Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 2010 King 470 85

Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
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Psychosocial Factors Associated With Recent Alcohol Use Among

Hispanic Youth
Keith A. King and Rebecca A. Vidourek
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 2010 32: 470 originally published online
7 June 2010
DOI: 10.1177/0739986310372234
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Psychosocial Factors
Associated With
Recent Alcohol Use
Among Hispanic Youth
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

32(3) 470485
The Author(s) 2010
Reprints and permission: http://www.
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0739986310372234
http://hjbs.sagepub.com
Keith A. King1 and

Rebecca A. Vidourek1
Abstract
A total of 946 Hispanic students in 7th to 12th grade in Greater Cincinnati
schools (N = 133) completed a survey assessing factors associated with
recent alcohol use. Results indicated that 24.5% used alcohol in the past
month. Males were more likely than females to recently use alcohol. A
series of odds ratios revealed that frequent church attendance, making
good grades, and having parents/teachers frequently talk and set/enforce
rules regarding alcohol use were associated with decreased recent alcohol
use. Frequent participation in risky behaviors was directly related to recent
alcohol use. Ongoing parent, teacher, and school communication and the
consistent setting and enforcement of rules should be encouraged. Findings
may be beneficial to prevention specialists developing programs targeting
Hispanic youth. Future studies should seek to identify specific activities
within the family, school, and community that help deter alcohol use among
this population.
Keywords
Hispanic, adolescent, alcohol, protective factor, parent
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
Corresponding Author:
Keith A. King, Health Promotion and Education Program, University of Cincinnati,
ML 0068, 526 TC, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0068, USA
Email: keith.king@uc.edu
King and Vidourek
471
Introduction
Alcohol use and abuse is a significant public health problem among Hispanic
youth (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2006).
Data from the most recent Youth Risk Behavior Survey (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2008) revealed that 77.9% of Hispanic youth reported
having consumed alcohol in their lifetime, compared with 76.1% of White
and 69.1% of African American youth. Regarding current use of alcohol,
nearly half (47.6%) of the Hispanic youth reported using alcohol in the 30 days
prior to the survey, compared with 47.3% of White and 34.5% of African
American youth. In addition, 28.3% of Hispanic males and 25.3% of Hispanic
females reported current episodic heavy drinking. Greater than one in four
(28.0%) Hispanic youth reported drinking alcohol before the age of 13 years.
Data from Monitoring the Future survey indicated that Hispanic youth
are more likely than White youth to initiate early alcohol use (Johnston
et al., 2008). Early age of initiation has been correlated to increased
involvement in violence, delinquency, suicide, and later alcohol abuse (Hingson,
Heeren, & Winter, 2006; McGue, Iacono, Legrand, Malone, & Elkins, 2001;
Swahn & Bossarte, 2007; Wu et al., 2004). Youth who begin drinking before
14 years of age are four times more likely to develop alcohol abuse and
dependence than individuals who begin drinking at 21 years of age (Grant &
Dawson, 1997).
Risk factors for youth alcohol use are numerous and exist on multiple
levels. Among Hispanic youth, low self-esteem, aggressive behaviors, and
high rates of delinquency are individual factors identified that contribute to
alcohol use (Bossarte & Swahn, 2008; Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992).
Youth are at higher risk for alcohol use if their parents use alcohol (Wickrama,
Conger, Wallace, & Elder, 1999) and if there are low levels of parental monitoring and parental involvement (Coatsworth, Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2002).
Regarding the impact of peers, associating with peers who use alcohol tends
to increase youth alcohol use (Pettit, Bates, Dodge, & Meece, 1999).
Regarding protective factors, family connectedness is a leading protective
factor against youth alcohol use (Resnick et al., 1997). This is especially true
among Hispanic youth wherein the family and perceived family closeness
are essential (Sale et al., 2005). High levels of parental supervision and
parental support are strongly associated with decreases in alcohol consumption among Hispanic youth (Bossarte & Swahn, 2008; Brook, Whiteman,
Gordon, Nomura, & Brook, 1985; Griffin, Botvin, Scheier, Diaz, & Miller,
2000). Parental disapproval of alcohol use and negative attitudes toward
underage drinking are additional family-based protective factors (Ellickson &
Hays, 1991). Among Hispanic youth, parental respect also plays an important
472
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 32(3)
role in reducing alcohol initiation (Gil, Wagner, & Vega, 2000). Regarding
peers, perceiving few peers as alcohol users and having peers who disapprove of alcohol use tend to protect Hispanic youth from alcohol consumption (Bossarte & Swahn, 2008; DAmico & McCarthy, 2006; Hawkins et al.,
1997). Within the school, positive attitudes toward school, involvement in
school activities, and high levels of connectedness to school are correlated
with decreased alcohol use (Hawkins et al., 1997).
A primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between
recent alcohol use and Hispanic student involvement in prosocial behaviors
and risky behaviors. Although previous studies have identified risk and protective factors for alcohol use among general populations (Hawkins et al.,
1992), gaps in the research exist concerning Hispanic youth. Although
Hispanic youth are at risk for early onset of alcohol use, little is known
regarding specific risk and resiliency factors among this population (Torres,
Stone, & Meyler, 2007).
The present study sought to address these gaps and subsequently provide
prevention specialists with culturally specific information that could be used
in tailoring programs targeting Hispanic youth. The study purpose was to
examine recent alcohol use and potential risk and protective factors among
Hispanic youth in 7th through 12th grades. The following research questions were examined:
Research Question 1: What percentage of Hispanic students are
involved in recent alcohol use?
Research Question 2: Does recent alcohol use among Hispanic students differ based on gender, grade, and job status?
Research Question 3: Does frequency of participation in pro-social
behaviors decrease the odds for recent alcohol use?
Research Question 4: Does frequency of participation in risky behaviors increase the odds for recent alcohol use?
Research Question 5: Does frequency of friends involvement in substance use increase the odds for recent alcohol use?
Research Question 6: Do specific parent, teacher, and school factors
affect recent alcohol use?
Method
Participants
Participants of this study were 7th through 12th grade students (N = 946) in
133 public and private schools in the Greater Cincinnati area. Schools were
King and Vidourek
473
recruited by the Coalition for a Drug Free Greater Cincinnati. School and
student participation was voluntary. If parents did not wish to have their child
participate, then the child was excluded from the survey. All responses were
anonymous and confidential. Regarding ethnicity, all students in this study
self-identified themselves as Hispanic. No additional questions regarding
Hispanic status and country of origin were asked (i.e., Mexican, Puerto
Rican, Central American, South American, etc.).
Procedures
Students were administered the surveys in their classrooms after being
informed of the study purpose, voluntary nature of the survey, confidentiality
of responses, and importance of providing honest answers. Every student in
school on the day of survey administration was given a survey to complete.
Students were instructed to skip items that they did not wish to answer. Survey
administrators remained at the front of the room and refrained from looking at
students surveys while they completed them, so as to avoid any student suspicion. Once surveys were completed, students placed them in an envelope.
Teachers subsequently turned in the envelope of completed surveys to the
office staff to be sent out for data entry and analysis.
Instrument
The Pride Survey for Grades 6 to 12 was administered to students. The
following survey sections were used: (a) personal/family information,
(b) student information (involvement in prosocial behaviors and risky behaviors), (c) frequency of alcohol use, and (d) age at first alcohol use (age of
initiation). Stability reliability of the survey was established by distributing the survey on two occasions to a sample of students (N = 631) 1 week
apart and yielded the following Pearson correlation coefficient ranges:
.814 to .851 (Frequency of alcohol use), .802 to .842 (Age at first alcohol
use), and .578 to .825 (Student Information; Metze, 2000). Adams (1994)
validated this survey by comparing PRIDE results with those of the Monitoring the Future survey and found alcohol use rates to be similar with
PRIDE estimates. Craig and Emshoff (1987) found the survey to be valid
and reliable with percentage of agreements more than 80% on most variables.
This survey was written in English and previously pilot-tested among students
and a panel of experts to ensure readability among students. Recommended revisions and wording changes were incorporated into the final
survey instrument.
474
Table 1. Demographic and Background Characteristics of Students

Item
Gender
Male
Female
Grade
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
Living situation
Live with mother and father
Live with mother only
Live with father only
Live with mother and stepfather
Live with father and stepmother
Other
Job status
Have full-time job
Have part-time job
Do not have a job
Percentage
439
414
51.5
48.5
157
154
167
166
139
139
17.0
16.7
18.1
18.0
15.1
15.1
545
143
25
111
22
81
58.8
15.4
2.7
12.0
2.4
8.7
36
233
610
4.1
26.5
69.4
Note. Percentages denote valid percentages; missing values excluded; N = 946.
Data Analysis
Data were entered and analyzed using the SPSS statistical software package.
Frequency distributions, means, standard deviations, and ranges were used to
describe the demographic and background characteristics of students. Chisquare analyses were performed to determine whether recent alcohol use
differed significantly based on nonparametric demographic variables. Odds
ratios were computed to answer research questions three through six. The
alpha level of significance was set at .05.
Results
A total of 946 Hispanic students in participating Greater Cincinnati schools
(N = 133) completed the survey (77.4% overall response rate). Of these students, 51.5% were male and 48.5% were female (Table 1). The sample was
King and Vidourek
475
equally distributed across grades. Most students (58.8%) reported living with
their mother and father. Regarding job status, two thirds of students (69.4%)
were unemployed.
Hispanic Students Involvement in Alcohol Use

Self-reported use rates revealed that 45.0% of students used alcohol in the
past year, 24.5% used alcohol in the past month, 13.3% used alcohol in the
past week, and 6.5% used alcohol every day. Average age students first used
alcohol ranged from 10 to 17 years (M = 12.6; SD = 2.17). Males (26.9%)
were significantly more likely than females (21.2%) to report using alcohol
in the past month, c2 = 3.645, df = 1, p = .050. As grade level increased,
recent alcohol use significantly increased, with 4.0% in 7th grade, 11.4% in
8th grade, 21.9% in 9th grade, 28.5% in 10th grade, 33.3% in 11th grade, and
45.6% in 12th grade. Students who were employed full-time or part-time
(49.8%) were significantly more likely than students who were unemployed
(23.7%) to have used alcohol in the past month, c2 = 49.79, df = 1, p < .001.
Recent Alcohol Use and Involvement in Positive

and Negative/Risky Youth Behaviors
Regarding prosocial behaviors, females were significantly more likely than
males to get good grades, participate in school clubs, participate in community activities, and attend church, while males were significantly more likely
than females to participate in school sports. A series of odds ratios were computed to examine whether recent alcohol use differed based on frequency of
involvement in prosocial and risky behaviors. Results indicated that students
who frequently (often/a lot) engaged in prosocial behaviors, such as attending a religious institution (church, synagogue, mosque) and making good
grades, were significantly less likely than students who never/seldom engaged
in these same prosocial behaviors to report using alcohol in the past 30 days
(Table 2). Recent alcohol use did not differ significantly based on frequency
of involvement in prosocial school and community behaviors, such as taking
part in school sports teams, school activities/clubs, and community activities.
Regarding risky behaviors, males were significantly more likely than females
to get into trouble at school, skip school, get into trouble with the police, take
part in gang activities, drink five or more glasses of alcohol within a few
hours, and attend a party where alcohol or marijuana was available. Students
who frequently (often/a lot) engaged in risky behaviors were significantly
more likely than students who never/seldom engaged in risky behaviors to
report using alcohol in the past 30 days.
476
52.416
141.131
163.711
155.018
362.468
55 (53.4)
66 (71.0)
67 (75.3)
68 (74.7)
107 (87.0)
162 (60.0)
116 (77.9)
48 (46.6)
27 (29.0)
22 (24.7)
23 (25.3)
16 (13.0)
108 (40.0)
33 (22.1)
318.955
283.723
50.366
2.536
1.340
1.207
17.398
120 (20.8)
82 (27.3)
53 (22.6)
42 (22.1)
77 (19.3)
c2
458 (79.2)
218 (72.7)
181 (77.4)
148 (77.9)
322 (80.7)
Did Not Use in Used in Past

Past Month, n (%) Month, n (%)
28.875 17.919, 46.531

31.164 19.637, 49.459
<.001
<.001
0.100, 0.290
0.938, 1.848
0.563, 1.160
0.544, 1.187
0.337, 0.679
95% CI
4.506 2.927, 6.936

12.485 7.662, 20.345
16.413 9.741, 27.656
14.928 8.954, 24.887
59.232 33.145, 105.852
.170
1.317
.808
.804
.478
OR
<.001
<.001
<.001
<.001
<.001
<.001
.111
.247
.272
<.001
Note. OD = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval. ODs for recent alcohol use comparing students involved in prosocial and risky behaviors often/a lot
versus never/seldom.
Prosocial behaviors
Make good grades (often/a lot)
Take part in school sports teams (often/a lot)
Take part in school activities and clubs (often/a lot)
Take part in community activities (often/a lot)
Attend church, synagogue, etc. (often/a lot)
Risky behaviors
Get into trouble at school (often/a lot)
Skipped school in the past year (often/a lot)
Been in trouble with the police (often/a lot)
Take part in gang activities (often/a lot)
Have you had five or more glasses of alcohol
within a few hours (often/a lot)
In the past 3 months, have you been at a party
where alcohol was available (often/a lot)
In the past 3 months, have you been at a party
where marijuana was available (often/a lot)
Involvement in Behaviors
Table 2. Recent Alcohol Use and Involvement in Prosocial Behaviors and Risky Behaviors
King and Vidourek
477
Recent Alcohol Use and Peer, Parent,

Teacher, and School Factors
Having peers who frequently (often/a lot) used alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana was significantly associated with recent alcohol use among students
(Table 3). Students who reported that their parents frequently talked to them
about the dangers of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use, frequently set clear
rules about AODs, and frequently punished them when they broke the rules
about AODs were significantly less likely than their counterparts to report
recently using alcohol. Similarly, students who reported that their teachers
frequently talked with them about the dangers of AOD use and that their
school frequently set clear rules on using AODs were significantly less likely
than their counterparts to report recently using alcohol.
Discussion
The present study found that 24.5% of Hispanic students reported using alcohol in the past month with an average age of alcohol initiation of 12.6 years.
Hispanic students tend to be disproportionately affected by recent alcohol use
with a younger age of initiation than non-Hispanic White students (Johnston,
OMalley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2008). Early alcohol initiation is of
serious concern since adolescent brains are vulnerable to alcohol effects and
dependency (Chambers, Taylor, & Potenza, 2003; Grant & Dawson, 1997).
Thus, it is critical to deliver effective prevention messages early.
Males in this study were significantly more likely than females to have
recently used alcohol. Many Hispanic youth feel that it is culturally appropriate for males to drink alcohol while females are expected to fulfill traditional
female roles and refrain from alcohol use (Caetano & Kaskutas, 1995; Casas,
Wagenheim, Banchero, & Mendoza-Romero, 1994; Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004;
Torres Stone & Meyler, 2007; Vega, Alderete, Kolody, & Aguilar-Gaxiola,
2000). Such information should be used in prevention programs.
Employed students in this study were more likely than unemployed students
to have used alcohol in the past month. Previous research among general populations has shown youth employment to be correlated with increased alcohol
use (McMorris & Uggen, 2000). Being employed may compromise close family relationships (Paternoster, Bushway, Brame, & Apel, 2003), increase stress,
and provide disposable income, which may contribute to increased alcohol use.
Additional studies are needed to further explore this issue.
Frequent involvement in prosocial behaviors, such as attending a religious institution and making good grades, was associated with decreased
478
26.487
24.386
112 (17.9)
77 (22.1)
55 (17.6)
139 (21.3)
514 (82.1)
272 (77.9)
257 (82.4)
513 (78.7)
9.125
52.112
62.013
66 (14.8)
381 (85.2)
289.523
249.992
224.783
c2
156 (61.2)
137 (62.0)
123 (63.4)
Used in Past
Month, n (%)
99 (38.8)
84 (38.0)
71 (36.6)
Did Not Use in

Past Month, n (%)
0.386
0.385
<.001
<.001
0.269
<.001
0.594
0.246
<.001
.003
47.160
21.538
15.592
OR
<.001
<.001
<.001
0.261, 0.567
0.267, 0.558
0.423, 0.834
0.186, 0.389
0.171, 0.353
26.167, 84.996
13.844, 33.507
10.413, 23.345
95% CI
Note. OD = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval; AOD = alcohol and other drug. ODs for recent alcohol use comparing friends, parents, teachers,
and school factors often/a lot versus never/seldom.
Friends involvement in substance use

Friends use alcohol (often/a lot)
Friends use tobacco (often/a lot)
Friends use marijuana (often/a lot)
Parent factors
Parents talk with you about the
dangers of AODs (often/a lot)
Parents set clear rules on using
AODs (often/a lot)
Parents punish you when you break
rules about using AODs (often/a lot)
Teacher/school factors
Teachers talk with you about the
dangers of AODs (often/a lot)
School sets clear rules on using
AODs (often/a lot)
Involvement in Behaviors
Table 3. Recent Alcohol Use, Friends Involvement in Substance Use, and Parent, Teacher, and School Factors
King and Vidourek
479
involvement in recent alcohol use among Hispanic students. Several studies

have indicated that church attendance acts as a protective factor against alcohol abuse (Search Institute, 2004; Sinha, Cnaan, & Gelles, 2007; Wallace
et al., 2007). This study supported these findings; however, only one survey
item assessed church attendance. Future studies are needed to more fully
examine this issue.
Interestingly, results revealed that recent alcohol use did not differ significantly based on frequency of participating in specific prosocial school and
community behaviors, such as taking part in school sports teams, participating
in school activities/clubs, and taking part in community activities. General
population studies have identified positive school and community involvement to be protective factors against substance abuse (Center for Substance
Abuse Prevention, 2001; Search Institute, 2004) because they help create a
sense of connectedness that promote healthy decision making (Resnick et al.,
1997; Youngblade et al., 2007).
The present study also found that students who frequently engaged in
risky behaviors were more likely to have recently used alcohol. In addition,
those who recently drank were significantly more likely to engage in episodic
heavy drinking (drink five or more glasses of alcohol within a few hours).
These findings support Jessors (1993) claim that adolescent risk behaviors
tend to cluster together. General population studies have also linked youth
alcohol use and participation in delinquent, aggressive, and impulsive activities (Hawkins et al., 1992).
The potential impact of social norms, peer behaviors, and parenting should
also be underscored. The present study found that Hispanic students who had
friends who frequently used substances were significantly more likely than
their counterparts to have engaged in recent alcohol use. Associating with
peers who drink elevates the risk for youth alcohol use (Pettit et al., 1999).
This study also yielded findings that highlight the importance of parental
communication and monitoring in preventing youth alcohol use. Students most
likely to have recently used alcohol were those who reported that their
parents never or seldom talked to them about AOD use dangers, set clear
AOD use rules, and punished them when AOD use rules were violated. Parental control of youth alcohol use, ongoing supervision, clear expectations,
enforcement of rules, and open communication are correlated with decreased
youth alcohol consumption (Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Beinart, Anderson, Lee,
& Utting, 2002; Newburn & Shiner, 2001). Within the Hispanic population,
family connectedness and parental warmth serve as protective factors for youth
(Mogro-Wilson, 2008; Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, Marin, & Perez-Stable,
1987; Sale et al., 2005). Most youth report they would value having increased
discussion with their parents about alcohol use (Coleman & Cater, 2005).
480
Open parent-child communication about alcohol use is an effective strategy

to help youth develop a sensible relationship with alcohol (Brody & Ge, 2001;
OSullivan, Jaramillo, Moreau, & Meyer-Bahlburg, 1999). In addition, this
study showed that parents setting and enforcing limits regarding alcohol use
was associated with decreased youth alcohol use. Such characteristics of
authoritative parenting (Baumrind, 1978) are recommended by the National
Institutes of Drug Abuse (2005) and are of key protective importance within
the Hispanic family. Mogro-Wilson (2008) similarly found that as parental
control increased, Hispanic youth alcohol use decreased. Attention to family
components should therefore be included in prevention efforts aimed toward
Hispanic youth.
Within the school environment, students most likely to report recently
using alcohol were those who had teachers and school that seldom/never
talked to them about AOD use or set clear rules on using AODs. Talking to
students about AODs may help inform them about potential dangers while
also serving to build positive connections to school. A high level of school
connectedness is a leading protective factor to youth alcohol use (Resnick
et al., 1997). Schools should work with parents and communities to address
youth substance abuse.
The study limitations should be noted. First, the self-reported nature of the
survey may have resulted in some socially desirable responses. Second,
because data were cross-sectional, causal relationships could not be determined. Third, the sample consisted of 7th through 12th grade Hispanic students in the Greater Cincinnati area. Therefore, caution should be taken in
attempting to generalize these results to students in other grades or geographical locations. Fourth, this study did not investigate the potential effect of
country of origin on recent alcohol use. Because of the great heterogeneity of
the Hispanic population, future studies should examine whether psychosocial
factors associated with recent alcohol use differ based on country of Hispanic
origin (i.e., Mexican, Puerto Rican, Central American, South American, etc.).
Finally, this study did not address acculturation or acculturative stress. Previous
studies have indicated that alcohol use among Hispanic youth may be partially due to acculturation (Prado, Szapocznik, Maldonado-Molina, Schwartz,
& Pantin, 2008) and/or acculturative stress (Gil et al., 2000). Additional
research is needed to further examine this issue.
Conclusions
This study provides additional insight into the risk and protective factors
associated with recent alcohol use among Hispanic youth. Involvement in
specific prosocial behaviors such as church attendance and making good
King and Vidourek
481
grades may aid in preventing Hispanic youth from engaging in underage

drinking. In addition, ongoing parent, teacher, and school communication
and the consistent setting and enforcement of rules should be encouraged.
Findings from this study may be beneficial to prevention specialists developing programs targeting Hispanic youth. Future studies should seek to identify
specific activities within the family, school, and community that help deter
alcohol use among this population.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this
article.
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Bios
Keith A. King is a professor of health promotion and education at the University of
Cincinnati. He also serves as the director of Family Based Prevention in Cincinnati.
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His research and teaching emphases include adolescent health promotion and violence, suicide, and substance abuse prevention. He regularly collaborates with local,
regional, and national organizations aimed toward positive youth development. He is
dedicated toward assisting adolescents in developing positive connections as a means
to increase their overall engagement in healthy behaviors.
Rebecca A. Vidourek is an assistant professor of health promotion and education at
the University of Cincinnati. Her research and teaching emphases include adolescent
health promotion, school health education, and violence prevention. She remains
committed to helping schools, parents, and communities in building protective factors
in youth.

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