Organizational Behavior and Management

Organizational Behaviour
and Management
To Orla, the first of the new generation to join our organization!

To Louise, Sarah and Mark, who for better or worse have also decided to join!
To Jeffrey, Richard and Shona, who had no choice but to join.
And last but not least, to Valerie who helped to create our organization.
and Management
THIRD EDITION
John Martin
Australia
Canada
The University of Hull
Mexico
Singapore
Spain
United Kingdom
United States
Organizational Behaviour and Management, Third Edition

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 1-86152-948-1
First edition 1998, reprinted 2000
Second edition 2001, reprinted 2002
This edition 2005
Text design by Design Deluxe
Typeset by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby
Printed in Italy by G. Canale & C.
Brief Contents
Part 1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Introduction to Management and

Organizational behaviour today

Management and organizations evolution and
academic perspectives
37
Part 2
Individuals within Organizations
77
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Perception and attitude formation

Personality and individual difference
Learning within organizations
79
123
165
Groups and Teams within Organizations
207
Groups and teams: formation and structure

Groups and teams: dynamics and effectiveness
209
249
Managing Organizations
291
Management within organizations

Leadership in organizations
293
335
Managing People within an Organization
381
Managing people and stress

Motivation and performance management
Ethics and organizational culture
383
427
471
Managing Work Design, Technology and Structure
521
Work design and organization

Technology and work
Organizational structure and design
523
567
611
Managing the Processes and

Dynamics of Organizations
667
Communication, decision making and negotiation

Power and control
Conflict and organizational politics
Organizational development and change
669
711
745
789
Part 3
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Part 4
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Part 5
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Part 6
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Part 7
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
[v]
Fu l l C o n t e n t s
List of Management in Action Panels

List of Employee Perspective Panels
List of Case Studies
Guided tour
Preface
Acknowledgements
PART 1 Introduction to Management and Organizational

Behaviour
Chapter 1 Organizational behaviour today
Introduction
What is organizational behaviour?
Why study organizational behaviour?
How to study organizational behaviour
Research and organizational behaviour
A first look at organizations
A first look at management
A first look at employees
The challenges facing organizations, managers and employees
Conclusions
Chapter 2 Management and organizations evolution and academic

perspectives
Introduction
Early organizational and management practice
Studying organizations and management
Scientific and administrative management
The human relations and quantitative schools
Systems approaches to management
Sociological and other perspectives on management
New thinking about organizations and management
Looking into the 21st century
Conclusions
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xx
xxviii
1
3
4
6
7
8
13
16
23
29
31
37
38
38
53
56
58
60
62
64
67
71
PART 2 Individuals within Organizations
77
Chapter 3 Perception and attitude formation
79
Introduction
The significance of perception and attitude
A model of perception
Selection of stimuli for attention
Organizing stimuli into meaningful patterns
80
80
81
84
87
[ vii ]
[ viii ]
Full contents
Interpreting the significance of a stimulus

Response behaviour to a stimulus
The learning loop
Person perception
Attribution theory and perception
Attitude formation
Impression management
Perception and attitudes within an organizational context
Perception and attitude formation: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 4 Personality and individual difference

Introduction
The study of individual difference
Nomothetic perspectives
Idiographic perspectives
Other perspectives on individual difference
Measuring personality and individual difference
Emotion, intelligence and emotional intelligence
Individual difference, perception and attitudes
Organizational applications of individual difference
Individual difference: a management perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 5 Learning within organizations

Introduction
Learning, training and development
Behaviourist theories of learning
Cognitive approaches to learning
Social and experiential learning
Other approaches to learning
The learning organization
Knowledge management
Learning within organizations
Learning: a management and organizational perspective
Conclusions
88
91
92
92
99
103
107
110
113
117
123
124
124
126
134
136
145
149
151
153
158
160
165
166
166
170
176
180
182
186
190
193
197
202
PART 3 Groups and Teams within Organizations
207
Chapter 6 Groups and teams: formation and structure
209
Introduction
Groups and teams are they different?
Groups, teams and organizations
The significance of groups and teams
Formal and informal groups
Why groups form
Organizational research approaches
Group formation and development
Role theory and group structure
Job design, technology and teams
210
210
213
216
218
220
223
229
235
239
Full contents
Group formation and structure: an applied perspective

Conclusions
Chapter 7 Groups and teams: dynamics and effectiveness

Introduction
Communication within groups and teams
Analyzing behaviour within groups and teams
Controlling behaviour within groups and teams
Decision making within groups and teams
Group dynamics
Dynamics between groups
Group effectiveness and satisfaction
Groups, teams and organizations
Group dynamics and effectiveness: an applied perspective
Conclusions
PART 4 Managing Organizations

Chapter 8 Management within organizations
Introduction
What is management?
Fayol and the management process
Managing in a social world
What managers do
Management: context influences
Management roles and skills
Management and diversity
Management and organizational effectiveness
Critical incident management
Management and power a critical reflection
Meetings and humour in management
Management: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 9 Leadership in organizations

Introduction
Leaders or managers?
Leaders, entrepreneurs and vision
Leaders, power and virtual working
Do leaders need followers?
Leadership as symbolism
Trait theories of leadership
Style theories of leadership
Contingency theories of leadership
Other approaches to leadership
Alternatives to leadership
Leadership and the organizational lifecycle
Leadership and success
Leadership: an applied perspective
Conclusions
240
243
249
250
250
252
254
260
261
273
275
281
284
286
291
293
294
294
297
298
302
304
311
315
317
319
322
325
328
331
335
336
336
342
344
347
349
349
350
358
361
366
367
367
372
374
[ ix ]
[x]
Full contents
PART 5 Managing People within an Organization

Chapter 10 Managing people and stress
Introduction
Models of people management practice
People management issues and activities
The psychological contract and work-life balance
People management and the line manager
Stress what is it?
Sources of stress
Effects of stress
Dealing with stress
Managing people and stress: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 11 Motivation and performance management

Introduction
Early approaches to motivation and performance management
The theories of motivation
Content theories
Process theories
Additional perspectives on motivation
Performance management and motivation
Motivation and performance management: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 12 Ethics and organizational culture

Introduction
Philosophy and ethics
Ethical perspectives in organizations
Ethics and research
Social responsibility
Cross-cultural perspectives on ethics
Ethics and antisocial behaviour
Ethics and management
Defining organizational culture
The dimensions of culture
Cultural frameworks
The determinants of culture
National culture
Globalization and culture
Managing culture
Changing organizational culture
Ethics and organizational culture: an applied perspective
Conclusions
381
383
384
384
386
395
397
400
404
406
410
416
420
427
428
428
430
433
443
450
453
459
465
471
472
472
474
477
479
481
482
484
490
492
493
500
502
506
508
510
511
514
Full contents
PART 6 Managing Work Design, Technology and Structure

Chapter 13 Work design and organization
Introduction
The nature of a job
Work study, ergonomics and job analysis
Approaches to designing jobs
Technology and work organization
Groups and work organization
Organizational influences on work organization
Fordism and post-Fordism
Flexibility, empowerment and patterns of work
Changing the design of jobs
Alienation, satisfaction and productivity through work organization
Quality of working life and quality circles
Work organization: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 14 Technology and work

Introduction
Technology a definition
The evolution of technology
Perspectives on technology
Japanization, technology and work
Assumptions about technology
The politics of technology
Technology and alienation
Determinism, rationality and control
The impact of technology
Technology, innovation and diversity
Technology and change
Information technology
New technology applications
Technology: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 15 Organizational structure and design

Introduction
Perspectives on organizational structure
Organizational lifecycle
Structural frameworks
BPR, flexible and flatter organizations
The virtual, federal and networked organization
Alternative organizations
Factors influencing organizational design
Charting organizations
Organizational structure and design: an applied perspective
Conclusions
521
523
524
524
527
531
536
538
540
544
548
551
553
556
557
560
567
568
568
570
574
578
581
583
584
585
587
590
592
596
597
602
606
611
612
612
625
628
639
642
645
648
653
657
660
[ xi ]
[ xii ]
Full contents
PART 7 Managing the Processes and Dynamics of Organizations

Chapter 16 Communication, decision making and negotiation
Introduction
Communication within organizations
Communication processes
Decision making within organizations
Decision-making models
Negotiating within organizations
Negotiator characteristics
Communication, decision making and negotiation: An applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 17 Power and control

Introduction
Power, influence and authority
Perspectives on power
Sources of organizational power
Power and decision making
Control within organizations
Form and characteristics of control
Power, control and resistance
Power and control: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 18 Conflict and organizational politics

Introduction
Sources of organizational conflict
Forms of organizational conflict
The consequences of conflict
Perspectives on conflict
Conflict as resistance to control
Conflict handling strategies
Politics within organizations
Political strategies
Using political behaviour
Managing political behaviour
Conflict and organizational politics: an applied perspective
Conclusions
Chapter 19 Organizational development and change

Introduction
Pressure for change
Forces acting on organizations
Impact of change on organizations
Organizational development and change
Power, politics and change
Approaches to organizational change
667
669
670
670
673
681
686
693
698
699
705
711
712
712
716
721
725
729
730
735
736
739
745
746
746
750
756
759
764
765
769
772
775
778
779
783
789
790
790
791
795
799
802
804
Full contents
Contingency perspectives on change

Systems perspectives on change
Chaos and change
The change agent
Resistance to change
Innovation as a change strategy
Organizational development and change: an applied perspective
Conclusions
810
815
816
817
818
821
824
826
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
832
841
862
[ xiii ]
List of Features
Management in Action panels

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
3.1
Pret A Manger staff help choose the

new recruits
Implementing Japanese management
methods
Survival skills for a new breed
Cut out the middlemen
Misery of rag-trade slaves in
Americas Pacific outpost
Babylonian management practice
Sun Tzu The art of war or
management
The Arsenal of Venice
The Soho Foundry
Beam yourself up to the boardroom
8
16
19
25
27
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Managing a Personal Assistant (PA)

Centre of attention
Same indifference
Micro management
305
309
319
326
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
Taking the lead in leadership

The managers dilemma
Leaders listen more
The inspirational leader
Without leadership there is no
change
338
340
351
365
10.1
42
46
52
68
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Attitudes and perceptions in times of

change
The wonder years
The new managers tale
More than the jobs worth
Have long holiday, will travel
nowhere in job
82
98
100
108
11.1
11.2
111
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Personality and teams

How to cheat on personality tests
Psychometrics on line for B&Q
Developing multiple intelligence
How to plan an assessment centre
127
147
148
152
156
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
The domestic supervisor and

conditioning
Who checks the checkers?
Action learning in action
e-learning
Trial separation
175
184
187
196
198
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Keeping the peace

Sense of involvement
Construction on a united front
Family fortunes
How to build teams
212
221
222
231
237
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
[ xiv ]
Teams and progress

Flying information
The anti-management workforce
Park life
261
262
265
285
How to become an employer of

choice
A global conversion
Managers working more than before
Alternative ways to take out stress
Cheers all round for employee
counselling
391
399
402
412
413
11.3
11.4
11.5
Early printing in Korea

SAD syndrome assistance in Capital
One
Moving tale of a fair days work
Can nice guys finish first?
A cold feat
437
447
454
461
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
Poverty pay of Barbie doll workers

Secrets of the Semler effect
Winning ways with culture
Cultivate your culture
Real change dealer
487
497
501
503
512
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
Why not simply stop working?

Matching AMT jobs to people
Juggling act
Work-life balance for men
525
537
550
558
14.1
14.2
Digital depression
Tournament of the skies and other
simulations
Jobs for all in the global market?
Piano gives a lesson for the
workplace
Singapore dials long distance to
find staff
571
14.3
14.4
14.5
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
375
41
15.1
15.2
Outsourcing service departments

Return to the centre
430
590
598
603
605
626
633
List of Features
15.3
15.4
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
Business process re-engineering

(BPR)
What a way to run a company!
The power of time
Getting a better company car
Put on your thinking caps
On the road to procrastination
Influence without authority
Promoting the function?
How to cure bullying at work
Thou shalt not cook the books
641
643
680
688
702
704
714
719
723
731
6.4
6.5
The female managers story

The team controls the work
7.1
Negotiating with one hand tied

behind your back part 1
Negotiating with one hand tied
behind your back part 2
The grey squirrels are taking over!
Instrumental approach to work
Richard and his conflicting
objectives
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
For what we are about to receive

Time for a break
Getting rid of the boss
The importance of stamping out
loyalty
751
752
754
8.1
8.2
8.3
782
8.4
8.5
Off with their overheads

A measure of success
Executive action for acquisition
success
Strongest links
792
794
807
826
List of Employee Perspective panels

2.1
Slaves or masters?
43
2.2
2.3
2.4
Being on strike against Scientific

Management
Good time workers
Generation X employees
57
59
70
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Dealing with the customer!

Perceptions about empowerment
Chasing the targets!
Teflon worker!
Doctoring the health service
90
97
105
108
117
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Personality or achievements?
Organizations are zoos!
The personality of HR people
Shonas personality did not match
Change and its effects
128
135
139
154
159
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
To develop or not to develop,

that is the question?
Valerie shouted back!
Orlas induction to work
Marys indiscretion
Johns fighting and imprisonment
167
171
180
192
199
6.1
6.2
6.3
David was a team leader, or was he? 213

Sarahs first day at work
217
Is it a cohesive department or not? 234
9.1
Do as I say, not as I do!

How can I keep my door open?
Lose the accent if you want to
succeed
Harrys nervous breakdown
Dont joke, show respect!
239
243
255
257
258
276
286
296
303
316
323
327
9.3
9.4
9.5
What does it take to be an

entrepreneur?
Managers views on more senior
managers
The style of interim managers
Bills experience on a sinking ship
Dropping out of the rat race
347
361
368
369
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
Anils experience at work

Forcing Mary to become involved
Stress in the Liffe!
Disputes in the office
387
393
408
417
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
Julias expectations
Time-sheet compliance
Ediths time off for a new career
Practise what you preach
Should I earn more than my boss?
431
434
438
456
465
12.1
12.2
12.3
Ethical can be profitable

What counts as taking work home?
Whistleblowing can get you
dismissed!
Breaking the conventions
Bribes as a way of life?
479
488
9.2
12.4
12.5
13.1
13.2
13.3
345
489
499
507
13.4
Cleaning in the factory

Workplace satisfaction survey
To work from home or not,
David was furious with his bank
535
545
551
555
14.1
14.2
Changing an industry
Technology can be simple
594
595
15.1
Control through workload models
616
[ xv ]
[ xvi ]
List of Features
15.2
15.3
632
List of Case Studies
638
646
The reality of management life!
32
To lie or not to lie, that is the question?
73
658
The promotion
119
John and the sales administrator
161
Banking on money
204
The evolution of a union branch
246
Employees fighting amongst themselves
289
Mixing the sexes
333
The supervisor was taking bribes
378
Work-life balance, the psychological

contract and stress in further education
423
Changes to the management of police

services
468
Breakfast cereal games at the

supermarket
517
Job simplification on a slicing line
563
Martha the Martini employee
609
Premium bonding
663
Controlling the invisible?
742
Not paying the wages and conflict
785
Involvement and failure
829
Short term only please

How can I work for more than one
boss?
Customers replace employees
How do you know when you have
made it?
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
Reading between the lines

Mouth in gear, brain in neutral
Looking after the pennies
The boss who lost his temper
677
681
683
696
17.1
You know what you can do with the

job!
Independence has a price
Reasonable expenses
I wont apologize!
A bosss life at the sharp end
To smoke or not to smoke,
Getting rid of a subordinate
Sharing out the overtime!
How many days do I have to work?
The attitude survey negative
feedback
Reorganizing to get rid of the
problem?
The effects of reorganization
Dismissed by text message!
15.4
15.5
17.2
17.3
17.4
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
716
724
727
734
760
767
773
777
780
800
803
817
820
G u i d e d To u r
CHAPTER 7
Groups and teams: dynamics and

effectiveness
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter and working through the associated Management in Action panels,
Employee Perspectives, Discussion Questions and Case Study, you should be able to:
Outline the nature of the dynamic processes that occur within and between
groups.
Describe the similarities and differences between models of how groups can be made
more effective.
Explain how decisions are made in groups and the difficulties that can be encountered in
reaching agreement.
Understand how control can be achieved within groups through such mechanisms as
socialization and authority.
Assess the implications of issues such as groupthink and the risky shift phenomena on
group functioning.
Learning Objectives to be achieved

appear at the start of every chapter
to help you monitor your progress.
Each chapter also ends with a
conclusion section that recaps the
key content for revision purposes.
[ 249 ]
Key Terms are highlighted in the text where they first

appear and defined in the margin. All the terms are
collated in a Glossary at the end of the book, allowing
you to find explanations of key terms quickly.
Chapter 3 A model of perception
without too much difficulty. A mental map of the room exists in the persons head indicating where things are normally to be found, thereby providing an indication of the
relative spatial relationships between the objects.
The significance of perception within organizations is the basis for action that it
provides for the people involved. Susskind et al. (2003) studied the perception of
service provision among employees along with customer satisfaction of the service
provision. They found that co-worker support was significantly related to the customer
focus of employees and this was in turn related to customer satisfaction. They also
found that support from supervisors was not as significant (as co-worker support) in
encouraging a customer focus among employees. This research suggests that coworkers are more significant in terms of their impact on how staff will relate to
customers and the service encounter than supervisors. Within organizations, as in
life, there is no certainty that any two people (or groups of people) will perceive the
same stimulus in exactly the same way.
The perceptions and attitudes that people hold are formed throughout life as a
result of experience and socialization. Some attitudes are deeply held and as a
consequence probably difficult to change. Other attitudes are perhaps less entrenched
and liable to change in line with experience. For example, attitudes towards fashion
are notoriously fickle and liable to change quickly. There are obvious and strong links
between perception and the attitudes that people hold. Attitudes are formed on the
basis of perceived information. Perceptions are interpreted in the light of experience
and attitudes. Management in Action 3.1 provides examples of these links.
Employee Perspective this new feature looks at what OB

means in practice from the perspective of the employee rather
than the employer in order to provide as complete a picture
of the organizational experience as is possible.
[ 81 ]
Chapter 3 Attitude formation
management if the individual is to continue to be accepted by the organization. This is

reflected in the instrumental approach to work in which employees do what
management want because they need to keep the job (and income), not because they
believe or agree with managements requirements. The following Employee
Perspective (3.3) demonstrates that complex links exist between what workers
perceive and what they actually do in earning their wages.
Attitudes and perception
Socialization
(social doping) The
process of learning
how things should be
done in a particular
context.
[ 105 ]
Instrumental
approach to work
Based on a trading
and value approach to
work and the
determination of
contribution relative to
benefits gained.
There is a twofold relationship between attitudes and perception. First, individuals

perceive the attitudes of other people. They do this through the receipt and interpretation of a range of visual, speech, body language, dress etc., clues. People then classify
the people they perceive around them based on the clues detected. For example, a
group of young males all with very short hair and outlandish clothing perhaps torn and
covered with studs and chains might be interpreted by an old person as likely to be
violent thugs looking to beat up and rob some innocent individual. In that example,
the perceiver is not experiencing the real attitudes of the group of young people, they
are observing a number of stimuli and drawing conclusions (stereotypical) from them
about the attitudes and intentions of the group. In turn, their own behaviour will be
influenced by their presumptuous interpretation of the signals.
EMPLOYEE PERSPECTIVE 3.3
Chasing the targets!
A MODEL OF PERCEPTION
Perception as a process can be described as a sequence of events from the receipt of a
stimulus to the response to it (see Figure 3.1). The following sections of this chapter
will consider each of the elements from this model in greater detail.
It is often assumed that as individuals we all perceive the reality of the world
around us in the same way. However, a glance at a range of newspapers covering political or industrial relations events should provide adequate support for the view that
there are always at least two points of view in any situation. This reflects something
that has been acknowledged by psychologists for some considerable time. Look at
Figure 3.2. What do you see?
Do you see a young woman or an old woman in the picture? Now ask one or two of
your friends what they see? Does everyone you ask see the same? The raw material
(the picture) is interpreted in the light of a range of internal and external influences.
There has been some suggestion that younger people tend to see the young woman,
whereas older people tend to see the old woman. Whatever the case, there are two
Selection of
stimulus
for attention
Receipt of a
stimulus
Organization of
stimulus into a
meaningful pattern
Learning loop
Response
behaviour
Interpretation of
the significance
of the stimulus
FIGURE 3.1
One company introduced an incentive scheme for its

customer service employees without consulting them
first. Management felt that it would provide a means of
sharing out the work more equitably and motivating
staff to work harder in support of the company objectives. Managers, without any discussion with employees, also decided the targets for use in the new
scheme. Over a period of about one year staff became
familiar with the scheme and although no formal
complaints were made, customers began to notice a
difference in service. Whereas prior to the new incentive scheme staff had been only too willing to help
customers, now they tended to act mechanically and
were very reluctant to go beyond the basic provision of
the service, saying that they were too busy or that it
was someone elses responsibility to deal with other
issues. A small number of customer complaints were
received, but management took the view that things
would settle down, and as productivity had gone up
this indicated that the scheme was successful.
The following year staff were asked to help
management review the targets used within the
scheme in order to improve it. A couple of the staff did
so, but their ideas were largely ignored as they sought
to make the case for more staff and to make the
targets more realistic. Management said that no
concessions could be made as cost could not be
allowed to increase, but thanked staff for their contribution. The service to the customers did not improve
and some took their business elsewhere. The longer
serving staff and those with readily transferable skills
began actively looking for jobs elsewhere or sought
retirement at the earliest opportunity. They were
generally replaced by staff that had no experience of
the previous service standards within the company.
They simply accepted the incentive scheme and the
targets that went with it and sought to maximize their
income. Generally they only stayed until a better job
opportunity came along, or they could stand the situation no longer. Management continued to claim that
the new incentive scheme was a great success in
helping the company achieve its objectives.
Tasks
1. If you were an employee who had worked in this
company for many years why do you think your attitudes would be as they are? What would you do and
why?
2. Do you consider that the attitudes of the new staff
are supportive of managements objectives in any
real sense of the term? Why or why not?
3. Do you think that the management attitude that
everything is fine can be supported? Why or why
not?
The perceptual process
[ xvii ]
[ xviii ]
Guided Tour
Management in Action provide applied examples of aspects of

OB as experienced by managers in a real organizational context.
[ 82 ]
Explain the limitations of the standard organization

chart in describing activity within an organization.
The standard organization chart reflects little more
than reporting arrangements. It shows the major
compartments that exist and the job titles that exist
within those departments. It usually gives no
indication of the relative seniority of the people or jobs
indicated in the chart or of the cross-functional
interactions and process relationships that exist.
There are charts that seek to compensate for these
deficiencies, by seeking to incorporate relative
seniority and other factors; however these are
generally limited in scope as their inclusion can
quickly make any chart look a mess as a result of the
number of lines included. The almost continual
movement of people into and out of jobs,
departments and the organization itself, combined
with job changes and other activity changes also
means that any organization chart is out of date
almost as soon as it is published. There are other
charting devices that are intended to reflect other
aspects of activity within an organization and these
are discussed in the chapter.
Discuss the contingency model and its relationship

to organizational structure. The contingency model
of structure is an approach which suggests that
structure reflects an interactive relationship with the
Attitudes and perceptions in times

of change
MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 3.1
The existing personnel specialist held a number of

attitudes that led him to perceive the new people
from outside as having skills that were more valued
by the organization. This led him to interpret this as
a threat to his future career and position within the
organization. This resulted in attitudes and
Stop Consider
behaviour that were openly hostile to the people

involved and anything suggested by them.
The new personnel specialists had been brought in
to supplement the existing resources of the
organization. They arrived with a set of attitudes
that implied that the organization was not unique in
the process that it was going through and that
adopting their previously learned skills would
enable it to achieve its objectives. Resistance from
the established specialists was at first seen as a
minor irritation and inevitable. However, the
continued display of hostile behaviour led to
deterioration in the working relationship between
the people involved. The new staff began to
interpret this behaviour at a personal level and as a
criticism of their skills. Consequently, the negative
attitudes of the existing specialists produced an
increasingly negative response from the new staff.
In effect a doom loop of deteriorating attitudes,
fuelled by perceptions of other peoples behaviour,
was happening. This led to appeals to higher
authority to resolve the perceived problems (by
removing the other people). Several conflictresolving sessions were held and one or two of the
new specialists left of their own accord. Some three
years later the situation was not completely
resolved and a form of uneasy truce existed
between the individuals concerned.
Organizational structure and design Part 6
Perception and attitude formation Part 2
The organization in question was going through a

significant period of change. As part of this, the personnel department was expected to manage many aspects
of the process and a number of new appointments
were made in order to strengthen the ability of the
function to achieve these objectives. This involved the
recruitment of a number of experienced personnel
specialists from outside the industry; training and
industrial relations being two examples of the additional expertise sought.
The process also involved the reallocation of a
number of the existing personnel staff to new duties.
One of the existing personnel staff perceived that the
newly appointed specialists were a threat to their
standing within the organization and began to engage
in hostile behaviour towards them. The situation
became extremely political and resulted in many additional problems for the organization until the personnel
director was able to stabilize the situation.
Interpretation of this story from an attitudes and
perception perspective suggests several things:
[ 662 ]
environment. Figure 15.4 provides an indication of

the contingency approach to structure. It suggests
that there are two categories of contingency variable,
external and internal contingency factors. Both of
which include a range of elements particular to the
specific organization and its context. These factors
are detected to a greater or lesser extent by managers
who must also interpret them in seeking to
understand them in relation to their business (and
personal) objectives. This in turn produces an
intention which is filtered through a number of
factors such as the capability and willingness of the
organization to change or adapt (if that is the
intended course of action). Out of all of these
processes emerges the actual organizational form
that exists for the particular organization in question.
It is an approach to organization structure that allows
for differences between the structures of
organizations of common size, in the same industry
and in the same location as common environmental
forces (external and internal) can be interpreted
differently by the managers. Equally factors such as
the will to make changes, or the capability to make
the necessary changes might differ between
organizations. The contingency approach captures
all of this complexity by simply suggesting that
structure depends upon the circumstances!
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is a virtual organization and how does it differ
(if at all) from the federal form?
2. Is the concept of a horizontal organization the same
as the matrix organization? Identify the differences
and similarities. Which would you prefer to work in
and why?
3. To what extent does the view that theatre can be
used as a metaphor for organization offer any value
in understanding structural issues?
Was the situation described inevitable as a result of the likely perception and attitudes
of people in that situation?
Could the problems have been anticipated and how might the situation have been
dealt with in order to avoid some if not all of them?
4. Organizations with fewer layers of management will

face significant problems in the future as their
managers will not have the opportunity to gain
experience of major decision making before they
have that responsibility. Discuss the implications of
this statement for organizational structure.
FIGURE 3.2
5. Describe bureaucracy and its various forms. In what

ways and to what extent does bureaucracy have a
part to play in modern organizational design?
6. Is it inevitable that centralization and

decentralization will be cyclical trends in
organizational design? Why or why not?
7. Business process re-engineering offers nothing new
in seeking to simplify organizational structure; it
simply reflects the application of scientific
management. Discuss this statement.
8. Describe the contingency approach to designing an
organization. How does it differ from the traditional
views on structure?
9. Structure reflects nothing more than the means
through which power and control over employees
can be exercised by managers. Discuss this
statement, justifying your views
10. What is a flexible firm and to what extent does it
reflect the contingency approach to organizational
design?
Ambiguous figure (originally published by Hill, WE (1915) Punch, 6 November)
Stop-and-Consider appear at the end of each Management in

Action panel and help the reader actually think and reflect on the
case material in some depth. This feature also identifies
alternative perspectives and links with other concepts.
Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter help

reinforce and test your knowledge and understanding, and
provide a basis for group discussions and activities.
Chapter 2 Conclusions
Conclusions provide a thorough

re-cap of the key issues in each
chapter, explicitly linked to each
chapters learning objectives,
helping you to assess your
understanding and revise key
content.
[ 71 ]
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter has considered in some detail the
historical origins of management. It briefly reviewed
some of the major organizational themes emerging
over many thousands of years, attempting to
demonstrate that management has a much longer
tradition than is frequently implied. This chapter
also attempted to introduce some of the topics that

will be considered in much greater detail later in
this book and which form much of the substance of
the organizational behaviour approach to the study
of management and organizations.
Now to summarize this chapter in terms of the

relevant Learning Objectives:
Understand that there is no one perspective or

model of organization, management or employee
that totally explains these concepts. This chapter
introduced a number of the academic traditions that
seek to offer an understanding of employees,
management and organization and which contribute
to the study of organizational behaviour. This
material has been presented in such a way as to
demonstrate that each tradition and discipline can
at best offer a partial understanding of the
complexity that defines an organization and the
people who work within them.
Discuss the significance of a historical perspective

in developing an appreciation of modern
organizations and management. It is frequently
assumed that management began with the work of
FW Taylor in developing scientific management.
Nothing could be further from the truth. Collective
activity has existed for thousands of years, as has the
practice of management and the function of being an
employee. This chapter has set out to present a brief
overview of some of these historical perspectives in
order to establish that much of what we experience
today has its origins far back in time. Also, it begins to
be apparent when looking back in history, that many
of the organizational problems evident today would
be recognized by people from the past, albeit the
social context and technology are different.
Explain the significance of the scientific and

administrative management approaches to
managing an organization. These two traditions to
the study and management of organizational activity
emerged many years ago, and yet still find
significant relevance today. As methods of managing
and controlling the use of the labour resource within
organizations, they emerged in particular social
contexts and at a time when computer technology

was unavailable to contribute to organizational
processes. However, they have now become deeply
ingrained into the philosophy of management and
even changing social and technological conditions
have not fundamentally replaced these perspectives.
The Wilson (1999) paper referred to in the chapter
makes the point that the basic tenets associated
with scientific management have simply become
more insidious in the application of virtual
organizational frameworks.
Outline the relative contribution towards an

understanding of management from each of the
different perspectives described in this chapter.
Each of the academic traditions reviewed in this
chapter has a slightly different perspective to offer
on the sphere of interest that they embrace. These
perspectives are not mutually exclusive or capable
of offering indisputable truth about a particular
theme. The inherent difficulty in seeking to explain
fully individual human behaviour in a complex and
dynamic social environment should be apparent
from the material introduced in the first two
chapters in this text. Each of the traditions reviewed
offers some insight into the phenomena in focus
and it is necessary to reflect on the positive and
negative aspects of the various perspectives
presented in order to formulate your own models
and theories of what managing and working in an
organization means. This reflects the point made by
Watson (1994) earlier in this chapter.
Appreciate that management theory is continually

changing in the light of new research. The sections
in this chapter that consider some of the more
recent perspectives associated with management
and organizational theory demonstrate clearly that
new ideas are constantly being generated. Research
is a never ending process, it involves revisiting old
Guided Tour
Annotated Further Reading at the end of each chapter

allows you to explore the subject further, and acts as a
starting-point for projects and assignments.
Chapter 15 Further reading
[ 665 ]
FURTHER READING
Armistead, C and Rowland, P (1996) Managing
Business Processes: BPR and Beyond, Wiley,
Chichester. This is an edited book with contributors
drawn from a wide range of organizations and
academic disciplines. It seeks to review the basis of
process approaches to organizations and what it
means to manage from that paradigm. As such it
does intersect with the design of organizations at a
number of levels.
Brown, H (1992) Women Organizing, Routledge,
London. Chapter 3 is worth reading in the context
of the contingency and systems approaches as it
provides a detailed review of social context within
which organizations function and the basis of
women creating organizations for their own needs.
Clark, H, Chandler, J and Barry, J (1994) Organization
and Identities: Text and Readings in Organizational
Behaviour, International Thomson Business Press,
London. Contains a broad range of original articles
on relevant material themes and from significant
writers referred to in this and other textbooks on
management and organizations.
Daniels, JD and Radebaugh, LH (1989) International
Business: Environments and Operations, 5th edn,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. This text covers a
considerable amount of material relevant to international operations, their finance and management. It
also incorporates a broad review of the structural

and design choices facing organizations.
Goold, M and Campbell, A (2002) Designing Effective
Organizations: How to Create Structured Networks,
John Wiley, Chichester. Seeks to explore the virtual
organization and how to achieve it without destroying what already exists.
Handy, CB (1989) The Age of Unreason, Arrow Books,
London. This text takes a view of organizations and
their relationship with the environment as its core.
It explores how this relationship has changed and
the potential for future design frameworks.
Josserand, E (2004) The Network Organisation: The
Experience of French World Leaders, Edward
Elgar, Cheltenham. Reviews the French experience of four industries in which decentralization
and cross functional relationships became essential for success.
Martin, S (2001) Industrial Organization: A European
Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Considers a range of business factors including the
structure of the firm, market structures and innovation in relation to the integration of the EU.
Mintzberg, H (1979) The Structure of Organizations,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. This text
provides a broad review of the issues surrounding
the topic of organizational design.
Chapter 7 Case study
CASE STUDY
[ 289 ]
Employees fighting amongst themselves
This Case Study is based in the same company used in

the Case Study at the end of the Chapter 4, on personality. Therefore, you should read that case to refresh
your memory of some of the details. In that case it was
indicated that John as the production manager was
seeking to negotiate new terms and conditions of
employment with the trade union representing the
factory employees working for the company. As indicated, there was a lack of trust among all levels
working at the company and so the negotiation of a
new deal was proving very complex and slow progress
was being made.
One of the major problems to be addressed was the
issue of how easily employees could manufacture
overtime for themselves, and hence additional earnings. This was in addition to the productivity bonus
scheme which also paid additional money if work was
produced more quickly than the previously negotiated
targets. Over the years, various production managers
had made numerous concessions on these targets and
they bore no real relationship to the actual time needed
to undertake the work required. This provided some
employees with an opportunity to inflate their earnings
without too much difficulty. Essentially it was the older
products that allowed the earnings levels to be inflated
and so it was only a part of the workforce (those with
longest service) that could benefit from these weaknesses. This inevitably caused friction and argument
between employees, as everyone wanted the lucrative
jobs, but once achieved they were not given up willingly or quickly.
This situation led to difficulties for the negotiators
from both sides as they sought to deal with the problems. There were essentially two groups within the
factory workforce, both of which were represented by
the same trade union. One group had the opportunity
to inflate earnings quite easily as a result of the slack
work standards and also to manufacture the need to
work overtime if they chose to do so. This group of
employees tended to be the older, longer serving
employees and they also had considerable influence in
the trade union group within the company. This group
was also the largest number of employees within the

factory. The other group had some ability to inflate
earnings by delaying orders and working overtime. The
work standards for their jobs tended to be more accurate and so it was necessary for employees to find
ways of delaying work without sacrificing bonus earnings in the process. In doing so they had to balance
the additional money earned from overtime, with any
potential loss of production bonus, never an easy
calculation to make accurately. The number of employees in this group was smaller that the other group and
they generally had shorter service with the company.
Equally, they were not in such a prominent position
within the trade union branch, so it was more difficult
for them to get the trade union to take their case seriously and act accordingly.
So the basic position of the parties in the negotiation
was that management wanted to develop a new incentive scheme which was consistent and fair to all employees and which would encourage higher productivity. The
trade union group had a majority of members on the
negotiation committee who had something significant to
lose by any changes to the bonus arrangements. But, it
also had on it a smaller group who would have liked to
see an improved bonus scheme implemented which
would provide an opportunity to earn more money
without needing to manufacture the overtime as the
means of doing so. It was against that background that
the management and trade union negotiating committee
was seeking to find solutions.
Tasks
1. If you were John, as the senior company representative on the negotiating committee, how would you
seek to make progress against this background?
2. If you were the senior trade union representative in
this situation how would you seek to make progress
against the background of a lack of agreement
among the people that you represent?
3. How might an understanding of group dynamics
help either of the two leading negotiators in this
case?
COMPANION WEBSITE
Online teaching and learning resources:

Visit the companion website for Organizational Behaviour and Management 3rd edition at:
http://www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/businessandmanagement/martin3 to find valuable further teaching and
learning material:
Refer to page 35 for full details.
Case studies at the end of each chapter show how each

chapters main issues are applied in real-life business
situations in different types of organizations. Each case
study is accompanied by questions to help you test your
understanding of the issues.
Chapter 1 Companion website
[ 35 ]
COMPANION WEBSITE

learning material:
For students:
Interactive multiple choice questions to help you test your understanding of the chapter
PowerPoint slides for use as an overview to each chapter and as a revision aid
Extra case material
Weblinks to all case companies and other relevant sources of information
Online glossary to explain key terms
Learning objectives and chapter summaries to help you check your understanding and progress
For lecturers:
A password protected site with teaching material

Instructors Manual with teaching notes
Model answers for selected questions
Video sources to help bring a wider relevance to the classroom
Supplementary resources:
ExamView:
This testbank and test generator provides more than a thousand different types of questions, allowing
lecturers to create online, paper and local area network (LAN) tests. This CD-based product is only available
from your Thomson sales representative.
Online Courses:
All of the supplementary web material is available in a format that is compatible with virtual learning
environments such as Blackboard and WebCT. This version of the product is only available from your
Thomson sales representative.
[ xix ]
Pr e f a c e
This preface introduces the major features of the third edition of this book, along with suggestions
on how students and lecturers might make use of the content. Another important feature of this
book available to both lecturers and students is the accompanying website, which is also described
in this preface. Specifically for lecturers who adopt this text will be a hard copy of a lecturers guide
intended to support the use of the book in a wide range of teaching arrangements.
This book is intended for those people who seek to gain an insight into the world of people and
their association with the organizations that form an integral part of their experience. This book is
therefore intended to appeal to anyone who seeks to better understand this important aspect of
human life. Topics included in the book include:
A reflection on the nature of organizations and management.
Consideration of those aspects of individuals and groups that form the human face of
organizations.
A review of processes such as motivation, learning, communication, decision making and

negotiation that takes place within organizations.
Management and leadership.
The structure and design of organizations.
The nature of work and its relationship to the technology used by organizations.
Organization culture.
Stress.
Ethical perspectives within organizations.
Power and control, conflict and organizational politics.
Managing change.
CHANGES AND NEW FEATURES IN THE THIRD EDITION

There have been a number of changes to this edition of this book, based on a comprehensive review
of the strengths and weaknesses of the second edition by a number of anonymous reviewers, to
whom a great debt of thanks is due. The significant changes introduced in this edition include:
[ xx ]
Restructuring of some of the chapters to better reflect people management practice within
organizations, together with the needs of lecturers and students.
The introduction of new material to capture some of the latest trends in people
management issues within modern organizations.
The creation of part introductions intended to establish the reason for inclusion of the
material in that part in the context of what has already been studied and what is yet to be
developed.
The introduction of a completely new feature Employee Perspective panels to capture

this aspect of the human experience within organizations.
The introduction of another completely new feature a Case Study at the end of each
chapter in order to provide practice opportunity in dealing with organizational behaviour
issues.
Prelims
Preface
A number of new Management in Action panels have also been introduced in this edition.
The specific inclusion of international perspectives to many of the Management in Action

panels, Employee Perspective panels and Case Study material.
In-chapter tasks have been provided for almost all Management in Action and Employee
Perspective panels.
New to this edition is a Glossary designed to provide a reference point for the key terms used
in the book.
The introduction of more tightly structured learning objectives at the start of each chapter
along with another new feature an outline of the key learning points associated with each
learning objective placed in the Conclusion for each chapter.
An updated Further Reading section for each chapter.
The Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter have been reviewed and some new
ones added.
A considerable number of new reference sources have added to the text in order to ensure
that it is as current as it can be in terms of research and practice in this area.
The website and lecturer support material has been completely updated to better reflect the
needs of adopters and students.
[ xxi ]
THE AUDIENCE
There are many courses and degree programmes that contain aspects of organization, management
or the people issues associated with running public or private sector businesses. These can include
undergraduate degree programmes in management and business studies or those degrees with
management as a minor component, as well as postgraduate degrees and other post-experience
qualifications such as the Diploma of Management Studies, MA and MBA programmes. There are
also the many professional qualification schemes in management, accountancy, engineering and
related disciplines that include behavioural, managerial and organizational modules, for whom this
book would be an important contribution. Such courses are invariably offered on both a full- and
part-time basis and many self-study or distance learning approaches to these routes to personal
development also exist. This book together with the associated support material is designed (based
on the authors considerable experience in teaching the subject to all of these groups and using
each of the forms of delivery indicated) to be a valuable asset in the delivery of the subject.
Specifically, this book will appeal to a wide range of people including:
Undergraduate students on a wide range of organizational behaviour, introduction to

management or people management modules.
Practising managers who seek to develop an academic understanding of the topics through
which to interpret their experience, perhaps as part of a diploma or degree programme.
A second category of reader would be those with an academic background in either business
or management who, having gained some management experience, have returned to higher
education to further their development through an MBA or other masters programme.
A third group of readers would include those without formal management experience, but
perhaps with some employment experience, who are studying aspects of human behaviour
and management within an organizational context, perhaps as part of a part-time degree
programme.
A fourth category of reader would have an academic background in either the social
sciences or one of the science disciplines, and have some subsequent organizational
[ xxi ]
[ xxii ]
Preface
experience. Such individuals would be likely to study this book in seeking to further their
studies in the business, organizational or management fields through one of the many
masters programmes intended to achieve this objective.
A fifth category of reader would include those individuals studying for the professional
qualifications offered by the professional associations and who inevitably include aspects of
organization, management and behaviour within the syllabus.
Another category would be those people who work in organizations and who are undergoing
some form of in-company or in-service training in managing people or organizational
behaviour topics.
The blend of theory, critical perspective and practical application is balanced throughout the
book in an accessible and engaging writing style. This will appeal to the wide cross-section of
individuals indicated, offering challenges to each, without oversimplification or obfuscation
and in each case seeking to further the understanding of the individual in this challenging and
exciting field.
OBJECTIVES OF THE BOOK

It is human beings who both design organizations and work within them. Human beings, therefore, determine both what is done and how it is to be achieved. Against this background the
purpose of this book is to develop an understanding of the most important features of this aspect
of human experience, including:
What defines organizations and management.
The nature and impact of individuality on work activities.
The ways in which groups form and interact as they carry out much of the work undertaken
within organizations.
The influence of technology on work organization.
The nature of processes such as motivation and decision making on the functioning of
organizations.
The design and structural determinants of organizational form.
Management issues such as leadership and ethics.
The nature and impact of change on people and organizations.
The power, political and control dimensions of organizational activity.
The nature and impact of stress on people and organizations.
Specifically in relation to this purpose, the text sets out to achieve a number of objectives:
Provide an introduction to organizational behaviour. While offering an up-to-date and

reflective perspective, the text does not seek to be of interest only to readers seeking to
develop their existing knowledge in this area. It is intended to be of interest to those
readers who need to develop the breadth and depth of their understanding of what makes
an organization function. Such readers will find that the clearly presented theoretical
material, supported by the applied illustrations, will effectively meet their development
needs.
Include a critical perspective. In addressing the first objective the text goes beyond the
purely descriptive and introduces a critical perspective to the material, by seeking to
recognize the embedded nature of much theory and the underlying power dimensions to
management activity. A critical perspective suggests that knowledge as well as organizations
Preface
are grounded in the social context that created them and any real understanding must take
that into account and this text seeks to achieve that perspective while not losing sight of the
other objectives.
Demonstrate an applied relevance. To be of any value the study of organizational behaviour

needs to retain a relevance to actual organizations and the experience of those within them.
This is achieved in a number of ways, including the incorporation of applied research
studies, the Management in Action panels, the Employee Perspective panels and Case
Study at the end of each chapter.
Provide a basis for further study. The reference sources used as well as the Further Reading
are intended to provide a basis for readers to take their interest in particular topics further.
This is an objective that can also be achieved through the use of the links indicated in the
web pages associated with this book.
Provide a student-centred perspective. There are a number of student-centred devices that

have been used in the text as an aid to encouraging learning. These include the Part
summaries and Learning Objectives at the beginning (and Conclusion) of each chapter,
frequent headings and the introduction of a Glossary to the text, the Management in Action
panels, Employee Perspective panels and the Discussion Questions and Case Studies at the
end of each chapter.
Encourage students to develop research as well as practical and theoretical understandings.

The inclusion of Research activities on the website, Stop and Consider, and Tasks associated
with the Case Studies, Management in Action panels, Employee Perspective panels and
Discussion Questions will all encourage students to become actively involved in their own
learning in relation to the subject matter. It will also help them to understand the difficulties
of carrying out field and desk research as a necessary part of creating understanding in the
management and organizational field.
Interactive approach to learning. The use of group activities as part of the activities in each
chapter allows students to develop collaborative skills in seeking to explore relevant features
of the subject matter.
Learning support. The website at http://www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/

businessandmanagement/martin3 provides students and lecturers with extensive support
material directly linked to topics in the text.
To cater for this breadth of audience, the material is presented as both academic and practical in
nature. It is also presented in a way which encourages students to interact with the material. For
students studying alone, perhaps on a distance learning programme, the website should be particularly useful in helping to offset the feeling of isolation that often accompanies such study patterns.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK

Each chapter is essentially self-contained but inevitably forms part of an integrated whole. For
example, the groups that form part of every organization are made up of individuals, they are also
part of the organizational hierarchy and there will be some degree of organizational politics
displayed within them. However, for ease of research, study and book organization these issued
have to be compartmentalized. Students should recognize that much of the richness and complexity of organizational behaviour arises from the multiple elements active in any particular situation.
This should become evident as students work through the book and it is reinforced through the
Management in Action panels, Employee Perspective panels and Case Studies throughout the text.
Chapters 1 and 2 serve as an introduction to the study of management and organizations along
with an overview of the evolutionary development of management across history. This and the
subsequent material provides the following framework:
[ xxiii ]
[ xxiv ]
Preface
Introduction to management and organizational behaviour
Individuals within organizations
Groups and teams within organizations
Managing organizations
Managing people within organizations
Managing work design, technology and structure
Managing the processes and dynamics of organizations.
KEY FEATURES
Part summary. Each part or group of chapters begins with a brief outline of the content
which is intended to provide a clear indication of the range of material included and how it
fits in with the material that went before and the material that is to follow.
Learning Objectives. The Learning Objectives for each chapter provide a clear statement of
what students should expect to master by the end of their work on that material. The main
points implied by each of the Learning Objectives are summarized at the end of each
chapter in the Conclusions. Progress in achieving the objectives can be assessed by
individuals as they work through the Discussion Questions; as well as the Stop and
Consider topics and Tasks associated with the Management in Action panels, Employee
Perspective panels and Case Studies.
Management in Action panels. These are included to provide an indication of aspects of

organizational behaviour as experienced by managers in a real organizational context. They
also provide the basis for Stop and Consider activities as a means of reflecting upon the
material in some depth and also identifying alternative perspectives and links with other
concepts.
Employee Perspective panels. There are inevitably more employees in most organizations
than there are managers. The inclusion of this feature is intended to specifically introduce
this perspective to the understanding of what organizational behaviour means in practice,
often in an international context. Of course most managers are employees and so some of
these panels provide illustrations of their perspective as employees, being managed by more
senior managers in order to provide as complete a picture of this aspect of organizational
experience as it is possible to do.
Case Study. In order to allow an in-depth review of the chapter material in an applied and
often international context each chapter contains a Case Study with associated tasks that
will allow students to explore the complex implications associated with organizational
behaviour.
Further Reading. These suggestions provide students with a wide and diverse range of
additional sources of material on aspects of the topics discussed within each chapter.
Discussion Questions. A range of questions that could be used as the basis of discussion,
essays or exams is provided to allow students to test and further their understanding of the
material covered.
Research activities. This feature is provided on the website for the book and is intended to
provide more specific field- and library-based research opportunities to individuals and
groups of students. They are the type of activity that would be most appropriate to blockteaching activities as research inevitably takes time to set up, carry out and be interpreted.
Website. This represents an innovative feature for this book and provides extensive on-line
support for lecturers and students.
Preface
HOW TO USE THE BOOK

Everyone has their own preferred way of studying. Most courses differ in the way in which they
approach a topic and the emphasis given to particular perspectives. It is, therefore, not practical to
offer precise advice on how to use this book and the available support material for every situation.
There are, however, a number of general pointers that may be of use in seeking to gain maximum
advantage from this book and your study of organizational behaviour. They include:
Recognizing that this book is not attempting to provide you with a formula through which
to manage other people or guarantee organizational success. That holy grail does not exist;
individuals and situations are too complex and dynamic for that type of simplistic approach
to be credible.
Evolution of knowledge is occurring all the time. New ideas, perspectives and
interpretations are emerging almost every day. The study of organizational behaviour is not a
fixed event. It is for that reason that monitoring appropriate sections of the business press
and the management and academic journals and magazines pays dividends.
Resources exist to be used in support of your study. This book is not a novel, but it does
represent a major resource for your journey of discovery in organizational behaviour. The
Part summaries and Learning Objectives are intended to guide you in your travels. Also the
Glossary, Discussion Questions, Tasks and Further Reading act as pointers, maps and guides
to help you gain the maximum benefit from the minimum effort en route. They are there as
a help, not a hindrance or a chore; do use them. During your course you will be examined
or tested in some way. The resources provided through this book attempt to prepare you for
that process as well as ensure a fuller understanding of the subject. For example, the
Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter are designed to assist in your development
of a breadth and depth of understanding of the theoretical material as well as the practical
implications of it. Through discussion with other people of your collective views about these
questions you will become better able to develop your understanding of them along with the
ability to address any assignment or examination questions.
Personal experience. Every student reader has had direct experience of organizational
behaviour in some capacity. It may have been extensive through working in organizations as
a paid employee or even a manager. It could have been a vacation job as a student. However,
it may also have been through school, or membership of a sports or youth club. The
important thing to keep in mind throughout your study of this book is that you will have
seen many of the concepts in practice, whether you realize it or not. Consider for a moment
a primary school and the way the total activity is organized (structure), the way teachers
lead the learning process (leadership, management and control) and the interpersonal
behaviour of the children (individuals, groups, power, etc.). Reflect on your experience and
its ability to enhance and illustrate this subject.
Networking is an important aspect of any managers experience. The same is true in your
study of organizational behaviour. Every student will know many people who have been or
are currently involved in organizations. Parents, grandparents, family members, friends,
other students and lecturers are all likely to have had direct experience of a wide range of
organizations across a considerable period of time. These are all valuable sources of
material, examples and illustrations of organizational behaviour in practice.
When studying each chapter consider the integrated nature of human behaviour. It is not
possible to consider each chapter as an isolated chunk of material than can be ignored
once it is finished. Look for and consider the links between ideas and concepts as you work
through the book.
[ xxv ]
[ xxvi ]
Preface
SUPPORT MATERIAL
Organizational Behaviour website

The supporting website for the new edition of Organizational Behaviour is at http://www.
thomsonlearning.co.uk/businessandmanagement/martin3. This comprehensive resource provides
open access learning materials to students of Organizational Behaviour, including chapter
overviews, links to the home pages of companies discussed in the cases, extra essay-style questions
and a full list of organizational behaviour definitions from the Thomson Learning Pocket IEBM
(International Encyclopedia of Business and Management). Students and lecturers can contact
John Martin through the site to post their comments and queries about the book and the website.
The lecturers area of the site is password protected and the password is available to lecturers
who recommend the book on their courses. Please register through the website for your password.
There will be no printed manual provided with this edition but all resources which previously
appeared in the printed manual will now be provided online. The extensive lecturer resources
include teaching notes, PowerPoint slides, extra case materials, and suggested course outlines.
The research activities are designed to further students understanding of the material through
library, Internet and field research activities. These should be used to further a students understanding of, and practice in, research in this field.
The website is a totally optional resource. Use of the book is not dependent in any way on the
website. Full value can still be obtained through the many excellent features included in the book.
However, the Internet provides an opportunity to enhance the level of support and understanding
in ways not available though the medium of the printed word. For example, the website offers
students the opportunity to explore the enormous potential of the Internet in their study of organizational behaviour. The primary links have been selected because of their relevance to the
subject matter and potential interest to readers. The website resource will be regularly updated so
that it retains its value to students and lecturers as the most appropriate starting point on the
Internet for organizational behaviour topics.
A further benefit of the website is the opportunity to update illustrative examples of organizational behaviour and learning materials after publication of the book. This will ensure that the
book retains its currency and freshness throughout its life a major benefit to both lecturers and
students. Users can send comments back to the author about the book and the website, as well as
interesting examples of organizational behaviour in practice that they have encountered.
The Organizational Behaviour website is a valuable resource that highlights the importance of
Organizational Behaviour as a book and as a subject at the heart of the management of
organizational endeavour. It also demonstrates the commitment to keeping this book at the forefront
of both teaching and debate in this area. Why not visit the website and experience this for yourself?
Lecturers will have their own ideas on how they will use this book and the support material
provided in delivering their modules. The Lecturers Guide is being provided to assist in the
process of achieving the best match between the needs of lecturers and students on the one hand
and the material provided through this learning package on the other. It provides a number of
features that will assist lecturers to make the most of the book and web based support material in
supporting a wide diversity of module designs and delivery patterns.
The Lecturers Guide will consist of a number of elements including:
1.
Outline teaching plans for a number of different module lengths and delivery patterns.
2.
Ideas for lecturers on how to use on the book in different ways in support of module
learning objectives.
3.
Suggestions to provide students with additional ways of enriching their study of material in
the book.
4.
Ideas for each chapter on how lecturers could encourage students to reflect on the key
learning objectives and ideas from the chapter and seek out further study opportunities.
Acknowledgements
Any organizational activity inevitably reflects the efforts of a great many people. Writing a book is
no exception. It is not possible specifically to mention everyone who played a part in helping to
create this text.
The following people were particularly generous with their time and talent in reviewing material
and offering advice on the content of the first edition of this book.
Professor Michael Brimm, Professor of Organizational Behaviour at INSEAD

(Fontainebleau, France).
Professor Gordon C Anderson, Principal of Caledonian College of Engineering, Sultanate of

Oman and Visiting Professor of Business, The Philips College, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Professor Derek Torrington, Emeritus Professor of Human Resource Management, UMIST.
Professor Eugene McKenna, Professor Emeritus, University of East London, Chartered

Psychologist and Director of Human Factors International Ltd.
Professor Dave Tromp, Professor of Industrial Psychology and Chairperson of Industrial

Psychology, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Dr Jim Barry, Reader in Organization Studies, University of East London.
The contribution of the above people played a significant part in making the first edition of the
book the success it was which helped to create the opportunity to develop the second and third
edition. In addition, may I offer my deepest thanks to the panel of anonymous reviewers who
offered their time and talent in reviewing the second edition along with the proposals for the third
edition. Their comments were both helpful and appropriate. The end result can only be described
as a considerable improvement as a consequence of their efforts. I can but hope that they feel
justified in devoting the time that they did when they inspect the finished third edition. The
responsibility for any mistakes, errors or omissions remains, however, firmly my own.
At Thomson Learning a number of people have been supportive of the whole project and of
invaluable help in attempting to steer the work in appropriate directions. Worthy of particular note
in this context are Geraldine Lyons, Marie Taylor and James Collins. Without them this edition
would never have happened.
There are many academics, managers, bosses, subordinates and colleagues with whom I have
had the pleasure (and sometimes pain) of working over the course of my career. Individually and
collectively these have all played a considerable role in shaping my fascination with, and views on,
organizational life and behaviour. The benefits and effects of their impact on me are in no small
way reflected in the views and perspectives offered in this book.
Finally, and by no means least, I would like to place on record the support and interest of my
wife, family and friends, who tolerated the time spent on the project as well as continually showing
interest in how it was progressing.
I would also like to place on record my appreciation to the many copyright holders who have
given permission to use material for which they hold the rights. Every effort has been made to
identify and contact all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently omitted the publisher
will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the earliest opportunity.
PART ONE
Management and organizational

behaviour
Chapter 1 Organizational behaviour today

Chapter 2 Management and organizations evolution and
academic perspectives
he purpose of this section of the book is to introduce the reader to organizational

behaviour as an area of academic and practical study of vital importance to those
who work in organizations and particularly those who aspire to manage them.
It sets out to prepare the ground for the more specific sections that are to follow
and which will explore some of the major issues associated with the study of how
human beings interact with organizations and how in turn humans are impacted
upon by the organizations that they work within.
This section will review issues such as the nature of research in the social world in
which organizations and the people who work in them exist. It will also take a preliminary look at what an organization is; together with some consideration of the
nature of management and what defines the role of an employee. This will be followed
in the second chapter by consideration of how management has evolved over the
course of history and of how academic thought has developed to create the different
disciplines that now contribute to the understanding of how organizations function
and interact with the human resource available to them.
This section seeks to establish the background for the next section which will
explore the fundamental unit within any organization the individual.
[1]
CHAPTER 1
Organizational behaviour today
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter and working through the associated Management in Action panels,
Discussion Questions and Case Study, you should be able to:
Understand the distinction between research in the natural and in the social sciences.
Explain the particular difficulties involved in studying and developing theories in the area
of management.
Outline the essence of the relationship between organizations, managers and employees.
Appreciate that the concept organization incorporates many different forms.
Discuss how the study of organizational behaviour can contribute to an understanding of

management.
[3]
[4]
Organizational behaviour today Part 1
INTRODUCTION
Organizations are an inescapable feature of
modern social experience for all human beings.
From the remotest village high in the Himalayan
foothills to life in a large metropolis, organizations impact on all aspects of the human experience. Everyone experiences organizations in a
number of different ways. We are the customers
of organizations when we purchase goods in a
supermarket or other shops; we are the employees of organizations when we work for them; we
might be a manager within an organization.
Consequently, we are heavily dependent upon

organizations in all aspects of our lives. We
certainly spend a great deal of our working lives
in them as employees and managers. It makes
sense therefore to develop some understanding
of the things that go on inside organizations.
This chapter begins that process by exploring
what constitutes organizational behaviour and
then introduces the major themes of the rest of
the book, namely, management, employees and
organizations.
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR?

Organizational
behaviour
Approach to the study
of management and
organizations
incorporating anything
relevant to the design,
management and
effectiveness of an
organization.
Hawthorne studies
A series of research
studies exploring
aspects of group
working, carried out
during the late 1920s
and early 1930s.
Organizational behaviour provides one of the mainstream approaches to the study

of management and organizations. Its main sphere of interest is anything relevant to
the design, management and effectiveness of an organization, together with the
dynamic and interactive relationships that exist within them. It drew some of its main
inspiration from the human relations school of thought that emerged from the
Hawthorne Studies, which were directed by Elton Mayo during the late 1920s and
early 1930s. These studies first highlighted the complexity of human behaviour in an
organizational setting. This in turn led to recognition of the importance of the social
context within which work occurred and of the ways in which groups become a significant influence on individual behaviour.
However, organizational behaviour incorporates many more features than might be
considered at first glance appropriate to a behavioural approach to human activity
within an organization. The study of organizational behaviour involves two distinct
features:
1.
Interdisciplinary. There are many areas of study that can be integrated into
organizational behaviour. It involves aspects of psychology, sociology,
anthropology, political science, philosophy, economics and the systems
sciences. Each of these disciplines has something to offer through a
contribution to the human, structural, work, interactive and dynamic aspects
of the human experience of working in an organization. To this wealth of base
material can be added a critical theory perspective on the embedded nature
(accepts the context) of much mainstream literature. Critical theory seeks to
emancipate people from existing constraints and power relationships. Yet in so
doing it invariably imposes another reality, albeit a different one, on the
situation.
2.
Explanatory. Organizational behaviour sets out to explain the relationships

between variables. However, it does not provide an intention to prescribe the
relationships or interactions between variables that should exist. This
distinction is inevitable because when dealing with human behaviour at any
level one is concerned with probability rather than certainty. In other words,
no two people would react to a situation in exactly the same way, and even the
same person might react differently on different occasions.
Chapter 1 What is organizational behaviour?
The areas of interest falling within the subject of organizational behaviour can be
most easily reflected in a diagram, Figure 1.1. Rather than make Figure 1.1 look a
complete mess with lines going in every direction, this has been shown as two-way
lines between individual boxes and the linking theme box of organizational behaviour.
Each section within this book takes as its focus one aspect of organizational behaviour.
Compartmentalization is a convenient means of considering complex material from a
teaching and learning perspective. However, the reality of organizational behaviour is
that there are considerable and significant interdependencies and interrelationships
between all the topics discussed.
FIGURE 1.1
Organizational
effectiveness
Individual
Motivation
Learning
Groups
Communication.
Decision making
and
Negotiation
Job design
and
technology
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
Management
and
Leadership
Organization
structure
Culture
Ethics
Power
and
control
Change
processes
Stress
The world of organizational behaviour
Conflict
and
politics
[5]
[6]
WHY STUDY ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR?

People within an organization are invariably trained to carry out their specific job
responsibilities. But this tends to be a practical or technical process, involving learning
how to do the job, whether that be in sales, marketing, finance, computers or whatever. But the technical aspects of any job represent only a small part of any work activity. Very few people have no contact with other people as part of the work that they do.
People work in teams, or small groups within a department; they have customers and
suppliers (inside and outside of the organization) and they have superiors and subordinates to report to and control. The resulting webs of relationships can be both formal
and informal in nature, but they all involve other people. Most jobs involve some
degree of persuading people to co-operate with some priority, action, or request involving a degree of inconvenience to themselves. As a manager it is necessary to deal with
problem employees (not everyone co-operates all of the time), or with other managers
who are seeking to advance their careers and are therefore in competition for more
senior appointments. It is also necessary these days for managers to be able to improve
consistently the operational performance of their departments in the constant drive
for higher productivity.
The world of work is constantly changing. This is an ongoing process and is unlikely
to end. The actual changes that occur within an organization might be large or small,
but they are all changes. If one employee retires, leaves or is promoted to another job
several things will change as a direct consequence. The work to be done will probably
remain the same, but the new person might do it in a slightly different way. The new
person will also be different to the person who last did the job and so the interpersonal
relationships within the work group will change to some extent. In addition, managers
might take the opportunity of someone leaving to restructure the work being done and
even the department, thereby creating major change for the people remaining within
the company. At an organizational level, change can be brought about as a result of
product or market activity, mergers or acquisitions, or simply through the appointment
of a new chief executive officer who will want to establish their reputation by significantly improving profit levels.
It should be apparent from this brief discussion that working successfully within
an organization at any level involves a wide range of competencies beyond those
required to carry out the technical aspects of a job. Therefore, the simple answer is
that you should study organizational behaviour in order to understand better the
complexities of the world of work. However, that is not the only reason to study it. It
is not possible, as has already been suggested, for organizational behaviour as a discipline to be prescriptive in setting out exactly what to do in specific situations. Life is
never that simple and there are always many more variables active in any situation
than could make that a realistic possibility. Equally, as will become apparent the more
that you study the subject, there are many different theoretical perspectives that
need to be taken into account. One example of this indicated earlier was the range of
separate academic disciplines that help to inform the mainstream perspective
termed organizational behaviour. Studying organizational behaviour helps to
understand and come to terms with the ambiguities that exist in the social world
and to be more able to work with and around those uncertainties in whatever work
experience you encounter.
People are the most fascinating and frustrating aspect of any organizational experience, yet no organization could exist without them. It is human beings who establish
organizations and run them; it is human beings who work inside them and who are
the customers and suppliers of these same organizations. We cannot escape organizations or other people at any stage of our life, indeed it would not be a real life if we
Chapter 1 How to study organizational behaviour
were able to do so. Therefore, it is an area worth studying for its own interest in order
to understand better how human beings interface with organizations as well as to be
able to better survive the experience of doing so.
HOW TO STUDY ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Get involved is the short answer!
It is not a passive subject, it responds to involvement and active participation. Do
not expect to be able to simply read the chapters and know what it is all about. Think
about the organizations that you have encountered in your life. They include, schools,
colleges, shops and supermarkets, television and other media publishers including,
newspaper, magazine and book publishers, cinema and theatre production companies,
mobile phone companies to mention just a few. They all have people working within
them, including managers and employees. They all impact on you in some way or
another. For example, schools process you as a pupil in a way which enabled you to
pass examinations and learn those skills and facts that society deemed it necessary for
you to acquire. In so doing you encountered the school staff who taught you, but the
system also included the local authority support staff and education department
managers who were responsible, along with the head-teacher, for ensuring that the
school met the objectives set for it.
Think about the jobs that you have had during your career. As such you were (or
are) an employee, or an associate as some organizations now prefer to call employees.
Perhaps you were one of the special category of employee called a manager. Whatever
your experience of organizations, you have more direct experience than you perhaps
realize. Consider the experience that you do have and bring it with you when you read
and interact with the material in this book. For example, did you manage other people
if you were a manager; or how were you managed if you were an employee? Was it
simply a process of giving and following orders, or did it involve more subtlety than
that? What about any experience as a student working part-time in a supermarket.
Perhaps you have had several such jobs, was the style of management different across
the organizations that you worked for? If so why and what difference did it make to
how you worked and how effectively the customer was served? These experiences can
all add to the material that is presented to you in this book, and which will be introduced to you by the staff teaching your particular module. Also consider examples of
management practice that you read about in magazines and the press. For example,
Management in Action 1.1 represents aspects of staff involvement in Pret A Manger, a
large sandwich and snack retail operation in the UK.
Also consider the movies, computer games, novels and magazines that you read.
The stories and games that you read and engage in are usually based around some
form of organization. What can you learn about the ways in which human beings
interface with organizations from these sources? For example, a spy thriller might
include aspects of how the undercover agent has not only to deal with danger and
opponents who are trying to kill them, but also how to deal with the civil service
bureaucracy in obtaining new gadgets and equipment for use in field operations. The
biography of a political leader might also provide interesting insights into the politics
and power issues that inevitably need to be dealt with by any manager seeking to
compete with other managers for scarce resources.
So many parts of your life involving both current and previous experience, have
prepared you to study organizational behaviour. Actively bringing this prior knowledge
and experience to your study of it will enable you to better understand the processes
[7]
[8]

Esther OHalloran, recruitment and retention manager
at Pret A Manger reported to the Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Developments 2002 Human Resource
Development conference that enabling staff to become
involved in the recruitment of colleagues had reduced
employee turnover in the company. As part of the
second interview process, job candidates are expected
to work in a shop for part of the day. The team that they
work with then make the decision as to whether the
candidate should be offered work. Ms OHalloran
believed that this approach was directly responsible for
a threefold reduction in staff turnover to less than 100
per cent, which compared well to an industry average
of about 150 per cent.
Reducing labour turnover had many advantages,
but chiefly it would allow the growth in the number of
retail outlets owned by the company from 118,
employing 2300 people in 2002 to 163 shops
employing about 3400 staff by 2005. OHalloran indicated that getting the teams in the shops involved in
the recruitment process meant that the staff felt respon-
Stop Consider
Pret A Manger staff help choose the

new recruits
sible for the new recruit and would help them become
an effective part of the team more quickly. That in turn
meant that the new recruit would be more likely to stay
with the company for a longer time.
Other tactics used by the company include giving
staff who are promoted 50 vouchers, which they
can then pass on to colleagues who have helped
them gain promotion. This is intended to encourage
team building and a mutually supportive working
environment in the shops. Staff are also allowed to
audit the performance bonus of managers as part of a
process of encouraging good staff relations. Senior
managers are also required to spend 10 days each
year working in the shops making sandwiches to
ensure that they stay in touch with the basics of the
business and to experience the daily challenges
facing shop staff.
Adapted from: Nelson, P (2002) Pret A Manger staff help
choose the new recruits, Personnel Today, 23 April, p 4.
What does this example suggest about the differences between being a manager and
being an employee, together with the relative responsibilities of both in running a
business?
Would this approach work successfully in all organizations? Why or why not?
involved when people and organizations interact, and more effectively prepare you for
your future career, in whatever form that might be.
RESEARCH AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The discussion so far has provided an introduction to organizational behaviour that
suggests a high degree of complexity as well as high levels of interdependence between
the active components. This provides a fertile basis for research activity as well as the
opportunity for the parallel existence of competing explanations. The main research
approaches will be explored more fully in Chapter 2, but it is worth considering for a
moment the main research approaches that are available through which to create
knowledge and theory.
In attempting to understand organizations as entities in their own right and
management as one form of human activity within that context, it is necessary to be
able to offer explanations that stand up to critical evaluation and replication. The
Chapter 1 Research and organizational behaviour
[9]
natural sciences have developed mechanisms over many centuries that are able to
meet that need. However, the primary difficulty for organization or management
research is that it is not possible to isolate the key variables and replicate organizational functioning in the laboratory. Study of these phenomena therefore rests firmly
within the social science arena.
It is frequently suggested that the study of organizations and management
provides many competing theories but is unable to offer clear guidance to practitioners. For example, there are many theories of motivation, but on what basis
should a manager choose between them? It is only within the last 100 years that
writings in management encompassed more than merely a reflection of the experience of practitioners offering their own recipes for success or an intuitive analysis
of organizational functioning. It is hardly surprising that the study of management
and organizations is still comparatively unsophisticated and crude in its ability to
offer comprehensive explanations.
The study of people and organizations is different from the study of the physical
properties of metal or chemical reactions. However, that does not mean that it is
impossible to apply the principles of scientific enquiry into social areas. For example,
there are many psychologists working at the micro level of human behaviour that
provide robust scientific explanations for aspects of it. Theories developed in this way
are frequently based on laboratory studies in which much care is taken over the
control of variables and other conditions. The difficulty comes from the need to
extrapolate adequately from laboratory conditions to the complexity and richness of
human experience within an organizational concept.
Consider as an example a laboratory experiment in which decision-making strategies among managers were to be investigated. Variables such as the decision-making
topic, characteristics of the individuals concerned, restrictions on extraneous factors
and time limits could all be controlled and accounted for. Equally, the measurement of
the process could take a number of forms. For example, the actual decision made,
time taken to reach a decision, individual interaction patterns and information used in
the process. However, it is difficult to be certain what such an experiment indicates
about decision making by real managers in real organizations in real time and, perhaps
more important, dealing with real problems with real outcomes. There are so many
additional variables that can influence decision making in practice. Power, control,
politics and the dynamics of organizational experience cannot be totally accounted for
in a laboratory experiment.
The experience of the world around each and every human being is dependent
upon their ability to undertake three activities:
1.
Detect. It is first necessary to be aware of the objects and situations outside the
individual that provide the form for reality. This requires the input of
information to the individual through the senses of hearing, sight and so on.
However, the human senses are not aware of all possible stimuli available. For
example, we cannot detect radio waves or see very well in the dark.
2.
Interpret. Having detected the existence of things around the individual it is

then necessary to impose meaning onto them. As a simple example consider
the act of seeing a motor car. The reality of its being a motor car comes from
the ability of the individual to add meaning and significance to the visual
image from past experience and learning. The problems and consequences of
this inability to apply an existing frame of reference to reality has been the
basis of many science fiction books and films.
3.
Predict. Having perceived a motor car then the implications arising from it
can be predicted. For example, if the individual is attempting to cross a busy
street then it should be avoided, as it could do great harm to them. So it is
Frame of reference
Internal frameworks
held by an individual
that informs their
understanding of the
world and how to
relate to it.
[ 10 ]
necessary (or at least sensible) to wait for a more appropriate time to cross.
Without prior knowledge and experience of the object it would not be
possible accurately to predict possible outcomes or develop an appropriate
behavioural response.
Conditioned
The behaviour of an
individual which
results from the
application of
behaviourism
techniques.
Paradigm
A model based on
particular
assumptions about
the nature of social
science and of society.
From that basis it is clear that reality is not something that exists in a purely physical
form outside the individual, but as a social construction experienced within the mind
of each individual. The physical objects may be identical for all individuals in that situation, but their experience of them may be very different. Figure 1.2 illustrates this
point by showing that two people looking at the same solid object will experience very
different representations of it. Each person has only partial insight into the whole.
One of the most frequently referenced works in this field is that of Berger and
Luckmann (1967) in which they explore the sociology of knowledge. Much of the
possible variation in interpretation of stimuli is eliminated by the education and socialization processes to which all human beings are subjected as they develop within a
particular society. In effect, we are conditioned how to see and interpret the world
around us. This forms the justification for induction courses which provide new
employees with the organizations preferred ways of seeing (and responding to) the
world.
When social scientists attempt to theorize about the world inhabited by human
beings they are, to a very real extent, researching themselves as well. When attempting
to understand an interpretation of the social world offered by a researcher it is important to consider their perspective in relation to it. However, this is able to offer only a
partial insight into the perspective of the individual in question. Figure 1.3 attempts to
illustrate this phenomenon by showing that it is never possible fully to understand
anothers perspective because in observing it only provides a partial view of the target
persons overall perspective.
The scientific process that forms the basis of the natural sciences is described in
Figure 1.4, adapted from Wallace (1971). It demonstrates a circular process that
allows for hypotheses to be developed from existing theory (or understanding of the
world). In turn, these must be operationalized and subjected to some form of testing
in order to verify or refute the theory being examined. A cyclical process of identifying
and testing hypotheses leads to more generalizations about the world, which in turn
leads to the development of more theory.
The process reflected in Figure 1.4 is frequently described as the positivist
approach to research or, more accurately, logical positivism (Remenyi et al., 1998,
p 32). In this paradigm the researcher would hold the view that an observable social
reality existed and that the end product from the research would be the creation of
law-like generalizations, applicable in every organizational and human context. This is
the perspective that suggests that the real world exists outside each human being and
the laws that govern the social world are simply out there, waiting to be discovered.
The researcher is, therefore, an objective analyst and observer of a tangible social
reality (p 33).
This can be contrasted to the paradigm that holds that the real world exists only in
the mind of the individuals perceiving it. This is the phenomenology perspective and
FIGURE 1.2
Perspective
Focal
object
Person
B
Different perceptions of the same focal object
Perspective
Person
A
Chapter 1 Research and organizational behaviour
holds that the social world is different for each person experiencing it, as they will
interpret their perceptions of it in line with their internal schemas (mental models),
based on past experience, socialization, education, etc. In that sense there will be
considerable degrees of overlap in understanding between some individuals in the
same situation, but there will also be considerable degrees of difference. For example,
the workers view of a proposed 5 per cent pay rise would probably not be the same as
their bosses. To the phenomenologist the researcher is not independent of what is
being researched but is an intrinsic part of it (Remenyi et al., 1998, p 34). The world
is socially constructed and meaning can only be identified in terms of the understandings of the actors in that situation. Experiments and the attempt to create law-like
generalizations simply will not work in this paradigm.
The debate between these two paradigms can get acrimonious at times as
the protagonists view research (and the world in which it functions) from diametrically opposing positions. The debate is not just academic in essence, although that
is the arena in which it is carried out. For if either side of the debate is ultimately
correct, in the sense that the other is wrong, then a significant aspect of research
becomes inappropriate and of no value in helping to explain or run organizations.
The debate also impacts on the choice of research approach that could and should
be adopted. For example, the positivist tends to favour the use of scientific method
Person A
(target)
Perspective
Focal
object
Area of target persons

perspective not visible
to person B
FIGURE 1.3
ive
pect
Pers
Area of target persons

perspective visible
to person B
Person B
Understanding the perspectives of others
FIGURE 1.4
Logical
induction
Generalization
Theory
Hypotheses
testing
Measurement
Observation
Logical
deduction
Hypotheses
Experimental
design
Scientific research processes (adapted from: Wallace, W (1971) The Logic of Science in
Sociology, Aldine-Atherton, Chicago)
[ 11 ]
[ 12 ]
based on hypothesis and a deductive research process (Gill and Johnson, 1997,
p 28). The deductive approach is based on the development of conceptual and
theoretical structures before testing begins as a process of empirical observation
through questionnaires, surveys, experiments, etc. By comparison, induction
moves from observation to the provision of explanation. It reflects the ethnographic,
case study and participative enquiry (Reason, 1994) approaches to research
methodology.
Another important feature of social science research is the level at which it is being
carried out. Essentially, the level in this context can be described as a scale running
from macro to micro issues. There are five levels as follows:
1.
Individual. This represents the micro level and takes as its focus of attention
the individual within an organizational setting. This field is predominantly
based on the work of psychologists. Issues such as perception, attitude
formation, individual difference and motivation are common topics under this
heading.
2.
Group. Most human behaviour within an organization takes place in a group. It

is important therefore to understand how groups form and perform the work
expected of them.
3.
Managerial. Managers are individuals and they also operate in groups just like
other employees. However, there are a number of distinctive features associated
with management activities that make it worthy of special categorization. For
example, the nature, act and process of managing others are major areas of study.
4.
Organizational. Typically, this would seek to address issues such as job design,
structural frameworks and technology.
5.
Societal. Issues such as power, control, politics, conflict and change fall under
this umbrella heading. They represent part of the dynamic of the ways in
which organizations function as a small-scale version of society. They also
reflect the environmental forces that act upon any organization and within
which it must function.
In addition to the obvious differences between the natural and social sciences there is
the ethical issue of carrying out research on human subjects. Any of the research fields
which involve human beings are faced with ethical problems. For example Finch
(1993) discusses the need to be sensitive to how any output might be used in unintended ways (which might betray the implied trust between researcher and subject)
when carrying out research grounded in the feminist tradition with other women.
From another field, chemists working in the field of new drug treatments inevitably
reach a point at which they must be tested on human beings, which of course raises
ethical issues.
There are research guidelines on how human beings should be studied and by
which researchers must abide if they are to attract funding and recognition for their
work (see, for example, the British Sociological Association, 1973). The primary difficulty presented by such requirements is that research subjects should knowingly
participate and should not be subjected to risk, harm or damage in any way as a result
of the process. The challenge for researchers under these conditions is to develop and
test theory (or otherwise create understanding) in such a way that it is not affected by
the subjects knowing that they are being studied, or at the very least that they give
their informed consent to the process. Reason (1994, p 1) goes so far as to suggest that
research should be carried out with people, not on them. The basic problem is how the
behaviour of the subjects might have changed as a result of knowing that they were
being studied. This however is only one of the problems in the research process. For
example, how might the presence of the researcher influence the behaviour that they
Chapter 1 A first look at organizations
are seeking to record and understand? Again, to what extent does any response from a
subject simply reflect what that person feels the researcher wishes to hear, rather than
their true opinion?
A FIRST LOOK AT ORGANIZATIONS

When asked to describe what is meant by the term organization, most people indicate
the many public and private sector bodies that provide the goods and services necessary for life and employment. However, there are many bodies that bear a strong similarity to commercial organizations but which are undeniably different in function or
purpose. For example, is the Church of England (or any other religious grouping) an
organization in the same way that IBM is? Is a trade union, a students union or a
sports club an organization in the same sense of the term as a university or hospital?
No two commercial organizations are the same. Figure 1.5 identifies some of the
major variables that influence the physical manifestation (profile) of individual
organizations.
A number of the variables identified in Figure 1.5 are relatively obvious, others less
so. Although there is a degree of interrelationship between the variables, there is scope
FIGURE 1.5
Culture
Location
Profitability
Size
Management
preference
Age
Scope of
operations
Company
profile
Industry
Structure
Management
style
Technology
Patterns of
employment
Job design
Employee
characteristics
Determinants of organizational form
Control
Processes
[ 13 ]
[ 14 ]
for management choice. For example, it is not unusual for some owners to restrict the
growth of their organization deliberately in order to retain direct involvement in
running the business. Taking each variable in turn:
Size. The physical size of an organization is a major determinant of how it

appears. The small corner shop selling a range of grocery items and sweets,
employing two people would be vastly different in appearance from a large
national supermarket chain with many thousands of employees. The size of an
organization could also influence many of the other variables, such as the level
of technology that it is able to support.
Age. There is an apparent stability and security that comes from the appearance
of age financial institutions deliberately create this image. The age of an
organization could also be expected to impact on many structural and
functional issues.
Industry. The nature of the product or service from which the organization
derives its income is another primary determinant of its form. A company
engaged in quarrying minerals would be expected to differ in many ways from a
bank of roughly similar size and age.
Technology. The type and level of technology used by an organization is another

variable that is both influenced by and influences the organization. The use of
robotic assembly processes has reduced human involvement in the assembly of
products such as motor vehicle and other consumer goods, thereby driving up
productivity as well as influencing the profile of the organization.
Management style. The dominant style of management within the organization

also influences the appearance that it presents to the outside world. The use of
hierarchical control through layers of supervision and management produces a
tall, thin organizational form. This can be contrasted with the approach to
management that relies on self-managed work teams and which would provide a
flatter organization as a consequence.
Structure. The functional approach to organizational activity in which

departments are organized around job expertise such as personnel, finance and
production provides a very different appearance to one which is based upon
product groupings with mixed operational teams.
Scope of operations. A wholesaler of childrens toys is acting as a distributor

within the supply chain. Such an organization would appear very different to
another organization in the childrens toy industry which made some toys and
retailed a much wider range directly to customers.
Management preference. The application of the same set of principles across

every organization is doomed to failure because of the situational variety
experienced in practice. Managers exercise a degree of preference and choice in
designing their organizations.
Profitability. The larger the monetary resource available, the greater the degree
of elaboration possible. The scale of finance available provides an opportunity to
influence the form that individual organizations take.
Culture. Issues such as the degree of individuality and formality influence work
preferences and the way in which work is undertaken within an organization.
There is an inevitable tension within large international organizations between
the need for a global corporate identity and the dominant culture within local
operating environments.
Employee characteristics. The employees available to be employed within the

organization also bring with them a wide range of variable characteristics that
Chapter 1 A first look at organizations
will influence the nature and profile of it. For example, education levels within
the general population influences a broad range of issues including the way that
high technology might be used. The general experience of what work means
within a society will influence expectations in relation to job design,
management style and work ethos.
Job design. There are many choices available in relation to how the work will be
organized. For example, the degree of automation adopted, the involvement of
employees in the full range of work activities and job flexibility all influence the
combination of tasks in the jobs actually carried out.
Patterns of employment. Attitudes and conventions with regard to the length of

the working day, number of days worked each week, holidays, shift working and
religious festivals all influence the way in which the workforce and organizations
interact. Equally issues such as equality of employment opportunity, attitudes
towards family and responsibilities for caring for the old and young can all
influence the patterns of employment undertaken within a particular context.
Location. There are cultural, legislative and dominant business practice issues
that vary across the world and which shape organizations within each national
border. Aspects such as communications and transportation also influence
activities significantly. For example, mining operations are frequently carried out
far from the location of the users of the extracted minerals and the company
head office.
Management in Action 1.2 demonstrates some of these issues as identified by a

Japanese company setting up business in the UK during the 1980s.
So far the discussion has not provided a clear differentiation of the parameters of
an organization. How can a commercial organization be differentiated from a social
club? The ultimate answer is that there is no clear distinguishing criterion as all forms
of social grouping contain elements of similarity in terms of purpose, structure, people
and systems. A number of writers offer definitions of an organization that offer broad
similarities, including:
A. Organizations are collections of people working together in a coordinated and
structured fashion to achieve one or more goals, Barney and Griffin (1992, p 5).
B. Organizations are consciously created arrangements to achieve goals by
collective means, Thompson and McHugh (1995, p 3).
C. Organization: a social arrangement for achieving controlled performance in
pursuit of collective goals, Huczynski and Buchanan (2001, p 884).
Each of these definitions is able to segregate out the more obvious non-organizational
forms such as friendship groups. But what of other organizations such as youth clubs
or pressure groups? A club with specific goals for the social development of members,
or a pressure group to fight the building of a new road could easily fall within these
definitions and yet would be of little interest to management and organizational
researchers. Yet to incorporate terms such as profit, budget or commercial into the
definition would cut out many non-profit organizations that do form a legitimate focus
of study. The short answer is that there is no single definition that draws a boundary
tightly around the notion of an organization. There is a wide range of research activity
which seeks to explore different aspects associated with the concept of an organization
and which consequently uses slightly different meanings. This is just one level of
complexity in attempting to understand organizations, the managers who run them
and the employees who work within them.
[ 15 ]
[ 16 ]

Yuasa Battery was set up in the early 1980s in Wales
to make sealed lead-acid batteries. It fell to the
Japanese Managing Director, Kazuo Murata, to build
and establish the factory as a viable operation. Two
important lessons were learned from the experience of
opening Yuasa Battery:
Do the simple things right.

Create conditions for improvement.
In seeking to establish the company, a number of problems endemic to western companies were identified.
They included:
Worker attitude to the wage/work bargain.

Lack of the strict application of company rules.
Workers not involved in determining improvements
in productivity and working practice.
Individualism emphasized within western culture.
Kazuo Murata, began the process of unlearning the

bad habits and creating the improvement necessary.
This included:
Implementing Japanese
management methods
Fairness. The strict application of rules, procedures
and standards in a fair manner resulted from this
strategy. Rules are intended to benefit the
organization and they should be applied
consistently and fairly if they are to have any value.
Discipline. Consider a sports team or a military
force. Each must exercise a disciplined approach to
its task if it is to be successful. This implies a
controlled approach to work and getting the basics
right.
Improvement. The two earlier points are the basics
of good organization, but to become a world-class
organization continuous improvement is also
necessary. Everyone must feel challenged by this
necessity every working day. This implies critical
self-examination and the development of better
ways of working.
Based on: Harrison, A (1994) Implementing Japanese

management methods, Professional Manager, January,
pp 1012.
Stop Consider
To what extent does the approach adopted by Kazuo Murata at Yuasa Battery provide
an example of seeking to adapt the organization to the people and context, or does it
reflect a desire to change the people to match the needs of the organization?
To what extent is it likely that people can be changed to meet the preferred requirements of the organization?
A FIRST LOOK AT MANAGEMENT

Managers are, by definition, the individuals that organize and control the organizations that employ them. In a small company they may actually own the organization
itself, but usually they run an organization on behalf of the people to whom the organization legally belongs. It is the task of the management of the organization to operationalize and achieve the objectives of the beneficial owners. As Stanley (2002) puts it,
managers are stewards of the business and therefore need to exercise great care in
administering the resources of the organization. It is from those requirements that
their decision-making functions and powers originate.
However, even in that simple paragraph there are a number of assumptions that
when examined create complexity for the research into management. For example, it
assumes that it is the beneficial owners of an organization who should have
the primary say (or influence) on issues such as how the company is run. That is a
Chapter 1 A first look at management
viewpoint that can be questioned from many different perspectives. For example, a
Marxist point of view would fundamentally bring into doubt the idea of capitalism,
suggesting in turn that common ownership requires that everything is owned by the
state in trust for the people. Consequently, a different approach to the determination
of primacy in decision making must apply under that model.
Equally, it could be argued from a capitalist perspective, that in seeking to maximize returns to shareholders in the long run it is necessary to gain the highest levels of
commitment from all employees. In so doing, if their interests are not put first, then
they will not be motivated to produce the best returns for all concerned. This approach
led to the stakeholder perspective on organizations. Stakeholder is defined as any
group or individual who can affect, or is affected by, the activities of the organization
(Freeman, 1984). The best levels of success can only be achieved by balancing the
needs and contributions from each of the possible stakeholder groups, of which the
shareholders represent only one category. For example, Henry Ford was famous for
developing the assembly line approach to manufacturing motor cars in the early
1900s. His efforts achieved considerable success in developing production technology,
cheap mass-appeal products and profits for the company. However, in 1913 labour
turnover was 380 per cent. In order to keep 15 000 positions filled management had to
recruit 50 000 people each year. In order to achieve a net increase of 100 people in the
factory they had to recruit 963 people, because so many would not be able to stand the
pace and conditions of work on the assembly lines (Losey, 1999). Management did not
integrate the worker group as a significant stakeholder in their planning of the factory
process. Management in Action 1.1 from earlier directly addresses these issues in one
modern organization.
It is only over recent years with the delayering of organizations that managers
have seen their own position come under threat. Prior to this form of cost cutting,
managers tended to have a much higher degree of job security than other categories of
employee. They also enjoyed higher pay, better benefits and greater career opportunities. As a consequence, their primary loyalty was to the absentee owner, from whom
these benefits accrued. However, in the search for ever higher levels of productivity
and cost efficiency senior managers (and owners) found that, having reduced the
numbers of employees significantly, the only areas left within which to seek dramatic
cuts in cost were the previously protected management areas. This trend was also
fuelled by the desire of organizations to get closer to the customer by seeking to
become more horizontal and less vertical. This delayering process created a situation
in which managers began to experience high levels of stress and job insecurity, the
result being the emergence of feelings of alienation and an increase in trade union
membership among managerial employees. In short, they were recognizing the need
to find ways of looking after their own interests in response to the employer not being
willing to do so. The employer in this case being more senior managers. Therefore, the
idea that management represents a single group or category of employee is not
tenable. A point which is frequently missing from the literature.
Management is a strange type of work in that it is an activity in which an employee,
no different in principle from any other employee, is expected to act in loco-parentis
for the owner. It is expected in principle that the manager should act in ways that may
be to their own disadvantage in pursuit of the objectives of the owner. The delayering
of organizations is a clear result of this requirement of managerial activity. It is because
managers have traditionally become so personally and closely aligned with the objectives of the beneficial owner that the implications of delayering and related forms of
cost saving produced such a traumatic shock. Managers are paid by the owners of the
organization to act on their behalf. Managers forget at their peril that the basis of that
relationship is contractual, not automatic! Equally, among the implications of that
situation is that the interests of managers and beneficial owners can (and sometimes
[ 17 ]
Stakeholder
An individual or group
with some form of
association or an
interest in the
organization.
Delayering
The act of removing
layers from an
organization thereby
making it shorter in
the vertical
dimension.
[ 18 ]
do) conflict. Because it is managers who run the organization on a day-to-day basis
they may be tempted to favour themselves over the interests of the organizations
owners in some of their actions. There is an inherent conflict of interest in terms of
the expectations and requirements of the owners and those of the manager as an
employee. It is for that reason that it is difficult in practice for the stakeholder concept
to be fully implemented in running an organization. While the rhetoric may be evident
in the sense of talking partnership etc., the dominance of hierarchical thinking and
shareholder primacy is deeply ingrained, if difficult to guarantee.
It is difficult to be precise about management in theoretical or practical terms
because it does not represent a homogeneous activity. There are two major differences
identifiable in management activity:
Level. There are many different ways to describe the level of management
activity, the most common being a reflection of seniority. For example, director,
senior manager, junior manager and supervisor. While that approach provides a
useful basic reference criterion, it also contains considerable ambiguity. For
example, simply knowing that an individual is a chief executive provides no clue
to the level of responsibility involved. The company might employ ten people in
one location, or many thousands in locations throughout the world.
Job. The second major difference in managerial activity refers to the work of the
individual. A manager might be responsible for the work of a personnel
department, an engineering department, an accounting department, or a
production department. They might even be a general manager, responsible for
the work of several functions and having specialist managers reporting to them.
In this last case the manager will be responsible for activities in which they have
no direct experience, which in itself creates complexity.
Figure 1.6 reflects these two variables and their impact on jobs.
In addition to the two determinants of management activity just described, many of
the variables described in Figure 1.5 also impact on management work. For example,
the industry is a significant factor in this respect. Consider the very obvious differences between the job of a branch manager of a major bank and the job of a departmental manager in a manufacturing company. Both are responsible for the operational
aspects within a defined part of the business, yet in other respects the jobs are very
different as a result of the manufacturing/service nature of the organization.
Individual preference is another major influence on the actual job of a manager. In
many management jobs there is a high level of opportunity to shape the actual work
undertaken by the individual holding that position. A personnel manager has some
degree of freedom to determine what tasks to delegate and which to retain for their
personal attention. They also have considerable latitude to practise a style of management that they as individuals feel comfortable with, which can influence their own job
activities and those of their subordinates.
The conclusion from this first look at management is that the practice of management reflects a complex process involving level, job, personal and professional variables. This process is carried out in a complex organizational environment. The result
being that it is not possible to talk of either organization or management as single entities. Management in Action 1.3 reflects one persons view of the skills needed by future
generations of managers.
FIGURE 1.6
Level
Management
Major influences on management activities
Job

The manager of the future will need different skills, it
was argued by Karen Clarke in the essay that won first
prize in an Institute of Management competition.
The skills required of managers in the past were
decision making, expert (in their field), boss and director. This is progressively being replaced by three roles
as organizations begin the twenty-first century. They
are:
Leader. The person setting the future direction for

the business and concentrating on the wider picture
(not day-to-day activity). The role of the leader
becomes one of ensuring that progress towards the
goal is maintained.
Coach. The job of a coach is one of encouragement
and of ensuring that everyone is pulling in the same
direction. It is a process which allows
empowerment and change to flourish.
Facilitator. This is the process of identifying
continuous improvement and encouraging a selfcritical evaluation of work activity and performance.
[ 19 ]
Survival skills for a new breed
It is argued by Clarke that it is now essential to achieve

strategic positioning and operation of the business
through the effort and ability of the staff employed
within it. In order to achieve the world class service
and manufacturing levels increasingly necessary for
survival, staff must be committed to meeting the needs
of customers. Consequently, delegation and empowerment are key factors in employee work activities of the
future.
The desirability for managers to be the decision
makers is increasingly being questioned. In the face of
global competition, there is simply not the time for
employees to pass decisions back in the system for
someone else considered more appropriate to decide
on. It is employees who are closest to the needs of
customers and they must be allowed to operate as the
customers representative within the organization.
Adapted from: Clarke, K (1993) Survival skills for a new
breed, Management Today, December, p 5.
Stop Consider
Do you agree with Karen Clarkes analysis that the roles she describes reflect different
skills from those required in the past, or do they represent the same skills but
expressed in a different social context?
Think about any organization that you have worked for in the recent past. Do the
claims proposed by Clarke reflect your experience or not? If not, why might that be so?
Organizations are the entities that require the skills that managers possess, to
perform the roles involved in managing as an active process. Management can therefore be described in terms of three main functions:
1.
Direction. Before any work can be done, there is a need for a plan of action. It
is necessary for management to decide what the organization should do and
how it should achieve those objectives. Once done at the level of the
organization, this process can be broken down into the strategies and goals to
be achieved by each sub-unit within the company. For example, once a
chocolate manufacturer has decided that it will make Easter eggs in particular
varieties and sizes, it is then the job of the various section managers to set
about determining the production schedule and other operational parameters
so that the sales and profit objectives can be met.
In practice, this top-down approach is much too simplistic as there may well
be constraints in the system that limit the ability to achieve the overall
objective. For example, the chocolate company may not have the warehouse
[ 20 ]
capacity to store the volume of Easter eggs produced. Therefore, the

development of strategy at any level of the organization is based on an iterative
process and contains elements of bottom-up determination.
2.
Resources. Another important function of management is to provide the

resources to enable the desired task to be achieved. There are many resources
necessary, including money, organization structure, job design, technology,
procedures, systems and appropriately skilled people.
3.
People. In all but the very smallest of organizations managers do not physically
produce whatever it is they are responsible for. One way of conceptualizing
management is to think of it as a series of subcontracting arrangements. The
owners subcontract the running of the company to the board of directors. The
board of directors in turn subcontracts the departmental work to line
managers. This process cascades down to the people who actually make the
products or deliver the service. This demonstrates that managers achieve their
objectives through the efforts of other people. Therefore, in order to achieve
their goals, managers find themselves in the position of having to manage the
people rather than the operational process.
One of the other major aspects of organizational activity that managers are having to
come to terms with is the effect of globalization. Even very small companies
are experiencing some form of global activity. This might include selling products
made by the company through a sales agent in another country. At the other end of the
spectrum it could involve a very large organization operating across several national
boundaries and with a truly multinational workforce and global perspective on its
operations. Organizations need to develop an expertise in operating in locations that
may have cultural and operating conditions very different from those prevailing at
home. Individual managers need to develop the skills and ability to deal with governments, customers, suppliers, employees and colleagues from different countries.
Why organizations need managers

Managers plan, organize and control the acquisition, disposal and application of
resources within the organization in pursuit of the goals determined by the owners.
That view reflects the classical model described by Fayol (1916). From that perspective management is a very rational process and one category of employment within
the organization. As such it requires someone to undertake specific duties associated
with managing, just as a cleaner in a factory undertakes that particular job. One
implication of this view is that being a manager confers no special status or rights
over any other form of employment. Yet in practice (as was suggested earlier) one of
the major functions of management is to act in loco-parentis for the absentee owner,
which implies going beyond the wage/work bargain that forms the basis of most paid
employment relationships.
There are other fundamental differences between the jobs of managers and those of
most employees. Most employees are engaged to undertake a range of duties associated with the creation of the product or service that forms the rationale for the existence of the organization. Even employees who act as a support to the creation process
contribute in a very necessary way by preventing the waste of productive resource.
Managers, for the same reason, do not do that. They are specifically tasked to direct,
organize and control the activities of others. They represent the most indirect of all
operational jobs. It is this remoteness from direct operational activity and their agency
function (loco-parentis) that sets them apart from other employees.
The type of work expected of managers is different from that of other employees.
The impact of managements activities on other employees fundamentally
[ 21 ]
influences the relationship with them. For example, it is management that decides
who to recruit and who to dismiss. The power to take away someones job is a particularly powerful weapon, right or responsibility, irrespective of how it is defined. It is
such a potent tool that it is a right not usually given to every level of management.
Managers are able to direct, channel and change the organizational experience for
employees. Employees are not able to impact on managers in the same way. That is
not to suggest, however, that employees are powerless within the organizational
context. Indicated below are the main features that one magazine in the management field thinks are the main elements of a management job (Supervision, 2003,
p 9). You might like to consider whether you agree with this list or not, based on your
experience so far:
They routinely enable people to work together productively and in a timely

manner.
They are ready to tackle the unexpected.
They tap into peoples self-motivation.
They create opportunities and solve dilemmas at any hour. They get involved in
the job of managing, even when they are not at work.
Why managers need organizations

Perhaps a more interesting question to ask is why do managers need organizations? At
first it would appear to be a nonsensical question based on the assumption that organizations created the need for managers. However, there are a number of issues that
suggest that the relationship between management and organizations is more complex
than would at first appear to be the case.
One common joke in management circles suggests that there are only two skills in
management. One is to create enough problems to justify the need for the job to exist.
The second is not to create more problems than make for an easy life. This may be a
cynical view of managerial activity but it does reflect aspects of the power and influence that managers have. This view of management can be reinforced by the shock
that was experienced by many managers as organizations began to downsize and
delayer. Up to that time redundancy was something that happened to other employees, not managers. The basis of the psychological contract between employer and
managers had been fundamentally changed. The basis of the old contract was that
managers put their best efforts into furthering the interests of the capital owner in
return for a career and the appropriate status. Frequently the best efforts willingly
contributed by managers involved long working hours with no additional payment,
taking work home and generally putting the job before family.
Organizations are having to seek new ways of achieving that level of management
involvement in conditions which are fundamentally different and less directly beneficial to the individual. A new rhetoric is evolving about portable careers and related
ideas to suggest that uncertainty and insecurity should not be considered as negative events. Worrall and Cooper (1999) report from the Quality of Working Life
survey (the third year of a five-year tracking study) a number of interesting results
that suggest that managers are changing their working patterns in response to the
new business enviornment. They are beginning to move away from a reliance on the
company as the source of all things and in some cases see the need for a better
balance between home and work lives. Some of the relevant results are included in
Table 1.1.
So what are the significant factors that create a reciprocal need between managers
and organizations?
Psychological
contract
The nature and
boundaries of the
employment
relationship
prescribed through the
unwritten and
unstated rights and
obligations of both
parties.
[ 22 ]
Career
Individual managers expect to have a career. Organizations need managers

for more senior positions. Performance appraisal systems, career development and
succession planning all provide a basis for career development.
Status/power
With a managerial position comes status and power and hence the
ability to have other people do what the individual manager wants. Being considered
as a significant member of the local community can also reflect the status of a
manager.
Work preference Being a manager gives the individual some degree of choice in
their work activities. They can delegate aspects of their work. They are able to shape
events and the direction of work under their control.
Professionalization There is an increasing trend to professionalize management.
The professional associations to which managers belong and the educational establishments offering management training are making efforts to raise the status of the
job, thereby making it more attractive as a career option. It is not just the law and
accountancy that can now lay claim to be a profession.
Self-interest Management is a political process as much as it is a decision-making
one. There are few managers who are as quick to take responsibility when something
goes wrong as there are when accolades are being handed out. The question to be
answered is not does self-interest feature in management practice but to what extent
will a manager put self-interest ahead of other criteria in any given situation?
Lifestyle
A higher salary, better benefit package, and so on, generate a whole range
of lifestyle differences. Not that all managers earn more than those whom they supervise. Frequently, for first-line managers the opposite is true as a result of the loss of
bonus or overtime payments. However, there are differences in the social groupings in
which people mix and the leisure activities that they undertake that create a raft of
lifestyle differences.
Expectation
Individuals are conditioned to expect differences as a result of becoming a manager. They expect respect, a higher income and greater freedom to influence
events around them. Consequently, having experienced some of these benefits the
result is an expectation (and desire) that they dont lose them, leading to a need to
perpetuate such positions. For example, it is not in the interests of most managers to
Working hours reduce
1997
1999
38% work more than 50 hours a week

32% work more than 50 hours a week
Working weekends
1997
1999
13% always work weekends

8% always work weekends
Relationships with children
1999
41% of junior managers express concern
Balance between work and

home life
1997
1999
25% feel work is less important than home

30% feel work is less important than home
TABLE 1.1MManagers changing attitudes (source: Worrall, L and Cooper, CL (1999)

The Quality of Working Life: The 1999 Survey of Managers Changing Experiences. Institute of
Management and UMIST, London)
Chapter 1 A first look at employees
[ 23 ]
see too many management jobs disappear or for radical alternatives in the form of
self-managed teams to be developed. It would simply eliminate much of the opportunity and potential benefits available and require individuals to seek other forms of
employment.
Many of these issues are generalizations which interlink and reinforce each other.
For example, career and expectation are strongly linked together, as are the status and
lifestyle benefits that result from promotion. The line of argument here is not that
managers originally created organizations because they needed them, but that once in
existence there is a reciprocal dependency that perpetuates a need for organizations to
exist in order to continue to fulfil a broad range of needs including personal and
professional.
A FIRST LOOK AT EMPLOYEES

Organizations do not exist in any real sense of the word. They exist as legal and financial entities on paper, but it is people that breathe life into the formal documents.
Management in Action 1.4 illustrates some of these people perspectives within organizations in the context of the introduction of business process re-engineering
(BPR).
The earlier discussion on management stated that the manager is acting on
behalf of an absentee owner. This view is usually referred to as an agency perspective the manager acting as an agent of (on behalf of) the owner. The clear implication being that most managers are in fact employees, just like every other type of
worker. From a different perspective, as early as 1964, Cyert and March were writing
about coalitions and Rhenman was writing about stakeholders in the running of
organizations. Networks and coalitions formed between the many internal and
external stakeholder groups linked with the organization are implied by these views.
Figure 1.7 illustrates some of the primary stakeholder groups that can be identified
in relation to any organization.
Each one of the stakeholder groups identified in Figure 1.7 has an interest in some
aspect of the focal organization. Owners are interested in a financial return for their
money; employees might be interested in a secure and interesting job that pays a realistic wage; suppliers in the opportunity to create long-term strategic alliances for
commercial benefit; government as a source of employment and taxation. Internal to
the organization some of the stakeholder groups will be temporary and seek to achieve
specific goals.
Stakeholder groups are essentially people-oriented and so provide a basis for analysis. Human beings are complex as individuals and even more so in collective situations. Each person has many similarities with other humans, but, critically for
organizational purposes, also a great many differences. Personality factors differ, as do
the education level and life experience of each person. These form the basis of how
individuals interpret and relate to the world in which they live. People can be unpredictable, which makes consistency of behaviour in an organizational setting difficult to
achieve. Illness, mood and temperament are just some of the variables that can affect
how each person will behave on any particular day. This does not just affect employees, it affects managers as well. No individual can be expected to function consistently
and at peak performance all day, every day even if business process re-engineering
(or any other model) assumes that they can or should.
Employees are generally described as the non-management workers within an
organization. However, as we saw in the previous section, many managers are also
employees. But for the purpose of this aspect of our discussion, we shall stick to the
Business process
re-engineering
(BPR)
Reorganization of the
business by the
elimination of
extraneous activity
and the rapid
transformation to a
process focus.
[ 24 ]
predominant view that the classification employee refers to those workers who are
not managers. It is the management group who are supposed to function in the best
interests of the beneficial owners of the business by directing the activities and behaviour of the employees in order to achieve the business objectives. From that perspective, it suggests that employees exist to be manipulated (or directed) by managers in
pursuit of organizational objectives. They are not therefore expected to think or to
have any interest in the business beyond selling their labour to be used at managements behest. At least that represents the classic capitalist view of how labour is positioned relative to management and the owners of capital. However, it is being
increasingly recognized that it is necessary for managers to acknowledge the fundamental nature of the human employee if they are to be able to manipulate (or harness
effectively as managers would prefer it to be described) the employees available to
them. For example, Management in Action 1.1 describes the effects of employee
involvement in what would previously be regarded as a management domain the
recruitment of new employees. The Harvard Management Communication Letter of
December 2002 addresses another aspect of this issue by setting out a strategy for
managers to ensure that employees adapt more readily to changes decided upon by the
company. It is premised on the ideas that change alters how employees define themselves and also that change creates uncertainty. There then follow a number of
prompts intended to help managers raise employee concerns in a way which allows
the employees to address their concerns.
Writers such as Fox (1985) suggest that the employment relationship in Britain is
based on the traditional relationship between master and servant as a reflection of the
FIGURE 1.7
Employees
family
Competitors
Customers
Outside stakeholders
Suppliers
Government
Trade
associations
Organizations
providing goods
and services
to employees
Banks/City
Owners
Inside stakeholders
Trade
unions
The
organization
Temporary
coalitions
Interest
groups
Internal
customers and
suppliers
Managers
Professional
groups
Primary stakeholder groups
Departments
Employees

The techniques and formulas that are used as the
basis of seeking out the best way of working and the
lowest cost of operation are often silent on the human
impact of their activity. At best these approaches
assume a rationality in the way that human beings
can easily be fitted into any organizational design or
that communication can overcome any unwillingness
on the part of employees to accept the need to
produce more for less.
Business process re-engineering is the latest in a
long line of approaches to attempt to ensure that organizations become truly efficient. Michael Hammer is one
of the leading gurus in this field and insists that it is a
process that is about eliminating work, a process that
should not be considered as the same as eliminating
people (simple downsizing). The net result, however, is
the same, but it is argued that by concentrating on the
fundamental redesign of the business process an effective organization will then result and one into which the
people can be accommodated. The major area of
impact for this approach to efficiency is the middle
manager levels, what Hammer calls the death zone.
[ 25 ]
Cut out the middlemen
Re-engineering he describes as a process intended to

replace the organizational forms that emerged during
the Industrial Revolution when workers needed to be
closely supervised for many reasons, including low
levels of trust.
In the re-engineered company, teams are essential
and a customer rather than boss focus is required. This
invariably leads to the notion of self-managed teams with
a much-reduced role for managers in the traditional
sense of the job. Management becomes a role requiring
lead-and-enable skills rather than those of command
and control. It also reduces the ratio of managers
required from approximately 1:7 to anything approaching 1:50. As an indication of the impact of re-engineering, Taco Bell moved from 350 area supervisors for its
1800 fast food outlets in 1988 to 100 market managers
responsible for 2300 outlets a few years later. The effect
on sales was an increase (on average) of 22 per cent per
year and profits by 31 per cent per year.
Based on: Flood, G (1994) Cut out the middlemen,
Personnel Today, 22 March, p 36.
Is business process re-engineering (BPR) yet another attempt to find the elusive
formula that would guarantee the success of a company?
If BPR were to be successful would every company follow it and therefore find the same
solutions to the question of minimal cost with maximal customer focus? What might
this imply?
What do you think about the view that a process focus should predominate with the
human workforce being fitted around that?
How might employees and middle managers react to BPR approaches and what might
the long term effect on organizations be?
relative status of both parties. It can be argued (for example, Beardwell and Holden
(2001, pp 4569) that much of the recent move towards human resource management and away from personnel management, is governed by the desire to go beyond
the contract in getting better value for money from the employee resource. The traditional compliance-based authority structures of organizations are being replaced
with an emphasis on commitment-based work organization. However, writers such
as Sisson (1994) suggest that much of the difference between these two positions is
rhetoric rather than reality, reflecting an attempt to, mask the reality of the harsh
face of managerial prerogative in the service of capital. Legge (1995, p 314).
Management in Action 1.5 clearly indicates that the relationship between some
Stop Consider
Compliance
Employees follow the
rules precisely, paying
only lip service to the
underlying aims and
objectives sought by
management.
[ 26 ]
Commitment
Employees internalize
managements values
and norms and in so
doing commit
themselves to
managements aims
and objectives.
Metaphor
The explanation of
something complex
through reference to
something simpler,
but which conveys
additional meaning.
management and employee groups can be exploitative in nature, far from harmonious
and on occasion can lead to physical violence.
The reality of the precise nature of the relationship between managers and
employees, is therefore open to question, and will depend to some extent on the
views of the debaters. Some will argue that the relationship of old has changed and
now is based on commitment rather than compliance. Others will argue that it is not
really a commitment-based relationship as it is based upon fundamental inequality.
Capital can take its need for labour elsewhere and indeed dispense with it altogether
through the use of technology. Employees are very much dependent upon the work
opportunities that exist in order to earn the money that they need in order to survive
in modern society. The debate goes on, and will undoubtedly do so for some considerable time into the future. The major consequence of this is that it is not possible to
assume that employees will have the same perspectives on anything relating to what
happens within an organization as the managers. Indeed, it is not possible to assume
that all managers will have the same perspective as each other. Both of these situations arise because the perspective and attitudes of each individual are determined
by many factors, including personality, experience, education, objectives status,
information available and peer group pressure. These are all factors that will be
discussed at various points throughout the book. Consequently, the employee
perspective will be introduced where it can be expected to have a pertinent contribution to make to the discussion.
The relationship between individual employees and the organizations that employ
them is a complex one. At a basic (and perhaps cynical) level, the human employee is
simply a flexible alternative to a machine or computer; to be replaced as soon as a
more reliable and cheaper alternative becomes available. However, that view is overly
simplistic. As the technology associated with work activity evolves, some jobs are eliminated, but new ones are created. The jobs created tend to be more cerebral than
manual as machine-minding tasks are eliminated, and so the skill levels and education levels required to perform them also increase. During the transition period when
new jobs are being created there are inevitably shortages of appropriately skilled and
trained employees and so wage costs increase, bringing with it increased numbers of
people willing to undertake the training required. There are of course many other
forces acting upon the job choices that people make. For example, social and peer
pressure can make some jobs more attractive than others, as can parental influence.
Government policy can encourage (or inhibit) people to stay on at school and university, thereby channelling young people in certain directions. Government (and
company) policy and grants can also encourage the retraining of older employees into
new skill areas.
Human behaviour also influences the perception and understanding of organizations themselves. Morgan (1986) and Gharajedaghi and Ackoff (1984) both describe
organizational activity in terms of the differing metaphors that can be employed by
people to understand it. They represent the ways in which an individual interprets an
organization, which determines the characteristics that will be attributed to it and
assumptions about how it functions. For example, considering an organization in
metaphorical terms as a brain or as a machine bestows on it qualities associated with
those structures. The metaphor adopted also conditions how individuals will assume
that an organization works. The decisions and expectations of individuals in relation to
the organization are also influenced by the metaphor adopted.
Whatever the situation, the position and perspectives of employees are fundamentally different to those of managers, even though many of the latter are also employees.
The metaphor adopted by each category is inevitably different. It is to influence the
metaphor held that so much management effort goes into seeking to influence
the ways in which employees think about their role and responsibilities within

The capital of American Samoa, Pago Pago is home to
a number of high volume garment factories, all with the
right to claim that the goods are made in the USA.
However, as a recent court heard from US attorney
general (John Ashcroft) conditions in some factories
were nothing less than modern-day slavery. In a
particular court case it was said that the 251 Chinese
and Vietnamese workers at one factory paid 126 per
month for room and board, which consisted of a bunk
in a 36 bed dormitory and three meagre meals each
day. The pay for the workers was routinely withheld
and when workers went on strike to recover lost earnings, the managers turned off the electricity making the
conditions in the living areas unbearable. During one of
these disputes one of the women workers was dragged
from her machine by several men and had one eye
gouged out with a plastic pipe.
The clothes being made were for large name retail
stores such as Sears and JC Penney as well as for the
MV Sport and Spalding brands. Only JC Penney agreed
to pay the workers the back pay owed to them.
Workers are attracted to work at the factory by the
higher wages available than could be earned in
Vietnam. Sewing jobs paid $400 each month
compared to the average in Vietnam of $30 per month.
However, it was necessary to pay $4500 to a local
labour export company in order to get a job in Pago
Pago. The parents of one worker had to remortgage
their home in order to guarantee the fee. One worker
earned only $672 during her nine months employment
[ 27 ]
Misery of rag-trade slaves in

Americas Pacific outpost
at the factory before it was closed down and could not

pay off her debts unless she got more work in a similar
factory.
Charles Kernaghan, Director of the National
Labour Committee in Washington said that the situation in American Samoa made it a perfect location for
exploitation of labour. It was a US territory with an
economy in desperate need of stimulation and it had
no import tariffs in relation to mainland USA, looser
immigration laws and tax incentives to encourage
inward investment. Being eligible to display the
Made in the USA symbol on the labels of goods
made there, it even implied that quality and labour
practices were as they would be everywhere else in
the USA, a distinct sales advantage. However, being
more than 7000 miles from Washington it was in
practice only lightly regulated, with government
labour inspectors saying that they do not have a
budget for travel to such remote locations in order to
monitor working conditions.
Similar conditions apply to Saipan, another US
territory in the Northern Mariana islands. But here
workers have brought a class action case against
leading American clothing and retail companies for
alleged exploitation and sweatshop employment
conditions.
Adapted from: Fickling, D (2003) Misery of rag-trade
slaves in Americas Pacific outpost, The Guardian,
Saturday 1 March, p 20.
What does this example of the treatment of people at work suggest about what
customers, managers, governments and consumers actually think about employees?
organizations. Managers are also employees with one major distinction; they are
supposed to act in the interests of the beneficial owner of the business, while ordinary
employees have no such special status. At best they are one of the stakeholders within
the organization, at worst a necessary resource to be manipulated in pursuit of organizational objectives and replaced whenever practical. The behaviour and attitudes of
employees towards work and organizations also reflects the diversity of perspective about
them. Sometimes it reflects favourable attitudes and underlying values, sometimes an
open hostility and rejection of organizational purpose and management objectives. It all
depends upon a wide range of factors, including the individuals themselves and their
prior experience of how organizations and managers actually treat them.
Stop Consider
[ 28 ]
There exists a view among certain academic writers and practising managers that
the world of work has changed, bringing with it the need for employees to change as
well. It has already been suggested earlier that the relationship between managers and
organizations has changed with the introduction of downsizing and other cost reduction initiatives. This represents an example of what is termed the psychological
contract. This represents the largely unwritten expectations that exist between
employee and employer. It establishes the basis of what each can expect from the
other. It has been argued that in the past this was based on the individual giving their
full support to the company in return for career and regular wage increases etc. Whilst
this may have been true in the case of administrative, technical and managerial positions, it would not be a common experience of most manual workers, unless they
worked in the public sector. It is now argued by writers such as Hiltrop (1995, p 286)
that:
There is no job security. The employee will be employed as long as he or she adds
value to the organization, and is personally responsible for finding new ways to add
value. In return, the employee has the right to demand interesting and important
work, has the freedom and resources to perform it well, receives pay that reflects
his or her contribution and gets experience and training needed to be employed here
or elsewhere.
The extract form Hiltrop is interesting in that it suggests that there still exists a
balance of give and take in the employment relationship, albeit in different form to
that existing previously. It suggests a personal career in which each individual takes
responsibility for themselves and their own development in order to be marketable
now and in the future in an increasingly uncertain world. But is such a rosy perspective part of the real experience of most employees? Consider the case study included
at the end of this chapter in this context and a slightly different psychological contract
appears to exist. Equally, Management in Action 1.5 presents a different perspective
on the employment relationship. Perhaps the psychological contract described above
represents an ideal type of relationship that might be hoped for among some categories
of employee in some organizations, but not all. As is evident in the case study for this
chapter, the real experience for some employees can be very different.
It is the predictable consistency in operation provided by computer-based technology that makes it such an attractive option in most work settings. It is not possible for
human beings to match the unfailing and relentless consistency of performance
achieved by robots in a factory, for example. However, human beings do have some
advantages over computer technology. They are adaptable, flexible and can demonstrate a level of initiative beyond that available through any computer. Consequently,
there is still a need to employ and a benefit to be gained from, that unpredictable but
fascinating beast of burden the human being. Call centres represent a modern organizational development in which new patterns and forms of work are emerging based
on computer and telecommunications technology. As such, new ways of work are
evolving in these environments and as a consequence some people refer to these as
the modern-day equivalent of the sweatshops of old, with demands for high work
rates over extended periods, highly repetitive work of a low level, constant management monitoring of work and high labour turnover. During November 1999 the first
major strike of employees in call centres was organized by the Communications
Workers Union in the UK over what were described as an oppressive management
style and persistent under resourcing (Lamb, 1999a). This action demonstrates the
difficulty facing managers in effectively blending together the opportunities available
between new technology and human beings. Also, consider the experience of lower
level employees working in call centres, who now find their jobs being transferred to
India in the search for cost reduction made possible by using the latest technology and
Chapter 1 The challenges facing organizations, managers and employees
wage-based economies of scale, why should they be supportive of management objectives? For example, the scale of the potential savings is evident from research by
Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (reviewed by Crabb, 2003) which indicates that the top 100
financial services companies could save between 432 million and 618 million each
over a five year period by switching operations to the developing world.
It is people who create organizations, either as a source of income or in response to
a perceived social, political or personal need. It is people who operate the organization,
taking decisions and physically arranging to produce the products or services. It is yet
more people who regulate the organization in terms of safety, taxation, financial
matters and fraud. Even more people are the suppliers and customers of the organization. Within the organization, careers are worked out and living standards are determined, individuals seek to advance their own position and status at the expense of
others. On occasions they also seek revenge for some real or imagined injury or hurt
from the past. In short, the human aspect of organizations is the story of human life
and experience plus that of society, albeit writ small!
THE CHALLENGES FACING ORGANIZATIONS,

MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES
The basic challenge facing all organizations, managers and employees is that of
change. The world is constantly changing and that rate of change is now becoming
faster. Some of this change is evolutionary and other revolutionary. For example, the
development of computer technology is subject to continual refinement. This is something that is evolutionary in nature. A change process experienced as a series of small
frequent (incremental) amendments to the existing situation. Considering this type of
change on a daily basis would offer no noticeable difference, but over a period of years
considerable change is achieved.
Revolutionary change, in comparison, is a sudden and dramatic process that fundamentally alters the situation. One example of this is the arrival of the out-of-town
shopping and leisure complex. Over a relatively short period of time town centres have
become deserted as people find it more convenient to drive to one of these centres.
The effect has been to force many town centre businesses either to relocate to a new
complex or to close down altogether.
Change has always been a part of life. It has been argued by many writers that the
pace of change impacting on organizations is occurring ever more rapidly. So much so
that one catchphrase over recent years has been an exhortation to innovate or die!
This carries the clear implication that unless change becomes institutionalized the
organization will not stay in business for long. There is a counter-argument to this
view which suggests that by forcing change into an organization, managers are creating the very instability that can inhibit their ability to survive. Inevitably, change within
an organization impacts on all the people within it. Change means different things to
different people within the organization. To a significant extent the perspective on
change depends upon the implied impact for the individual or group. So for a main
board director it may mean growth of the company, a big merger deal bringing personal
reputation and kudos. For the senior managers a particular change may mean additional resources to enhance the service they provide, or less resources through which
to provide an enhanced service. To junior managers it might simply mean more work
and having to ensure that lower level employees adopt new working practices that
mean they have to do jobs differently to the way they were done in the past. For the
lower level employees it may mean job losses and uncertainty as to how many jobs will
[ 29 ]
[ 30 ]
exist after the change has been made. In addition it may well require remaining
employees to undertake the work previously done by their displaced colleagues,
leading to increased pressure and stress. In short, change is something that at the
lowest levels of an organization is invariably viewed in negative terms because it
usually means having to learn new things and do more with fewer resources, or at least
that is the general perception of the impact. The challenge, particularly for managers,
is to find ways of embracing change that do not engender negative and hostile reactions among employees.
There are many ways of categorizing change. Johnson and Scholes (1999) describe
a PESTLE analysis process that provides a systematic basis for considering the environmental influences surrounding an organization:
Political. Factors influencing the organization from surrounding political

sources. For example, the political orientation of the government in power.
Economic. These reflect the economic conditions and trends that can influence
the environment within which the organization must operate.
Social/cultural. Changes to the populations (customer and workforce)

surrounding the organization can also have a significant impact on its
functioning. For example, in Europe there is an expectation among employees
that they are entitled to increasing levels of involvement in company decision
making.
Technological. The changes to the technology available to organizations affects

both the products and services available and also the ways in which companies
operate.
Legal. The legislative rules may change. For example, increases in fuel tax may
increase transport costs causing an increase in cost of operations and reductions
in profit.
Environment/ethical. There is pressure on all organizations to reduce damage to

the environment and to act in an ethical way. Pressure groups constantly
monitor company statements on their performance in these areas and often
hold managers to account in public to demand action where it can be argued
that not enough is being done.
Asch and Salaman (2002) draw together a wide range of variables to demonstrate that
the problems facing managers in relation to the challenges of the future are based
upon the interaction of two factors:
The changing nature of complex and unpredictable environments.
The plethora of (often competing) advice and exhortations of how to deal with
such unpredictable environments.
In addition to the processes identified, there are the political reasons that lead
managers to seek change within their organizations. For example, new managers often
seek to make change in order to demonstrate a clear break with what existed previously. Equally, managers can attempt to enhance their own career prospects by seeking
to be regarded by senior managers as proactive in pursuing change.
Chapter 1 Conclusions
[ 31 ]
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter has introduced organizational behaviour
together with the concepts of organization, management and employee, which form the basis of much of
the emphasis in the rest of this book. It has also
included some of the research orientations and
approaches for the study of these issues in the real
world by real people. The purpose of this chapter has

been to set the scene for much of the later work in
the book. It also set out to provide readers with some
background to the research issues and approaches
that are used to inform thinking in this and other
areas of the study of management and organizations.
Now to summarize this chapter in terms of the relevant

Learning Objectives:
Understand the distinction between research in

the natural and in the social sciences. This chapter
has sought to introduce the distinction between
natural and social science research. In the natural
sciences, it is possible to utilize the scientific
method of research and to seek to control closely
each of the variables active in any situation in
laboratory-based experiments. In the social world it
is not often possible to provide such control and
equally behaviour is an interactive, dynamic process
occurring in real time and with many other variables
influencing events. Consequently different research
methods have to be employed to illuminate such
events and equally it is rarely possible to offer
definitive explanations of particular behaviours.
Explain the particular difficulties involved in
studying and developing theories in the area of
management. The previous outline has provided a
brief explanation of this objective. There are so many
variables at work in even the simplest forms of
human behaviour in an organizational context that it
is very difficult to provide complete explanations or
theories that might explain them. Therefore any
theory is at best simply reflecting a probability that
certain behaviours will occur in certain situations,
given a range of other prerequisites. This is
particularly true when considering management as a
separate activity within organizations.
Outline the essence of the relationship between
organizations, managers and employees. There
exists a complex relationship between the three
main terms indicated. Each needs the other to a
significant extent in order to produce whatever
product or service is offered by the organization. It is
not simply a one-way relationship. Organizations
create goods and services, people are needed to
achieve that. Absentee owners fund large
organizations, therefore, they need managers to
realize the objective of making money from the
capital. Equally, managers need the organization to

provide job opportunity, status, and career
possibilities. Both managers and employees need
the money earned from work to purchase the goods
and services that make life meaningful and
enjoyable. This creates a reciprocal need between
organizations and the people who work in them.
Appreciate that the concept organization

incorporates many different forms. The definition of
an organization covers many different types. Not all
organizations are of interest to every researcher,
teacher or student of management. In some
situations, the focus of interest will be management
in a large multinational organization, in others
management of small owner-manager companies.
The public sector and voluntary sector are also
significant types of organization that form the focus of
interest in particular situations. Therefore, there are
many forms of organization and it is frequently
unstated or assumed that private sector large
commercial organizations are the model on which all
theory and explanation should be based.
Discuss how the study of organizational behaviour

can contribute to an understanding of
management. The study of organizational behaviour
is about understanding how people and
organizations interact. As has already been
suggested this represents a complex relationship
with many factors active in any situation. The
purpose of studying organizational behaviour is to
begin to understand the variety of forces influencing
behaviour within an organization, including the
behaviour of other people, the design of
organizations, the role of technology, political forces
and stress. Management requires the achievement
of objectives through other people at all levels both
inside and outside of an organization. Therefore
organizational behaviour seeks to illuminate the
nature and responsibilities of management (among
those of other stakeholders) in running organizations
more effectively.
[ 32 ]
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Management represents the combination of
experience and practical skill, it cannot be taught.
Therefore there is no point in studying
management. Discuss this question and in so
doing justify the study of organizational behaviour.
2. Management is a manipulative process. Discuss
the extent to which you agree with this statement
and explain why.
3. It is not possible to generate robust social science
theories because there are so many variables at
work. It requires the development of a totally new
science. To what extent would you agree with this
statement and why?
4. There is no such thing as a typical organization or
management job therefore it is pointless attempting
to theorize about them. To what extent would you
agree with this view? Justify your answer.
5. Managers need organizations. To what extent do
you agree with this view and why?
CASE STUDY
6. To what extent and why should employees be

regarded as one of many resources available to
the organization, providing managers with the
necessary labour needed to achieve objectives?
7. Because employees actually do the work of the
organization they are in a stronger position than
managers to know how to do things more
effectively. To what extent might this be taken to
imply that if employees could be motivated more
effectively, most management jobs could be
eliminated?
8. Why do you think that people seek jobs as
managers?
9. The study of organizational behaviour enables
managers to become more effective at their job.
Discuss this statement.
10. Change can be equated with the challenges facing
organizations and managers. Is this a valid
comparison to make? Examine both sides of the
argument and justify your own point of view.
The reality of management life!
The case study is based in a large multinational service

organization operating in the UK, although the parent
group is based in the USA. The company makes and
supplies office equipment and maintains existing
equipment in client premises under service agreements. It also refurbishes equipment as clients need it
updating or changing. The specific incidents reflected
in the case study occurred in the refurbishment division
of the company in the UK. The refurbishment division
was headed by a manager (Mark) who had reporting to
him seven field managers, each responsible for up to
seven engineers who carried out any refurbishment and
commissioning of equipment on client premises. Each
field manager was responsible for a refurbishment in a
specific geographic location of the UK. In addition, the
refurbishment manager had reporting to him seven
sales managers, one in each geographic area as indicated for the field managers; and a number of other
senior technical and administrative staff, including a
planning manager, secretary and two administrative
assistants. The refurbishment manager reported to the
director of operations for the UK company.
The case study is based on a situation that devel-
oped involving one of the field managers. The individual concerned (James) was 63 years of age and had
worked for the company for 35 years, beginning as a
service engineer and working his way up to the position
of field manager. He had always worked in the same
geographic area of the country and was well known
and respected by both clients and fellow engineers. He
had held his present position for three years at the time
of the incidents described. At the time that James was
appointed to his current position the company had
undertaken a major reorganization of its activities. He
along with all of the other managers had to undergo a
recruitment and selection process involving interviews,
psychometric tests and assessment centres intended to
select the best candidates for the reduced number of
management jobs within the new organization structure. James met the appropriate criteria and was
appointed to the position of field manager (refurbishment). This itself was a new department within the
company as previously refurbishment had been undertaken as a service activity within the company.
As a consequence of the reorganization the refurbishment department was created from among existing
Chapter 1 Case study
employees brought together with the intention that a

viable team and working unit would emerge over time.
In some cases line managers within the company had
engineered situations in which a number of their
weaker employees were transferred over to the new
department as a way of getting rid of low performing
individuals, those with less capability and those
regarded as lazy or simply trouble-makers. Whilst there
was no suggestion that James was one of these
employees, some of his engineers fell into that category, as did some of the support staff moved into the
department.
The refurbishment manager (Mark) was moved into
the department from the position of area sales manager,
having gone through the internal recruitment process
and being identified as a high-flyer within the company.
The brief that Mark was given was to generate increased
sales of 10 per cent in the first year, to reduce customer
complaints by 10 per cent over the same period and to
create an effective refurbishment department across the
entire UK operations. Not surprisingly there were many
teething problems in the new department and Mark
spent the first year fire-fighting in an attempt to limit the
damage and achieve the objectives set whilst maintaining effective customer relations. He spent much of his
time on the road visiting his managers, the worksites
and customers. It quickly became apparent that the
difficulties with the new department went further than a
few underperforming employees. It was clear that prior
to the change-over to the new structure a number of
managers had either deliberately or accidentally allowed
jobs to become seriously delayed or badly planned. Also
a number of unrealistic promises (and quotations) had
been made to clients and potential customers. This
situation increased the pressure on everyone in the
refurbishment department, particularly the managers.
A broad sweep of measures was instigated by Mark
to improve the effectiveness of the new department,
including team meetings and team building activities.
This was on top of Mark spending a considerable
amount of time with each team in order to monitor their
work and ensure that they were working to the new
procedures and requirements. It quickly became apparent to Mark that the department did not have enough
people to undertake all of the work expected of them.
The sales engineers were able to bring in enough
orders, but the engineering side were unable to carry
out the refurbishment work fast enough. This was
partly due to the lack of engineers, partly due to the
inexperience of some of the field managers, partly due
to the quality of some of the staff (as implied earlier)
[ 33 ]
and partly due to the need to improve team working

across the new department. One particular area of difficulty was in the area under the leadership of James. He
had considerable experience of the company, its products and the engineering processes involved, but there
always seemed to be more problems in his area than in
the others. Mark tried several ways to overcome the
difficulties. He spent more time with James than with
any of the other field managers; he helped James to
plan his work and to deal with problem engineers.
However, nothing seemed to work. One of the major
problems was that James was finding it particularly
difficult to use the new company computer-based
systems. He did not like to use the email system and
was not comfortable with the inevitable politics that
accompany management activity. For example, the
sales engineers in his area were becoming so frustrated
with the lack of completed work for their clients that
they had taken to emailing James to complain on a
frequent basis, at the same time circulating the email to
Mark and even his boss (the director) for information.
This inevitably resulted in questions being asked of
Mark and pressure being put on him to take action.
Mark eventually sat James down and had a frank
discussion with him about what was going on.
Eventually during the discussion, it emerged that
James was very unhappy with the new job. It was
completely different to his previous managerial task
and required him to do jobs and tasks that he did not
enjoy or feel competent to do. He even admitted that it
was getting him down so much he was being physically sick most mornings before leaving home to go to
work. He just felt so helpless and out of his depth in
being able to do the job expected of him. Mark was
taken aback by this revelation, not having suspected
the personal nature of the situation. Thinking about the
meeting afterwards, he decided to speak to his boss
about a number of options. These included the possibility of reassignment within the company and giving
James an early retirement package to allow him to
leave work with some dignity. In speaking to his boss, it
quickly became apparent that these were not going to
be options that would be considered. Marks boss said
that James was not up to the job and should either be
forced to resign or should be dismissed. It was not
going to be possible to find James alternative work
within the company that would make use of his considerable experience and knowledge about the company,
its products, processes and customers. No enhanced
retirement or other package would be made available in
his case. The management view was that the company
[ 34 ]
should get tough with underperforming employees and

they should be made to perform by the threat of
dismissal without any compensation. The fact that
James had very long service with the company and
had always been a good employee was deemed to be
irrelevant.
Mark was appalled by what he was told by his boss.
It represented a completely different attitude by a senior
manager to that common before the reorganization.
Clearly, a new get tough approach was to be the new
way of managing people within the company. Mark
pushed as hard as he could within the company for a
special case to be made for James, but to no avail.
Mark was essentially told that if he did not deal with
James he would be replaced as well. Mark arranged to
see James, told him of the situation, and suggested
that he would have good ground for legal action against
the company if they dismissed him. James said that
such an approach was not his style and that he was

going to resign and walk away with his dignity intact.
He handed Mark a letter of resignation and left the
office. Mark felt so angry at how James had been dealt
with that he also began to look around for another job
and left the company about three months later.
Task
What does this case suggest to you in relation to:
What management is?
What being an employee means?
The nature of the psychological contract?
How managers manage?
The signal that managements behaviour might send to
other employees?
What an organization is and how they change over
time?
FURTHER READING
Burrell, G and Morgan, G (1979) Sociological
Paradigms and Organisational Analysis: Elements
of the Sociology of Corporate Life, Ashgate,
Aldershot. A classical review of the different ways of
seeing things in organizational theorizing.
Clark, H, Chandler, J and Barry, J (1994) Organization
and Identities: Text and Readings in Organizational
Behaviour, International Thomson Business Press,
London. Contains a broad range of original articles
on relevant material themes and from significant
writers referred to in this and other textbooks on
management and organizations.
Clegg, SR and Palmer, G (eds) (1996) The Politics of
Management Knowledge, Sage, London. This text
explores the relationship between management
knowledge, power and practice within an increasingly global organizational environment.
de la Billire, General Sir P (1994) Looking For
Trouble, HarperCollins, London. An autobiography
of a senior military officer, this book provides an
insight into the nature of leadership as well as military organization.
Gunn, C (1993) Nightmare on Lime Street, 2nd edn,
Smith Gryphon, London. This book provides a
perspective on the possibility of malpractice in
Lloyds of London. It reflects the possibility that not

all employees can be trusted to act in the best interests of the owners.
MacGregor, I with Tyler, R (1986) The Enemies Within,
Collins, London. This is the story of the miners
strike in the British coalfields during 1984 and 1985
written from the perspective of the Chairman of the
then National Coal Board.
Mills, AJ and Murgatroyd, SJ (1991) Organizational
Rules, Open University Press, Milton Keynes. This
text introduces the existence of the formal and
informal rule frameworks that guide much of the
human activity within organizations.
Needle, D (2000) Business in Context: An Introduction
to Business and its Environment. Thomson
Learning, London. Provides an introductory text on
what business is and how it functions within its ever
changing environment.
Potter, J (1996) Representing Reality, Sage, London.
This book provides a review of various constructionist
views of scientific knowledge as well as providing
examples from conversations and other interactions.
Turner, J (2002) How to Study, Sage, London. Provides
a broad range of material and ideas on study at
university level.
Chapter 1 Companion website
[ 35 ]
COMPANION WEBSITE

learning material:
For students:
Interactive multiple choice questions to help you test your understanding of the chapter
PowerPoint slides for use as an overview to each chapter and as a revision aid
Extra case material
Weblinks to all case companies and other relevant sources of information
Online glossary to explain key terms
Learning objectives and chapter summaries to help you check your understanding and progress
For lecturers:
A password protected site with teaching material

Instructors Manual with teaching notes
Model answers for selected questions
Video sources to help bring a wider relevance to the classroom
Supplementary resources:
ExamView:
This testbank and test generator provides more than a thousand different types of questions, allowing
lecturers to create online, paper and local area network (LAN) tests. This CD-based product is only available
from your Thomson sales representative.
Online Courses:
All of the supplementary web material is available in a format that is compatible with virtual learning
environments such as Blackboard and WebCT. This version of the product is only available from your
Thomson sales representative.
Glossary
Action-centred leadership An approach to managing

which consists of three elements achieving the task,
developing the individual and building and maintaining
the team.
Action research (or learning) A problem solving process
in which a group defines the problem to be examined
and then uses their combined skill and experience to
understand it in order to then take action to deal with it.
An iterative and dynamic process of learning about
problems by trying to solve them.
Adhocracy A form of organization structure typified by few
levels of management; little formal control;
decentralized decision making; few rules, policies and
procedures; specialization of work function.
Administrative management Considers management as
activities aimed at running the organization as a whole.
Also see Classical management theory and Bureaucracy.
Alienation The detachment of the individual from the
work that they do and/or the organization for which they
work. Sometimes described as feelings of powerlessness,
meaninglessness, isolation or self-estrangement in which
the person no longer feels part of, or involved with, the
work that they do.
Assessment centre A group recruitment or development
process using a series of tests, interviews, group and
individual exercises that are scored by a team of
assessors in order to evaluate the candidates.
Attitude A predisposed feeling, thought or behavioural
response to a particular stimulus. Acquired through
socialization, education, training and previous
experience of the stimulus.
Attitude set The totality of attitudes about a particular
object held by an individual.
Attribution theory (of leadership) Suggests that leaders
observe the behaviours of individual subordinates and
vary their reactions accordingly.
Authority The ability of someone in a job or position to be
able to require certain actions or behaviours to be
undertaken by another person.
Autocraticdemocratic style of leadership A continuum
view of leadership with one extreme involving the leader
taking all the decisions, and at the other the leader
involving subordinates in decision making.
Autokinetic phenomenon Visually perceiving something
to move when in fact it is stationary, a visual illusion.
Autonomous work groups A work team with delegated
responsibility for a defined part of an organizations
activities with the freedom to organize its own resources,
pace of work and allocate responsibilities within the
group.
Balanced business scorecard Developed by Kaplan and
Norton as the means to measure the performance in
four major areas of organizational activity: Financial;
Innovation and learning; Internal processes; and
Customers.
[ 832 ]
Benchmark A process in which aspects of company

operations are compared with other organizations in
order to measure relative performance and
effectiveness.
Blame culture Describes an organization in which every
error is regarded as the fault of an individual or group.
Such cultures encourage a cover your back at all costs
approach to work.
Breakthrough leadership An approach to leadership
which emphasizes the personal journey of discovery that
each leader undergoes, includes elements of emotional
intelligence and self-knowledge.
Brownfield site A term used to describe a location which
already contains an operational unit, which may be
about to undergo reconstruction or some form of
transition or change. See also Greenfield site.
Bullying and harassment The act of intimidating or
seeking to force someone to do something by subjecting
them to persecution intended to undermine their
confidence and self-esteem.
Bureaucracy see Bureaucratic.
Bureaucratic An approach to organizing the activities
within an organization which involves specialization of
task, plus a hierarchy of authority and decision making.
See also Classical Management Theory and
Administrative management.
Burnout The feeling of helplessness and of being unable
to continue experienced by some individuals under
prolonged exposure to stress.
Business process re-engineering (BPR) An approach
to reorganization in which the key business processes
are identified, followed by the elimination of other
activity and the rapid transformation of the organization
to the desired process orientation.
Cabal An informal group that attempts to take the
initiative within an organization to further views
supported by members or enhance their status and
position.
Cafeteria or flexible benefits An approach to employee
benefits that allows individuals to select a personal
benefits package up to a set limit, from the total range
available.
Change agent Someone who plays a leading part in
sponsoring the need for change or its implementation.
Charismatic leadership The ability to exercise
leadership through the power of the leaders personality.
Classical conditioning An approach to learning
developed by Pavlov in which he used dogs to
demonstrate that when the conditioned stimulus (bell)
was associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food)
over several repetitions a conditioned response resulted
(salivation to the sound of the bell).
Classical management theory An approach to
organizing described by writers including Fayol, Mary
Parker Follett, Oliver Sheldon, Lyndall Urwick and
Glossary
James Mooney. See also Administrative management

and Bureaucracy.
Cliques A particular type of informal group in which
individuals have a common interest and purpose;
frequently the defence of members against the interests
of other groups and individuals.
Coercive power The ability of a holder of such power to
achieve control over another person through the threat
of direct action, force or violence.
Cognitive dissonance Used to explain behaviour in an
individual in situations where conflict exists between
attitudes or beliefs.
Commitment This involves the employee internalizing
the underlying values and norms held by management
and in so doing committing themselves to managements
aims and objectives.
Communication A process of sharing information and
creating relationships in environments designed for
manageable, goal-oriented behaviour.
Company doctor A senior manager brought into an ailing
company in an attempt to turn it around.
Competency The characteristics and capabilities of an
individual which directly contribute to superior job
performance.
Compliance This involves the employee following the
rules precisely, paying only lip service to the aims and
objectives determined by management.
Compulsory sociability An approach to building teams
with a strong culture by requiring individuals to join in
group activities and follow particular patterns of
behaviour or face sanctions.
Conditioned The behaviour of an individual which results
from the application of behaviourism techniques.
Conflict This frequently arises when the differences
between two or more groups or individuals become
apparent.
Conflict model of customer experience and
organizational functioning This reflects the
difficulty of functional groups being able to meet
customer needs within a hierarchical organization.
Conflict model of decision making An algorithmic
approach to taking decisions which is only intended to
apply to life decisions and when certain other conditions
can be met.
Conformity see Group conformity.
Content theories of motivation These concentrate on
identifying the motives that produce behaviour.
Contingency theory Applies to the leadership, motivation
and structure areas within organizational behaviour.
Takes the view that the best style of leadership, form of
motivation, or organizational structure depends upon
the factors active in the situation.
Continuous improvement An approach to improvement
adopting incremental and frequent changes aimed at
improving operational effectiveness over a long period of
time. It is often described as a journey without end.
Contract approach to ethics An approach to resolving
ethical dilemmas grounded in the notion that
agreements whether they be explicit or tacit should be
honoured. It comes in two variations, Restricted
contractarianism and Libertarian contractarianism.
[ 833 ]
Control Processes intended to achieve the outcome

desired by the designer of the system.
Corporate anorexia Describes those organizations that
cut employee numbers, out of a fear of becoming fat,
perhaps to the point of extinction.
Corporate governance Defined by the Cadbury
Committee as the systems through which companies are
directed and controlled. It is about the ways in which
ethics finds expression in business activities.
Corporate social responsibility This refers to the rights
and responsibilities of an organization relative to its
social context.
Countercultures These reflect a situation where one or
more groups have objectives that run counter to those of
the dominant group.
Crisis management The aspect of management that
deals with major unplanned events that pose significant
risk to the organization, its employees or other
stakeholders.
Critical incidents research An approach involving
asking what makes an individual feel good or bad about
something, subsequent content analysis identifies the
important issues.
Cultural web Based on the notion that the routines,
rituals, stories, symbols, power structures, control
systems and organization structure all contribute to the
form of a particular culture.
Culture The acquired and conventionally accepted ways of
thinking and behaving among a group or society.
Cycle model of decision making An iterative approach
to decision making based on a nine step process.
Decision making A process through which a particular
course of action is selected or solution identified from
among the many options available.
Delayering The act of removing layers from an
organization, thereby making it shorter in the vertical
dimension.
Delegated authority An action by managers in which
they give some of their authority for decision making to
subordinates.
Delegation The passing of some area of responsibility to a
subordinate.
Devils advocate A person specifically tasked with trying
to disprove or challenge the argument or opinion put
forward by another person or group.
Diffusion of responsibility The claim by someone
(usually within a group) that they were not solely
responsible for a particular decision or act, thereby
avoiding any personal responsibility.
Division of labour The term describes breaking up the
overall task into specialized and smaller activities in the
search for higher levels of productivity and job
specialization.
Downshift The decision by an individual to seek to move
jobs to one at a lower level, with less responsibility, salary
and stress.
Downsizing/rightsizing/delayering Processes which
involve the elimination of jobs or entire levels within the
organization on the assumption that unnecessary activity
will be eliminated and a closer customer focus will
result.
[ 834 ]
Glossary
Drives The physiological and biological needs of the

human body that direct behaviour. See also Motivation.
Emotional intelligence An approach to intelligence
which describes it in terms of the ability to perceive, to
integrate, to understand and reflectively manage ones
own and other peoples feelings.
Employee assistance programme A scheme provided by
an employer (usually through a specialist consultancy)
to offer assistance to employees who experience a
problem and who might find it beneficial to have the
opportunity to talk it through with a support worker. The
intention being to assist the employee to find a way of
dealing positively with the difficulty.
Employee involvement Represents an opportunity for
employees to become involved beyond the normal scope of
their job in decision making and/or running the business.
Employer of choice This implies that people will actively
seek employment with the company and so contribute
high performance over a long period of time.
Empowerment Means that employees are given the
freedom to take action (within defined boundaries)
without the need to have specific approval.
Enacted role What the individual actually does in
fulfilling their role responsibilities.
Environment The elements and forces surrounding an
organization with which it must interact and which can
influence events, decisions and processes within the
organization.
Ergonomics It sets out to identify how humans interact
with the work-based physical environment and then to
design the equipment in such a way as to have minimal
negative impact on the people using it.
Ethics Takes as its focus of interest right, wrong, good and
bad in relation to behaviour in an organizational context.
Expectancy theory of motivation A view of motivation
that suggests that the desirability of particular outcomes
is what motivates behaviour.
Expected role The specific role that an individual is
expected to fulfil according to the organization,
frequently specified in a job description.
Expert power This source of power originates from the
knowledge, skill and expertise of an individual in a
particular context.
Extrinsic motivator This represents a source of
motivation that originates outside the individual worker
and which influences their behaviour. See also Intrinsic
motivation.
Extroversion One aspect of personality. The extrovert
likes excitement, is sociable and lively. An introvert, by
comparison, has a quiet and retiring aspect to their
personality.
Federal organization Reflects the joining together of
separate groups under a common identity for a specific
purpose.
Felt fair A term used within reward management and
employee relations that means that something should be
felt to be fair by the people subjected to the system or
procedure.
Fight or flight response The process which allows a
living organism to either stay and fight, or to run away
and avoid confrontation.
Flexible firm There are a number of forms that flexibility

can take, job, location, temporal, numerical and
financial. It also relates to a specific organizational
model which includes core and various forms of
peripheral employee.
Focused deviancy The toleration of bending of the
official rules as long as it contributes to the overall
objective and does not become normal practice.
Forcefield analysis model A change model which
proposes that any situation is held in place as the result
of the balance of change and restraining forces acting
upon it.
Fordism An alternative term for Scientific management.
Fordism and post-Fordism Refers to ways in which
Scientific management principles are used in the
running of manufacturing and other organizations.
Formal group Designed and imposed by managers on the
workforce as a way of achieving organizational objectives
through structure, departments and teams.
Frame of reference The internal frameworks held by an
individual that informs their understanding of the world
and how to relate to it.
Free association Refers to the right of employees to
associate with whom they choose, perhaps against the
wishes of management. It has a different meaning in
psychoanalysis in that it reflects the process of allowing
a patient to respond freely to a particular stimulus
without prompting by the analyst.
Functional foremanship The principles of Scientific
management as applied to first line management.
Garbage can model of decision making This is based
on the idea that organizations are comprised of bundles
of available solutions looking for problems. The garbage
can is a receptacle for solutions and situations, both
waiting to be matched up.
Gatekeeper Person (or post) within an organization able
to grant or restrict access to a more senior person.
Golden handcuff An attempt to lock the employee into
the company through the use of some incentive to stay,
usually high wages or an incentive payment based on
service.
Grapevine The rumour mill or gossip networks that exist
in all organizations as a way of passing information, real
or imagined around employees at all levels.
Graphology The study of handwriting.
Great man view of leadership This view suggests that
there are certain people who are born with the
appropriate characteristics to make them successful
leaders.
Greenfield site A term used to describe a brand new
operational location as compared to a Brownfield site
which describes an existing site.
Groups Consists of two or more people who have some
purpose and interact with each other in such a way that
they are psychologically aware of each other and are
influenced by each other.
Group cohesion Reflects the strength of mutual bonds
and attitudes among members.
Group communication The patterns through which
individuals within a group communicate with each
other.
Glossary
Group conformity The degree of compliance to the group

norms by individual members.
Group decision making The processes by which a group
will take decisions.
Group development Process of individuals coming
together to form a group capable of achieving task
objectives and member satisfaction.
Group dynamics The behavioural interactions and
patterns of behaviour that occur when groups of people
meet.
Groups, instrumental value of The benefits that an
individual gains from joining a group, including meeting
social and affiliation needs and gaining support for their
objectives.
Group norms The patterns of behaviour, attitudes and
beliefs that are held by a particular group and to which
members are expected to subscribe.
Groupthink The tendency of a strongly cohesive group to
emphasize unanimity at the expense of critical
evaluation of a problem and available options.
Groups types within an organization
Hierarchical differentiation.
Specialism groupings.
Activity groupings.
Boundary spanning.
Professional.
Habituation Constant repetition of a stimulus can lead to
the senses turning off from the awareness of it.
Halo (or horns) effect The bias introduced when
attributing all of the characteristics of a person (or
object) to a single attribute. When this is positive it is a
halo effect, when negative a horns effect.
Hawthorne effect The tendency of people to change
their behaviour as a result of being subjected to research
and observation, first identified during the Hawthorne
studies.
Hawthorne studies A series of four research studies
exploring aspects of group working within the Western
Electric Company in the USA during the late 1920s and
early 1930s.
Helicopter perspective The ability to take an overview of
a situation.
Hidden agenda An intention that is not apparent but
forms a significant motivation for an individuals
behaviour in a particular context.
High performance organization An organization in
which the combination of people, technology,
management and productivity are integrated effectively
to provide competitive advantage on a sustainable
basis.
Human relations movement The school of
management thinking that originated from the work of
Elton Mayo in which the significance of social groups
and processes was emphasized.
Human resource management An approach to the
management of people that supposedly represents a
more central strategic management activity than
personnel management.
Human resource planning The process of seeking to
match present and future human availability to the
needs of the organization.
[ 835 ]
Ideal type An example or typical model which would not

be found in practice in its exact form, but would be
identifiable to a greater or lesser extent from what is
found.
Idiographic theories of personality These offer an
approach to describing personality based upon the
uniqueness of each individual and in so doing do not
rely on psychometric tests.
Individual difference See Personality.
Individualismcollectivism A cultural dimension
reflecting the underlying arrangement of society into a
loose collective framework; or an integrated, tight social
arrangement involving collective responsibility.
Industrialization Refers to the application of technology
in a particular location, moving it away from agricultural
to a factory based economy.
Influence The ability to direct the behaviour of another
person involving persuasion rather than force.
Influence diagram These seek to illustrate the influences
and relationships that exist between individuals and
groups within and outside an organization.
Informal groups Formed from employee friendship,
mutual support and dependency needs which cannot be
met through the formal groups provided by an
organization.
Instrumental approach to work An approach to work
which is based on a trading and value approach to
relationships and the determination of contribution.
Instrumental conditioning An approach to learning
based on the reinforcement of particular behaviours by a
trainer which consequently shapes it into the desired
pattern.
Interaction analysis This contains four categories of
interaction which can be used for recording interaction
patterns within groups.
Intelligence Often described in terms of a number of
primary mental abilities such as verbal comprehension,
number ability, or a capacity for learning.
Intellectual capital The sum total of knowledge,
expertise and dedication of the workforce in an
organization.
Interpersonal, Informational and Decisional roles
Three categories of role used to describe the main
features of a managers job.
Intrinsic motivator Motivation that originates inside the
individual as a response to the job itself and the
circumstances surrounding its execution. See also
Extrinsic motivation.
Introversion See Extroversion.
Job Essentially a collection of tasks brought together as a
practical chunk of activity, created and adapted by
people, for a particular purpose within an
organization.
Job analysis A systematic approach to the identification of
the content and responsibilities of a job, results in a job
description being written. See also Job description.
Job characteristics model A model of job enrichment
based on the need to incorporate a number of core job
dimensions (Skill variety, Task identity, Task
significance, Autonomy and Feedback) into the design
of a job.
[ 836 ]
Glossary
Job description A document based on job analysis that

sets out the duties and other requirements associated
with a job.
Job enlargement An approach to work organization
which combines a range of tasks together that would
add breadth to the design of a job.
Job enrichment An approach to job design that requires
activities and responsibilities to be added to the design of
a job.
Job evaluation A process by which job descriptions can be
used to identify the rank order (or relative magnitude) of
jobs in an organization.
Job rotation An approach to work organization which
proposes that two (or more) simplified jobs are
combined into a pattern of employee rotation.
Job simplification An approach to job design based on a
minimization of the range of tasks into the smallest
convenient size to make the job efficient and cost
effective.
Just-in-time An approach in which processes are linked
together in an extended chain to ensure that good
quality components are delivered to the user just-in-time
for them to be used.
Karoshi A Japanese word meaning sudden death from
overwork.
Knowledge management The management of the
knowledge available to the organization from all sources
in such a way as to allow the creation of new knowledge
and the sharing of existing knowledge; together with the
manipulation of that knowledge in such a way as to
benefit the organization and the individuals working
within it.
Labour process theory Essentially, this seeks to explain
the use to which human labour is put in capitalist
organizations and the part played by managers in the
organization of that work for the benefit of capital owners.
Laissez faire An approach to leadership in which the
leader effectively abdicates responsibility for the decision
making within the group.
Law of requisite variety see Requisite variety.
Leadership A process in which the leader is able to
influence the behaviours and actions of those being led.
Learning The relatively permanent change in behaviour
or potential behaviour that results from direct or indirect
experience.
Learning organization The facilitation of learning for all
employees and the constant transformation of the
organization in response to that new knowledge and
ability.
Legitimate power The ability to exercise power as a
consequence of having the legitimate right to claim to be
able to do so.
Line manager Every employee reports to a line manager
their boss.
Line and staff functions A line function is involved with
the main purposes of the organization the operational
functions. The staff functions refer to the activities
which although necessary are supportive of the main
operational functions.
Linking pin model This model reflects the overlapping
and connected nature of groups within an organization.
Loco parentis Having the right to act as though you were

the parent of another person.
Locus of control The degree to which an individual
believes that they are subjected to outside control as
opposed to having internal control over the forces
influencing their behaviour.
Luddite The term originated from the bands of workers
who roamed England in the early 1800s breaking up
machinery and destroying the factories which they
perceived would cost them their jobs. These days used
to describe people who are resistant to change.
Management The jobs within an organization charged
with running the organization on behalf of the beneficial
owner.
Management by exception An approach to managing
that assumes that only where an exception or deviation
from a plan is identified does any action need to be
taken.
Management, principles of 14 elements of what being a
manager involved, developed by Fayol and included as
Table 8.1.
Management process The view of management
developed by Fayol, consists of: Forecasting, Planning,
Organizing, Co-ordinating, Commanding, Controlling.
Manpower planning See Human resource planning.
Manufacture of consent The achievement of employee
consent to control by managers through such
practices as collective bargaining, although managers
retain effective control over labour use, which
perpetuates the relative imbalance of power in a
capitalist society.
Marketplace bureaucracy In practice, the need to get
things done within an organization requires the
continuous trading of favours between colleagues over
and above formal reporting relationships or procedures.
Market testing Checking the cost of something against
market norms.
Marxist or radical perspective on conflict This
suggests that conflict is an inevitable function of the
exploitation of employees within a capitalist system.
Masculinity A cultural dimension reflecting the degree of
domination of societys values by masculine
characteristics.
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y Theory X
managers consider workers as lazy and having to be
driven to achieve performance. Theory Y managers
consider workers enjoy the experience of work and have
a desire to achieve high performance. McGregor believed
that managers managed their staff on the basis of these
beliefs, irrespective of actual employee approach to
work.
McKinsey 7-S Framework A model consisting of seven
interacting elements Structure, Strategy, Systems, Style,
Skill, Staff, and Shared values (culture).
Metaphor The explanation of something complex through
reference to something simpler, but in a way which
conveys additional meaning in the process.
Method study The application of a range of techniques
which allow the critical examination of work activity in
order to facilitate the search for the most efficient
methods of work.
Glossary
Mock bureaucracy The rules and procedures are largely

ignored by all inside the bureaucracy, having been
imposed on them by an outside agency.
Modernism An approach to management based on the
understanding of the social and natural world revealed
through the application of reason and science. See also
postmodernism.
Moral philosophy A branch of philosophy that takes as its
sphere of interest the norms or values, ideas of right and
wrong, good or bad, what should and what should not be
done.
Motivate To seek to create motivation in another person.
Motivation A driving force that encourages an individual
to behave in particular ways as they seek to achieve a
goal. The willingness or energy with which individuals
perform their work.
Motive Social processes directing controllable behaviour
in people. See also Motivation.
Negative power The ability to influence another party by
not doing something that would normally be done.
Negotiation Broadly reflects a process of difference
reduction through the forming of agreements between
individuals and groups who have mutually dependent
needs and desires.
Networking The development of relationships and
contacts that are not of immediate necessity, but which
might be useful in the future.
Neuroticism An aspect of personality reflecting a person
who worries, is anxious, moody and unstable. The stable
person by comparison tends to be calm, even tempered,
carefree and reliable.
Noise The peripheral and background contamination
surrounding a communication that interferes with the
ability of the recipient receiving the complete message
sent. For example, noise from a television playing in the
background can prevent someone hearing every word
spoken during a phone conversation.
Nomothetic theories of personality These offer an
approach based upon the identification and measurement
of characteristics through psychometric tests.
Norms see Group norms.
One best way The idea that through the application of
scientific management the one best way of doing any
task could be identified by management.
Open systems model A model of an organization which
represents it in terms of inputs being transformed into
outputs, in turn leading to feedback to the organization,
all taking place within a dynamic and interactive
environment.
Organization Social arrangements of people and other
resources working together in consciously created
structured arrangements in pursuit of collective objectives.
Organizational behaviour A mainstream approach to
the study of management and organizations
incorporating anything relevant to the design,
management and effectiveness of an organization,
together with the dynamic and interactive relationships
that exist within them.
Organization chart A diagrammatic means by which
organizations describe the structure and reporting
relationships that exist.
[ 837 ]
Organizational citizenship Defined in terms of

voluntary behaviour that generally contributes to
organizational effectiveness but not directly or
explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system.
Organizational development (OD) The systematic
application of behavioural science knowledge to the
planned development and reinforcement of
organizational strategies, structures, and processes for
improving an organizations effectiveness.
Paradigm A model based on the theoretical assumptions
made in creating an understanding of the nature of
social science and the nature of society.
Pathgoal theory A model based on the idea that it is
possible to identify a distinct path leading to the
achievement of particular goals.
Perceived role what the individual understands their role
to be.
Perception A generally subconscious psychological
process which enables individuals to understand the vast
range of things that are external to themselves,
necessary so that individuals can determine appropriate
response behaviours.
Perceptual defence A process that provides a measure of
protection for the individual against information, ideas
or situations that are threatening to an existing
perception or attitude.
Perceptual errors These reflect the mistakes of
judgement or understanding that can occur during the
process of making sense of perceptual information.
Perceptual set The predisposition to perceive what an
individual expects to perceive.
Perform see Performance.
Performance In human terms this reflects the level of
achievement by an individual, measured against what
they would be expected to achieve.
Performance management The many processes through
which managers seek to manage performance levels
within the organization.
Personality The personal characteristics such as
extroversion and stability that result in consistent
patterns of behaviour over time.
Personnel management See human resource
management.
Pluralism A perspective that regards organizations as
collections of groups which have some objectives in
common and some in competition. Conflict results but
can be usually resolved as all parties recognize the need
to compromise in order to achieve some of their
objectives.
Political decision making model Decision making as a
process intended to achieve personal or short term
objectives through organizational activity. One form of
this was described as the garbage can model.
Political process Any behaviour within an organization
which uses political means to achieve a desired
objective.
Politics This is defined as behaviour outside the accepted
procedures and norms of a particular context, intended
to further the position of an individual or group at the
expense of others.
[ 838 ]
Glossary
Postmodernism An approach to management based on

the view that reality is a composite of many differing
realities and that it is constructed through the human
ability to express these realities.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A reaction
among individuals subjected to major trauma that can
lead to a range of negative psychological, medical and
social consequences.
Power A concept that reflects a directing, mobilizing and
energizing force in getting people to do what they might
not otherwise do and is related to force, influence and
manipulation.
Power distance A cultural dimension reflecting the
degree to which a society accepts that organizational
power is distributed unequally.
Principled negotiations An approach to negotiation
based on four elements: Separate the people from the
problem; Focus on interests, not positions; Invent
options for mutual gain; and Insist on objective criteria.
Process consultation An approach to organization
development in which the role of the consultant is to
facilitate understanding of how to explore problems and
find workable solutions.
Process theories of motivation These emphasize those
mechanisms that encourage (or reward) behaviour in its
dynamic context.
Productivity The relationship between inputs and
outputs, expressed as either a conversion index
reflecting (for example) the organizations sales for each
unit of labour, or a comparative index measuring
changes across time.
Professionalization of management The idea that
management is not just another job, but represents a
defined area of work with its own skills, knowledge base
and training requirements.
Programmed and non-programmed decision making
models Programmed decision making refers to the
situations in which known steps lead from problem to
solution. Non-programmed decisions are new, cannot be
anticipated, or do not have pre-existing methods for
resolving them.
Projection A psychological process of projecting onto
others characteristics that we see in ourselves.
Projective techniques (or test) A process based on
ambiguous images being presented to an individual who
is then asked to interpret the image; thought to provide
some insight into attitudes and personality
characteristics.
Psychological contract The actual nature and
boundaries of the relationship between employer and
employee prescribed through the unwritten and
unstated rights and obligations of both parties.
Psychometrics The process of mental measurement
through the application of tests that claim to measure
aspects of personality or other characteristics such as
ability or aptitude.
Punishment bureaucracy Represents a variant on the
mock bureaucracy in that rules are imposed on the
workers (who try to ignore them) by management.
Quality circle Small groups of people from the same work
area who voluntarily meet on a regular basis to identify,
investigate, analyse and solve their own work-related

problems.
Quality of working life An approach to management that
seeks to enhance the dignity of workers, improve an
organizations culture, and improve the physical and
emotional well-being of employees.
Quantitative school A mathematical approach to
management that seeks to find ways of modelling
relationships between variables so that causal
relationships can be identified and predictions made.
Rational decision making model This assumes that
decisions are made in the best interests of the
organization on the basis of data collection and analysis,
along with evaluation of alternatives.
Re-engineering See Business process re-engineering.
Referent power This source of power is based on the
characteristics of an individual, usually based on a
charismatic personality.
Reinforcement The encouragement of particular
behaviours through the application of positive and/or
negative rewards, based on the application of four
schedules; Fixed ratio, Variable ratio, Fixed interval,
Variable interval.
Repeated measures experiments An experimental
design which involves subjects attempting the same task
on a number of occasions, with only one variable
changed.
Representative bureaucracy The rules and procedures
are generally supported by those inside the organization
having been developed by managers with the
involvement of the workers.
Requisite variety The view that only variety can destroy
variety implying that complex situations require equally
complex processes to deal with them.
Restricted rationality decision making model Also
termed the bounded rationality model, this implies that
group dynamics and politics can influence decisions and
also individuals may lack the intellectual or technical
capacity to evaluate decisions rationally.
Reward power This is about achieving control over
another person by offering them something that they
desire. It represents the trading basis of power,
exchanging a willingness to be controlled for desirable
rewards.
Rich picture A drawing that provides a mechanism
through which a dynamic situation can be reflected in a
manner meaningful to the participants. It can reflect
how the processes function and how the people interact
within the organization.
Rightsizing See Downsizing.
Risky shift phenomenon The idea that groups tend to
take decisions that are more risky than the individual
members would take.
Role The behaviours and job activities undertaken by an
individual as a result of their organizational duties and
responsibilities.
Role ambiguity The degree of ambiguity in the minds of
individuals forming the role set as to exactly what their
respective roles should be at any point in time.
Role conflict This arises as a result of the conflicting role
requirements acting on an individual at the same time.
Glossary
Role definition The sum total of the things that define a

particular role, including formal statements such as a
job description, but can include things such as uniforms,
badges of rank and office location.
Role incompatibility Incompatible expectations between
members of the role set about their respective roles.
Role model Someone who is identified as a person with
the desirable qualities to be emulated by others.
Role overload/underload These arise when an individual
is either faced with too many roles, each competing for
pre-eminence, or they do not have enough role demand
placed upon them for their existing capability.
Role play The acting out of a situation which is not real,
perhaps for training purposes.
Role set This reflects the other roles around the focal role.
Role stress and strain The level of stress experienced by
individuals as they act out the various roles allocated to
them.
Role theory Suggests that in every job there are several
roles to be performed and that there are possible
conflicts and stresses inherent in and between them.
Sabotage A deliberate attempt to interrupt operations or
damage the interests of an organization by an individual
who wishes to do so, or considers that they have some
reason to feel aggrieved.
Scalar chain This reflects the height of an organization in
terms of the number of levels from the top to the
bottom.
Science of muddling through A short-term approach to
control, based on frequent reviews of performance
against target, rather than a strategic approach based on
the long term achievement of goals.
Scientific management An approach to management
based on the application of work study techniques to the
design and organization of work in order to maximize
output.
Self-interested behaviour Behaviour which is designed
to serve a particular and personal purpose for the
individual.
Self-managed team A work team in which the team
leader or supervisor is appointed from within the group
by the group members, not by management.
Shadow organization Some informal groups form a
parallel organization within the host organization and
become a threat to the ability of managers to control
events.
Shadow themes These reflect the area of contact
between the legitimate and the illegitimate in human
behaviour within an organization.
Shape To create or encourage particular behaviour
patterns in another individual through the principles of
reinforcement.
SMART objectives Refers to objectives that are Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time bounded.
Social capital A way of describing people which
emphasizes their financial value to an organization (in
terms equivalent to machinery or buildings) as resources
which need to be acquired and maintained.
Social engineering An attempt to create particular
attitudes, practices, social structures, or social
relationships by a dominant group.
[ 839 ]
Social facilitation/audience effect The improvement in

performance in a particular task achieved as a result of
the active participation of others; or the mere presence
of others for the audience effect.
Socialization (social doping) The process of learning
how things should be done in a particular context.
Social loafing The inhibiting effect on the performance of
individuals as a result of being part of a group.
Social responsibility This seeks to explore the
responsibility business has towards society and the
various stakeholder groups that surround the
organization.
Sociogram A diagrammatic representation of individual
preferences and interactions among group members.
Span of control Refers to the number of subordinates
reporting to a single boss.
Spectator knowledge The knowledge gained as a result
of being a spectator rather than a participant in a
particular situation.
Stakeholder An individual or group with some form of
association or an interest in the organization.
Stereotyping The tendency to attribute everyone (or
everything) in a particular category with the
characteristics based on a single example.
Stress The pressure encountered as a result of life
experiences that place high levels of physical and/or
psychological demand on an individual.
Styles of leadership Suggests that successful leadership
is about the style of behaviour adopted by the leader,
usually described as falling within an
autocraticdemocratic scale.
Sub-cultures Refers to a sub-set of the dominant culture
in any particular context.
Subgroups Groups that exist within a larger group.
Survivor syndrome The reactions of those individuals
who are associated with some traumatic event but are
not directly affected by it can be identical to those who
are directly affected by the events.
Sweat the resource An attempt to get maximum output
from any resource.
Systematic soldiering A phrase meaning a deliberate
restriction on the amount of work done by employees to
protect their jobs and income levels.
Systems approaches to management These developed
from the biological sciences and are based on the view
that systems contain strong self-regulation tendencies
and reflect something that can be separated from other
systems by a boundary of some description.
Team Implies a small, cohesive group that works
effectively as a single unit through being focused on a
common task.
Team leader Person given the task of leading a team, may
be appointed by management or elected by team
members from among the group.
Team management profile questionnaire A tool used
as part of the Margerison and McCann Team
Management Wheel approach to group working which
allows the profile of individuals to be identified.
Team Management Wheel A model of individual work
preferences that relates to the roles that individuals play
in a team.
[ 840 ]
Glossary
Team roles A model consisting of nine roles that exist

within a group, developed by Belbin they include plant,
resource investigator, implanter and completer.
Technology A broad term incorporating the equipment,
procedural and social perspectives associated with how
work is undertaken.
Total quality management (TQM) An approach to
quality based on the involvement of everyone in seeking
to continually improve the quality of the product, service
and customer experience.
Traction The natural rhythm in certain activities that pull
people along with the pace of work necessary to deliver
output.
Trait view of leadership This view holds that there are
certain human characteristics such as intelligence that
can be used to determine successful leadership.
Transactional and transformational model of
leadership Transactional leadership is about the
routine practice of management. Transformational
leadership is about the personal qualities needed to
recognize the need for change and to be able to bring it
about.
Triple I organization An organizational form that
recognizes that in future success will depend upon the
three Is of intelligence, information and ideas.
Type A and Type B personality profile A typology of
personality types in which Type A individuals (unlike
Type B individuals) are described as always being under
time pressure, impatient and having a pre-occupation
with achievement.
Uncertainty avoidance A cultural dimension reflecting
the extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertainty and ambiguity and actively seeks to
minimize these situations.
Unitarianism A perspective on conflict that regards
organizations as collections of groups but within a
cohesive whole. Inevitably conflict can exist between
these groups but the overriding unity of the
organization, based on the pre-eminence of the
management perspective, forms the basis of resolution.
Utilitarian approach to ethics This requires an
evaluation of the options available on the basis of the
future impact on those that are likely to be affected by
the consequences. It comes in two forms Act
utilitarianism and Rule utilitarianism.
Variety This implies complexity through the number of

differences that can arise in any particular system. For
example, a motor car engine might have 5000 different
ways of breaking down, reflecting the magnitude of its
variety.
Vertical dyad model of leadership Takes the view that
leaders interact differently with an in-group and an outgroup of subordinates.
Vicious cycle of control Reflects the view that control
can become a self-perpetuating and deteriorating cycle
of management tightening control leading to adverse
employee reactions, resulting in even tighter control etc.
Virtual organization A metaphor for an organization that
is capable of delivering more than its resources would
allow.
Virtual team A team that uses mainly electronic
interaction in order to achieve objectives without the
need to function as a team in the traditional sense of
the term.
Virtual working Working remotely and primarily through
electronic media and not as part of a conventional team
which would have the opportunity to meet.
Visioning and motivator roles Roles identified as part of
a managers job in outlining the desired future and
encouraging employees to work towards it.
Wagework bargain The subjective balance that exists in
employee and employer views as to what represents a
fair exchange in terms of the amount of work done for
the wages paid.
Web of relationships The idea that in any social
situation the relationships between individuals are
complex and involve a web of multiple people and
groups rather than a series of linear interactions.
Work-life balance The balance between work, family,
personal and leisure activities.
Work measurement Based upon the use of timing
techniques to identify how long particular tasks should
take to perform.
Work study A management discipline aimed at
maximizing productivity through the application of
method study and work measurement techniques.
Zone of indifference Reflects a situation in which the
demands of the organization on the employee do not
disturb them enough to create a negative reaction to the
requirement to comply.
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I n d ex
Ackoff, R.L. 26
Ackroyd, S. 716
action research (or learning) 800,
832
action-centred leadership 317,
3645, 832
Adair, J. 341, 349, 364
Adams, A. 158
Adams equity theory 4468
Adams, J.S. 4468
adhocracy 588, 832
Adler, N.J. 219, 491
administrative management 58,
6012, 832
Adorno, J.W. 157
Aggarwal, P. 99
Aiken, M. 660
Alatas, S.H. 700
Alderfer, C.P. 4389
Alderfers ERG theory of motivation
4389
alienation 553, 5845, 832
Allen, R.W. 770
Alvesson, M. 54, 258
Ambrose, M.L. 657
Anderson, N. 153
Appelqvist-Schmidlechner, K. 81
Argyle, M. 218
Arkin, A. 401
Armistead, C. 640
Armstrong, M. 314, 818
Arnold, S. 790
Aronson, E. 726
Arucher, E. 691
Asch, S.E. 258, 282
Ashby, R.W. 337, 639
Ashforth, B.E. 770
Ashkanasy, N.M. 490
Ashton, D. 457
Ashworth, A. 306
Ashworth, J. 148
assessment centre 155, 156, 832
Athanasaw, Y. 234, 260
Athos, A. 823
Atkinson, J. 639
Atkinson, P. 374
attitude set 256, 832
attitudes 80, 832
basis 103
affective component 104
[ 862 ]
behavioural component
104
cognitive component
1034
and behaviour 1067
cognitive dissonance 106
and conflict 754
consequences of stress 410
formation 1037, 11315
communications
11516
conflict determination/
resolution 115
culture 115
management style 116
participative management
116
power and control 116
reward structures 116
work organization, job
design/satisfaction
116
and organizations 11013
and perception 1056
and personality 1523
in times of change 82
attribution theory 99102, 364,
450, 832
covariation 101
response behaviour 1012
audience effect 223
authority 25860, 71213, 7334,
832
autocratic-democratic style of
leadership 3501, 832
autokinetic phenomenon 254, 256,
832
autonomous work groups 23940,
832
Avolio, B.J. 362, 363
Babbage, C. 54, 56, 531
Baines, E. 573
balanced business scorecard 457,
832
Baldamus, W. 428
Baltes, P.B. 151
Bamforth, K.W. 61, 538
Barnard, C.I. C. 429, 713
Barney, J.B. 15
Baron, R.A. 252

Barrick, M.R. 134, 318
Barsoux, J.-L. 327
Bartlett, C.A. 506
Bass, B.M. 232, 362
Bavelas, A. 250
Bawden, T. 112
Beardwell, I. 25, 167
Beer, M. 385
Belbin, M. 235, 271, 283, 285
benchmark 793, 832
Benjamin, J.D. 275
Bennison, M. 389
Bensman, J. 282
Bentley, T. 690
Berger, P. 10
Berkowitz, L. 264
Betz,F. 590, 822
Beyer, J.M. 4989
Bion, W.R. 269
Birkinshaw, J. 622
Black, J.S. 507
Blake and Moutons grid 3535
Blake, R.R. 353
blame culture 325, 832
Blanchard, K.H. 3556
Blauner, R. 546, 553
Blyton, P. 738, 755
Boddy, D. 596
Bodenhausen, G.V. 96
Bolman, L.G. 619
Booth-Kewley, S. 157
Bordia, P. 820
Boudreau, J. 398
Boulding, K.E. 60
boundary roles 405
Bowen, D.E. 159, 389, 597
Boxall, P. 386
Bradshaw, P. 126
brainstorming 684
Brannen, P. 721
Bratton, J. 394, 396
Braverman, H. 569, 583, 600, 717,
720, 736, 737, 761
Bray, R. 279
breakthrough leadership 342,
832
Brennan, B. 394
Brenner, M.H. 420
Brewster, C. 398
Index
Briggs, A. 717
British Sociological Association 12
Brooks, D.J. 404
Brown, G. 750
Brown, S.F. 282
brownfield site 832
Browning, G. 463
Bruinshoofd, A. 270
Buchanan, D.A. 15, 59, 235, 596,
606, 729
bullying/harassment 116, 1578,
715, 832
Burawoy, M. 720
bureaucracy, bureaucratic 52, 58,
61317, 832
charismatic 61314
mock 615
punishment 615
rational-legal 614
representative 615
traditional 614
Burnham, D. 3656
burnout 409, 832
Burns, T. 575, 621, 781
Burrell, G. 134
Bushe, G.R. 557
business process re-engineering
(BPR) 23, 25, 640, 806, 808,
832
Butcher, D. 481, 778
Byrne, J. 642
cabal 781, 832
cafeteria/flexible benefits 4623,
832
Cameron, K. 627
Cameron, K.S. 747
Cameron, M.A. 110
Campbell, A. 644
Campion, M.A. 535
Cantril, H. 95
career uncertainty 405
Carpenter, D.S. 700
Cattell, R.B. 1302
Caulkin, S. 389
Cederblom, J. 475
Champy, J. 324, 808
change 2930
applied perspective 8245
approaches 8045
Leavitts variables 805
Lewins forcefield model
80910
mergers/acquisitions
8056
re-engineering/quality
approaches 806,
8089
and chaos 81617
contingency perspectives
81011
Dunphy and Staces
model 81213
Kanter, Stein and Jicks
big three model
81415
Kotter and Schlesingers
model 81112
Plants model 81314
cultural 51011
forces acting on organizations
791, 793
business functioning 795
business structure 795
control 795
demographics 7934
efficiency 794
fashion 795
internal pressure 795
knowledge explosion 793
rapid production
obsolescence 793
impact 7956
adaptive 7967
crisis 796
fracturing 797
incremental 796
planned 798
strategic 796
surprise 796
unplanned 798
innovation strategy 8214
and organizational
development 799801
power/politics interaction
adaptation 802
assurance 803
ceremony 802
encouraging supportive
behaviour 804
incorporation 802
managing transitional
process 804
mobilizing support 804
process/purpose 802
simple first 802
structure 802
support 804
timescales 803
transition 804
[ 863 ]
unexpected 804
pressure for 7901
resistance 818
group/organizational
8201
individual 81820
systems perspective 81516
and technology 5926
change agent 81718, 832
adopters 818
generators 818
implementers 818
chaos 81617
charismatic leadership 3623,
832
Child, J. 300, 584, 622, 650, 702
Church, R. 394
Clark, J. 569, 585
Clarke, C. 367
Clarke, M. 778
Clarke, R. 457, 764
classical conditioning 832
classical management theory 58,
61718, 8323
Clegg, S. 586
cliques 252, 833
Clutterbuck, D. 394
codes of practice 4789
coercive power 722, 833
cognitive approach 13941,
17780
cognitive dissonance 106, 833
Cohen, M.D. 687
Collard, R. 394
Collins, P.D. 652
Collinson, D. 764
Collons, R.D. 41
commitment 256, 833
communication 6702, 833
bad news
beware of rumour mill
701
keep it personal 701
offer support 701
plan for business as usual
701
tell it like it is 701
time it carefully 701
and conflict 759, 766
control of channels 7756
and the law 679, 681
management
automation 673
limitation 672
[ 864 ]
Index
procedure 673
separation 673
teamwork 673
methods
electronic 6745, 679
non-verbal 674
oral 674
written 674
model 675
decoding 676
encoding 676
feedback 677
noise 677
source/receiver 676
transmission channel
676
non-verbal 6778
body language 678
environment 678
paralanguage 678
proxemics 678
temporal 6789, 680
processes 673
co-ordination 674
information 674
personal expression 674
visioning 674
company doctor 341, 833
competency 4567, 833
compliance 25, 833
compulsory sociability 491, 833
Conant, H. 533
conditioned 10, 130, 833
conflict 746, 833
consequences 7567
autocratic leadership 758
less communication 759
low-quality staff 758
training 758
forms 7506
group 754
factionalism 7556
strikes and lock-outs 755
work restriction 755
work-to-rule 755
handling strategies
avoidance 7689
clarity/openness 765
collaboration/problemsolving 769
competitive/authoritarian
769
compromise 769
procedure 7668
signals 765
smoothing/
accommodating 768
style/structure 766
training/socialization 766
individual
absence and leaving 754
attitude 754
choice 753
ethical dilemmas 750
interpersonal disputes
750, 753
misuse of resources 753
politicking and power 753
rumour and gossip 753
sabotage 750
work manipulation 753
model 687
customer experience/
organizational
functioning 215, 833
decision making 766,
833
perspectives
capitalism forces
minimization 7623
control as imperative 763
institutionalized conflict
7634
labour process theory 761
labour as special focus of
attention 762
labour as unique
commodity 762
Marxism 7601
pluralism 759
unitarianism 760
as resistance to control 7645
sources 7467
intergroup 749
interorganizational
74950
interpersonal 7478
intragroup 748
intraorganizational 749
intrapersonal 747
conformity see group conformity
Conger, J. 362, 363
consensual organizations 6478
authority 647
differentiation of labour 647
former Yugoslavia 648
incentive structures 647
kibbutz 648
mondragon 648
recruitment/advancement 647
rules 647
social control 647
social relations 647
Contenau, G. 40
content theories of motivation 431,
43343, 833
contingency model 6203, 659,
833
and change 81015
change/complexity 622
external factors 621
institutional arrangements
622
internal factors 6212
and leadership 35861
managerial
perceptions/objectives 622
multiple perspectives 622
organizational capability, will,
politics 622
work organization 5423
continuous improvement 456,
833
contract approach to ethics 4756,
833
libertarian 476
restricted 476
control 5857, 61819, 712, 729,
833
and conflict 763, 7645
discipline hierarchy 739
economic 730
form/characteristics 7302
hierarchy/authority
7334
output 732
process 732
skill 734
social 735
structure 733
technology 735
work design 7323
physical 72930
political 730
psychological 730
and resistance 7356
Cook, T. 297
Cooper, C. 158, 489, 500
Cooper, C.L. 21, 131
Corbitt, T. 597
Cordeniz, J.A. 464
Cordes, C.L. 409
corporate anorexia 640, 833
Index
corporate governance 478, 833

corporate social responsibility 833
Costa, P.T. 133
countercultures 499500, 833
Courpasson, D. 737
Covey, S. 70
Cox, C.J. 131
Cox, T. 408
Crabb, S. 29
Cray, D. 491, 492
crisis management 31921, 833
Crisp, R.J. 96
critical incidents research 441, 833
critical theory
dialectical/contradictory 54
embedded 53
multi-dimensional 54
reflexive 53
socially transforming 54
Croft, J. 483
Crozier, M. 615
cultural web 498, 833
culture 3889, 4901, 833
changing 51011
determinants 5002
dimensions 4923
frameworks 493
Deal and Kennedys
cultural profile 4968
Handys four types 4934
Ouchis type Z companies
495
Peters and Watermans
excellence 4956
sub-and counter-cultures
499500
Trice and Beyers
organizational culture
4989
and globalization 5068
influences on motivation 452
levels of analysis 4912
managing 50810
national 308, 310, 5024
Hofstedes perspectives
5045
Trompenaars perspective
5056
and work organization 5434
Currie, R.M. 56, 429, 527
Curson, C. 549
cycle model of decision making
6912, 833
Cyert, R.M. 23, 703
Dale, B.G. 394, 808

Dalton, M. 219
Dansereau, F. 361
Dany, F. 737
Dawkins, W. 400
De Dreu, C.K.W. 748
De Grazia, S. 47
Deal and Kennedys cultural profile
4968
Deal, T.E. 472, 490, 4968, 543,
619
Deaux, K. 115
Deci, E.L. 450
decision making 670, 6813, 833
approaches 6834
brainstorming 684
problem-solving
preferences 6846
and conflict 766
group communication 2502
models
conflict 687
cycle 6912
political 687
pragmatic 691
programmed/nonprogrammed 687,
68991
rational/restricted
rationality 686
and power 7259
within groups/teams 2601
delayering 17, 833
delegated authority 240, 833
delegation 324, 833
Dent, J. 738
DePaulo, B.M. 94
determinism 585, 61213
development 166, 167, 196, 390
personality 1545
devils advocate 833
Dewe, P. 411
Dickson, W.J. 227
diffusion of responsibility 325,
833
Digman, J.M. 133
discipline 50, 739
discrimination 157
division of labour 527, 833
Domingo, R. 579
Doolin, B. 804
Dougherty, C.J. 475
Dougherty, T.W. 409
downshift 358, 833
[ 865 ]
downsizing/rightsizing/delayering
241, 833
drives 428, 429, 834
Drucker, P. 302, 343
Dulewicz, V. 150, 151, 314, 457
Dunford, R.W. 729, 815
Dunkerley, D. 586
Dunphy, D. 801, 81213
Early, P.C. 449
Edmondson, A.C. 283
education 166
Edwards, P.K. 679, 729, 738
Elliott, B.B.R. 511
Emery, F. 539
Emler, N. 297
emotion 14951
emotional intelligence (EI) 14951,
834
employee assistance programmes
(EAP) 415, 834
employee involvement 24, 3925,
734, 834
downward communication 393
financial participation 394
representative participation
394
upwards problem solving 394
employees 239
challenges facing 2930
definition 234
impact of technology 600
low-quality staff 758
relationship with management
249
employer of choice 390, 834
empowerment 241, 834
enacted role 236, 834
Ensley, M.D. 344
entrepreneurial structure 627, 629
environment 250, 834
equity theory 4468
Erez, M. 449
ergonomics 5289, 834
Erikson, E.H. 136
ethics 3868, 472, 834
antisocial behaviour 4824
business 478
codes of practice 4789
contract approach 4757
corporate/public interest 4856
cross-cultural perspectives
4812
and management 48490
obligations at work 4867
[ 866 ]
Index
organizational perspectives
4745
privacy 487
research 4779
role of work in society 485
social responsibility 47981
utilitarian approach 475
whistleblowing 48990
working at home/work-life
balance 4889
Ettinger, J.C. 343
Etzioni, A. 728, 736
Evans, B.K. 409
Evans, J. 536
Evenson, R. 449
excellence culture 4956
expectancy theory of motivation
35960, 4436, 834
expected role 236, 834
expert power 724, 834
extrinsic motivator 432, 834
extroversion 129, 834
Eysenck, H.J. 124, 128, 130, 138,
141
Ezzamel, M. 738
Falbe, C.M. 774
Fayol, H. 20, 2978, 300, 301
federal organization 644, 834
feedback 677, 799
Feiner, M.C. 373
Feldman, D.C. 234
Feloni, J. 700
Felstead, A. 397
felt fair 392, 834
Ferguson, E. 134
Festinger, L. 106
Fiedler, F.E. 3589, 717
Fiedlers contingency model 3589
Fielding, N. 477
fight or flight response 400, 834
Filler, B.E. 529
Fisher, D.G. 409
Fisher, R. 697, 769
Fitszimmons, J.A. 307
Fitzsimmons, M.J. 307
Flam, H. 149
Fletcher, C. 456
flexible firm 5489, 63940, 834
financial 639
functional 639
numerical 639
Flin, R. 320, 321
Flood, R.L. 394, 815
focused deviancy 282, 834
Follett, M.P. 617

forcefield analysis model 80910,
834
Ford, H. 546
Ford, J. 395
Fordism 65, 5447, 834
Fores, M. 300
Forester, T. 599, 601
formal group 473, 834
Foucault, M. 433, 720, 748
Fox, A. 24
frame of reference 910, 834
Franco, L.A. 684
free association 136, 834
Freeman, R.E. 17
French, J.R.P. 345, 722
French, W.L. 395
Freud, S. 1368
Friedman, H.S. 157
Frost, B. 409
functional foremanship 298, 834
Furnham, A. 126
garbage can model of decision
making 687, 834
Garcia, J.E. 359
Gardiner, M. 317
Gardner, W.L. 364
Garrahan, P. 112, 461, 580, 682
gatekeeper 158, 834
Gelade, G.A. 398
Generation X employees 70
George, C.S. 445, 47, 51, 429,
612
Gergen, K.J. 66
Gerver, I. 282
Gharajedaghi, J. 26
Ghoshal, S. 506
Giacalone, R.A. 482, 489
Giddens, A. 619
Giles, E. 580
Gill, J. 12
Gillespie, R. 59, 281
globalization 5068
Glover, C. 278, 684
Glover, I. 300
goal theory 44850
Goffee, R. 341
Gold, J. 394, 396
golden handcuff 546, 834
Goldstein, S.G. 557
Goleman, D. 150
Gomez, C. 544
Gould, M. 644
Gouldner, A.W. 540
Gowland, D. 660
Graham, C.R. 233
Grainer, S. 394
grapevine 219, 834
graphology 1489, 834
great man view of leadership 349,
834
Green, C.N. 615
Greenberg, E.S. 648
Greenberg, J. 252
Greenburg, J. 482, 489
greenfield 581
greenfield site 834
Greiner, L. 624, 625
Gretton, I. 642
Griffin, R.W. 15, 54, 409, 775
Griffith, S.B. 41
group 21011
affinity 210
behaviour 2524
authority 25860
perception/attitudes 254,
2567
socialization 2578
cohesion 2634, 834
communication 250
communicaton 834
conflict 7546
conformity 256, 835
decision making 2502, 2601,
835
risk 2647
development 2314, 835
adjourning 233
beginning of
communication/decisi
on making 232
forming 233
initial trust/membership
232
norming 233
ongoing
maintenance/control
2323
performance
improvement 232
performing 233
storming 233
dynamics 217, 2613, 835
attitudes 274
between groups 2735
cohesion 272
decision making 272
determinants 2703
effectiveness 2846
Index
Freud/psychotherapy
26870
goals 271
inter-group relations 274
interpersonal relationships
273
leadership 272
member characteristics
271
norms 271
objectives 273
overlap 275
resource competition
2734
roles 271
size 271
substitutability 275
task competition 273
uncertainty 274
effectiveness/satisfaction
27581
formation 22931, 2403
norms 220, 227
organizational 210
resistance to change 8201
self-interest 210
structure 2359
leadership 235
liking 235
power 235
role 235
status 235
see also team
groups 21316, 834
activity groupings 214
boundary spanning 214
British experience 224
formal 218
decisions 218
management 219
tasks 218
teams 218
technology 218
Hawthorne studies 2245
bank writing observation
room study 2279
illumination experiments
225
interview programme
2267
relay assembly test room
study 2256
hierarchical differentiation 214
informal 21920
grapevine 219
marketplace bureaucracy
219
shadow organizations
219
instrumental value of 835
professional 214
reasons for formation 2203
significance 21618
dynamic basis of
behaviour 217
necessity 21617
specialism groupings 214
types within an organization
835
and work organization
5389
groupthink 267, 835
invulnerability 267
morality 267
pressure 268
rationalization 267
values 268
Grugulis, I. 510
Grunes, 96
Guilford, J.P. 150
Gwyther, M. 328
habituation 85, 835
Hackman, J.R. 533
Haire, M. 96, 155
Hall, C.S. 124
Hall, L. 294, 400, 405
Hall, M. 679
halo (horns) effect 91, 835
Hammer, M. 324, 552, 808
Hampden-Turner, C. 509
Handy, C. 216, 302, 349, 403, 405,
4934, 500, 644, 6456,
64950, 713, 715, 724, 725
Handys cultural types 4934
Haney, C. 312
Harding, N. 395
Harkins, S.G. 224
Harrington, H.J. 808
Harris, H. 317
Harris, L.C. 722
Harris, M. 650
Harrison, E.F. 686
Harrison, R. 493
Hart, S.L. 314
Harvey, J.H. 102
Harvey, P. 481
Hasenfeld, Y. 6467
Hassard, J. 66
[ 867 ]
Hastorf, A.H. 95
Hatch, M.J. 615
Hau, V.W.S. 781
Haugh, H.M. 500, 502
Haunschild, A. 548
Hawthorne studies 4, 2249, 257,
835
Heald, T. 724
Heckscher, C. 782
helicopter perspective 835
Heller, R. 656
Hellriegel, D. 322, 793, 818
Hendry, C. 385
Herriot, P. 591
Herselman, S. 504
Hersey and Blanchard situation
approach 3556
Hersey, P. 3556
Herskovitts, M.J. 500
Herzberg, F. 4413, 533
Herzbergs two-factor theory of
motivation 4413
Heseltine, M. 651
Hickson, D.J. 503, 622
hidden agenda 835
high performance organization 398,
835
Highouse, S. 116
Hill, T. 597
Hilton, P. 463
Hochschild, A.R. 397
Hodgetts, R.M. 126, 263, 463
Hoffman, L.R. 271
Hofstede, G. 219, 452, 5045
Hofstedes cultural perspectives
5045
Hogan, J. 134
Hogg, C. 408
Holden, C. 125, 394
Holden, L. 25, 167
holding company 637
Holl, P. 296
Holland, B. 134
Holland, D. 330
Hollway, W. 433
Holton, E. 454
Homans, G. 229
Hornsby-Smith, M. 477
Hosmer, L.T. 474
House, R.J. 359, 362
Houses path-goal leadership theory
35960
Howcroft, D. 583
Howell, J.M. 363
Hoxie, R.F. 528
[ 868 ]
Index
Huczynski, A.A. 15, 59, 235, 729

Hull, F. 652
Hulse, S.H. 167
human relations movement 589,
835
human resource management 393,
835
human resource planning 835
human service organization 6467
humour 3258
Hyman, J. 394
Hyman, R. 764
Hyrks, K.H. 81
Iannello, K.P. 6478
ideal type 125, 835
idiographic theories of personality
126, 1346, 835
impression management 80, 107,
7767
career strategies 107
managerial 109
public image 109
individual difference see personality
individualism-collectivism 452,
504, 835
industrialization 5767, 835
Indvik, J. 360
influence 712, 715, 835
influence diagram 654, 656, 835
informal groups 219, 835
information technology (IT) 5967
handling
capture 596
distribution 597
manipulation 596
storage 596
Ingham, M. 825
innovation 8214
elements 824
incremental 8223
radical 822
systems 822
instrumental approach to work 105,
835
instrumental conditioning 1726,
835
intellectual capital 398, 835
intelligence 14951, 835
interaction analysis 253, 835
interactive leadership 3656
international organizations 634
agents 634
direct investment 635
exporting 634
franchising 635
functional orientation 636
geographical business units
635, 636
international division 635
licensing 634
multinational enterprise 635
product-based business units
635, 636
interpersonal, information,
decisional roles 674, 6779,
835
intrinsic motivator 432, 835
introversion see extroversion
Ivancevich, J.M. 400, 529
Ivery, M. 398
Jackson, J.M. 224
Jackson, M.C. 815
Jackson, S.E. 385
Jacques, E. 64
Jacques, R. 490
Jago, A.G. 359, 360
James, G. 556
Janis, I.L. 264, 591, 687, 701
Japanization 578
cell 579
competition 581
continuous improvement 579
effectiveness 581
just-in-time 5789
personnel practice 580
quality 578
social, political, economic
factors 580
structure/system 580
team 579
work organization 579
Jay, A. 47
Jenkins, D. 619
Jensen, N. 256
Jensen-Campbell, L.A. 747
Jermier, J.M. 366, 736, 750
Jevons, W.S. 56
Jick, T.D. 814
job 18, 835
analysis 52930, 835
characteristics model 5334,
835
description 529
design 15, 23940, 5315,
5512, 5889, 7323
enlargement 5323, 836
enrichment 5334, 836
evaluation scheme 529, 836
nature of 5247
rotation 532, 836
simplification 531, 836
Johlberg, and Ryncarz, 484
Johnson, G. 480, 498, 793, 8056
Johnson, P. 12
Johnson, R. 106
Jones, F. 447, 685
Jung, C.G. 13941
just-in-time (JIT) 836
Kahn, E.F. 818
Kahn, R.L. 623
Kalleburg, A.L. 580
Kant, I. 473
Kanter, R.M. 618, 814, 818
Kanungo, R.M. 362
Kaplan, R.S. 457
karoshi 400, 836
Katz, D. 106, 219, 314, 623
Katzenbach, J.R. 211, 214
Kedia, B.L. 369
Keller, R.T. 263
Kelley, H.H. 101
Kelly, G. 1435, 450
Kellys attribution theory 450
Kennedy, A. 472, 490, 4968,
543
Kennedy, G. 670
Kennedy, K.W. 529
Kerr, S. 366
Kieser, A. 622
Kilbridge, M. 533
Kilman, R.H. 490
Kirwan-Taylor, H. 371, 640
Kiuchi, T. 300
Kivimaki, M. 408
Klein, H.J. 224
Klemm, F. 5703
Klimoski, R.J. 148
Kline, P. 138
Knights, D. 324
knowledge management 1901,
836
Koch, C. 776
Kolakowski, L. 134
Kolb, D.A. 181, 511
Konsynksi, B.R. 597
Kopelman, R.E. 556
Koslowsky, M. 718
Kotter, J. 737, 806, 81112, 818
Krishnamurti, C. 612
Kuhnert, K.W. 362
Kunzmann, U. 151
Kuratho, D.F. 126
Index
labour process theory 7201, 836

and conflict 761
debate 583
laissez faire 836
Lamb, J. 109
Lammers, C.J. 503
Lampel, J. 637
Lane, F.C. 44, 45
lankford, S. 560
LaNuez, D. 736, 750
Larken, J. 321
Larsen, H.H. 398
Laurent, A. 219
Law of requisite variety see
requisitie variety
Law, S. 570
Lawler, E.E. 4456, 456
Lawrence, P.R. 575, 612, 621
leadership 336, 836
action-centred 3645
alternatives 3667
dealing with colleagues
3734
enhancing managements
position 372
increased control 374
increasing operational
effectiveness 3723
attribution theory 364
autocratic 758
breakthrough 3423
charismatic 3623
contingency theories 358
Fiedlers 3589
Houses path-goal 35960
Vroom, Yetton, Jago model
3601
followers 3478
innovation/entrepreneurship
3434
interactive 3656
management difference
complexity of 339
context 341
meaning of terms 3368
purpose 341
role 33941
scope 3412
situation 341
organizational lifecycle 367
power/virtual working 3447
style theories
artists, craftsmen,
technocrats 3568
Blake and Moutons grid

3535
early studies 3501
Hersey and Blanchards
situation approach
3556
Likerts four systems
3512
Tannenbaum and
Schmidt continuum
3523
success 36772
as symbolism 349
trait theories 34950
transactional/transformational
model 362
vertical dyad linkage model
3612
visionary 344
learning
action learning 1867
behaviourist theories
classical 1701
instrumental 1726
cognitive approach 17780
culture 187
definition 1679
feedback 1789
loop 92
organizational perspective
197202
social/experiential 1812
socialization 183
styles 1835
talent, skill, competency 186
TOTE 17980
learning organization 1889, 836
Leavitt, H.J. 250, 805, 823
Lee, R.T. 770
Legge, K. 25, 623, 659
legitimate power 724, 836
Leisinger, K.M. 481
Lengnick-Hall, M.L. 398
Lepak, D.P. 389
Lewin, K. 261, 80910
Lewis, P. 362
Leys, W.A.R. 476
Likert, R. 215, 345, 3512, 717
Likerts four systems of
management 3512
Lincoln, J.R. 580
Lindblom, C.E. 703
Lindzey, G. 124
line manager 397400, 651, 836
line and staff functions 6512, 836
[ 869 ]
linking pin model 215, 836

Linstead, S. 718
Lippit, R. 350
Littlefield, D. 509
Locke, E.A. 447, 4489
Lockes goal theory 44850
loco parentis 836
locus of control 419, 836
Lorsch, J.W. 575, 612, 621
Losey, M. 17
Lothian, N. 89
Luckmann, T. 10
Luddite 501, 836
Lukes, S. 720
Lussato, B. 542, 617
Luthans, F. 304, 317, 409, 463,
714, 724, 728
Lynch, R. 295
McCabe, D. 324
McCalman, J. 606
McCann, D. 271, 277, 279, 283,
285
McCanse, A.A. 353
McClelland, D.C. 4401, 729
McClellands acquired needs theory
of motivation 4401
Maccoby, M. 4523
Maccobys social theory 4523
McCrae, R.R. 133
McGregor, D. 276, 348, 450, 495
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y
274, 450, 836
Machiavelli, Niccolo 478
McHugh, D. 15, 53, 645, 281,
403, 418, 490, 496, 515, 659,
761
McKee, L. 500, 502
McKelvey, W. 38
McKenna, E. 152, 403, 409, 418,
419, 686
Mackenzie, R.A. 302, 327
McKinsey 7-S framework 4956,
836
Maclagan, P. 436
McLoughlin, I. 585
Mahoney, J. 478, 482
Mainiero, L.A. 687
Makin, P.J. 149
Malhotra, Y. 808
Mallory, G.R. 491, 492
management 294, 836
accounting 298
activity 18
administrative 298
[ 870 ]
Index

attitude 22
commercial 297
context influences 3046
functional responsibilities
308
levels of management
31011
location,
organizational/nation
al culture 308, 310
manufacturing/service
orientation 307
public/private sector
3067
size of organization 308
technology 308
critical incident 31921
definition 2947
diversity 31517
enhancing 372
Fayol model 2978
financial 297
first look 1620
function 1920
future possibilities 6770
impact 201
leadership differences 33642
loco parentis 20
meetings and humour 3258
need for 202
new thinking 647
organizational effectiveness
31719
planning 836
and power 3225
in practice 3024
principles of 836
process 836
co-ordinating 298
commanding 298
controlling 298
forecasting 298
organizing 298
planning 298
relationship with employees
249
roles/skills 31115
security 297
skills needed 19
in a social world 298302
technical 297
management practice
ancient world 3942
background 389
industrial revolution 4853
medieval world 428
management theory 545
behavioural 55
classical 55
contemporary 55
integrating 55
quantitative 55
management-by-exception 732, 836
managerialism 589, 600
Mann, L. 687
Mant, A. 56
manufacture of consent 720, 836
manufacturing 307, 597600
March, J.G. 23, 703
Marchington, M. 393
Margerison, C. 271, 277, 279, 283,
285
Marion, R. 816
market testing 306, 836
marketing 1557
marketplace bureaucracy 219, 836
Martin, J. 499
Martinko, M.J. 364
Marxist/radical perspective on
conflict 7601, 836
masculinity-femininity 452, 504,
836
Maslow, A.H. 4338
Maslows hierarchy of needs 4338
Mason, B. 394
Mastenbroek, W.F.G. 48
matrix structure 6379
Matteson, M.T. 400
Mayer, J.D. 150
Mayes, B.T. 770
Mazlish, B. 348
Mead, G.H 134
meetings 3258, 776
Meli, J.L. 712
mergers and acquisitions 8056
Merrick, N. 294, 651
Merton, R.K. 615
metaphor 26, 6523, 836
method study 527, 836
Meyerson, D. 499
Miceli, M.P. 750
micro management 326
Miethe, T.D. 48990, 715
Milgram, S. 259
Mills, C.W. 553
Mintzberg, H. 313, 3434, 588, 649
Mitchell, T.R. 359
mock bureaucracy 615, 837
modernism 65, 582, 837

Montgomery, D. 298, 299
Mooney, J. 617
Moore, J. 297
Moorhead, G. 409, 775, 818
moral philosophy 472, 837
naturalism 472
rationalism 473
utilitarianism 473
Moreno, J.L. 252
Moreton, A. 461
Morgan, G. 26, 134, 484, 652, 653,
733
Morgeson, F.P. 535
Moritz, S. 398
Morris, D. 98
Moscovici, S. 264
motivate 428, 837
motivation 384, 410, 42830, 837
expectancy theory of 35960
and performance management
4528
motivation theory 4303
content 433
Alderfers ERG theory
4389
Herzbergs two-factor
theory 4413
McClellands acquired
needs theory 4401
Maslows hierarchy of
needs 4338
Hofstede, Trompenaars and
cultural influences on
motivation 452
Maccobys social theory 4523
McGregors Theory X and
Theory Y 450
Ouchis Theory Z 4502
process 443
Adams equity theory
4468
Kellys attribution theory
450
Lockes goal theory
44850
Vroom/Porter and Lawler
expectancy models
4436
motivator 314
motive 428, 429, 837
Mount, M.K. 134, 318
Mullins, L.J. 818
Mulvey, P.W. 224
Index
Murray, H.A. 1413

Myers-Briggs, I. 140
Myerson, J. 544
Nadler, D. 804
Nadworny, M. 299
Naquyin, S.S. 454
Nash, B. 330
Near, J.P. 750
negative power 589, 837
negotiating 693
framework 6934
tactics
avoidance 694
compromise 694
confrontation 6945
emotion 6956
focus on interests not
positions 697
forcing 694, 697
get/give 695
getting upstairs 697
good guy/bad guy 697
insist on objective criteria
698
invent options for mutual
gain 6978
managing the minutes
697
poker face 697
probing 695
separate people from
problem 697
smoothing 694
understanding not
agreement 697
negotiation 670, 837
and conflict 766
negotiator characteristics 698
argument dilution 699
counterproposals 699
defend/attack spirals 699
irritators 699
label behaviour 6989
seek information 698
summarize 698
test understanding 698
Nelson, B. 404
networked organization 644
networking 257, 837
neuroticism 129, 837
Newell, S. 153
Nicholls, J.R. 356
Nicholson, G.J. 490
noise 677, 837

Nolan, P. 49
nomothetic theories of personality
12634, 837
non-programmed decision making
68791
Nordhoy, F. 264
norms see group norms
Norton, D.P. 457
Occupational Personality
Questionnaire (OPQ) 154
Oetzel, J.G. 766
Ogbonna, E. 722
Ogden, A. 95
Oh, T.K. 310
Oldham, G.R. 533, 549
Oliver, N. 114, 578, 579
Oliver, R.W. 659
one best way 429, 837
open systems model 61, 837
Orbanes, P. 315
Organ, D.W. 615
organization 653, 837
chart 6537, 837
form 1316
future possibilities 6770
new thinking 647
perceptions/attitudes 11013
theory 534
organizational behaviour 837
areas of interest 5
definition 45
explanatory 4
features 4
interdisciplinary 4
practicalities of studying 78
reasons for studying 67
research approaches 813
organizational citizenship 683, 837
organizational development (OD)
790, 799, 837
action research 800
encounter groups 799
planned approach to OD
interventions 800
process consultation 799
quality of working life 800
strategic change 8001
survey feedback 799
organizational lifecycle 367, 6257
phases
collectivity 627
[ 871 ]
decline 627
elaboration 627
entrepreneurial 627
formalization 627
responses
defending 628
generating 627
preventing 628
reacting 628
organizational structure 612
BPR 640
bureaucracy 61317
classical management 61718
consensual 6478
contingency model 6203
design influences 6489
centralization/
decentralization 651
clustering 650
crisis 650
delegation 650
division of labour 651
employees 649
innovation 649, 650
levels 651
line/staff functions 6512
management 649
motivation 650
organizational metaphors
6523
policy 649, 650
procedures 650
purpose 650
reporting relationships
650
scalar chain 652
span of control 652
steady state 649, 650
support staff 649
task 650
determinism 61213
federal 644
flatter 6402
flexible 63940
frameworks 628
entrepreneurial 629
holding company 637
international 6346
matrix/project-based
6379
process-based 6314
product-based 6301
human service 6467
lifecycle 6258
[ 872 ]
Index
networked 644
organization chart 6537
power/control 61819
shamrock/triple I 6456
strategy and structure
6245
structuration theory 61920
systems view 6234
as theatre 619
virtual 642, 644
Orlitzky, M. 275
Osborn, A. 400
Ottaway, R.N. 818
Ouchi, W.G. 4502, 495
Ouchis Theory Z 4502, 495
Oxford Dictionary 294
Pak, H. 307
paradigm 1012, 837
Pascale, R. 822, 823
path-goal theory 443, 837
Patterson, M.G. 399
Pavlov, I.P. 1701
Payton, S. 597
Pean, P. 542
Pease, A. 99
Pedler, M. 314
Peiro, J.M. 712
Pemberton, C. 591
people management
issues/activities 386
culture 3889
employee involvement
3925
ethics 3868
people planning 38990
reward/performance
management 3902
training/development 390
line management 397400
models 3846
psychological contract/worklife balance 3957
stress 40020
perceived role 236, 837
perception 80, 837
ambiguous figure 82
attitude formation 11316
and attitudes 1056
attribution theory 99102
expectancy 91
external factors 845
contrast 85
familiarity 85
intensity 85
motion 85
novelty 85
repetition 85
size 85
halo/horns effect 91
internal factors 856
learning/past experience
86
motivation 86
objectives 867
personality 86
and language 89
and learning 92
meaningful patterns
closure principle 87
continuity principle 87
figure-ground principle 87
proximity principle 878
similarity principle 88
mental map 81
model 813
organizational context
actual/potential customers
110
competitors 11112
control 11213
employees 110
regulators 112
shareholders 112
supplier 111
wider community 110
person model 926
body language 979
projection 97
self-perception 99
stereotyping 967
and personality 1512
significance 801
stimulus
interpreting significance
of 8892
organizing into
meaningful patterns
878
receipt of 834
selection of 847
perceptual
defence 92, 837
errors 901, 837
set 115, 837
performance 428, 429, 837
performance management 3902,
42830, 837
and motivation 4528
Perrin, S. 282
Perrow, C.B. 575
personal construct theory 1435
personality 124, 837
and attitudes 1523
definition 124
emotion, intelligence,
emotional intelligence
14951
environmental influences
culture 125
experience 1256
family 125
Freud and psychoanalysis
1368
genetic influences 125
idiographic approaches 126,
1346
Jung and cognitive approach
13941
Kellys personal construct
theory 1435
management perspective
1589
measuring
graphology 1489
psychometrics 1458
Murray and personology 1413
nomothetic perspectives 1267
Big Five model 1334
Cattells LQT-data 1303
Eysencks types 12830
organizational applications 153
development 1545
discrimination 157
marketing 1557
recruitment/selection 153
stress/bullying 1578
testing business 158
and perception 1512
personnel management 837
personology 1413
Pervin, L.A. 125
PESTLE analysis 30
Peters, T. 4956, 822, 823
Peters and Watermans excellence
culture 4956
Pettigrew, A. 701
Petty, M.M. 554
Pfeffer, J. 104, 322, 398, 535, 713,
718, 726
Phares, E.J. 149
philosophy 4724
Pickard, J. 150
Piper, W.E. 263
Index
Pitcher, P. 356, 373

Piva, M. 822
Plant, R. 813, 818
Platt, L. 397
pluralism 757, 837
political
behaviour 775
control of communication
channels 7756
control of information 775
control over decisionmaking criteria 778
control over work/meeting
agendas 776
creating coalitions 778
game playing 776
impression/image
management 7767
managing 7789
use of outside specialists
776
decision making model 837
model 687
process 285, 837
strategies
defensive 773
neutral 7734
offensive 7723
politics 746, 747, 76972, 837
and change 8024
Porter, L.W. 4456
Porter, M.E. 624
post-Fordism 5478, 834
post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) 409, 838
postmodernism 657, 838
Powell, G.N. 687
power 3225, 61819, 838
balance 7367
career 737
domain 737
intuitive 737
investment 737
maturity 737
relativity 737
repertoire 737
sensitivity 737
and change 8024
and decision making 7259
definition 713
and dependency 71516
influence/authority 71216
perspectives 71617
Foucauldian 71820
labour process theory
7201
traditional 71718
and resistance 7356
sources 7212
coercive 722
expert 724
information as power 725
legitimate 724
negative 725
referent 725
reward 7223
power distance 452, 504, 838
pragmatism 691
Pratt, M.G. 109
Pratt, S. 367
Pries, L. 589
principled negotiations 697, 838
Pritchard, R.D. 447
Pritchett, P. 790
private sector 3067
problem solving 6846, 769
process 431
consultation 799, 838
theories of motivation 44350,
838
process-based structures 6314
product-based structures 6301
productivity 428, 429, 5534, 838
professionalization of management
3001, 838
programmed/non-programmed
decision making models
68791, 838
project-based structure 6379
projection 97, 838
projective techniques (or test) 440,
838
psychoanalysis 1368
psychological contract 21, 3957,
838
psychometrics 1458, 838
psychotherapy 26870
public sector 3067
Pugh, D.S. 622
Punch, M. 483
punishment bureaucracy 615, 838
Purcell, J. 386
quality circle 5567, 579, 838
quality of working life (QWL)
5567, 800, 838
quantitative school 59, 60, 838
Qubein, N. 452
[ 873 ]
Quick, J.C. 408

Quick, J.D. 408
Quinn, R.E. 314, 627
Rafaeli, A. 109, 148
Ragan, J.W. 359
Ramsey, H. 393
Raphael, D.D. 472, 473
rational decision making model
686, 838
rationalism 473, 585
Raven, B. 345, 722
Raviv, A. 650
Rawlins, N. 535
Rawls, J. 476
re-engineering 8069, 838
Reason, P. 12
recruitment/selection 153
Redding, S.G. 491
Reed, M.I. 63, 301
referent power 725, 838
Regent, P. 701
reinforcement 1726, 838
Remenyi, D. 10, 129
Rentsch, J.R. 242
repeated measures experiments
264, 267, 838
representative bureaucracy 615,
838
requisite variety 220, 838
restricted rationality decision
making model 838
reward 3902, 7234
reward power 838
Rhenman, E. 23
Rice, A.K. 543
rich picture 654, 838
rightsizing see downsizing
risky shift phenomenon 264,
838
Roberts, Z. 125, 722
Robertson, I.T. 149, 318
Rodrigues, C.A. 367
Roethlisberger, F.j. 227
Rogers, C.R. 135
role 233, 838
ambiguity 237, 405, 838
conflict 238, 405, 838
definition 237, 839
incompatibility 238, 405, 839
model 31214, 839
overload 405
overload/underload 238, 839
play 31112, 839
set 236, 839
[ 874 ]
Index
stress and strain 2389, 839

theory 2359, 311, 839
underload 405
Ronald, M.S. 484
Rosenberg, M.J. 103
Rosenmann, R.H. 157
Rothman, A. 336
Rothschild, J. 48990, 647, 715
Rowe, C. 341
Rowland, P. 640
Roy, D.F. 524
Rubery, J. 644
Ryterband, E.C. 232
sabotage 750, 839
Salaman, G. 764
Salancik, G. 104, 535
Salovey, P. 150
Sawyer, R.D. 41
Sayer, A. 579
scalar chain 652, 839
Scase, R. 341
Schein, E.H. 801
Schermerhorn, J.R. 824
Schien, V.E. 799
Schlesinger, L.A. 806, 81112, 818
Schmidt, W.H. 3523
Schminke, M. 657
Scholes, K. 480, 793, 8056
Schon, D.A. 583
Schuler, R.S. 385
Schwarzwald, J. 718
science of muddling through 839
scientific management 568, 839
Scott, R.W. 614
Scott, W. 695
self-censorship 268
mindguards 268
unanimity 268
self-interested behaviour 254, 839
self-managed team 241, 839
Selye, H. 400
Sengupta, J. 679
service 307, 6001
Shackleton, V. 153
shadow organization 219, 839
shadow themes 746, 747, 839
Shaiken, H. 600
Shalley, C. 449
shamrock organization 6456
Shamsie, J. 637
shape 839
Shaw, M.E. 210, 250, 263
Sheldon, O. 617
Sherif, M. 254
Shireman, B. 300
Simon, H.A. 358, 687
Sims, D. 553
Singh, J.A. 472
Sisson, K. 25
situation approach 3556
Skinner, B.F. 1726
Slack, N. 808
SMART objectives 449, 839
Smith, A. 527, 573
Smith, D.K. 211, 214
Smith, K.A. 389
Snell, R. 484
social
capital 553, 839
control 735
engineering 1589, 839
facilitation/audience effect
223, 839
loafing 2234, 839
responsibility 47981, 839
theory 4523
social science research 913
socialization (social doping) 81,
2578, 839
sociogram 252, 839
sociological approach to
management 624
Somerlad, E. 457
span of control 652, 839
Sparks, K. 419
spectator knowledge 282, 839
Spencer, C. 282
Spender, J.C. 543
Stace, D. 801, 81213
Stacey, R. 61, 219, 241, 746
stakeholder 17, 839
groups 234
Stalker, G.M. 575, 621
Stanley, 16, 336
Starkey, K. 580
Steel, R.P. 242
Stein, B.A. 814
Stephenson, T. 802
stereotyping 967, 839
Stern, E. 457
Stern, S. 318
Sternberg, R.J. 150
Stevens, J. 457
Stewart, P. 112, 461, 580, 682
Stewart, R. 303, 341, 795
Stewart, S. 481
Stiles, P. 396
Stock, J. 463
Stoner, J.A.F. 264
Strachey, J. 136, 268

strategy 6245
stress 1578, 839
contextual 401
dealing with 41016
definition 4004
determinants
experience 406
personality 406
profile 406
support 406
effects 40610
individual consequences
4078
behavioural 407
medical 407
psychological 407
individual strategies 411
behaviour control 411
biofeedback 41213
counselling 411
exercise 413
networking 414
relaxation/meditation 411
role management 412
time management 411
insidious 401
organizational consequences
409
attitude 410
performance 410
withdrawal 410
organizational strategies 414
awareness programmes
414
conflict management
41516
culture design 416
employee assistance
programmes 415
health programmes 415
involvement/communicati
on 414
job design 414
organizational design 415
personal development 415
planning 416
procedural frameworks
415
peripheral 402
personal 401
sources 404
competitive 404
environmental 404
Index
job 405
organizational 4045
personal 4056
Strube, M.J. 359
structuration theory 61920
styles of leadership 350, 839
sub-cultures 499500, 839
subgroups 252, 839
success 36772
Summers, D. 459
survivor syndrome 405, 839
Susskind, A.M. 81
Sviokla, J.J. 597
sweat the resource 284, 839
Symons, J. 346
systematic soldiering 839
systems approaches to management
602, 839
systems theory 6234, 81516
Tannenbaum, R. 3523
Tannenbaum and Schmidt
continuum 3523
Tawney, R.H. 48
Taylor, F.W. 56, 298, 300, 429, 541
Taylorism 5412
team 21011, 839
behaviour 2524
controlling 25460
communications 2502
composition 279
corporate influences 279
decision making 2601
individuals with no role 279
job design/technology 23940
leaders 337, 839
management profile
questionnaire 27981, 839
management wheel 2713,
839
mental ability 278
morale 278
personality 278
role reversal 279
roles 235, 2789, 840
self-managed 241
significance 21618
unknown factors 279
see also group
Team Management Profile
Questionnaire 27981
team working 127
Japanization method 579
strengths
communicating 127
decision making 127
involving others 127
using influence 127
styles
directors 127
relaters 127
socializers 127
thinkers 127
technology 23940, 308, 536, 735,
840
administrative 536
alienation 5845
isolation 584
meaninglessness 584
powerlessness 584
self-estrangement 584
applications 597
administrative 6012
apparatus 568
manufacturing 597600
organization 568
service 6001
technique 568
co-operation 606
confidence 606
control of agenda 603
control of cost 603
control of location 604
control of organization
604
control of people 6023
control of process 602
control of resistance
6034
control of skill 604
control of work 602
pressure 606
sharing 606
visibility 606
assumptions
de-skilling 582
efficiency 5823
impact 582
modernism 582
neutrality 5812
structure 582
change impact 592
careers 592
economic activity 5923
employment 592
fashion 593
internationalism 593
limitations 5934
[ 875 ]
products/services 592
risk 593
transition 593
control 586
access 587
adoption 587
application 587
development 587
intention 587
definition 56870
determinism/rationality
5856
effects
employment 601
health and safety 602
job quality 6012
social relations 602
engineering approach 569
equipment 536
evolution 5701
age of rationalism 573
ancient history 5712
baroque period 573
Middle Ages 572
period of industrialization
5734
Renaissance 572
impact
cost 599
employee 600
government policy
599600
job design 5889
managerialism 589, 600
reliability 599
social factors 600
structure 5878
take-up 599
innovation/diversity 590
incremental 591
radical 590
system 591
IT 5967
Japanization 57881
material/social 5689
new activity 5378
perspectives
Aston studies 576
continuum from routine
to non-routine 575
industrialization 5768
production 574
resource/technology
matching 5756
stability and change 5745
[ 876 ]
Index
politics of 5834
primary/secondary 569
social 536
social approach 570
and work organization 5368
Tepper, B.J. 362
Theory X and Theory Y 310, 450
Theory Z 4502, 495
Thomas, K. 768
Thomas, P.J. 315
Thompson, J.D. 575
Thompson, J.L. 343
Thompson, L. 553, 588, 589, 720,
753, 761
Thompson, P. 15, 53, 645, 281,
403, 496, 515, 659, 761
Thompson, R. 260
Thompson, T.E. 685
Thorndike, E.L. 171
Thorsrud, E. 539
Thurow, L. 70
Thurstone, L.L. 149
Tiggermann, M. 317
Ting-Toomey, S. 766
Toffler, A. 628
Torrington, D. 339, 528, 694
total quality management (TQM)
283, 394, 798, 8089, 840
Townley, B. 62, 323, 433, 450, 618,
720
Townsend, R. 656
traction 428, 429, 840
training 50, 166, 167, 1925, 390,
548, 758, 766
trait view of leadership 34950,
840
transactional/transformational
model of leadership 362, 840
Trice and Beyers organizational
culture 4989
Trice, H.M. 4989
triple I organization 646, 840
Triplett, N. 223
Trist, E.L. 61, 538
Trompenaars cultural perspectives
5056
Trompenaars, F. 452, 5056, 509
Troup, C. 411
Tsoukas, H. 67
Tuckman, B. 233, 256
Tuden, A. 685
Tung, A.W. 781
Turnbull, P. 738, 755
Turnbull, P.J. 580
Turner, M. 415
Tushman, M. 804
Tyler, C. 284
Type A and Type B personality
profile 41819, 840
Ulrich, D. 507
uncertainty avoidance 452, 504,
840
Ure, A. 573
Urwick, L. 617
Ury, W. 697, 769
utilitarian approach to ethics 473,
475, 840
Vaidyanathan, R. 99
Valery, N. 240
van Veldhoven, M. de Jong 401
Van Y Peren, N.W. 683
Vandekerchkhove, W. 322
variety 284, 840
Vas, A. 825
Vecchio, R.P. 359
vertical dyad model of leadership
3612, 840
vicious cycle of control 586, 840
Vinnicombe, S. 317
virtual organization 70, 642, 644,
840
common infrastructure 644
define objectives 644
marry well 644
offer the best 644
play fair 644
virtual team 285, 840
virtual working 346, 840
visioning/motivator roles 314, 840
Vivarelli, M. 822
Vroom, Porter and Lawler
expectancy models 4436
Vroom, V.H. 360, 4435, 554
Vroom, Yetton, Jago model of
leadership 3601
wage-work bargain 7389, 840
Waldrop, M.M. 816
Wall, T.D. 534
Wallace, W. 10
Walsh, J. 116
Walton, R.E. 556
Warburton, F.W. 131
Warr, P.B. 92
Waterman, R.H. 4956, 823
Watson, J.B. 56, 65, 171, 339,
513, 618
Watson, T.J. 71
Weary, G. 102
web of relationships 481, 840
Weber, M. 48, 540, 613
Webster, E.C. 153
ter Weel, B. 270
Weiman, C. 313
Weiner, B. 101
Weingart, L.R. 748
Welch, J. 107, 420, 602
Wheatcroft, J. 57
Whetten, D.A. 627, 747
whistleblowing 48990
White, R. 350
White, W. 481
Whitmore, E. 89
Whitt, J.A. 647
Whittington, R. 409
Whyte, W.H. 261, 615
Wilkinson, A. 40, 261, 510
Wilkinson, B. 114, 578, 579
William, A.I. 560
Williams, F. 224, 400
Willis, P. 764
Willmott, H. 54, 258, 300
Wilson, F. 70, 316
Wilson, J.F. 71
Wilson, M. 583
Winner, L. 568
Winstanley, S. 409
Witkin, H.A. 151
Wood, L. 166
Woodruffe, C. 314, 456
Woodward, J. 612
Woolliams, P. 509
work
empowerment 549
flexibility 5489
organization
bureaucracy 5401
classical management
view 542
contingency view
5423
culture 5434
groups 5389
Taylorism 5412
technology 5368
patterns of work 54950
work measurement 527, 840
work organization
alienation 553
productivity 5534
satisfaction 554, 556
social capital 553
Index
work study 5278, 840

work-life balance 3957, 4889,
840
Worrall, L. 21
Wren, D. 42, 49, 58, 59, 429
Wyatt, S. 224
Xiaoli, J. 504
Xinyi Xu 730
Yen, H.J. 141

Yetton, 360
Young, R. 285
Yukl, G. 774
Yurtsever, G. 478
[ 877 ]
Zaccaro, S.J. 224

Zavalloni, M. 264
zone of indifference 374, 840
Zuboff, S. 596
Zwetsloot, G.I.J.M. 481

Organizational Behavior and Management

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Organizational Behaviour

To Orla, the first of the new generation to join our organization!

The University of Hull

Organizational Behaviour and Management, Third Edition

Introduction to Management and

Organizational behaviour today

Individuals within Organizations

Perception and attitude formation

Groups and Teams within Organizations

Groups and teams: formation and structure

Management within organizations

Managing People within an Organization

Managing people and stress

Managing Work Design, Technology and Structure

Work design and organization

Managing the Processes and

Communication, decision making and negotiation

List of Management in Action Panels

PART 1 Introduction to Management and Organizational

Chapter 2 Management and organizations evolution and academic

PART 2 Individuals within Organizations

Chapter 3 Perception and attitude formation

Interpreting the significance of a stimulus

Chapter 4 Personality and individual difference

Chapter 5 Learning within organizations

PART 3 Groups and Teams within Organizations

Chapter 6 Groups and teams: formation and structure

Group formation and structure: an applied perspective

Chapter 7 Groups and teams: dynamics and effectiveness

PART 4 Managing Organizations

Chapter 9 Leadership in organizations

PART 5 Managing People within an Organization

Chapter 11 Motivation and performance management

Chapter 12 Ethics and organizational culture

PART 6 Managing Work Design, Technology and Structure

Chapter 14 Technology and work

Chapter 15 Organizational structure and design

PART 7 Managing the Processes and Dynamics of Organizations

Chapter 17 Power and control

Chapter 18 Conflict and organizational politics

Chapter 19 Organizational development and change

Contingency perspectives on change

Management in Action panels

Pret A Manger staff help choose the

Managing a Personal Assistant (PA)

Taking the lead in leadership

Attitudes and perceptions in times of

Personality and teams

The domestic supervisor and

Keeping the peace

Teams and progress

How to become an employer of

Early printing in Korea

Poverty pay of Barbie doll workers

Why not simply stop working?

Outsourcing service departments

Business process re-engineering

The female managers story

Negotiating with one hand tied

For what we are about to receive

Off with their overheads

List of Employee Perspective panels

Being on strike against Scientific

Dealing with the customer!