
Military psychology No 4/1992, pp. 63-74 .
28
Meta-analysis is a research method which involves
the use of statistical techniques for connecting the
results of several tests in order to find an answer to
one research problem. This method comprises
several phases, i.e.: formulation of the research
problem, identification of the research area (person,
location), encoding the test (preparation of test
material, e.g. surveys), meta-analysis - analysis of
results and their presentation. For example: The
investigator is interested in carrying out research in
order to find out whether the psychological test that
measures the level of the candidates spatial
intelligence can be a tool used for the selection of
pilot candidates. In this case, first of all, the test is
administered to the pilot candidates, and then its
results are compared with their flight training
performance. The results obtained constitute the
material which allows making comparisons in order
to determine the correctness of the construction of
the test and its questions (tasks), and therefore, they
are a measure of its usefulness in the selection
process of pilot candidates. Developed on the basis
of: M. Marlinussen, D.R. Hunter, Aviation
702
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conclude that simulator training contributed to

a permanent increase of the training effects in
jet pilots, which are equal to those of practical
training carried out on the specific aircraft
type. However, this regularity was not
confirmed for helicopter pilots.
In another study, Corveta and Dunlap 29
focused the research on the effectiveness of
simulator training involving jet pilots, with
respect to such items as landing maneuver,
IFR flights and tasks performed at the firing
ground (aerial bombardment). In all of the
above areas of research, the results clearly
indicate a high degree of usefulness of flight
simulators for pilots' skill development.
From
the
situational
awareness
perspective, flight simulator plays a
particularly important role in military aviation.
Despite the high level of automation of
modern combat aircraft, because of the
complex character of air mission environment
unknown flight zone, limited possibility of
using radio navigation instruments, low and
very high altitudes, high speeds and G-loads,
unpredictable enemy, conducting missions in
radio silence, often as a member or head of the
combat group, the pilot conducts air missions
under heavy psychophysical load. Therefore,
the degree of pilot mastery concerning cockpit
actions, or the degree of "automation" of these
actions has a major impact on the pilots
ability to maintain the desired level of
situational awareness at various stages of air
mission execution. The results of the analysis
of serious air incidents which concerned

combat aircraft of the Polish Armed Forces in
the years 19702004 show that the vast
majority of them was caused by insufficient
situational awareness of the pilot approx.
70% 30 .
The growing complexity of technical
systems increases the burden on the operators.
Mastering operator actions is a long and costly
process which is dependent on technological
advancement and the complexity of actuating
devices. The essential feature of operators is
the necessity of receiving, analyzing, and
responding to information which is frequently
acquired from several different sources. The
pilot is a special type of an operator since he is
constantly subjected to pressure affecting his
psychomotor (operator's) skills because of the
work environment, and is facing the serious
consequences of errors committed during
reception (interpretation) of stimuli and
responding to them.
Forming pilot's habits confirmed by
research studies points out to the desirability
of using flight simulators in aviation training.
From the data obtained during the tests
performed on the simulator and on the aircraft,
it is clear that the number of errors is similar in
both cases. The above ensures the suitability
and necessity of using flight simulators for
training pilots.
The effectiveness of the training is
verified by the practical performance of air
missions, and it constitutes a basis for
changing the contents, methods and forms of
psychology and human factors, CRC Press, New the simulation training.
Simulator training can be divided into
York 2010, p. 43.
29
T.R. Carreta, Transfer of training effectiveness in three areas 31 :
flight simulation: 1986 1997 (technical report
AFRL-HE-AZ-TR-1998-0078), Mesa, AZ: U.S. Air
Force Research Laboratory, Human Effectiveness
Directorate, (in:) Op.cit., M. Martinussen, D.R.
Hunter, Aviation Psychology and Human Factors,
p. 114.
703
30
The analysis has been conducted on the basis of the

available post-accident materials.
31
A. Bondaruk, Metodyczne uwarunkowania
konstruowanina programw szkolenia symulatorowego
AIR FORCE
- flight maneuver training;

- procedural training (IFR);
- tactical training;
[Methodological considerations of designing simulator

training syllabi] , Conference on "The Instructor
Preparing Trainees for Difficult and Dangerous
Professions", Dblin, February, 2014.
704
2
Procedural training (IFR)
3
Tactical
training
Flight
maneuver
training
Non-routine
situation training
Fig. 1. Simulator training areas.

the prescribed (standard) flight parameter
It is advisable that simulator training values, and the "countable" data - the number
program should include elements of of errors made when performing certain tasks
subsequent training areas that prepare the on the simulator.
The study included the completion of four
trainee for more difficult tasks, but are not the
main training objective. To sum up, the areas sessions on the multi-role F-16 aircraft
of training overlap at particular stages. The simulator by every pilot. Each session was
degree of their implementation depends on the carried out according to identical profile
main objective and complexity of training, as consisting of two scenarios (missions). The
well as on the level of training of a particular study was divided into two phases. In the first
pilot. Training of emergency flight procedures phase, the pilot being tested performed three
is implemented throughout the entire flight sessions at intervals that allowed for
training program.
discussion, and the analysis of errors having
In 2012, a research study was conducted been made when executing the task, as well as
taking into account the above considerations, for the preparation for the subsequent flight.
with the use of an FFS (Full Flight Simulator) Before the commencement of the first session,
simulator. The purpose of the research was to the pilot was briefed only on the tactical
determine the training susceptibility of pilots background and the task to be accomplished.
and the appropriateness of the applied The element of a non-routine situation
simulator training program. 32 .
remained unknown for the pilot until its
The number of pilots tested accounted for occurrence. The second phase included the
approximately 20% of the population of F-16 execution of the last, fourth, flight after at least
pilots in the Polish Armed Forces, who have one month from the completion of phase 1
completed the basic training (acquired a
Elements being assessed in scenario 1:
making the decision to abort the
minimum wingman rating).
mission in a particular non-routine
For the purpose of the analysis, a set of
situation;
"measurable" data was determined, i.e. those
maintaining the IFR flight
which have been obtained by means of
parameters;
measurements. This data set included the
maintaining the preparatory
pilots' time before reaction to deviation from
procedures for landing at the alternate
airport;
32
A. Bondaruk, Badanie wpywu uszkodze i
maintaining the prescribed
niesprawnoci samolotu wielozadaniowego na
heading
during
the vectoring;
bezpieczestwo lotw [Study of failure and malfunction
descending
to
the
final
effect in multi-role aircraft on flight safety], Doctoral
approach point (FAP), maintaining the
Dissertation, Air Force Institute of Technology (ITWL),
Warsaw 2011.
705
AIR FORCE
minimum flight altitude H in accordance

with the approach chart;
maintaining flight parameters during
descent;
maintaining flight parameters at decision
height/altitude (DH/DA);
maintaining the missed approach
procedures (MAP);
performing the landing.
instruments during emergency procedure

execution);
- making the decision to perform the
simulated flameout (SFO) landing
procedure;
if made:
- maintaining flight parameters during
SFO approach in accordance with the
standards of the appropriate procedure;
- performing the landing;
if not made:
- recognition of turbine stoppage;
- performing the procedure of preparation
for the ejection.
Elements being assessed in scenario No. 2:

- making the decision to abort the mission;
- maintaining flight parameters during
emergency procedure execution;
- recognition of a subsequent emergency
situation (observation of engine control
Fig. 2.
The total number (sum) of errors committed by pilots during the execution of
tasks in accordance with scenario No. 1
706
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Fig. 3.
The total number (sum) of errors committed by pilots during the execution
of tasks in accordance with scenario No. 2
707
AIR FORCE
Fig. 4
Sums of the numbers characterizing the errors made during the task
execution by the pilots, and the execution of tasks during an emergency
situation according to the developed scenarios No. 1 and No. 2
(
number of errors
number of tasks executed)
the air. At the same time, there is a noticeable
Analyzing the number of errors made and decrease in the number of errors as a function
the tasks executed, one can conclude that of the number of repetitions of a given
during the execution of tasks in accordance scenario.
with scenario No. 1 and No. 2, pilot No. 6 was
Basic statistics, including mean values
best prepared for the emerging situations, and standard deviation, were calculated on the
whereas pilot No. 2 was the worst.
basis of the data obtained during the
Acting in accordance with the presented simulation of specific situations that
scheme does not allow one to draw definite characterized the level of training of a
conclusions concerning the proper way of particular group of pilots who executed tasks
approaching the problem of pilot training. The using an F-16 aircraft simulator.
Presentation of these values in a scatter
characteristics under analysis are different in
their nature, and it cannot be decided graph [Figure 5] allows for the disclosure of
unequivocally which pilot has to undergo the four basic structures of meeting the
additional training and which does not, and requirements by pilots involved in the training
what number of additional flights will allow a system. Those structures have been defined on
given pilot to acquire the appropriate the basis of an analysis of the number of errors
responses to simulated specific situations in made in emergency situations.
Fig. 5 Distribution of meeting the requirements by pilots, obtained on the basis of

error analysis results.
achieved by pilots, No. 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, and 10.
The system is characterized by Scattered satisfaction relates to pilot No. 4.
concentrated satisfaction with the results
Scattered dissatisfaction relates to
pilots No 2, 5, and 7.
708
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Basic statistics, including mean

values and standard deviation, were calculated
on the basis of the data obtained from the
analysis of information characterizing the level
of pilot training, and on the basis of numbers
characterizing the execution of specific tasks
for a specific group of pilots, who were
assessed using an F-16 simulator. Presentation
of these values in the scatter graph [Figure 6]

allows for the disclosure of the four basic
structures of meeting the requirements by
pilots involved in the training system. Those
structures have been defined on the basis of an
analysis of the number of errors committed
during the execution of specific tasks.
Fig. 6.
Distribution of meeting the requirements by pilots, obtained on the basis of

the number of executed tasks
.
The system is characterized by
concentrated satisfaction with the results
achieved by pilots, No. 3, 4, 6, and 10. Such a
situation is perceived by the training system in
a coherent and consistent manner.
709
Scattered satisfaction relates to pilot No. 8.

Scattered dissatisfaction relates to pilots No. 1,
2, 5, 7, and 9.
Scattered dissatisfaction frequently results
from errors in the adaptation of pilots to the
specific requirements of the training system.
AIR FORCE
The training system is characterized by a

lack of concentrated dissatisfaction with the
results obtained by the pilots in the simulator
training, and determined on the basis of the
number of errors made during emergency
situations and the execution of specific tasks.
It can, therefore, be concluded that the training
system is functioning properly and there is not
a single pilot who would not have achieved
any results within the framework of a
functioning training system
The analysis conducted in this manner
does not allow for a holistic approach to the
problem of assessing the level of training of
the pilots on the basis of the results obtained in
the simulator tests. However, it was possible to
identify the elements common to the number
of errors committed and the number of tasks
executed. Pilots were divided into training
groups in accordance with the analysis
conducted in this manner. Group 1 (achieving
the best results) includes pilots No. 6 and 10,
group 2 includes pilots No. 4 and 3, group 3
consists of pilots, No. 1, 5, and 8, whereas
group 4 consists of pilots, No. 7, 2, and 9.
The advantages of using flight
simulators in daily professional development
training of military pilots which have been
presented in this chapter point to the fact that
flight simulators are an effective tool for the
development of the essential elements that
affect the level of air mission execution safety
tasks, including the desired degree of
situational awareness The confirmation of this
thesis may be made by the recommendations
of the UK Royal Air Force (RAF) following a
large number of air accidents which resulted
from the introduction of jet aircraft in 1960s.
One of the key corrective actions aimed at
preventing the similar events in the future was
the decision to purchase flight simulators and
intensify simulator training of jet pilots.
CONCLUSION
Regardless of the type of aviation and
the stage of flight training/professional
development, flight simulators are a widely
used pilot training tool. The results of
reference literature analysis, expert opinions,
flight simulation studies, and the authors own
air permit the conclusion that the essential
benefits of the flight simulator, including those

relevant to the pilot's situational awareness can
include the following:
1. High training effectiveness. The tests
related to measuring the effectiveness of flight
simulation training demonstrated that the
trainees develop knowledge and skills at a
level similar to that achieved in a real flight.
During simulator training, due to lack of
necessity to physically control the aircraft, the
instructor can fully focus on the student and
the activities that the student performs.
Modern simulators support the function of
recording and collecting data from simulated
air operations carried out during the training.
This facilitates multiple analyses of the
compatibility of flight parameters as defined in
the exercise scenario with the values registered
during the training flight.
2. Maintaining high standards of
training safety. Due to the necessity of
maintaining a certain level of safety during
training, simulators sometimes provide the
only way to learn some maneuvers, the
elements of air operations performed in the
event of dangerous weather conditions (wind
shear, turbulence, icing, jet streams, etc.).
Performing the above-mentioned maneuvers in
a real flight would involve putting the trained
crew at high risk. A similar situation occurs in
the event of critical aircraft component failure,
including, among other things, failures
concerning the engine, flight instruments, or
control systems, etc.
3. Availability. The fact that the use of
the flight simulator in flight training is not
dependent on the current ambient weather
conditions, the state of the airport, or the good
working condition of ground navigation
equipment allows for a more methodical
approach to the training from the human
factor perspective. Moreover, it is possible to
simulate non-routine in-flight situations
without the necessity to wait for their
occurrence in the real air mission execution
environment.
4. Repeatability. The simulator does
not require the implementation of the full
cycle of a given air operation (pre-flight check,
710
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
take-off, mission execution, landing, psotflight check) to discuss and repeat a specific
part of the exercise by the trainee. It facilitates
the repetition of each flight element and
making breaks for an exchange of views
between the trainee and the instructor.
5. Predictability. Simulator training
prevents the occurrence of such dangerous
phenomena as air traffic collision, wind shear,
icing, weather deterioration, turbulence,
closure of airports, etc. Of course, all of these
situations are possible to simulate, but the
exercise of this kind are carried out by the
trainee at the time specified by the instructor,
according to the trainee's progress made in the
training.
6. Learning from mistakes with
unlimited possibilities of applying a number of
ways to solve an in-flight operational problem
with "zero" risk level, the simulator allows the
student to select the solution which is the most
optimal from his perspective and to test it.
This capability allows the trainee to physically
"prove to himself" that some solutions
considered by him to be more useful and safer
than those recommended by the instructor or
the instruction manuals are not a good option
in operational reality and, consequently, they
are eliminated by the trainee once and for all.
7. Maintaining pilot currency and
proper attention allocation. Systematic
training exercises on the flight simulator
allows the trainee to consolidate the desired
habits (maintain pilot currency) and, what is
equally important, allows him to permanently
master the optimal attention allocation in
various phases of the air mission execution. It
allows the beginner pilot, on the other hand, to
adequately master the basic elements of
cockpit preflight check and such actions as
711
starting up the engine and other aircraft

equipment. This allows both to save the time
and reduce the costs of practical training.
8. Credibility as a tool applied in air
accident investigation. Flight simulators
ensure accurate reconstruction of flight
conditions, the situation onboard, and the
evaluation of the actions taken by the crew of
the aircraft in the event of an undesirable
flight-related event. The conclusions of these
analyses and corrective actions taken in the
aspects related to the event the pilotoperator, the aviation organization, the
environment, the aircraft allow to avoid or
safely respond to undesirable flight-related
events in the future.
9. Simulators can be used for training
for the prototype aircraft under design, or
aircraft employing new solutions (systems).
Performing this task in practice, without the
prior simulation and practice of selected flight
maneuvers could be associated with a high
level of risk and, in extreme situations, with
high probability of undesirable flight-related
event.
10. High comfort of performing the
training tasks by the instructor. An undoubted
advantage of the flight simulator in
comparison with the aircraft is the fact that the
instructor can focus his attention fully on the
trainee and the task performed. Equipping the
simulator with a module recording the
operating
parameters,
including
the
correspondence between the instructor and the
trainee, allows for deep analysis of multiple
elements of the flight in order to draw the
appropriate conclusions and facilitates
methodological development of corrective
AIR FORCE
actions to be taken in relation to the trainee 33 .

In contrast to a training flight conducted in the
real mission environment, the instructor may
but does not have to immediately correct to the
trainees errors. The instructors actions may
only amount to monitoring the situation on
board the aircraft in a particular mission
execution environment, and assessing the
trainees response time to committed errors.
Such a situation is favorable in that the trainee
can fully see the effects of his improper
actions on board the aircraft. In real flights
allowing such a situation could lead to an
excessive risk of an undesirable flight-related
event.
REDUCTION OF THE FLIGHT TRAINING COST ON

AVERAGE by approximately 12%. THEY ALSO
FOUND
THAT
COMMERCIAL
AVIATION
ORGANIZATIONS CAN EXPECT A RETURN OF THE
TOTAL PURCHASE PRICE OF THE SIMULATOR
WITHIN APPROXIMATELY 9 MONTHS, AND THE
RETURN OF THE COSTS OF THE NECESSARY
TRAINING FACILITIES WITHIN ABOUT two years.
11. OPTIMIZING THE USE OF financial

RESOURCES. THE USE OF THE SIMULATOR CAN
Despite the advantages mentioned

above, no simulator can currently be defined
as a device that can replace the hands-on
training in the air. It is still considered as a
very important form of preparing or
supplementing practical training in the air.
SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE THE TRAINING COSTS

as COMPARED TO THOSE INCURRED FOR THE
USE OF THE AIRCRAFT. FURTHERMORE,
SIMULATOR TRAINING IMPLEMENTED INSTEAD
OF THE TRAINING ON THE AIRCRAFT ALLOWS
FOR SIGNIFICANT SAVINGS RESULTING FROM
THE extended service life OF THE AIRCRAFT.
TAKING
INTO
ACCOUNT
the DETAILED
ANALYSIS OF THE COST vs. EFFECTIVENESS
ORLANSKY
AND
STRING
RELATIONSHIP,
PROVED THAT THE COSTS OF APPLYING FLIGHT
SIMULATORS IN THE TRAINING OF MILITARY
FLIGHT PERSONNEL ACCOUNT FOR 5%20% of
the cost OF THE SAME OPERATION PERFORMED
ON trainer AIRCRAFT. THIS ALLOWS FOR the
33
The simulator facilitates collecting the flight data

related to the level of compliance. As a part of the
diagnostic process, the instructor-pilot can compare
the established criteria of conducting a given
exercise with those defined by the recorded flight
parameters. In addition, the instructor can make a
comparative analysis of the quality of performing
the tasks by trainees who are at the same stage of
training (the diagnosis of the state). Having the
results of progress made by the trainee during the
training, the instructor can understand more deeply
the causes of mistakes made by the trainee, and offer
him a new approach to an element of the exercise,
which will allow him to achieve acceptable results.
The instructor may also evaluate the feasibility
measurability of the quality of performing various
elements of the exercise can be used to enhance the
effectiveness of training by changing the approach to
the training of selected elements of the exercise.
12. The use of simulators significantly

reduces the number of hours flown by the
trainee, which is beneficial for aircraft
operating costs, and the costs resulting from
the use of airspace and airports, both
controlled and uncontrolled.
The use of flight training simulator,

like any other training device, has
a number of disadvantages, which can include:
1. Purchase price of the simulator. The
most
important
barrier
resulting
in
a limited number of simulators available in our
country is their purchase price.
2. Insufficient levels of environmental
impact on the trainee which is present in real
air operations. In a simulated emergency
(dangerous weather phenomenon, onboard
system failure), the trainee does not experience
the same degree of stress as in the case of the
same situation enocuntered in the air.
However, mastering the proper execution of
actions related to a specific emergency
situation using the simulator makes it easier to
take appropriate action in the event of
encountering a similar phenomenon in the air.
On the other hand, because of too strict
adherence to procedures and not allowing the
trainee to experiment and learn from mistakes
in preventing dangerous situations during
simulator training, the trainee is not able to
move beyond the learned schema, and thus is
often not able to properly respond to
a non-routine situation in the air. This usually
leads to an undesirable flight-related event.
The proof of that is provided by the results of
712
HENRI COANDA
AIR FORCE ACADEMY
ROMANIA

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

AFASES 2014
studies conducted by a NASA research team

who used the data from the Aviation Safety
Reporting System (ASRS).
3. Shorter flight duration in comparison
with real flights. Too frequently, selective
treatment of certain flight elements causes the
effect of mental fatigue and weariness to occur
during simulator training with less severity
than in a real flight. As a result, it is difficult to
assess the resistance of the trainee to weariness
or mental fatigue usually present in long
l asting flights.
4. No faithful reproduction of radio
traffic reality of the real mission
environment. While conducting simulator
training, instructors often place less
importance on the so-called radio traffic
reality. Because of that, the trainees with less
operational experience have difficulty in
understanding
the
radiotelephony
communication and performing air operations
in the "congested" areas of controlled
aerodromes.
Currently, flight simulators, in addition
to aircraft are considered as one of the
essential tools for selection, training, and
developing/maintaining currency of flight
crews. They are also viewed as a reliable tool
for testing pilot knowledge and skills in
specific aspects of aircraft operation and air
mission execution. Because of the abovementioned advantages of these devices,
simulator training, in addition to theoretical
and practical training in the air, plays a crucial
role in shaping the competencies needed to
achieve the desired level of situational
awareness by the pilot at various stages of air
mission execution. Therefore, the use of these
devices for forming and consolidating the pilot
capabilities necessary, among others, for the
713
efficient execution of the situational awareness

process should be considered as justified.
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AIR FORCE
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PHASES ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

Drago Cristian ACHIEI*, Petric VIZUREANU*, Mirabela Georgiana MINCIUN*,

The properties of cast alloys are dependent

Aluminum - improves castability and

Valve case for

Spare parts [5]

Fig.1. Cu-Al equilibrium diagram [2].

Valve case for

Aluminum bronze are alloys of copper aluminum containing up to 15 % Al , which

The structural constituents of the

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Based on analysis bulletin, was establish

Fig.2. X-ray diffractogram (indexed)

Fig.3. X-ray diffractogram (indexed) obtained

Fig.5. Linseis L75H / 1400 dilatometer.

Fig.4. X-ray diffractogram (indexed) obtained

After applying heat treatment, the samples

X-ray structural analysis is the method by

Fig.6. Dilatogram of alloy after annealing.

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All the measurements of micro-hardness

Fig.7. Dilatogram of alloy after quenching.

f. Microscopic analysis by optic

Fig.8. Dilatogram of alloy after tempering.

good lifetime for industrial applications based

1. Gdea Suzana, s.a., ndrumar de laborator

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UNMANNED COMBAT AIR VEHICLE: MQ-9 REAPER

Fig.1 The Dimensions of MQ-9 Reaper

Drive provides turboprop unit from

The aircraft is equipped with a 6-bearing

support systems SIGINT/ ESM, electronic

turbine speed is 41730 rpm, the maximum

Fig.4 Turboprop engine

Drago Cristian ACHIEI, Petric VIZUREANU, Mirabela Georgiana MINCIUN*,