Animal Farming

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL FARMING

INTRODUCTION
Farm literally means a tract of land used for cultivation, or of water used for breeding
oysters etc. Cultivation does not mean only prepare and use the soil for growing plants but it
also means improvement or development for growing other organisms.
Farming, therefore, means using a tract of land or even water for growing plants as well as
animals. Animal farming, therefore, is using a tract of land or water for growing different
animals for the purpose of human consumption and also for other purposes such as
production of items for commerce.
The kind of animal production is also known as livestock production. The term livestock
is used to include animals, birds, and other living creatures which are produced for the use of
man.
Another term which is commonly used in this connection is animal husbandry which can
be defined as a branch of science or applied science dealing with the economical management
of domesticated animals.
Animal farming may be for growing domesticated animals such as goat (goat farming), sheep
(sheep farming), cattles (cattle farming) etc. It also includes poultry, that is, growing chicken,
ducks, geese, guinea-fowls, peafowls, turkey etc. Growing or culturing fish (fish farming),
culturing and growing prawns (prawn farming), growing frogs (frog farming or forgery) etc.
also form part of animal farming.
CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED FARMING
Integrated farming is the system or method of farming in which two or more commodities are
grown at the same place and at the same time (integrate = whole or complete).
The concept of integrated farming has developed during recent years in order to get
maximum benefits from one and the same place of farming. The integrated farming involves
crop farming and animal farming, or growing more than one animals. Thus, integrated
farming may be : (1) fish-curn-pig farming, (2) fish-cum-duck farming, (3) fish-cum-poultry,
(4) paddy-cum-fish culture, (5) paddy-cum-prawn culture, (6) frog-cum-fish culture, and so
on.
Thus integrated farming involves crop farming, live-stock raising and fish culture. This kind
of integrated farming is beneficial because it helps in maximizing protein production through
optimum utilization of available resources.

Some examples of integrated farming are given below:

I. Fish-cum-poultry (Chicken)
In this kind of integrated farming, proper selection of breeds of chicken (fowl) and jalso the
kind of fish to he used for fanning is very important. This is because the growth of algae in
the and will depend on the amount of litter and kind of litter produced by the bird. Similarly,
the fish to be grown must feed on the algae of the fish pond. The main aspects of fish-curapoultry farming system are as follows:
1. Poultry litter as manure
The fully built up poultry litter from the poultry pens is used in the fish pond as manure for
the production of algae. For this, the fully build up deep litter is removed from the poultry
pens and is stored in a suitable place for future use
For proper growth of algae, usually the litter is placed in the pond at the rate of 50 kg/ha/day.
The litter is placed in the pond everyday in the morning. However, no litter is placed in the
pond on the clays when algal blooms are noticed.
2. Housing of birds
The birds should be maintained in the poultry house in such a manner that the litter should
have higher manurial value. This can be achieved by using deep litter system which is a kind
of intensive system.
The deep litter system is also called as compost litter system. In this system, the litter is
allowed to build up with droppings until the litter becomes about 20 cm deep.
The old composted deep litter has higher manurial value. It is then used as the manure for
growing algae in the fish bond.
3. Selection of birds
The birds should be selected in such a manner that they are suitable for integrated farming.
It has been observed that the fowls of Leghorn breed or Rhode Island breed are suitable for
this purpose. For example, the litter produced by 500-600 birds (layers those laying eggs)
is enough to fertilize a hectare of water area of a pond where even polyculture of fish
(growing different types of fish) can be employed.
Harvesting
The eggs of birds are collected every morning and evening. The birds are usually sold after
rearing them for about 18 months, because the egg-laying capacity of birds decreases after
that period.
Harvesting of fish depends the type of fish. But usually they are harvested only after they are
reared for about 12 months.

II. Fish-cum-duck farming

Fish-cum-duck farming has also been found to be an important area of integrated farming.
The basic principle of fish-cum-duck farming is the same as that of flsh-cun-pou1try farming
but they differ in many aspects because the methods of growing ducks are different from that
of chicken (fowls) due different habits and habitats of these two kinds of birds.
The ducks do not require elaborate housing because during day time they move about freely
over the pond surface.
The method of collecting litter is also different. The droppings voided only at night are
collected from the duck house and are placed in the pond every morning. For fertilizing the
pond, only about 1000 kg of droppings in one hectare of pond in a month is sufficient. This is
because during day time, the ducks themselves distribute the droppings all over the pond.
The ducks also do not require elaborate feeding since they feed on natural food while moving
over the pond surface throughout the day.
The ducks start laying eggs only after about 6 months of rearing. They continue to lay eggs
for about two years. The ducks are sold after they become two years old.
The method of harvesting fish is almost the same as in the case of fish-cum-poultry farming.
III. Rice-cum-fish farming
In this type of integrated farming, along with paddy, fishes as well as prawns can be grown.
This type of integrated farming is being practiced by age-old methods in West Bengal and
Kerala.
Rice-cum-fish farming can be carried out in coastal waters and also in fresh water paddy
fields in inland areas.
Rice-cum-fish farming in coastal areas (coastal paddy fields)
In coastal areas, the soil is highly saline. The major agricultural crop is Kharif rice grown
during monsoon period. Because of saline condition, brackish water fish can be easily grown,
and therefore, the integrated farming is actually paddy-cum-brackish water fish culture. In
this integrated farming along with fish even prawns such as Penaeus monodon can be grown.
Following methods are used for this kind of integrated farming:
1. Site selection and plot design
The flat areas should have embankment for protection from free access of the tidal waters.
The flow of tidal and drainage waters is maintained by sluice in the form of wooden sluice
box provided with shutters. A perimeter canal is also necessary on the inner periphery of the
canal. Two cross trenches should connect the perimeter canals.
2. Management of paddy field and fish crop

The paddy field should be managed in such a manner that it can be converted from
monocropped area into a multicropped one. This can be done by undertaking short term
brackish water aquaculture during summer months as a rotational crop, and also culturing
fresh water fishes and prawns along with paddy during rainy season.
After the onset of rains, transplantation of kharif paddy seedling is done. After some period,
when transplanted seedlings are properly anchored, juveniles and fingerlings of fresh water
fishes and prawns are.released into the plot.
3. Harvesting
Paddy is usually harvested by the end of November. But fresh water aquaculture may be
continued till December depending on the availability of water in the plot.
As the plot starts drying up, the fishes and the prawns are harvested.
4. Summer fish crop
In summer, usually by March, the tidal water level of the paddy field is raised, and fishes
such as mullets, and prawns such as Penacus monodon are stocked in the ratio of 1: 1.
For prawns, the post-larvae are collected and released into the plot after they are acclimatized
to particular conditions.
The mullets weighing about 3g aie usually stocked. In the month of June, the water is
completely drained out and the prawns and the fishes are harvested.
5. Horticulture
On the embankment of the paddy field, vegetables and many fruit bearing plants such as
papaya, banana, tomato and other kinds can be grown.
IV. Fish-cum-pig farming
In this system of integrated farming, pigs and different kinds of fresh water fishes can be
grown together. Even cattle fodder can be grown on the embankment of the pond.
The methods of this kind of integrated farming are as follows:
1. Pond management (Selection of pond and management of pond)
The ponds can be perennial or seasonal. For growing commercially important fishes such as
rohu, catla, and mrigal, the pond should be perennial.
The ponds should be excavated in a place near a source of water for replenishing whenever
required. The pond should be rectangular in shape, and the size should be about 0.4 ha, so
that it can be managed
The unwanted weeds should be cleared by manual method, biological method or chemical
method. The pond should also be cleared of predatory fishes if they are present.
2. Stocking of fish

When the pond is ready, the fingerlings of fresh water fishes are stocked at the rate of 8000 to
8500 fingerlings per hectare. The different fishes can be stocked in the ratio of 40% surface
feeders such as catla, 25% column feeders such as rohu, and 35% bottom feeders such mrigal.
However, this stocking ratio can be altered depending on various factors, mainly upon the
availability of fingerlings.
3. Manuring pond with pig waste
Pig dung, urine and also spilled feed are used for manuring pond everyday. For a polyculture
(growing many kinds of fish in an area), excret produced by 15 to 20 pigs has been found to
adequate to fertilize one 0.4 hectare water area.
The pig dung is not used to fertilize the pond on the days when there is algl bloom, that is,
water of the pond appears green.
If there Is too much of algal growth, the pond should be cleared of excess algae using any
suitable method without harming the fishes.
4. Management of pigs
For optimum production of pig meat, good management of pig is essential. This can be
achieved by constructing a good pig house with proper area and other essential requirements.
In fish-cum-pig farming, pigs should be raised by combining open air system and indoor
system.
Pig house with thatched roof should be constructed near the pond. A single row of pig
pensfacing the pond should be constructed on the pond embankment. The floor should be
cemented with drainage to the pond.
The exotic stock of breeds such Yorkshire, Berkshire, Hampshire and other breeds are
usually selected because they are quick growers and prolific breeders.
5. Harvesting
Fishes can be harvested partially depending on the size, demand of fish and market rate. The
stock can be replenished with the fingerlings after partial harvesting.
Final harvesting is usually done after 12 months of rearing.
In this kind of integrated farming, fish yields usually range from 6,000 to 7,000 kg/ha/yr.
The pigs weighing 60 to 70 kg grow within about 6 months. This size is suitable for pig meat
because pigs of larger size are not suitable for bacon products. Further, it is also
uneconomical if reared further.
ANIMAL FARMING IN INDIA - PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE
The present situation of Animal Farming in India is highly satisfactory compared to the
situation existed about 25-40 years ago. There is a tremendous progress in milk yield,

population of cattles and buffaloes, production of poultry meat and eggs, population of sheep
and goat, and in many other aspects. All these have been possible because of special attention
received by various branches of agriculture (including Animal Husbandry and Fishery) under
various National Five Year Plans.
Let us consider the present situation in some of the important areas of Animal farming.
Cattles and Buffaloes
At present, the cattle population is quite large in India. There are different estimates of cattle
and buffalo populations in the world and in India. According to a recent estimate, there are
201.5 million cattle and 20.8 million buffaloes in India. This is about 15.9 percent of the
worlds cattle and 53.75 per cent of worlds buffalo population. According to another
estimate, the cattle population is 184 million and the buffalo population is 62 million. This is
about 18.3 per cent of the total Bovine population in the world. Whatever be the census, there
is no doubt that India possesses the largest cattle population in the world. Buffaloes form as
much as 45.8 per cent of the world population.
Although the cattle population is large, the number of milch cows is only about 56 million
with an average production of 187 kg per annum. There are only 32 million mulch buffaloes
with an average production of 1,000 kg per annum.
For the last few decades, a tremendous improvement of the handling and processing capacity
of milk has taken place due to various dairy development programmes. During 1980s and
1990s, the country had about 233 process plants and 46 milk product factories. The estimated
handling capacity was 8.65 million litres per day and the processing capacity was about
5,00,000 tonnes. This handling and processing capacities have increased tremendously during
the last few years.
A few years back with the help of 122 intensive cattle development programmes (ICDP), 140
cattle breeding farms, 40 exotic cattle farms and 48 frozen semen-bank were established. The
milk production has increased by about 500 per cent. But the problem area is the production
of breedable cows and buffaloes which is about 18 to 22 per cent of the total population. This
problem has arisen because there are only 26 well defined Indian breeds which constitute this
18 to 22 per cent bree4able cows and buffaloes and remaining 79 to 82 per cent are
categorised as Non-descript or the Local eshi Cows characterised by their poor growth
rate, late maturity and low milk production.
All over the country, through a network of more than 42,000 milk producer& co-operatives
organized under the Operation Flood (OF) programme, a National Milch grid has been
established. This grid covers a number of metropolitan cities and hundreds of cities and

towns. This OF programme itself mobilises collection of large amount of milk from the
farmers co-operatives.
Another important contribution of cattles and buffaloes in India is the draft power for tilage,
cartage and many other activities. It has been estimated that a draft equivalent of 47,000
mega-watts is produced by 71.5 million working bullocks and 7.5 million working buffalo
bullocks. The value of draft or draught power is niore thanRs 5,000 crores. According to one
estimate, the draft contribution is higher than the railway goods transport system.
Production of large amount of organic manure is another important part. Annually more than
800 m tonnes (dry) manure is produced Unfortunately, about 300 tonnes of this manure is
burnt as fuel
The cattles and buffaloes also contribute to meat production of more than 0.15 million tonnes
per annum. The hides and skins from cattles and buffaloes are more than 0.82 million tonnes
annually.
Sheep
According to an estimate by FAO (1983), the population of sheep in the world is 1,137.37
million. According to 1982 census, about 48.23 million of sheep are in India. India occupies
sixth position in sheep population in the world.
India produces 132 million kg mutton, 38.1 million kg of greasy wool and 37.8 million pieces
of skin annually (FAO, 1983).
The demand for all these products is much higher than the current tot1production. Goat
The goat population in India, according to a 1982 census is about 90 million The total world
population is about 446 million goats (FAO, 1979) Largest goat populations are found in
Africa and India
In India, the goat population has increased by about 19% from 1961 to 1979.
India produces more than 3,00,000 tonnes of meat annually. This is about 40,7 per cent of the
total meat produced in the country. The production of goat milk is abut 9,55,000 tonnes,
which is almost 3% of the total milk production in the country.
Coats are also important source of fresh skins mainly used in leather industry and in
handicraft, and in the production of pashmina and mohair, the most valtable textile fibre.
India roduces about 79,000 tonnes of fresh skin The production of pashmina is about 40
tonnes
Coats are also important source of manure. Th total production of manure is about 340
million tonnes.
The demand for all the products in the country is much morethanthe current production.

Poultry
The term poultry includes various kinds of domesticated birds such as chicken, turkeys;
guinea-fowls, pea fowls, geese and ducks. But very often the term is used as synonymous to
chicken.
Now-a-days, poultry farming has become very popular and is considered as a scientifically
based and an well organized industry. There has been a tremendous increase in the
production of eggs and chicken meat in the country for the last two decades. A network of
franchise hatchers have been established with a view to supply quality chicks for
commerci4legg production and meat production.
The per capita/year consumption of eggs was only 5.3 in 1961 and this hps been increased to
20 eggs in 1985. Thus, there has been about four fold increase in egg consumption in our
country: However, this figure is still very insignificant compared to 400 eggs in Denmark,
340 in USAand250 in UK. Similarly, the per capita/year consumption of poultry meat is
about 240 g in our country as againt 20-30 kg in some
developed countries. .:iiuqc : In the last three decades, the value of pou1ryPodu&ion has increased by 400 per cent (from
Z 1,755 million to 6,500 million), egg production by 270 pet cent (from 5,340 million to
14,000) and broiler production by 1,000 per cent. Broilers are young chickens about 8 to 10
weeks of age, which have been raised specifically for meat production. Almost 80 per cent of
aJichicks hatched now become broilers.

POULTRY
DEFINITION
Poultry includes a number of species of birds such as chicken, ducks, geese, guinea-fowls,
peafowls, turkeys and a few others which have been domesticated. But this term is often
used as synonymous to chicken.
In India, the poultry includes mostly the chicken or domestic fowl. Chicken alone constitutes
afoul 90% of the total poultry in India.
NOMENCLATURE AND BREEDS OF FOWL
NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature is nothing but naming the animal. An animal m1 be named scientifically and
by common or local name. Scientifically, the modern domesticated breeds of chicken or fowl
is known as Gallus domestics. The genus Callus includes birds with comb. It is believed that

the modern domestic breeds of chicken have been developed from the jungle fowls (Gallus)
of southeast Asia, mainly the neighbouring countries like China, Burma and Sri Lanka.
Amongst different species of jungle fowl, the red jungle fowl Callus gallus is the most
important jungle fowl which is believed to have given rise to the modern domestic fowl,
Gallus domesticus.
BREEDS
Breeds refers to a group of domestic fowls with a common ancestry and having similar shape,
conformation, growth, shell colour of egg, temperament and which breed true to type.
These breeds of fowl may be further distinguished into different categories or sub-divisions
such as variety and strains.
The term variety denotes to distinguish fowls having the characteristics of a breed to which
belong but differing in comb-type, plumage colour, feather pattern, shape and some other
characters other groups of the same breed. For example, in Leghorns, there are varieties like
F comb Leghorn, Single comb, White Leghorn, Rose comb Brown Leghorn etc.
A variety may have several strains or lines. A strain is produced by a breeder through at least
fiv generations of closed flock breeding for a particular purpose which is mainly to introduce
certain econOmic characters in a particular breed. Thus, different strains of the same breed
may look similar in external characters but they will differ in their production performance
according to the breeding history.
In this connection, it is important to know that the most common method used for classifying
chicken is to designate them as classes on the basis of their origin, that is, the geographical
areas or regions ihere the breeds have been developed. Thus, there va4ous classes such as
American Class, Asiatic Class etc.
A brief description of each class with breed characteristics for a few important breeds is
given below
1. INDIGENOUS OR DESI BREEDS
There are different varieties of indigenous domestic fowls in India. These varieties differ in
size, shape and colour. All indigenous breeds are poor layers of small-sized eggs but they are
good sitters and idea! mothers.
There are 4 important varieties of indigenous fowls. These are:
Assel : It has multiple colouration with a very small comb. It occurs throughout India. It has
great power and fighting quality. Assel is a very good table bird because the meat delicious.
However, the capacity to lay eggs is poor and the growth is also poor.

Aseel Breed
http://www.cacklehatchery.com/page48.htm

Chittagong (Malay) The plumage k usually golden ad light yellow in colour with a small pea
comb. It is supposed to be a native of Malayan Penii*uI&buFit has been extensivel bred in
Chittagong (Bangladesh).
This variety is famous for its delicious flesh. It lays a good number of eggs and tie rate of
growth is faster than Assel variety.
Ghagus It is a large-sized and hardy breed. The plumage is usually red, brown, gray and
black coloured The comb is small and singl&or pea-shaped
This variety commonly occurs in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
The flesh is not ve4 delicious but it lays a fair number of eggs
Bustra This variety is mainly found in Maharashtra and Gujarat. The plumage is light
coloured. It is a poor layer and not a good mother.
2. EXOTIC (IMPROVED) BREED
The modem breeds of chicken which have been produced outside India and imported to our
country are collectively known as exotic or improved breed.
The exotic breeds are classified into different types depending mainly on the place of origin
of the breed. There may be as many as 11 classes of exotic breeds each having several
varieties. Characteristics of some important exotic breeds of chicken are given in Table 12.1.
The important breeds which are useful for the production of flesh and eggs have, been
described below. These are:
AMERICAN CLASS
These birds were developed in USA, generally, by the crossing of the Mediterranean and
Asiatic types. Amongst the American class, the popular breeds are Rhode Island Red It is

considered as the most popular breed of fowl because (i) it is very hardy and can tolerate dry
or damp conditions (ii) the quality and the yield of flesh is very good and (iii) it is a good
layer.
The Rhode Island Red may be single combed or rose combed.

Plymouth Rock It is one of the most popular breeds in America due to its good size,
excellent fI and egg producing capacity. The average weight of the cock and the hen is 4.5 kg
and 3.2 kg, respectively.
This breed is not very indigenous variety popular in India but it cocks have been used for
improving the races of Wyandotte It has a rounded body and a rose comb. It is a popular table
bird. The average weights the cock and the hen is 4 kg and 3 kg, respectively. It is a fairly
good egg layer.

Plymouth Rock
http://www.motherearthnews.com/homesteading-and-livestock/barred-plymouth-rock-heritagepoultry.aspx#axzz3496hjI1t

New Hampshire This breed was developed in New Hampshire from the Rhode Island Red
stock is very hardy and, therefore, has become popular in India. It also grows at a fast rate
and has a good e laying capacity.
ASIATIC CLASS
The breeds which have been developed on Asian continent are included in this class. The
different varieties of this breed are generally used for meat. They are poor layers.
The three important varieties of Asiatic class are
Brahma This variety is considered to be a native of Brahmaputra area in India. The body is
massive and it is one of the largest domesticated chickens. The cock and the hen grows to
about 5 kg and 4 kg, respectively.

Brahma
http://www.purelypoultry.com/buff-brahma-chickens-p-893.html

Cochin (Shanghai Fowl) This variety has originated in the Shanghai district of China. The
bird looks massive because of long and profuse feathers on the body. The average weight of
the cock and the hen is 4 kg and 3.5 kg, respectively.
Langshan This variety has originated in the Langshan district of China. The body is
comparatively short than the other Asiatic breeds. The average weight of the cock and the hen
is 4.5 kg and 3.5 kg; respectively.
ENGLISH CLASS
The different varieties of this breed have been developed in different areas of England and
Australia. All the varieties of this breed except one (Cornish) have white skin and red ear
lobes. Most of them lay brown shelled eggs. The different known varieties are as follows
Sussex This breed is generally used for meat but strains with good laying capacity have also
been developed. The plumage may be of different colours. The average weight of the cock
and the hen is 4 kg and 3 kg, respectively.
Orpington: The body of the fowl is long and broad. The colour of the plumage may be
white, blue, yellow or black. It is a good table bird but selective breeding has given rise to
strains having good egg laying capacity. The average weight of the hen is 3.5 kg and that of
the cock is 4.5 kg.
Australorp This breed has been developed in Australia from the black Orpington stock. The
colour of the plumage is greenish-black. The body is somewhat long and deep with a single
comb. This breed is gradually becoming popular in India.
Dorking : The body of the bird is long, broad and deep. The different varieties of this breed
has rose comb or single comb. The standard weight of the cock is 4 kg and that of the hen is
3.5 kg.

Dorking
http://www.grit.com/animals/chicken-choosin-decides-dorking-chicken-is-best-eating.aspx

Cornish : It has been developed in England by crossing Indian Aseel and the English game
breed. It is popular in England because of its delicious flesh. The standard weight of the hen
and the cock is 3.5 kg and 4.5 kg, respectively.
MEDITERRANEAN CLASS
These birds originated in Europe along the Mediterranean sea. They are generally small in
size and light bodied. They are good layers.
The important varieties of this class are
Leghorn : This breed is very popular in poultry farming because all the varieties are very
good layer But the flesh is not very delicious. The body is short with a long back. The ear
lobes are creamy and there is a rose comb.
The common varieties are white, brown, black and buff. White Leghorn is the most popular
since is has an average production of 220-250 eggs annually. The standard weight of the hen
is 1.75 kg and that the cock is 2.75 kgs. Brown Leghorn is also popular since it also has
excellent productive capacity. Leghorn is not as good layer as the white or the brown variety,
Minorca: It is the largest variety among the Mediterranean class. It was quite popular in
Indian sometime back for its large-sized eggs. But because of a decline in the production of
eggs, it has lost list popularity. It has three varieties, namely, black, white and brown. The
standard weight of the cock is 3.5 kg and that of the hen is 2.75 kg.
Ancona: It is originated from a place called Ancona in Italy. The bird resembles the Leghorn
in appearance but it is not so good a layer. The colour of the plumage is white and black
spotted. There are both single combed and rose combed varieties. The average weight of the
male is 2.75 kg and that of the female is 1.75 kg.

EGG SIZE AND FACTORS AFFECTING EGG SIZE

Egg size is also referred to as egg weight or vice-versa. Egg size (egg weight) is a highly
heritable trait and it also depends on a number of other factors such as body weight, rate of
laying, nutrition, disease conditions, age of sexual maturity, age of birds, laying house
conditions an care of eggs after they are laid.
The various factors affecting egg size are as follows:
1) Breed/strain of bird
Now-a-days, specialized breeds and strains of chickens for the production of eggs and meat
separately have been developed. It is therefore, very important to select the proper
breed/strain of chicken for breeding for obtaining large-sized eggs or egg sizes as per market
demand. Thus selection-of hens not possessing inherited factors for large-sized eggs will be
responsible for the production of small-sized eggs.
Another important aspect is that egg weight is higher for heavy breeds than light breeds. Egg
weight (egg size) may also be influenced by sex-linked or maternal effect depending upon the
strain,
2. Age of sexual maturity
Birds which mature earlier lay small-sized eggs: It has been observed that birds which have
been reared during constant day length or decreasing day-length will mature late and will lay
large-sized eggs. On the other hand, birds which have been reared during increasing daylength will mature early and lay small-sized eggs.
3. Age of birds
The size of egg also depends on the age of birds at the time of laying eggs. For example,
birds usually start laying eggs at 20 weeks of age. The size of eggs laid at 20 to 26 weeks of
age is always small. In fact, the first egg laid is smallest and the size is about 25% less than
the maximum egg size. Eggs laid at 40 to 50 weeks of age are larger in size and the largest
eggs are laid when the birds are about 52 weeks of age (about one year old). Egg size again
becomes smaller just before birds stop laying.
4. Body weight and production potential of birds
Body weight of birds also affect egg size. Heavy breeds lay eggs of larger size (higher
weight) than the light breeds.
Birds with nigh production potential usually lay eggs of smaller size.
5. Nutrition
Proper supply of nutrition to the birds is directly connected with the egg size. Nutrients have
been classified into various groups such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins

and water. A balanced ration is the one which can supply different nutrients in right
proportions according to the requirements for maintenance and various productive functions.
For obtaining eggs of proper size, the following aspects of nutrition must be followed:
i) Feeds : Conventional or most rations in the market are well balanced. Such well-balanced
feed must be supplied to the birds. The egg size will be affected if unbalanced rations or
improperly mixed rations are supplied to the birds. The feed also must not be stale.
ii) Improper feeding (Feed restriction) The supply of food or feeding must not be improper.
In other words, there should not be any feed restriction or less supply of food than required
by birds because of any reason such as shortage of feeder space, non-availability of feed etc.
Each and every bird should be supplied with proper food.
iii) Protein supply : The feed or rations available in the market for birds (layers) contain all
the ingredients in correct proportions but there is no single feed formula which can be
claimed to be the best in all the cases. Since layers should have rations with about 15 percent
of protein, care should be taken to supply rations with proper amount of protein, because
presence of less protein in ratio will result in smaller egg size.
iv) Proper supply of water: Water should be supplied adequately and in proper manner, i.e.
water should be clean and fresh, and temperature of water should not be very high or low. If
these conditions are not fulfilled, the birds will not drink water and consequently, less food
will be consumed by them. This will ultimately affect the egg size i.e. the eggs will be
smaller in size.
6. Disease conditions
The diseases of the laying flocks are serious problems to the poultry breeder. The diseases
may be ingredients or non-infections. Birds infected with any kind of disease do not feed
properly and this lack of nutrition results in the production of smaller eggs. The infectious
disease can be controlled to a large extent 7 maintaining good hygienic conditions of the
surroundings. Non-infectious diseases are caused by faulty management such as faulty feed
formulations, inadequate diet and so on.
7. Laying-house conditions (Layer house conditions)
Temperature of the laying house is important so far as egg-size is concerned, because it has
been observed that egg-weight (egg size) may reduce by 1 oz per dozen at temperature more
than 70 F than at 5 F. Therefore, the layer houses should be kept as cool as possible
particularly by keeping two-thirds of beside walls open.
8. Care of eggs

Proper care of eggs must be taken after they are laid, particularly temperature of storage area
or place of storage. The eggs should be stored at 50 to 55 F after they are laid. This is
because the eggs will lose weight by evaporation if the temperature is high.

EGG QUALITY (NORMAL AND ABNORMAL EGGS)

Egg quality is judged from various external as well as internal characteristics of the egg.
Thus, egg quality may be external quality and internal quality. The external quality includes
colour, shape, texture and shell thickness. The internal quality includes nature of albumen,
nature of yolk, presence or absence of blood spots, meat sports and foreign matter.
Normal egg
A normal egg may be white-shelled or brown-shelled. In fact, shell colour does not have any
affect on the quality of egg or nutritive value of egg. The shape is regular and the texture is
smooth. Shell is thick Internally, the albumen is thick and there is high proportion of yolk and
it is not pale-coloured.. There are no blood spots, meat spots or foreign matter.
Abnormal egg
Any egg differing in one or a number of external and/or internal qualities from the normal
egg is considered as an abnormal egg.
Abnormal eggs may have following characteristics
1. Rough textured (poorly textured): The g-shell is not smooth but rough and poorly
textured.
2. Thin-shelled (soft shelled) Thickness of shell is below normal. Shell thickness is
considered an indicator or provides a measure of breaking strength. Eggs should have a fairly
high breaking strength so that they should not break while being transported over long
distances.
A number of factors such as nutrition, environmental effects, disease and some abnormal
conditions at
the time of shell formation are responsible for thin-shelled eggs. Deficiency in calcium may
result in thin
shells because the shell glands may fail to secrete calcium carbonate in proper quantity. In
summer, shell thickness decreases. Some disease conditions have also been found to be
responsible for thin shell formation. Due to some reason, the peristaltic contraction of the
uterus becomes violent forcing the egg to pass through the uterus quickly. Due to this, the egg
shell cannot be formed properly.

3. Thin yolk or yolk-less eggs: An egg with low proportion of yolk or without yolk is
considered abnormal and it is not preferred for consumption. This condition may arise due to
entry of some kind of foreign substance such as a piece of membrane or blood clot to the
oviduct and uterus at the time of egg formation. The foreign substance may stimulate the wall
of the oviduct and uterus to secrete other structures or products required for the formation of
albumen, shell membranes an shell resulting in less formation of yolk.
4. Poor quality yolk (pale yolk) : Yolk quality is determined by yolk index. A poor quality
yolk is not preferred. The yolk may be pale in colour due to lack of carotene and other
colouring substances. It may also he caused by constitutional anemia. Usually, in winter, eggs
with pale yolk is formed. It has been observed that in some cases, this abnormality may he
rectified by adding more amount I maize or maize meal in the ration to the egg layers.
5. Double-yolked egg This abnormality occurs more commonly in young liens ,probably due
to improper functioning of ovary and oviduct. This condition appears when two ova ripen
together or when one ovum for some reason is pushed back into the oviduct and at the same
time, another ovulation takes place.
6. Blood spots Small red patches or areas my occur in the yolk or in the albumen (white of
egg) These blood spots may occur due to hemorrhages of small blood vessels in the ovary or
in oviduct. The blood spots appear in the albumen due to hemorrhage in the wall of the
oviduct.
These blood spots actually do not affect the nutritive value hut they only spoil the pleasing
appearance of the egg.
7. Meat spots : These are degenerated blood clots which may be found in the yolk or in the
albumen. These meat spots also appear due to haemorrages in the ovary or oviduct.
Meat spots also do not affect the nutritive value of the egg.
8. An egg within an egg : This condition is found when due to some reason, a fully formed
egg is pushed back up to the funnel region of the oviduct as a result of reverse peristalsis.
This egg is then again pushed down and as it passes through the oviduct and uterus, the
albumen, shell membranes and shell layers are added .
9. Rotten new-laid eggs: In this case, the eggs are already rotten (bad) when they are laid.
This happens when a completely formed egg is not able to pass out of the hind part of the
oviduct. This may happen when the hen is over-fat or the oviduct is diseased.

HATCHING OF EGGS
Hatching of eggs refers to the formation of baby chicks from fertile eggs. Hatching may be
natural hatching or artificial hatching. In natural hatching, the eggs are hatched by placing
them under broody hence Thus, the hens sit on eggs or incubate eggs. Indigenous or Desi
hens are ideal for natural hatching. However, only 10 to 12 eggs can be placed under one hen.
Therefore, the natural hatching where incubation is done by broody hens is not at all
satisfactory for large-scale production of baby chicks. In artificial hatching eggs are placed in
incubators which provide similar conditions or environment as that of broody hens. But the
advantage is that a large number of eggs can be incubated at a time in incubator and the
efficiency

of

incubator

is

much

more

than

broody

hen.

Natural Hatching
In natural hatching, although the broody hen sits on the eggs and incubate, proper care must
be taken of the hatching eggs and sitting hens, and at the same time certain procedures should
be followed in order to get maximum return. The nature of care and procedures are as
follows.
1. Selection of eggs
The selection of eggs is important because the size and quality of chicks depend on the
hatching egg. Selection can he done by considering the following aspects:
Egg-size : is important because there is a high correlation between the size of eggs and the
size of chicks hatched. Neither small-sized eggs nor very large-sized eggs should be selected.
Shell colour : is also an important factor. In case of varieties of fowls that lay white-shelled
eggs, the eggs selected for hatching should be free from tints. Similarly, for brown colouredeggs, light brown eggs should not be selected.
Texture : The shell texture also should be tested. Eggs with poor shell texture due to
deficiency of calcium and vitamin D result in poor hatchability.
Cracked shell : Eggs with cracked shells should not be selected. Therefore, all eggs should
be without cracked shells. For finding out cracked shells, two eggs should be tapped together.
While tapping, if there is sonant sound, the eggs should he considered good. Dull sound
indicates that one of the shall of one of the eggs is cracked.
2. Time (Season) to start hatching
The process of egg laying depends upon the climate of a particular region. The hens normally
begin to lay eggs in February and continue the process till August. However, some hens lay
eggs from October to January.

In a poultry farm, the best time to start hatching and raise chickens depends upon the climate
of the area For example, in places like Nainital, Sirnla, Daijeeling, Assam where the cold is
severe, the best hatching time is March to June. In Punjah, H.P and U.P. the best period is
July to September. In West Bengal and other places where there are no westerly hot winds,
the hatching period is October to March.
Hatching may he natural hatching and artificial incubation. In natural hatching, the eggs are
put under the hen in a nest. This is an old traditional method and most effective. In artificial
incubation, the eggs are laced in incubator for hatching.
3. Treatment of Eggs (Care of hatching eggs)
Alter the eggs have been placed under the hen, it is necessary to inspect them everyday for
prop hatching. If any egg is found broken, the remaining eggs should be removed, washed
with water (102 F), dried and then placed again in a new nest. The hen also should be
washed.
After the 7th 01 10th day of sitting, the nest should be examined for infertile and addled eggs.
infertile egg is found transparent like a new-laid egg when seen against strong light.
An addled egg is one in which the chicken is partly formed after 21 days or is rotten. A fertile
egg ca he easily detected, by placing the egg in a bowl with hot water (at 102 F). If the egg
is fertile it starts wriggling after 60 seconds or also.
4. Precautions for hatching (Care of sitting hens)
A number of precautions and care should be taken regarding the sitting hens for proper
hatching.
These are
1. The best time to set hen is at night because she can settle down to her job immediately.
2. The nest should he prepared in a quiet corner so that she will not be disturbed by others.
3. Before setting, the hens should be properly dusted with insecticides such as sodium,
fluoride or gammexane in order to remove ticks and lice.
4. Before putting the hen on the eggs, she should be properly fed and watered.
5. The sitting hen should he supplied with clean water twice daily. She also should be given
adequate amount of whole grains such as maize and limestone gist.
6. It should be seen that the hens come out off their eggs at least once every day for fresh air.
ARTIFICIAL HATCHING (ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION)
In artificial hatching, the eggs are incubated in an incubator where temperature and other
conditions are maintained. Therefore, in this, care of hatching eggs and various procedures

are different from that of the natural hatching. The nature of care and various procedures are
as follows
1. Care of eggs and selection of eggs
It should he remembered that development of the embryo starts even before the fertile eggs
are laid. Therefore, in artificial hatching, the fertile eggs should be collected as frequently as
possible and stored in a cool place or storage chamber, especially in summer and rainy
season.
The best temperature at which fertile eggs should be stored is 50 to 70 F (10.0 to 21.1C).
To obtain good result, eggs should he stored at 60 F (15.6C) for 7 days or less.
The relative humidity of the storage chamber should be maintained at 70 to 80 per cent. This
is because, less humidity causes loss of water from eggs.
The eggs should he properly examined before placing them in the incubator. Eggs with
cracked shell or soiled eggs (dirty eggs) should not be used for hatching. If the egg is soiled,
they should be cleaned with a dry cloth and then used for incubation.
2. Artificial incubation and operations of incubator
The physical factors that affect incubation are temperature, humidity and gaseous
environment (oxygen and carbon dioxide). Turning of eggs is another important aspect. All
these conditions must be maintained for artificial hatching in an incubator.
Incubators may he of different types. Basically on the basis of the arrangement of egg tray, it
may he classified two types, a flat type and a cabinet type. In flat type incubator, there is only
one egg tray or single liver on which the eggs are laid flat. It can accommodate 50-500 eggs.
In the cabinet type, there are several trays or cabinets on which the eggs are laid. It can
accommodate 50-5000 eggs. In this type, the e: are turned automatically by different
mechanisms depending on the make of the incubator.
On the functional basis, the incubator can be again divided into different types. The two main
types are forced draft-type incubator and still-air incubator. In both these types, the
mechanisms for heating and temperature control, humidity control, ventillation control for
turning eggs etc. are different. In modern types of incubator, all the Control mechanisms are
automatic which is done either electrically or mechanically.
Whatever kind of incubator is used, all the physical factors in the incubator must be
maintained as follows
Temperature The incubator temperature should be maintained as per recommendation of the
manufacturer of the incubator. Temperature usually varies from 99.5 F to 100.5F (37.2 C
to 37.8C) for forced draft-type incubators and upto 101.5F for still-air incubators. Higher

temperature (higher than optimum) hastens the development of embryo and lower
temperature slows down the embryonic development. Any abnormal temperature adversally
affects the hatchability.
Humidity The humidity inside the incubator also should be maintained at a definite level for
proper hatchability. In fowls, the development is completed in 21 days. The relative humidity
should F maintained 80 per cent during the first 18 days of incubation and 70 percent in the
last 3 days for best results.
Oxygen For metabolism, the developing embryos require a regular oxygen supply which
should he. the same as is found in the atmosphere (21 per cent). Therefore, flow of fresh air
must be maintained for proper hatching.
Ventilation (Carbon dioxide level) Level of carbon dioxide is also important for proper
hatchability. The carbon dioxide concentration should not be more than 0.5 per cent inside
the incubator. The hatchability decreases with higher concentration and at 5 per cent carbon
dioxide level, the hatchability becomes zero. For proper maintenance of carbon dioxide level,
the room in which incubator is installed should have proper or adequate ventilation.
Turning of eggs First of all, the eggs should be placed on trays with brood ends up. If the
narrow end is kept up, hatchability decreases because the embryo develops with its head in
the small end. Turning of eggs improves hatchability. If the eggs are required to he turned by
hand in the incubator, they should be turned at least 4 times a day i.e. in 24 hours. In the
modern incubators, turning is done automatically al least 8 times in 24 hours. After 18 days
of incubation, no turning is required.
3. Testing of incubated eggs
The eggs in the incubator should be tested for finding out infertile eggs and dead germs. For
this purpose, eggs are candled from 5th to 7th days of incubation for removing unfertile eggs
and on 18th day to remove dead germs. However, in most commercial hatcheries, candling is
done on 17th cc 18th day of incubation in order to save labour.
The eggs can be identified by observing passage of light through it. The eggs will look
opaque if live embryos are present. At the other extreme, the eggs will he transparent if they
are infertile. The eggs arel classified as dead germs when translucent.
After testing, eggs with live embryos only are transferred to hatcher.
4. Hatchery Management
For proper hatching of eggs, lot of care must be taken as regards the incubator, hatchers and
the entir hatchery complex. All these aspects connected with hatching of eggs constitute what

is known as Hatcheryl Management. Some of the important aspects of Hatchery Management

are
A. Preparation of incubators and hatchers
i) At the beginning of hatching season and before placing the eggs in the incubator, a
thorough checking of the incubator and hatchers must he done as regards their functioning.
For example, the temperature variation of the incubator should be checked as well as general
performance of the incubator should be observed. Any defect in functioning of any part of the
incubator must be corrected. It is advisable to start the incubator and the hatcher at least 24
hours before setting the eggs in order to maintain a constant temperature.
ii) The incubator and hatchers should be properly cleaned and disinfected. Furnigatio!j can be
done to kill organisms which are likely to cause disease. Fumigation should be done heforp
storing and after transfer of eggs to the hatcher. This is done in order to reduce the incidence
nd spread of disease. Fumigation is normally done with formaldehyde gas which is prepar by
using commercial formalin and potassium perniagnate. The proportion generally used is 0 nil
of 40% commercial formalin and 20 g of potassium permanganate for each 2.8 m3 of space
inside the incubator or hatcher. it is advisable to fumigate the incubator and hatchers at the
end of the working day and then close the door.
B. Care of hatching complex
i) Entry of persons to the hatching complex should be restricted as far as possible.
ii) Persons working in the hatcher should use showers just before starting work in the
hatchery.
iii) Persons should also change clothes and shoes before entering the hatchery complex.
iv) The places for receiving eggs from the farm and for delivering chicks should be situated
awa3 from each other in order to reduce infection.
C. Maintenance of power supply to incubator
i) Power supply to the incubator must not be interrupted in order to maintain proper
temperature and other conditions inside the incubator. It is, therefore, advisable to keep a
generator in cash there is a power failure or in areas where power supply is not very regular.

BROODING AND REARING

Brooding is taking full care of incubation and development of newly born chicks. The
growing chick after hatching require certain conditions such as proper shelter, supplementary
heat, proper feeding defense against natural enemies etc. The growing chicks, therefore,
needs proper attention so that all the condition are fulfilled. These chicks are then raised and
gradually they become growers. The growers become layers. Thus after brooding, there
is rearing that is, raising the chicks and growing them up to grower and layer stage.
Brooding may be natural brooding and artificial brooding. In natural brooding, the broody
her takes full care of incubation and development of newly born chicks. But by this method, a
single hen car successfully take care of about 15 chicks at a time. This natural brooding has
been replaced by artificial Natural by which brooding of thousands of chick is possible at a
time.
Natural brooding
Although natural brooding has been mostly replaced by artificial brooding, still in the village
farms natural brooding is practiced for raising only a few chi-kens in one year. Therefore,
only some important pacts of natural brooding is described below:
Natural brooding was the only method of brooding chick before the introduction of artificial
brooding In this method, the hen itself acts as an ideal mother and takes full care of
incubation and development of chicks. For this, the mother and the chicks are provided with
proper shelter and nourishment.
For proper shelter, the chicks are taken out of old nests after 36 hours of hatching and are
kept in a clean floor under a basket or clean box made up of packing material (2 sq.ft) called
rearing coop. The mother is also kept along with the chicks.
The coop should be dry, ventillated , safe and durable.
Proper nourishment should be supplied to the chicks and the mother. For the first week, the
chicks should be given bread-crumbs mixed with milk and oat meal and broken wheat. The
food should be given almost every 2 hours and in small quantities. Afterwards, upto the age
of 41 days, chickens should be fed about six times daily and the food may consist of small
poultry powder along with the soft food. Some finely chopped onions and garlic also
should be given twice a week.
After 3 months of age, oil cakes, finely cracked wheat and maize, cracked rice etc. should be
given in particular proportions.
The hen must not be neglected. She should be supplied with good nutritive food.

Artificial brooding
In artificial brooding, new-born chicks are grown without the help of a broody hen. The
chicks are kept in a temperature-cootrolled brooder, also known as foster mother.
The artificial brooding is done in a very large scale and a sound managenent of the entire
process is essential to maximise the efficiency of production. Therefore, now-a-days, the
management of these techniques is done in a very scientific way and it is known as Poultry
Management. Scientific poultry management includes Brooder Management, Grower
Management, Layer Management and Male Management.
Brooder Management Brooder : It is an equipment for maintaining the baby chicks. There are different kinds of
brooders such as electric brooder, gas brooder, coal brooder and oil brooder. In India, electric
brooders are mostly used. The brooder may be a box which may be made up of wood. The
size may be 4 x 21/2 which can be used for brooding about 150 chicks. It is provided with
device for maintaining constant temperature. A number of holes in the box help in
ventilation. Now-a-days, for large-scale production, battery broode are used. These brooders
contain several compartments built in tiers.
Brooder house : Brooders are kept in the brooder house which should be well constructed
and sho provide adequate ventilation. Brooder house should be rain proof and protected
against predators such rats, mongoose and others. Brooding hens should have windows with
wire mesh for proper ventilatioa should not be located in a place where the environment is
dusty because dust irritates the respiratory Ira of the chicks and also carries germs of various
diseases.
Litter A suitable litter such as saw dust and paddy husk should be spead on the floor. A good
line serves as an insulator and maintains uniform temperature. B also serves as a blotter in
absorbing moisture and prevents ammonical odour.
Brooding temperature Brooder house, should have right temperature: Temperature should
95 F (35C) during the first week and this can be reduced by 5F per week during each
successive week fill
70 F (21.1C). The temperature inside .the brooder house should be about 20F below the
brood temperature. A number of dvices can be used to suppiy heat. Now-a-days, hover type
electric broode are commonly used The temperature in these brooders is controlled with the
help of thermostats. Flectri bulbs can also be used for heating brooder house. But in this case,
regulation of temperatures becom difficult. Infrared lamps can also be used for heating.

Brooder space : Brooder space of 45 to 65 cm2 (7 to 10 sq. inch) is mostly recommended per
chicken which means a hover of 1.80 m can accommodate ,about 500 chicks. Small pens can
also be used for brooding.
Brooder guard : Till the chicks are one-week old, hover guards should be placed 1.05 to
1.50 m Fm the edge of hover to prevent the baby chicks from straying from the source of
heat.
Floor space : In the beginning, a floor space of 0.05 m2 is required per chicks. This space
should be increased by 0.05 m2 after every 4 weeks until the pullet.s. (young hens) are about
20 weeks old, Fo broilers, a minimum floor space of 0.1 m2 for female chick and 015 m2 for
male chick should be availabi till 8 week of age.
Water space For the first 5 weeks, 2.5 cm of trough space should be provided for each baby
chick During the first few days, several small water fountains should be used, In the first two
weeks, four 2.2 l fountains can provide adequate water for 100 chicks.
Feeder space: Small wooden or metal trough with 2.5cm of trough space should be provided
for each baby chick for the first 10 days. Later on, these small feed troughs should he
replaced with large ones to .reduce feed wastage.
Nutrition : Chicks are usually ready to eat 24 hours after hatching. They also must learn to
eat and drink. Baby chicks cannot consume much food and cannot eat fibrous or bulky feeds.
Now-a-days commercial starter feed and growing mashes are available in the market.
Chick require ratior containing 20 to 22 per cent proteins of high quality during the first few
weeks, growing masses usually contain about 16 per cent protein.
Sanitation and Hygiene : The brooder house and all the equipments sucli as eeders,
waterers and hovers should he properly cleaned and disinfected. All litters must be scraped
and removed. Ihe hous should be disinfected with disinfectant solution. Insects can be
controlled by spraying insecticides. Ticks] and mites can be contriled by using malathion
spray/blow lamping or both. After each cleaning, ne litter should be sprayed. A foot-bath
with proper disinfectant should he kept at the entrance of the hous All these precautions must
he taken to avoid any kind of infection to the chicks because poultry disease are highly
contagious.
Grower Management
When the chicks are about 8 weeks old, the should he shifted from the brouceer he se to the
growet house.. Rearing of these chicks can be done either in a rearer or in a battery rearer
or by the deep littd system.

A simple rearer can be a box-type rearing coop with a wire-mesh bottom to avoid contact of
chicks with their droppings.
Now-a-days, battery rearers with a similar construction as that of battery brooders are
available. These can be used for production in a very large scale.
In deep litter system, a ventilated room with 4 to 6 deep litter materials laid on the floor
are used.
The requirements of floor space, feeder space and water space must be properly maintained
for the growers. The recommended floor space is 950 to 2,350 cm2, feeder space is 7.5 to
12.5 cm and water species 2.0 to 2.5 cm.
A very important aspect is water consumption. Water consumption depends on age, dietary
constituents, activity, temperature, humidity and air movements. Water consumption
increases rapidly at temperature above 85F (29.4C).
Lighting schedule also must be properly followed. Lighting schedule should be gradually
decreased till the growers are about 20 weeks of age. Growing pullets must not be exposed to
increased lighting schedule.
Food and feeding is very important for the broiler breeders. Proper food and feed restriction
must be strictly maintained for broiler breeders for the growers for controlling body weight
and maturity. If feed restriction is not proper it will result in increased feed cost, reduced egg
production and hatchability. Layer Management
When the birds are 18 to 20 weeks of age, they should be transferred from grower house to
layer house. Layer house should be well ventilated, quiet, comfortable, dry and clean.
The floor space for each bird should be 0.23 to 0.28 m2 depending on the breed. Light breeds
require 0.23 to 0.27 m2 and heavy breeds 0.27 to 0.28 m2.
The feeder spate should be 10cm and water space 2.5cm per bird. For commercial cage
operation, the floor requirement is 465 cm2 per bird. It is advisable to keep one laying nest
for every 4 pullets.
Proper lighting is very important for optimum production. Improper lighting or irregular light
causes less production. It is recommended to increase lighting gradually from 21 weeks
onwards till it reaches 16-17 hours per day. This level of lighting should be maintained for
the rest of the period. It is also recommended that the light stimulation should be one-foot
candle of light at birds eye level. This recommended light intensity can be provided by
fixing a 40-waft bulb with a reflector hanging 2.1 m above the floor for each 9.29 m2 of floor
space. Light bulbs should be cleaned regularly otherwise light intensity will be reduced due

to accumulation of dusts. The light bulbs should be replaced immediately if they are burnt
out.
Male Management
The male management, that is, breeder male management is very similar to that of the layer
management. The main difference is the diet. The feed for male breeders should contain large
quantity of calcium, manganese and vitamin E for proper fertility.
HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT
A proper care of the birds is essential for better production. Care should be taken at all the
stages of the birds and in all aspects of poultry production. Proper housing and use of proper
equipment for feeding, watering, roosting etc. are two very important aspects so far as care of
birds is concerned.
HOUSING
Objectives of housing
Two main objectives of housing are comfort of birds and their protection.
Comfort of birds: Housing is essential to provide comfort. The birds are able to live
comfortably only when certain conditions are fulfilled. Some of these important conditions
are (i) proper location of the house; (ii) proper floor space to avoid crowding; (iii) proper
roofs, floors, walls, doors and windows for proper lighting, heating or cooling, humidity,
ventilation, etc.
Protection of birds : The birds at all stages must be protected from natural predators such as
rats, foxes, cats, kites, crows, snakes and others, and parasites such as ticks, mites, lice and
others. The protection can be given if we lake care of certain aspects of housing such as
location of the house, p flooring without cracks, proper walls, roofs, windows, doors etc. and
hygienic conditions and sanitation the house.
Types of poultry house
Poultry houses are of many types depending on the geographic location, materials available
and accommodation for a particular number of birds. The poultry houses are also divided into
d types on the basis of kinds of roof (styles of roof), sides and so on. The houses can brooder
house, grower house and layer house.
On the basis of kinds of roof (styles of roof), poultry houses can be divided into two main
namely, shed type and gable type.
In shed type, the roof has a slope and this slope varies according to the climatic conditions
example, in areas of heavy rains or snow, the slope is steep, whereas, in plains where the rain

is not h the slope is slightly steep. Different kinds of roofing materials may be used. Thatched
roofing is chea provides good insulation but maintenance cost is high.
Tn gable type, the three-cornered upper part of a wall is enclosed by sloping roofs. This kind
off is more suitable in areas with moderately to high rainfall.
Requirements and construction of poultry house
A proper poultry house must fulfil certain requirements and should be constructed
accordingly. of these requirements and types of construction are given below:
1. Location of poultry house
Before constructing the poultry house, the location of the house must be considered. Location
mci its geographical area, its relation to other building, its exposure to sunlight, soil condition
of the drainage facility, proper shade and protection.
protection can be given if we take care of certain aspects of housing such as location of the
house, proper flooring without cracks, proper walls, roofs, windows, doors etc. and hygienic
conditions and sanitation of the house.
Types of poultry house
Poultry houses are of many types depending on the geographic location, materials available
locally and accommodation for a particular number of birds. The poultry houses are also
divided into different types on the basis of kinds of roof (styles of roof), sides and so on. The
houses can also be brooder house, grower house and layer house.
On the basis of kinds of roof (styles of roof), poultry houses can be divided into two main
types, namely, shed type and gable type.
In shed type, the roof has a slope and this slope varies according to the climatic conditions.
For example, in areas of heavy rains or snow, the slope is steep, whereas, in plains where the
rain is not heavy, the slope is slightly steep. Different kinds of roofing materials may be used.
Thatched roofing is cheap and provides good insulation but maintenance cost is high.
In gable type, the three-cornered upper part of a wall is enclosed by sloping roofs. This kind
of house is more suitable in areas with moderately to high rainfall.
Requirements and construction of poultry house
A proper poultry house must fulfil certain requirements and should be constructed
accordingly. Some of these requirements and types of construction are given below
1. Location of poultry house
Before constructing the poultry house, the location of the house must be considered. Location
includes its geographical area, its relation to other building, its exposure to sunlight, soil
condition of the area, drainage facility, proper shade and protection.

The poultry house should he placed on a sloping hillside for good drainage. The soil should
be sandy loam and not heavy clay soil. A fertile well drained soil is to be selected for good
vegetation.
In flat planes, the yards should be tiled.
Proper shade and protection from the wind can be provided by planting tall trees.
2. Floor space
The floor s.pace requirement varies according to the age of chickens and kind of breeds A
flor space of 2300 cm2 to 3700 cm2 is required for a chicken of 21 weeks old and for older
chickens. Smaller space is required for younger chickens,
It is suggesfed that for economic production of laying hens, small units of 15 to 25 birds must
be maintained.
3. Roofs
The roofs should he of either corrugated cement-asbestos or iron-sheets.
4. Floors
The floor should be properly cemented and it shoLtld be without cracks. A well laid concrete
floor is the safest way to avoid cracks. The cracks should be avoided in order to make the
poultry house free from dampness and rat proof and at the same time easy to clean.
5. Walls
In order to make open type houses, the walls should be made up of metal wire mesh on all the
sides. In winter, it may be necessary to cover those mesh with gunny bags or some suitable
material in order to save the birds from cold weather.
6. Ventilation
If the poultry house is built of bricks, the south side of the house should be enclosed with
half-inch wire netting. On the other three sides, there should be some openings (12 x 6)
covered with the same wire netting.
7. Light
The poultry house should be constructed in such a manner that the birds get enough sunlight
particularly during morning hours. A hen should have a day of at least 14 to 16 hours.
Artificial light, therefore, will be needed particularly during the winter months.
8. Temperature
The hens need a moderate temperature (50F to 70F). In general, the birds require a warmer
temperature at night. Straw or thatching may be used beneath the roof or on top of poultry
house in order to keep the house warmer during the winter months and cooler during the
summer months.

9. Humidity
Lot of humidity or dampness causes discomfort to the chickens and the diseases such as
pneumonia, colds etc. affect them. Therefore, an absolute dry condition inside the poultry
house is recommended.
10. Doors
The doors should be located on the south, they should be made of an angle iron frame
covered with mesh wire netting.
11. Windows
If the poultry house is built of bricks, at least 1.5 sq.ft. openings br each 10 sq.ft of floor
space is recommended. In the hill regions, the size of the windows may be reduced to half.
All windows should be covered with 1 wire netting.
12. Height
Height of the house depends on the temperature of the place. Usually the height should be 2.4
to 3 m from the foundation to roof line. More height helps in reducing the temperature inside
the house.
EQUIPMENT
A number of equipment for supplying food and water to birds, nest boxes for laying hens,
perches or roosts and some other items must be used in a poultry house for better
management and good results. Some of the important equipments are:
1. Feeders (Feed hoppers, Feeding turfs etc.)
The solid food should be given to the birds with the help of feeders such feed hoppers,
feeding turfs and other devices. Feed hoppers are noth -ig hut devices by which food
grains can easily pass into the beaks of the birds. They are mostly made up of bamboo. These
devices are used because (i) they prevent wastage of feed; (ii) birds can easily eat grains from
the boftom of the hopper; (Hi) they prevent birds from getting their feet into the feed and
roosting on the feeders; and (iv) they are easy to clean.
Various kinds of feeding troughs, pans and pots are also used for feeding the birds of tin,
galvanized iron and wood. The shapes or designs and sizes may be different depending on the
age and size of the birds.
2. Watering devices
A number of watering devices are available for supplying sufficient quantity of water at all
times. The device may be : (i) a simple earthen pot bowl; (ii) earthen waterer with hood; (iii)
jar and plate waterer; (iv) bottle and bowl waterer; (v) water tough with wire grill top; (vi)

simple water fountain; and These feeders may be made up (vii) sophisticated automatic water
trough with float valve assembly.
3. Roosts (Perches)
Birds should be provided with roosts or perches because they start roosting i.e. they try to get
above the ground at night when they are only 8 weeks old. Therefore, presence of roosts or
perches will not only make the birds comfortable and happy, hut their feet and plumage will
be kept cleaned.
Roosts or perches may be made up wooden bars of two square inches each which are flat at
the bottom and rounded at the top. These roosts are fixed near the walls about 16 inches
above the ground. A number of them may he fixed at different heights hut the two roosts
must be separated by a gap of at least 1 foot.
4. Nest boxes
Pullets or growing hens require nest boxes. These boxes are used when these hens start laying
eggs. For every four hens, one nest box is required.
Nest boxes should be prepared in such a manner that they have plenty of spao, well
ventilated, dark and cool. They should he easily movable. The nest box may be made up of
wood or metal. It is advisable to use metal box because it will not be infested easily with
mites and it is easy tr lean. Each nest box is usually constructed 14 square, 6 deep having a
head room of about 15.
Nest boxes can be constructed out of simple materials like 6mpty kerosene tins or other kinds
of oil tins. Wooden cases also make excellent nest boxes. Nests can also be prepared by using
wide mouthed earthen pots.
Grit and Shell Container
RAISING OF BROILER
For raising a broiler following points should be considered. (1) selection and breeding for
broilers; (2) broiler housing; (3) Feeding; (5) broiler health programme; and (5) marketing of
broilers. Thus, raising of broilers is one aspect of poultry management known as grower
management. It can also be described as management practices for broilers.
1. Selection and breeding for broilers Selection of parental broiler flocks is done when the
birds are about 8 weeks old, and a female line and a male line are selected on the basis of
weight. Thus, for breeding purpose, in each brood, individuals weighing most are selected.
The female lines are generally developed from birds belonging to white Plymouth Rock
variety and the male lines from birds belonging to Cornish variety of English breed.

In the next stage, hybrid vigour is achieved by systematic matings of different strains of the
selected breeds or inbred lines. The characters that are considered for female lines are high
growth rate, high hatchability and good production of eggs with proper texture and size. The
characters considered for the male lines are rapid growth, meat characteristics such as body
depth, breast width, dressing yield and, white feathers and rapid feathering.
This kind of selection procedure helps in producing good broilers from the parent which
themselves are not broilers.
2. Broiler housing
So far as broiler housing is concerned, it is important to know that for modern commercial
broiler production, the birds are not kept first in brooder house and then shifted to grower
house. The birds are maintained in one house, the broiler house from the beginning to the end
of production. The broilers are nearly always kept in confinement until they are sold.
The basis principle of housing is similar to that of brooder housing so far as ventilation, light
(sunlight), drainage and some other aspects are concerned. Some of the conditions such as
house temperature, lighting and floor space must be maintained as per requirements for
optimum growth of broilers. Some of these conditions are
House temperature It must be maintained accurately so that the birds are comfortable. If
temperature becomes too high, the chicks circle wide, and in too cold condition, they tend to
gather under the hover. The recommended temperature is 95F on the first week and this
should be reduced at the rate of 5F every week until temperature reaches 70F on the sixth
week.
ii) Lighting Light has effect on various aspects of birds behaviour. Light of different
intensities affects feed efficiency, cannibalism and movement of birds. There is no definite
guidelines for lighting in broiler house and, therefore, different systems of lighting are
Practiced. In many commercial establishments, one 60 watt bulb for each 200 sq. ft of floor
space is provided continuously (24 hours a day) throughout the growing period. In some
establishments, growing chicks are maintained in semi-darkness by using red coloured bulbs.
In this kind of light condition, the feeding efficiency may increase slightly, cannibalism may
he prevented and the chicks may remain quite. In some other cases, one 15 watts bulb for
each 200 sq. ft of floor area is provided at night during the early growing period.
iii) Floor space Usually 0.8 to 1.0 square foot of floor space is required for each bird. In hot
weather, the broilers require little more space than in cold weather.
3. Sexing of broilers

For proper management of broilers, expenditure on feed must be correctly supervised since
feed is very expensive. One of the ways to do this is sexing of broilers. This is because
consumption of food and growth is feed efficiency is different in males and females.
The sexes may be separated by vent, colour or rate of feathering. After they are separated,
different rations may he given to them. Males will require less feed since they grow faster
than females and weigh more at any given time. Thus feed efficiency is better in males.
Females need less protein than males because their rate of grow is slower than males.
Therefore, males may he marketed a few days earlier than females.
4. Broiler feeding (Broiler rations)
For broiler breeders proper feeding or feed restriction is very important for proper growth and
at the same time reduction in feed costs since about 70% of the cost of producing broilers
goes to feeds.
There are two types of ration for broiler broiler starter and broiler finisher. The broiler
starter contains more protein for the growth and broiler finisher contains more fat and
xanthophyll pigments which help in the development of uniform yellow skin colour, The
detailed composition of the two kinds of ration is given in Table 12.11.
5. Broiler health programme
A very important aspect of broiler management is to keep the birds healthy and to take all
measures for the prevention and treatment of various diseases to avoid any loss. For this, a
number of measures are required to be taken. Some of the important measures have been
described below
1. In the beginning, the chicks must be examined and only disease-free chicks should be
taken for broiler production.
2. Vaccination of chicks against two serious viral disease, namely, Ranikhet disease
(Newcastle disease) and Mareks disease must be done at the hatching.
Ranikhet disease is one of the serious viral diseases of poultry and mortality is 50 to 100 per
cent. Mareks disease is also caused by a virus and it causes lymphomas in various organs.
The mortality rate is 10-15%.
3. The disease, coccidiosis of poultry must be controlled and prevented.
Coccidiosis is a inan-made disease, in the sense, it is caused due to over crowding and
insanitary conditions. Therefore, maintaining proper sanitation, disinfection and removal of
litter must be carried out on a regular basis. Another way to avoid coccidiosis is not to allow
visitors and attendants inside the broiler house without wearing disinfected shoes and clean
clothes.

A number of drugs are available which can be used as preventives and curatives. For the
prevention, Amproliuni, nitrofurazone, nicabzin and some other drugs can be mixed with
feed.
6. Marketing of broiler
There is a great demand of broilers in India. It is estimated that about 72 millions or more of
broilers are required each year. Therefore, proper marketing of broilers can help regulating
loss of broilers during transport from the broiler house to the consumers house. Thus, for
marketing following steps should be taken:
i) Loss due to injury in the broiler house can be prevented by not feeding the broilers about 2
hours before catching. This can be done by adjusting feed to the feeders so that they become
empty about 2 hours before catching. Also the waterer should be removed. All these steps
will prevent injury such as bruises to the birds during catching.
ii) For shipment, the broilers should be caught by shanks arid only four or five of them should
be carried at a time, again to prevent injury.
iii) Broilers should be caught under a dim blue light at night.
iv) The conditions of birds during transit is very important. They should not be carried in
crowded condition. In hot weather, they should be avoided from excess of heat while
transporting by using open crates.
POULTRY DISEASES
COCCIDIOSIS
Coccidiosis is the disease caused by the protozoan Elineria belonging to the Order Coccidia
of Class Sporozoa. The different species of Eimeria are parasitic in various domesticated
animals including birds. The disease caused by Eizneria is called coccidiosis because the
parasite belongs to the Order Coccidia.
In all, about nine genera of coccidia have been recorded from birds. Among these coccidians,
the genus Eimeria is the economically important parasite since an outbreak of coccidiosis due
to Eirneria causes severe damage to poultry production. Amongst various sptcies of Eimeria,
the one which is highly pathogenic is Eimeria tenella.
In order to understand how the disease is caused and how it spreads amongst different
populations of chicken, it is necessary to know the life cycle of this parasite. The knowledge
of life cycle of the parasite will also help in controlling the spread of the disease.
Life cycle of Eimeria
Elineria is usually an intracellular parasite of the epithelial cells of the intestine. The parasite
is also very host specific.

The infection occurs when an oocyst containing sporozoites is ingestedby the bird. In the
intestine of bird, the cyst wall is dissolved due to the digestive juice, and the sporozoites are
released.
The sporozoites from the lumen of the intestine enter the epithelial cells lining the intestine
The sporozoite changes into the trophozoite and by asexual reproduction (schizogony)
produces many merozoites. After a few generations, some merozoites develop into male
gametes (microgametes) and some into female gametes (macrogametes). After fertilization,
the zygote is formed. The zygote develops a protective wall and is known as oocyst. The
docyst contains sporozoites. The oocyst is now released outside along with the faeces of the
bird. If this oocyst is ingested by another bird infection occurs.
Symptoms
Coccidiosis is most common in chicks about 4 weeks old. The infection produces diarrhoea
with bleeding from cloaca, anorexia (lack or loss of appetite for food), and anaemia
(deficiency in R.BCs or their haemoglobin). The chicks have ruffled feathers. The chicks
either die or recover slowly.
The older birds generally do not suffer from coccidiosis because they become premune due to
earlier exposure to infection.
Control or Prevention
Coccidiosis is caused mainly due to insanitory conditions and overcrowding. Therefore, the
disease is to a great extent man-made. The disease can be controlled by imposing proper.
sanitary conditions and keeping the lifter loose and dry. This can be achieved by having wirefloored pens.
A very important aspect of prevention of the disease is to subject the chicks to low level of
infection. This will help in developing immunity to the disease. In fact it is believed that
feeding a small number of oocysts of each of the se al species of coccidian to chicks can
produce immunity to the different species of coccidians. This is required because the
immunity is species specific.
Treatment
The diseased birds or the entire flock should be treated immediately because the disease
spreads very rapidly.
A number of drugs (coccidiostat) are available for the treatment. These are Nicabazin,
Amprolium, Nitrofurazone, Sulphaquinoxaline, and Zoalene. These drugs can be
administrated by mixing with feed or
water. These drugs should be used as per directions of the manufacturer or some veternarian.

AVIAN FLU
Avian flu or bird flu is also known as Avian influenza. The disease is primarily found in birds
but it may also be transmitted to humans.
The disease is a viral disease. It is caused by the virus known as HSN1. In order to know how
the disease is caused, how it spreads, what are the methods of treatment, how the disease can
be controlled and why the virus is called H5N1, it is necessary to know the main structure of
the virus.
Structure of virus H5N1
A virus particle is also known as virion. It consists of a nucleic acid core with its strands
meaning about 20 to 25 A (angstroms) in diameter (IA = 10-10 m). It has a protein coat
called capsid or nucleocapsid. The nucleic acid in case of influenza virus is RNA. Thus, it is
an RNA virus. There are 8 RNA molecules 8 chromosomes termed segments 1 through
8. These RNA molecules encode proteins.
There are two types of protein on the surface of the virus. These proteins are haemagglutinin
(HA protein) and neuraminidase protein (NA protein) which is also known as neuraminidase
enzyme. NA protein is a box-shaped tetramar (Pig. 12.15).
HA protein has about 15 subtypes called Hi, 1-12, H3 and so on, and NA protein has 9
subtypes called Ni, N2, N3, N4, N5 and so on.
In birds, all the subtypes can be found, but in humans, only three of HA (Hi, H2 and H3) and
two of NA (Ni and N2) are known to have circulated widely.
Thus, H5N1 virus means it has H5 subtype of HA protein and Ni subtype of NA protein.
Methods of transmission of Avian flu
The virus is carried by migratory waterfowl, especially ducks. Although these infected ducks
often appear healthy, they spread the virus in their droppings, saliva and nasal secretions
(12.16).
Domestic poultry particularly chickens, geese, and turkeys become infected through
contaminated water, soil, or feed, or even by inhaling the airborne virus. Infection in humans
takes place from close contact with sick birds or even through surfaces contaminated by
feathers, saliva or dropping of these birds. Infection also occurs by inhaling contaminated
faecal dust. Although Avian virus usually does not infect humans but many cases of human
infections have been reported since 1997.
Flu or influenza is caused by three related viruses, namely influenza A, B or C. While B and
C are mostly found in humans, the virus can cross the species barrier and abruptly change its
genetic blueprint. In other words, influenza A viruses swap or exchange genes and merge

creating a completely new virus or a new sub-stype. This phenomenon is called antigenic
shift.
Pigs are considered the perfect mixing vessel or mixing bowl for gene-swapping because
they can be infected by avian and human flu alike.
Infection of avian virus becomes very serious and deadly worldwide outbreak may occur. It is
believed that at present, there are about i44 possible subtypes of inf1uena that can inflect
birds.
Symptoms
The avian virus causes severe respiratory distress. It is a fatal respiratory disease, and the
infected chickens die within 48 hours since they have little resistance against this virus.
Treatment
There is no specific treatment for the viral disease. The disease is not amenable to curative
treatment once the virus has gained entry into the respiratory system and the symptoms have
started showing.
Control or Prevention
The spread of avian flu can be controlled by culling, which is nothing but selecting or
gathering birds especially for killing.
Another method of controlling the infection is to vaccinate the birds. It has been reported that
in India, scientists have isolated 48 virus strains from over 80,000 bird samples during the
vaccine trials in the year 2007, and have developed a vaccine for birds that costs as little as
35 paise.
It is the first Indian vaccine to protect poultry and wild birds against bird flu.

GOAT FARMING
INTRODUCTION
Goat is one of the first domesticated animals. It is believed that goat was domesticated by
man around 9000 to 7000 B.C. Importance of goat was realised by man from the beginning
and through the centuries the goat has remained a popular domesticated animal throughout
the world.
Goat is a hollow-horned, ruminant animal belonging to Class : Mammalia ; Order :
Artiodactyla; Suborder: Ruminantia; Family : Bovidae; and Genus : Capra. The domesticated
goat is capra hircus.
IMPORTANCE OF GOAT FARMING
The goat is known as poor mans cow in India and in other parts of the world. In Europe, the
goat is referred as wet nurse of infants. In Switzerland, the milch goat is said to be the
Swiss babys foster mother.
The goat is a versatile animal. Men has utilised goat by using goat milk, goat meat, goat skin,
goat hair and goat manure.
The various goat products and their utilisation by man can be described as follows:
MILK
Goat milk is wholesome and nourishing. Some of the important characteristics of goat milk
are
1. It is easily digestible and the digestibility coefficient of protein is 85.5 per cent, which is
very similar to that of a cow (88.3 per cent). Further, the fat globules are small and fine. The
average size of the fat globule is 2 i. The goat milk, therefore, can be easily assimilated.
2. Goat milk approaches nearest to human milk in percentage of proteins and fats. The
average composition of goat milk in India is:
Protein

4.33 per cent

Fat

4.9 per cent

Solids non-fat 9.3 per cent

Ash

0.89 per cent

Minerals

0.58 per cent

Sugar

5.8 per cent

Water

84.94 per cent

Goat milk is rich in antibodies. The milk does not have gamma-globulin factor. The bacterial
count is very low (much lower than other milk) in freshly drawn milk. There are 9 mineral

salts (out of 12 found in milk) in goat milk compared to 5 in human milk and 6 in cow milk.
Further, minerals are 7 to 10 times more in amount than human and cow milk.
3. The vitamin contents of goat milk (per litre) are:
Vitamin A

: 2,074 JU

Thiamine

: 0.40 mg

Riboflavin

: 1.84mg

Nicotinic acid

:1.87mg

Vitamin B6

: 0.07mg

Pantothenic acid

: 3.44 mg

Biotin

: 39 mg

Folk acid

: 2.40g

Vitamin B12

: 0.06 g

Vitamin C

: 15mg

4. Goat milk mostly does not cause any allergic reaction to infants who are allergic to cows
milk.
5. Milk products such as ghee and butter can also be produced from goat milk.
MEAT
Goat meat is liked by many in India and in other countries in the world. The goat meat is
commonly called chevon, Goat meat is usually low in its fat content. In India, the goat meat
on an average contains 1.0 to 2.8 percent fat, 18 to 20 per cent of protein, 0.6 to 1.15 per cent
mineral matter, 6.5 to 12 per cent total iron (mg/bOg) 10 to 23 per cent of calcium (mg/lOOg)
and a number of vitamins.
The digestibility coefficient of dried goat meat has been found to be 95.2 per cent.
The different parts of goat such as liver, brain, heart, kidney and lungs are also consumed in
large quantities in India and in other countries.
SKIN
Goat skin is mainly used in shoe industry. Goat skin is used as shoe uppers and as lining for
shoes.
HAIR
Different types of hair are obtained from different breeds of goat. The hair may differ in
length, luster etc. Goat hair is used for making blankets, bread-spreads, curtains, upholstery,
rugs, nets, hats and many other articles.
Pashmina (Pashn) is the hairy under-coat obtained from the Pashmina goat. This goat is
found in India (Garhiral district and on the Indo-Tibetan border in Tehri), Tibet, Turkistan,

Mongolia and Persia. Pashmina is used for making shawls like the famous ring shawls of
Kashmir. It is also used in making robes, blankets, bags etc.
MANURE
The solid excrete of goat forms good manure for soil. The solid excreta is very rich in
nitrogen and phospheric acid, and the amount of their substances present in the excreta is
several times more than those of cow and buffalo. Goat urine is equally rich in both nitrogen
and potash, and is considered more valuable than that of any other animal. It has been
estimated that the dressing manure supplied by 4,800 goats in one night is sufficient for one
acre of land. Goat owners, therefore, are able to earn money by allowing his goats to graze on
the stubbles in the field of a farmer.
INDIAN BREEDS OF GOAT (INDIGENOUS BREEDS)
There are about 20 well-known Indian breeds and a number of local non-descripts occurring
throughout the country. The well-known breeds can be classified on the basis of their
distribution in different climatic or geographical regions as follows
1. Jamunapari
This breed occurs in Etawah District in the hilly areas of Uttar Fradesh and in the tracts lying
between Jarnuna and Chambal rivers.
2. Beetal
This breed occurs mainly in Punjab.

Beetal
www.goatworld.com
3. Barbari
This breed probably originated in the city of Berbera (Berboa) in Somali Republic in East
Africa. In India, this breed is popular in Etawah, Aligarh, Agra of Uttar Pradesh, in some part
of Haryana and Rajasthan. The important features are:
4. Bengal (Black Bengal)

This breed is found in West Bengal and in almost all other parts of the eastern region. The
West Bengal breed is heavier than the others. It is a prolific breeder.

West Bengal Black

www.mushroomaddiction.blogspot.net

EXOTIC BREEDS
There are mainly four exotic breeds if dairy goats. Now-a-days, some of these breeds are
used in India. Attempts have also been made to evolve new breeds by crossbreeding. Two
important exotic breeds have been described below:
1. Toggenberg
This breed originated in Toggenberg valley in Switzerland. This goat is adaptable to different
climatic conditions. It is usually light brown with white shades on the legs and abdomen. A
light tan or white stripe can be seen on the sides on the face extending from the ear to the
muzzle.

Toggenberg

Nubian

http://www.welbianfarmdairygoats.com/Images/Middison-head-right.jpg
http://www.top-o-hill-acres.com/705/mumbles.gif
http://d613138.u33.dc-servers.com/UserFiles/Image/anglo-nubian-goat.jpg

Anglo Nubian

2. Nubian This breed originated in Nubia (North-Eastern Africa). The goat is also found in
Ethiopia and Egypt.
In England, a crossbreed was developed by crossing the Nubian bucks from Egypt and
Jamnaparis from India. This crossbreed is known as Anglo-Nubian.

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The production systems may be numerous since they depend on the agricultural situations
and socioeconomic conditions in the county. The agricultural situations depend mainly on
climatic conditions and geographical locations. In our country, the situations have been
broadly identified as principal range lands, tropical forests, tropical Savannah, desert bush
and temperate high lands. Under these situations, the production system can he broadly
divided into Tethering, Extensive production, Intensive production and Semi-intensive
production.
Tethering
It is a sedentary system in which the animal is tied by a rope for grazing. A modified
tethering system is known as combining tethering. In this case, more than one goat (up to five
goats) are allowed to graze at a time. The goats are led by ropes held by children and women.
Tethering system is more common sub-humid and humid zones. In these zones, because of
intensive cropping, there is proper utilisation of feeds in situ. Moreover, it is a convenient
method of rearing goats because it requires less labour input for controlling the animals.
Extensive production
In this system, animals are allowed to feed in large areas of land. This system is used by
nomadic and trans humen peasants. The system is common in areas with low rainfall or
where Jots of crop residues are available during winter months.
Intensive production
In this system, goats are fed in confinement with limited access to land. The are fed with
cultivated grasses and agroindustrial byproducts like molasses area supplementation and
low quality roughages in situ.
The advantage of the system is that it allows feeding under control. The disadvantage is that
it requires high labour input as well as cash input.
Semi-intensive production
It is an integrated system, and the nature and extent of integation depend on the type of crops
grown and how much they are suitable to goats. This system is used to some degree in almost
every situation.

The system has a number of advantages such as (i) increased fertility of land, (ii) control of
waste herbage (herbs collectively), (iii) less wastage of fertilizer, (iv) easier management of
the crop, (v) increase in crop yield.
The fertility of land increases because the solid and excreta (dung) is rich in nitrogen and
phosphoric acid. Urine also contains large amount of nitrogen. Because of this, less fertilizers
are required by the land and the crop yield also increases as a result of natural manuring. The
net result is that economically, this system is highly economical.

NUTRITION (REQUIREMENT OF NUTRIENTS)

Nutrient can be described as a single class of foods or group of like foods which help in
supporting life.
So far as Animal farming is concerned, the supply of proper nutrients is very significant
because production of milk, meat, hair and other materials, and production of young ones
depend on nutrients.
Nutrients may be classified as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. Water
may be classified as the sixth nutrient. Water is essential for the absorption and utilization of
all nutrients.
Energy is obtained from nutrients such as carbohydrate and fat, and to some extent from
proteins.
Goat obtains its supply of nutrients from food supplied to it. Feed may be dry matter such as
legume grass or hay, and green feed like leaves, twigs and tender buds.
Goats like any other animal need feed for maintaining themselves, as well as for restoring
wear and tear of different body tissues. This need of nutrients is known as maintenance
requirement. Besides this, there is production requirement, which includes requirement for
the production of milk, meat, hair etc., and pregnancy requirement which include requirement
for the production of young ones. For different requirements, there should be different kinds
of ration.
Protein
In goat, the basic requirement for protein is a minimum level of 6% total protein. Additional
protein is required for pregnancy, lactation and growth.
The protein value of a diet in goat (like other ruminants) is referred to as crude protein and is
derived by estimating nitrogen content and multiplying the value by 6.25.
Protein can be supplied to goats by providing feeds such as lucerne hay (good quality) and
adding protein supplement such as soyabean meal, cotton seed meal, linseed meal etc.

Carbohydrates and fats

These nutrients supply energy along with protein to some extent.
Carbohydrates can be divided into two groups nitrogen-free extract (NFE) and fibre. NFE
is the portion of carbohydrate that is largely made up of easily and completely digestible
carbohydrates, sugars and starches. NEE is found in cereals such as jowar, bajra, oats etc.
Fibre is the more fibrous parts of plants that are largely composed of cellulose and lignin.
Fibre is found mainly in hays, silage and fodders. Goat like any other ruminant can digest
large amount of fibre. Therefore, proper ration should be prepared for goat containing NFE
and fibre for different classes.
Fats are present in most seeds and different plant parts but in much less quantities than the
carbohydrates. Fats should be considered as important nutrient while preparing rations for
goats.
Minerals
Minerals are required in small quantities but they play a vital role in animal nutrition.
Minerals are necessary for growth, milk production and reproduction.
The minerals required for nutrition of animals have been divided into three categories
(a) major minerals such as calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, phosphorous sulphur
and chlorine; (b) trace minerals the minerals required in micro quantities, such as copper,
zinc, iron, cobalt, iodine, manganese, fluorine, silicone, chromium, selenium, vanadium and
molybdenum; (c) toxic minerals essential minerals but become toxic when present in
excess of a particular limit, such as fluorine, selenium and molybdenum.
In case of goats, usually adequate quantities of necessary minerals are present in the feed. But
certain major minerals such as sodium, calcium, phosphorous, sulphur and chlorine must be
supplemented particularly for lactation and growth.
Calcium and phosphorous are generally needed in large quantities. Calcium is required to
be added to the diet of lactating goats. Phosphorous is essential for proper growth of bones
and assimilation of carbohydrates and fats. A very important aspect is that calcium and
phosphorous contents in the diet should be within certain proportions. In the goats, the
recommended ratio of calcium to phosphorous ranges from 2 1 to 4 1 but it should not fall
below 2 1. Bone meal is a good source of calcium and phosphorous. The amount of calcium
and phosphorous should be 147 mg/kg live weight and 72mg/kg live weight respectively.
Sodium and potassium are required for proper functioning of muscles and nerves. These
minerals are essential for milk production and growth. The recommended dose for lactating
dose is 0.5% of ration,

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances needed in minute quantities but are essential for various
metabolic processes in all the animals.
Goats also need a number of vitamins but being a ruminant, they can manufacture most of the
vitamins except A, D and F in the rumen of the stomach. The goats can get supply of vitamin
A if they are fed with yellow maize and green forage. Vitamin D is secured when the animals
are exposed to sunlight. Vitamin F is present in wheat and other cereals, and these are mostly
present in most normal rations.
Water
As already stated water may be considered as the sixth nutrient which is essential for the
absorption and utilization of all nutrients. In fact, water plays an important role in all life
processes. The animal body contains about 65 to 70 per cent of water,
The goat being a ruminant, intake of large quantity of water is required for the process of
digestion in rumen, because water provides conditions which allow bacteria to grow and
digest coarse feed. The recommended quantity of water is 450- 680 g/day for a goat weighing
18 -20 kg.
Let us now consider the nutrient requirement for different purposes and at different
conditions of the animal. The nutrition requirement can be divided into (i) maintenance
requirements, (ii) production requirements, and (iii) pregnancy requirements.
i) Maintenance requirements These are the requirements of nutrition to maintain normal
growth and functioning of the body. Maintenance requirements are related to surface area and
basal metabolic rate (BMR). Goats have BMR higher than the cattle. The maintenance
requirements are, therefore, higher than those of cattle. In other words, goat can consume
substantially more feed than cattle or sheep for its size. For example, goats require 6.5 to 11
per cent of its body height in dry matter as compared to 2.5 to 3 per cent for cattle or sheep.
Because of this reason proper amount of forage or maintenance ration should be supplied to
goats for their maintenance.
ii) Production requirements Requirements of nutrition for the production of milk vary
according to the amount and quality of milk that a goat produces and the weight of the goat.
For example, a goat producing 1 litre of milk with 3.0 per cent fat requires 43 g of digestable
crude protein (DCP) and 200 g of starch equivalent (SE). On the other hand, the requirements
for producing 1 litre of milk with 4.5 per cent of fat will be 60 gm of DCP and 285 g of SE.
These requirements can be fulfilled by providing appropriate production ration. Thus, for a
goat weighing 50 kg and producing 2 litres of milk with 4 per cent fat should be given 5 kg of

lucerne or berseem and 400 g of concentrate mixtura. It also should be seen that the protein
content is 12 to 15 per cent. The ratio will again depend on the amount of protein present in
the hay and the protein present in the milk.
Hi) Pregnancy requirements During pregnancy, the BMR is high and, therefore, the
requirements for protein and starch are also high. Therefore, the content of ration during
pregnancy should be as high as the production ration.
FEEDING
For proper feeding to different types of goats (kids, does and bucks) a feeding programme
must be developed. The feeding programme should include the proper ration and the amount
to be given to each type. The programme can be successful if cheap and efficient ration can
be developed. An efficient ration will contain proper quantities of dry matter, digestable
proteins and total digestable nutrients. This is possible if the feed contains proper
concentrates and roughages.
The feeding programmes for the kids, does and bucks are given below.
Feeding the kids
The feeding for the kids should include the following:
i) Feeding of mothers milk : The kids should be fed its mothers milk for at least 7 days after
birth. For the first 3 days, the kid should be fed 56 to 112 gm of milk 5 times a day. Overfeeding should be avoided since the kid has a very small stomach.
The milk by the mother (doe) for the first three days is called colostrum. In goat (as in cow)
colostrum acts as a means to transmit maternal antibodies to the offspring.
ii) Feeding of cows milk, dried skimmed milk, milk replacer: In case, the kids are not nursed
by the doe or the doe does not give sufficient milk, cows milk or dried skimmed milk or
milk replacer can be used. Mothers milk can also be replaced in a similar way if there is
large demand for goats milk. Feeding replacer can be continued till the kids are about 4
months old.
iii) Feeding of kid-starter: Kid should start eating kid-starter when it is 3 to 4 weeks of age.
However, it is a good practice to keep a small box containing kid-starter in front of the kid
when it is only 2 days old. In doing so, kid may start eating sufficient amount of kid starter
when it is only 2 weeks old.
It has been suggested that the following constituents (by weight) may be used as a kid-starter
Yellow maize (ground) 45 parts, Rice polishing 20 parts, Wheat bran 15 parts, Ground nut oil
cake 10 parts, Dried milk 8 parts, Mineral mixture 2 parts, Vitamin A (dehydrated. stable) 20

gm per ton, Vitamin D (dehydrated, stable) 6 gm per ton, Antibiotics (Aureonycin or

Terramycin) S gm per ton
Feeding the adult goats
The adult goats should be given legume grass or hay. Along with the dry hay, they also
should be given some green feed. The green leaves such as habul, mulberry, neem, tamarind
and ber are generally liked by the goats. They should be supplied with grain mixtures or
concentrates,
It has been seen that a daily ration for goats of all ages after crossing kid-starter age, should
be:
Lucerne or berseem hay 1.5 kg, Succulent greens, silage or roots 1.0 kg, Concentrate mixture
1.0 kg
Among the adult goats, some special care should be taken for the does. The bucks also
require some different treatment.
Feeding the doe: A dairy goat should be given enough quantity of well-cured legume hay
such as lucerene or berseem. The grasses should be cut when they are at the early stages of
blooming and should be cured during sunny weather.
Grain mixtures or concentrates are essential for a good milking doe. Mineral mixtures are
available in the market or can be prepared by mixing suitable constituents.
Besides supplying proper feeds, the doe should be supplied with salt. Lumps of rock salt of
fairly good size should be kept in some suitable place so that the doe can easily get them.
This is very important because goats secrete a good amount of sodium and chloride ions in
milk.
For pregnant goats high quality roughages should be provided. They also should be supplied
with high quality leguminous fodder and concentrates having 25 per cent protein.
Feeding the buck : The bucks should be given the same feed as the does but comparatively
more forage should be given since they are larger in size. A good amount of concentrate also
should be given to them so that they remain in good physical condition.

MODERN TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE COAT PRODUCTION

A number of modern reproduction techniques have been used to increase goat production.
The two important techniques are : (1) Artificial insemination; (2) Embryo transfer
technology.
1. Artificial Insemination (Al)

Artificial insemination is the technique in which sperms are introduced into the female
reproductive tract by an artificial means. This technique is abbreviated as Al when applied in
domestic animals.
Artificial insemination includes four main stages : (A) collection of semen; (B) dilution of
semen; (C) storage of semen; and (D) insemination transfer of semen to the female
reproductive tract.
A. Collection of semen
Semen is collected either by using artificial vagina (AV) or by electrical stimulation.
However, AV is mostly used for collecting semen of goat.
Collection by artificial vagina (AV)
This method of collection of semen is preferred because (a) it is simple and quick, (b) semen
can he collected many times in a day, (c) it allows collection of better quality of semen and
(d) it is not stressful to the donar, that is, the male goat.
Collection by artificial vagina (AV)
This method of collection of semen is preferred because (a) it is simple and quick, (b) semen
can he collected many times in a day, (c) it allows collection of better quality of semen and
(d) it is not stressful to the donar, that is, the male goat.
The A consists of (i) an outer rubber cylinder, (ii) an inner latex; (iii) a latex rubber cone;
(iv) a graduated glass collection tube; and (v) an insulation bag covering the glass tube and
rubber cone.
In case of goat, the outer rubber cylinder is 15 cm x 5.5 cm. The size of the AV depends on
the length of the Penis. The cylinder has rims on either side. At one end, a valve is fixed near
the rim to admit water and air while preparing the AV for use. The inner latex which acts a
liner should extend 5 to 8cm beyond the ends of the outer cylinder because it has to be folded
back and secured at the ends with rubber bands in order to form a water tight jacket.
Before using, the inner liner is rinsed with 70% alcohol prepared using distilled water. The
liner is allowed to dry. Now the jacket or the space between the outer cylinder and the inner
latex is partly filled with warm water (48-50C) using the valve fixed at one end. This is
done in order to maintain temperature somewhat similar to that of the natural vagina. The
pressure of AV also can be maintained by allowing air to enter through the valve or air outlet.
Now, inner latex is lightly lubricated with vaseline (up to a depth of 3 cm) with the help of a
sterile glass rod. At the other end, the sterile glass collection tube is fixed after warming it to
30-37C.

The bucks are actually trained to donate semen. For collecting semen, a teaser female is used,
so that the buck may engage in courtship. At th1.Y time, semen is collected by using AV.
After collection, the collecting tube is immediately removed, labelled, covered and placed n a
water bath at 30C.
B. Dilution of semen
The ejected volume is generally 0.5 to 2.0 ml. In 1 ml of semen there may be 2 to 3 thousand
million sperms. However, to inseminate one female, 20-50 million sperms have been found to
be sufficient. Therefore, the collected semen is diluted and the dilution rate is usually
between I 5 and I 10 or minimum 20-25 million sperms per dose of 0.1 ml. Further, the
ejaculated sperms do not survive for a long time, and therefore, to extend the life of sperms or
to preserve its fertilizing capacity, a number of ingredients are added to the diluter. Thus, by
diluting sperms, two objectives are achieved; (1) a number of females can be inseminated
from one collection of semen, and (2) satisfactory viability can be maintained for 3 to 4 days
at 5C.
The two common diluents used for goat are egg-yolk-glucose-citrate diluent and egg yolk
this fructose dilue nt. The composition of these two diluents is as follows:
Egg yolk glucose citrate diluents, Egg yolk 2.50 ml, Glucose 0.80 g, Sodium citrate
(2H20) 3.634 g, glass-distilled water 100.00 ml, Egg yolk-his-fructose diluents, Egg yolk
2.50

ml,

Tris

(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane

3.634

g,

Fructose

0.50

g,

Citric

acid/monohydrate (g), Glass-distilled water 100.00 ml

C. Storage of semen
In case of goat, because of egg-yolk coagulating factor in the semen plasma, it is difficult to
store semen in certain diluents (glycine) at 5C. However, it has been observed that
satislactory viability can be maintained for 3 to 4 days at 5C.
Although use of frozen semen has been found to be quite successful in goats, maximum
fertility rate can be obtained by using freshly diluted semen within 10 to 12 hours of storage.
D. Insemination transfer of semen to the female reproductive tract
For insemination, a doe in oestrus cycle is held. The glass-tube speculum lubricated with
liquid
paraffin is inserted and cervix located. The glass pipette containing 0.1 to 0.2 ml of semen is
inserted through the speculum and semen is blown on the mouth of cervix by slightly
pressing the rubber bulb with thumb and fore-finger. Ordinary syringe and cathater of small
size can also be used.
Advantages of Al

There are a number of advantages of Al. The most significant is that the goats occurring in
India and other tropical countries are prolific breeders and they have the necessary
reproductive potential, considering these aspects, for economical benefits, first superior bucks
can be produced and then these superior bucks can be multiplied extensively through
artificial insemination.
2. Embryo transfer technology
Embryo transfer (ET) is the technique by which fertilized eggs (ova) are collected from the
reproductive tract of a genetically superior female (donor) and transferred to the reproductive
tract of another female (recipient) which is genetically inferior.
The entire process of ET includes a number of steps. These steps are
i) Selection of donor and recipient
ii) Induction of superovulation to donor
iii) Synchronization of estrous cycle of donor and recipients
iv) Insemination of the donor
v) Recovery of embryos (embryo collection) from donor
vi) Short-term storage of embryos in vitro
vii) Transfer of embryo to recipient
i) Selection of donor and recipient - Proper selection of donor is the first important step. In
India, FT has been tried at many research centres. For this, outstanding females have been
selected as donor. Goat which are genetically inferior have been selected as recipients.
ii) Induction of superovulation to donor - Superovulation can be defined as increased
ovulatory response by external hormonal therapy, above a level that would be expected to
occur naturally. Superovulation can he achieved by introducing a number of gonadotrophin
preparations. These preparations are available from commercial sources. For example,
pregnant mares serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) has been recently used in goat. This is
commercially available as equine chorionic gonadotropliin (ECG) since it is prepared from
pregnant female horse. Besides this, follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH) or prostaglandin F2
(PGF) can also be used.
The basic principle of superovulation is to obtain increased number of ovules and minimizing
the loss that occurs through the process of atresia at various stages of follicular growth. The
mammalian ovary actually contains may more oocytes than are destined to ovulate, but vast
majority degenerate into atretic follicles. The hormonal treatment has been found to reduce
this loss.

iii) Synchronization of estrous cycle of donor and recipients - The oestrus (heat) of both
the donor and the recepient is synchronized using prostaglandins. 1lie prostaglandin F2
(PGF2) or its synthetic analogues have been effectively used for oestrtis synchronization in
goats. It has been seen that a single intramuscular injection of F, analogue Estrurnate is useful
in synchronizing oestrus without any adverse effect on fertility.
iv) Insemination of the donor
The donor goat is subjected to artificial insemination (AT). For Al frozen semen fr&h
superior goat is used.
v) Recovery of embryos (embryo collection) from donor
The embryos from the donor are collected at the blastula stage. Now-a-days, embryos can be
collected from the uterus by flushing using special nutrient medium.
vi) Short-term storage of embryos in vitro
The embryos are isolated from the flushings and examined under stereoscopic microscope.
Good embryos are selected for future use.
Selected embryos are then stored for a short period in special medium at 37C in the
incubator.
vii) Transfer of embryo to recipient
One embryo is transferred to a recepient (surrogate mother). A proper management of the
recepient through parturition is necessary to obtain the young goat from the recepient.
Advantages of embryo transfer
There are a number of advantages of embryo transfer. The important ones are (a) faster
multiplication of genetically superior goats. By ET technology, 810 times more progeny
can be obtained; (b) faster genetic improvement is possible because the offspring receives
genes partly from the donor female and partly from male to which the donor is bred. The
recepient (surrogate mother) does not contribute any gene but she only acts as incubator for
the development of the embryo.

DISEASES - PREVENTION AND TREATMENT

Goats are comparatively less prone to serious diseases than other domestic animals. Even
then they are affected by a number of diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites. If
these diseases are not properly controlled, the goat farming will not be economically
beneficial.
Some of the common diseases of goat and the methods of their prevention are given below
A. Diseases caused by bacteria

1. Anthrax It is caused by Bacillus anthracis. These are rod-shaped, resistant spore-forming

types of bacteria. The disease causes difficulty in breathing, discharge of blood from the
natural body opening, convulsions in acute form. Fever and enlargement of spleen are the
initial symptoms.
Prevention of the disease is possible by taking a number of measures such as (i) maintenance
of proper hygienic conditions of the surroundings; (H) vaccination, (Hi) ploughing up of the
infected pastures and leaving them open for some period (few months); (iv) burning or
burying the dead animals deep after covering with quick-time.
2. Johnes disease It is caused by Mycobacteriutn partuberculosis. The disease affects the
animal in different ways, such as (i) lesions appear most frequently in the vicinity of terminal
portion of small intestine causing the area oedamatous; (H) ileocaecal lymph nodes enlarge;
(iii) intermittent diarrhoea; and (iv) gradual loss of condition.
Prevention of the disease is possible by taking measures such as : (i) segregating the affected
animals, (ii) disposing off the faces properly, (Hi) vaccinating with live vaccine.
3. Brucellosis (Malta fever) It is caused by Brucella rnelitensis. The disease is responsible for
varying degrees of placentitis and abortion. Abortion is followed by fever. It is also known as
Malta fever or undulant fever.
Prevention of the disease is most important since there is no adequate treatment. 1he
preventive measures are (i) hygiene milk from goats affected with brucellosis should be
pisteurized to kill the bacteria. The kids may get infected and spread the disease if they are
allowed to drink unpasteurized milk from infected goats, (H) testing brucellosis may be
transmitted to man. It is, therefore, important to conduct a regular blood testing to eradicate
disease, (Hi) vaccination It is possible togive sonic protection to the goats by vaccination,
(iv) isolation in case abortion is noticed in one or more does, they should be isolated until
the cause of abortion is found.
4. Mastitis It is a complex disease and may be caused by various bacteria infecting the udder
tissue. The most common bacteria associated with the disease are various species of
sterptococci, Staphylococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus, Corn ynebacteriutn pyogenes
Escherichia coli and few others.
The disease may be chronic or acute depending upon the type of infecting agent. ln affected
does, milk secretion becomes less, and thick and purulent. Milk may contain fibrin and blood.
In acute cases, the animals get high fever and enlargement of affected udder. It may result in
the loss of one or both halves of the udder.

Prevention of the disease is very important since treatment in some cases may not give
satisfactory results. The most important aspect of prevention is proper hygienic measures to
stop spread of infecting bacteria. The following measures are generally recommended (i)
identification of all infected animals and animals diagnosed positive should be milked last,
(ii) washing of hands of milkers before milking, (Hi) washing the udder of each animal with a
disinfectant using separate clean cloth, (iv) taking care while milking. The first stream of
milk from each quarter should not be allowed to drop on floor but should be collected in a
separate container. Milkers should not vet their hands with first stream of milk, (v) milk
containers and equipment should be washed properly, (vi) infected udder should be treated by
injecting antibiotics directly into the teat canal.
5. Vibrosis It is a genital disease caused by Carnpylobacterfctus (Vibriofeetus). The disease
is also known as campylobacter abortion. The spread of disease in the herd causes reduction
in fertility rate and abortion
in does. Abortion is usually ispreceded by vaginal discharge for many days.
For prevention of the disease, the following measures should he taken (i) use of killed
vaccine to reduce the incidence of disease, (ii) providing clean water and feed since the
disease may spread through contaminated water and feed; (iii) reduction in abortion by
antibiotic therapy, using chlortetracycline or streptomycin, and (iv) treating bucks by
injecting antibiotic cream in the prepuca.
6. Caseous lymphadenitis It is a chronic bacterial disease caused bx Corqnehacteriw, The
disease causes abscesses in lymph nodes such as submaxillary, prescapular, prefemoral and
others. Thus, swellings occur along the jaw, front of the shoulder, or in the flank region. The
abscesses may rupture and thick green or yellowish-white pus is discharged. Sometimes,
abscesses may be formed in lungs and other organs, and may cause. death of the animal.
For prevention of the disease, following measures should he taken (i) since the source of
infection is the discharge from ruptured lymph nodes, the pus should be burned or buried to
stop spread of infection; (H) lesions beneath the skin should be opened and the pus removed.
Sonic kind of disinfectant or tincture of iodine should be injected into the opened pocket, (Hi)
the infected goat should he removed to some distance from the goat house.
7. Foot-rot It is caused by rodshaped, gram-negative bacteria Sp/ierop/iorus iwdosits, The
disease is characterised by inflammation, necrosis and ulceration of underlying tissues of
loot. It causes lameness and therefore, a lameness of a herd indicates spread of foot-rot.

The disease can he controlled and prevented if the following measures are taken : (i) proper
draining of wet pastures; (ii) trimming of affected foots; (iii) treating exposed infected tissue
with tF formalin or with chrornaphenicol or tetracycline.
8. Contagious pleuropneumonia (Caprine pleuropneuomonia) It is highly infectious disease
caused by Mi,coplasina copri. The disease is prevalent in certain parts of our country. The
affected animals get high fever, finds difficult) in breathing, have a continuous nasal
discharge, coughing and diarrhoea. Lungs are affected and interlohular septa become
thickened. The mortaNty rate is 90 per cent.
The disease can he controlled and prevented by taking measures such as : (i) segreg affected
animals, (H) slaughtering of infected and contact goats, (iii) disinfection of infected and (iv)
vaccination against the disease. A satisfactory vaccine has not yet been developed strain of
organism is used for producing active immunity.
9. Black-quarter : It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei, a gram positive rod-shaped organism.
The infection causes inflammation of muscles, severe toxaemia and even death. The mortality
rate is high;
Prevention of the disease is possible by taking measures such as (i) active immunization i.e.
vaccination; (ii) destruction of carcases by burning; (iii) proper disinfection of the premises
since the spores are resistant to weak disinfectant. The spores are destroyed in 15 minutes in
3% formalin or in 10 minutes in bichloride of mercury.
10. Enterotoxaemia : It is caused by a rod-shaped, anaerobic organism, Clastridium welchii.
This organism has been classified into A, B, C, D and E types on the basis of toxin
production. The organism grows rapidly in the intestine and produces toxin. The toxin causes
haemorrhagic ulcers in the intestine. The infected animal shows signs of abdominal pain,
bloat, collapse and die within a few hours.
The disease can be prevented by proper vaccination.
B. Diseases caused by viruses
1. Rinderpest
It is an acute, febrile (causing fever), infections disease caused by the virus belonging to the
family Paramyxoviridae and genus Morbilivirus. The disease causes dullness of the animal
with congested conjunctivita and dryness of muzzle. These symptoms are followed by loss of
appetite and passing of soft faces often stained with blood, development of raw ulcers in the
mouth (rendering animal incapable of feeding) and severe diarrhea. In severe cases, the
animals die within 7 to 10 days from the onset of the symptoms.

Prevention of the disease is possible by taking following measures (i) isolating affected and
in contact animals from healthy animals, (ii) removing the affected and in contact animals to
a distant place with separate arrangements for feeding and watering, and also engaging
separate attendants; (iii) using anti-rinderpest serum and rinderpest vaccines.
2. Goat pox
It is a common disease of goat caused by the virus belonging to the family Poxviridae and
genus Capripox. The virus tends to attack male kids and ewes in milk. The infected aniixals
get high fever, lesions (pimples followed by vesicles) appear usually in the hairless regions of
inner surfaces of thighs, on the udder, teats and under the tail, nose and mouth.
The measures to prevent the disease are : (i) segregation of affected animal, (ii) disinfection
of the premises, (iii) burningof scales that fall on the ground.
3. FoOt and mouth disease
It is a highly communicable disease caused by a virus belonging to the family Picornaviridae
and genus Aphtlunirus. The virus exists in 7 different types and affects cloven-footed
animals including goats.
The disease is characterised by fever, formation of vesicles and blisters in the mouth, udder,
teats, and on the skin between toes and above the hoofs.
Prevention of the disease is the only dependable method to stop spreading of the disease since
no therapeutic agent has been found till now to cure the disease. The measures to prevent the
disease are
(i) selective vaccination since many types of the virus cause the disease, it is necessary to
carry out vaccination with a polyvalent vaccine regularly, (ii) disinfection of all utensils and
clothes of attendants must he carried out properly; (Hi) a strict watch should be kept over
animals in the neighboring areas; (iv) In many countries, the affected and in contact animals
are slaughtered and buried to a depth of at least 4.5 rn in the ground and covered with lime
and earth.
C. Parasitic diseases
1.Bronchitis
This occurs due to lung worm infection or the feed place in drum, some time goat gets
irritation and bronchitis that can be controlled by dampening the mixture with water or
molasses water, this way dust in the feed will be reduced. Chronic coughing also occurs in
mycoplasmosis.
2. Coccidiosis

It is caused by the protozoan parasite Coccidia, There are more than 12 species of Coccidia
causing the disease. The infection results in diarrhea and loss of body weight of the goats. A
heavy infection may cause hemorrhage in the intestine.
Prevention and control measures include (i) disinfection of premises, (ii) removal of litter
regularly, (iii) avoidance of overcrowding; (iv) separation of older animals which have
recovered from the acute stage of the disease since they act as carriers.
3. Hookworm infection
Hookworm (nemotodes) such as Bunostomum frigonocephalum, B. phelbotomum and B.
bovis infect goats, and also sheep and buffalo. The infection causes loss of blood resulting in
anaemia, diarrhoea with blood, loss of hair etc.
Measures to prevent infection are (i) proper disposal of faeces; (ii) keeping the living areas
clean and dry because the infective juveniles are able to survive only in damp and cool areas;
(iii) treatment of females well before pregnancy.
4. Lungworm infection
The nematode, Dictyocaulus filaria infects goat and sheep. The infection produces bronchitis,
pneumoc a, persistant cough and difficulty in breathing.
Prevention of the infection is possible by taking measures, such as (i) vaccination a good
live vaccine is now available and it is very effective, (ii) proper disposal of faeces since eggs
pass out with the faeces, (iii) keeping the grazing area clean since juveniles or the parasite are
ingested by goats while grazing.
5. Infection of sucking lice
The blood-sucking lice (insects) known as Lznognathus stenopsis infects goats. Heavy
infestation with lice is described as lousinesstt and it is characterised by irritation of the skin
and forcing the animal to rub, scratch or bite its skin to relief itself from irritation. The
infected animal also shows a rough coat with damaged hair.
The attack by the sucking lice can be controlled and prevented by use of insecticides such as
0.25 to 005% DDT spray or 0.25% dip, or gamma-BHC at 0.05% spray, use of 0.5%
malathion is also effective. Another insecticide diazinon (0.004%) spray can also control the
infestation.
6. Infection of ticks
The arachnids (arthropods) belonging to the families lxodidae (hard tick) and Argasidae (soft
tick) attack domestic animals. A number of species of the genus Hyaloinma and Boophilus
are common in India.

The infestation with lice causes irritation and therefore, forcing the animal to rub, scratch and
bites its skin to relief itself from irritation. The bite of ticks causes abrasions on the grain of
the hide and therefore, the leather prodiced from it appears spotted resulting in production of
inferior quality of leather. The ticks also transmit germs of various diseases.
Prevention and control of tick investation includes measures such as (i) for soft ticks,
spraying or dipping the animal using 0.05% gamma BHC. Diazinon (0.05%) or malathion
(1%) may be sprayed for resistant species, (H) for hard ticks, DDT (0.5%) may be sprayed.
Gamma-BHC at 0.05% is more effective. Malathion (0.5%) and Sumithion (0.05%) can also
prevent or control hard ticks, (iii) ticks on pastures or grounds should be controlled by
spraying DOT or lindane at least once a month.
7. Scabies (Infection of mites)
Among the arachnids (arthropods) belonging to the family Sarcoptidae, Sarcoptes scabiei
(mange mite) is the commonest one that attacks the goats. The mites initially attack the head
region and the ,, and then they gradually spread to the other parts like neck, chest and
abdomen. In case of severe infection, larger areas of skin are affected and the animal may die.
The mites burrow into the skin and cause severe irritation.
Prevention and control measures include (i) spraying of insecticides such as BHC suspension
containing 0.035% gamma-isomer. Other insecticides such as diazinon (0.04%), malathion
(0.5%) and lindane (0.05%) can also be effective; (ii) isolation of infected animals; (iii)
burning of litters and beddings of infected animals; (iv) thorough cleaning of all materials
with which the affected animals may have been in contact.

PREVENTIVE HEALTH SCHEME FOR GOAT

Preventive health scheme is a part of good management of goats. It includes skillful
application of up- to-date information in all stages of goats to stop the attack of various
diseases and thereby maintain good health of the goats in a farm. The mast important aspect
of it is to take care of kids. The preventive health scheme should, therefore, include (A)
Preventive health scheme for kids, and (B) Preventive health scheme for adults.
A. Preventive health scheme for kids
The following care should be taken for kids in a preventive health scheme
1. Care at birth
i) The kid should be taken away from its mother at birth and should be cleared of any
entangling membranes or mucus to prevent suffocation.

ii) The umbilical cord should be tied (ligature of umbilical cord and tincture iodine should be
applied for 2 days to prevent infection.
2. Feeding colostrum
Colostrium (first milk) from the mother should be the first food to be given to kids.
Colostrum is not only a rich source of energy but it also imparts passive immunity through
gamma-globulin against a number of infectious diseases against which the mother has been
vaccinated or to which it has more recently been exposed to.
3. Disinfection of kid pens
Kid pens should be disinfected with 10% solution of phenyl or 10% solution of copper
sulphate (Cu504) to prevent growth of germs of different diseases and worm infection,
4. Prevention of coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is caused by the protozoan parasite Coccidia. It is very important to prevent
Coccidiosis in kids since the protozoans are more pathogenic to young animals of 4 to 6
months age.
A number of drugs can be used both as preventives and curatives. For the prevention,
Amprolium (0.0125%) for 5 to 6 days has been found to be very effective. The other drugs
(Coccidiostat)

used

are

Nitrofurazone

(0.005-0.01%),

Nicabzin

(0.0125%),

Sulphaquinoxaline (0.0125%) and Zoalene (0.0125%). A combination of Amprolium and

Suiphaquinoxaline, both 0.006% gives better results..The drugs are given to the kids by
mixing with the feed.
5. Prevention and control of internal parasites
A number of internal parasite: uch as hook worm, lungworm and protozoans attack juveniles.
These internal parasites may be prevented and controlled by using a number of antibiotics
and antiparasitic drugs.
The antibiotics can be added with the feed. For example, adding tetramyciri or aureomycin
with the feed not only increases growth rate of young kids but it also reduces the incidence of
scours (running shiftlv due to some irritating material in the gut or due to some infection) and
other infectious diseases.
6. Prevention and control of ectoparasites
The infestation of ectoparasites such as sucking lice, ticks and mites should he prevented. All
these ectoparasites can be controlled by spraying insecticides such as malathion (0.5%
solution), diazinon (0.04%), lindane (0.05%), gamma BHC (0.05%) and several other
insecticides.
7. Vaccination

Proper vaccination to the kids is very important to prevent a number of diseases. For this, a
proper vaccination programme or vaccination schedule should be prepared as per table 13.1.
8. Segregation of sick kids from healthy kids
It is a good practice to segregate the sick kids from healthy kids as soon as any kind of
sickness is noticed. This is done to stop spreading of any contiguous or parasitic disease
among healthy kids.
The segregation shed may be small, about 3.6 m x 5 m for a large herd. The shed should he
located in a corner of the farm. It should he provided with a well-fenced yard. It should he
divided into two or three sections. Each stall and the yard should have separate watering
arrangement.
9. Regular check-up of kids
The management programme should mclude a regular check-up of kids by competent
veternerian or health specialist.
B. Preventive health scheme for adults
The following care should he taken for adults in a preventive health scheme
1. Vaccination
Proper vaccination is required even for adult to prevent a number of diseases. For this, a
proper vaccination programme or vaccination schedule should he prepared as per table 13.1.
2. Supply of abundant clean fresh water
Regular supply of clean water is very important since some of the most serious diseases of
goats occur as a result of drinking dirty water. Fresh water should be supplied every morning
and evening. Water troughs should be thoroughly washed at least twice a month.
3. Hoof trimming
Hoof-trimming, at least, once in a month is necessary for maintaining goats in healthy
condition. If it is not done, the legs may become weak and the milk production may be
reduced. Hoof trimming can be done with the help of sharp pen-knives or curved handpruning shears.
4. Exercise
The goats require regular exercise for maintaining themselves in good healthy condition. This
is particularly important for stall-fed goats. These goats should be let loose in a large paddock
for at least 3 to 4 hours a day. However, care should be taken that they are not let loose in the
paddock and allowed to go out for grazing fill the dew has dried up (about 2 hours after
sunrise). This is because grazing on wet grass with dew may cause tympanites and intestinal
inflammation.

SHEEP FARMING
INTRODUCTION
Sheep along with goats were perhaps the first ruminants to be domesticated by man around
9000 to 7000 B.C. At present, sheep is grown all over the world, may be except a very few
countries. Sheep is found in hot tropical countries and also in the cold arctic regions. They
also occur in the deserts.
Sheep is a ruminant animal belonging to class : Mammalin ; Order : Artiodactyla ; Sub-order
Ruminantia; Family : Bovidae ; Genus : Ovis ; and Species aries.
SOME COMMON TERMS IN RELATION TO SHEEP
Some of the common terms used in relation to sheep are as follows:
Adult male

- Ram or Tup

Adult female

Ewe

Young male

Ram lamb or Tup lamb

Young female

Ewe lamb or Gimmer lamb

New-born sheep

Lamb

Castrated male

Wether or Wedder

castrated female

Spayed

Act of mating

Tupping

Act of parturition

Lambing

Female with its offspring

Suckling

Pregnancy Gestation
Sound produced

Bleating

Group of sheep

Flock

ADVANTAGES OF SHEEP FARMING

Sheep is an important livestock species. There are a number of advantages of sheep farming
or sheep raising. These advantages are
1. Sheep products (two different crops in a year)
Sheep produces two different kinds of crops each year, wool and lambs. Thus, by sheep
farming, there can be regular income twice a year. Further, the two crops are entirely differe t
and therefore, can be marketed according to the demand of each kind of crop, and one will
not have effect on the price of the other. For example, wool can be stored and sold when there
is high market pi1ice or at shearing time.

Similarly, lambs can be grown for 5 to 6 months or more and can be sold whenever a quick
return becomes necessary for the sheep grower.
2. Sheep manure
Sheep dung is a valuable fertilizer and can ke considered as another source of income. Iii
India, sheep manure is an important source of soil fertility in many intensive farming areas
especially in southern states, On an average, an individual sheep adds 0.5 to 0.7 tonnes of
manure to the soil every year. This manure contains almost twice as much of nitrogen and
potassium as are found in cattle manure.
3. Low maintenance cost
The cost of growing or maintaining sheep is very low compared to the other livestock
species, for the following reasons:
1) their ability to thrive on natural vegetation is uncomparable. They feed on any kind of
grass weeds, shrubs, leaves, roots, barks, cereals, and even fish and meat if any vegetable
matter is nol available.
ii) they are very rarely fed on grain, cultivated fodder or crop residue. This cost of feeding is
very less.
iii) their high feed efficiency is remarkable. The percent feed efficiency has been found to be
14.5 in indigenous (native) breeds and 18.5 in crossbreed. It means, for 1 kg of live weight
gain, the indigenous breed needs 7.0 kg and the crossbreds 5.5 kg of feed. According to one
estimate, the total return from a lamb through wool, meat, manure and other products is
almost double than the expenditure incurred in feed and all other aspects of growing a lamb
up to 6 months of age.
iv) they do not need expensive buildings and equipment. They need only some protection
from wind, storms, and a dry place to lie down. In many cases, natural protection given by
trees and hills may be sufficient for them to grow.
4. Natural control of weeds
Natural control of weeds by sheep is another kind of advantage. They feed on more different
kinds of plants than any other kind of livestock and thus help in removing weeds. They,
therefore, can be considered as an excellent weed destroyer.
5. Converter of waste feed into profitable products
Sheep is considered as a good or efficient converter of waste feed or grasses into profitable
products such as wool and meat. Pasture is a valuable fodder for sheep since it is the cheapest
source of proteins, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. It has been observed that a good
pasture can provide sufficient grazing for five sheep per hectare. Further, sheep can clean

grains lost at harvest time because they can pick them up due to the peculiar structure of their
lips.
6. No damage to trees
Sheep do not damage or hardly damage trees when they feed on them, which is opposite to
that of the goats.
7. Play important role in the livelihood in India
In India sheep contribute greatly in the agrarian economy, particularly in the arid and semiarid, as well as mountainous areas, where agriculture (growing crops) or dairy farming are
not economical. In these areas, sheep play an important role in the livelihood of a large
number of small and marginal farmers. Growing sheep is also a source of income for landless
labourers.
BREEDS OF SHEEP
India has a vast genetic resource in sheep. There are 40 breeds of sheep. Most of these breeds
have evolved naturally through adaptation to agro-ecological or agro-climatic conditions.
These breeds are generally named after their place of origin or on the basis of prominent
characteristic. All these breeds are indigenous except a few breeds which are crossbreeds of
indigenous (native) and eotic breeds. In recent years, a few exotic breeds have also been
introduced in our country. Thus, we ijave both indigenous (native) breeds and exotic breeds
of sheep.
INDIGENOUS BREEDS
All the indigenous breeds can be divided into three to four types of sheep on the basis of the
agroclimatic conditions. According to some classification, 3 types of regions have been
recognised but according to a recent classification, Indian has been divided into 4 regions
such as (1) North-western, central arid and semi-arid region, (2) Northern temperature region,
(3) Southern region, and (4) Eastern region.
The distinguishing characters or prominent characteristics and the products of some of the
important indigenous breeds of the four different regions are given below:
I. North-western, Central Arid and Semi-arid Region
This region includes Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, plains of Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Fradesh.

1. Chokla
Prominent characteristics Light to medium-sized, face is generally without wool and reddish
brown in colour. Skin is pink. Ears are small to medium in length and tubular. Legs are short.
Coat is dense and relatively fine covering almost entire body.
Products : Wool which is the finest among all Rajasthan breeds.
EXOTIC BREEDS
A number of breeds of sheep from other countries have been introduced in our country in
order to mainly grading up of indigenous sheep by crossbreeding. However, some exotic
breeds have done well under purebred programmes. Exotic breeds such as fine wool breeds,
mutton breeds, dual purpose breeds and pelt breeds have been introduced for obtaining fine
quality wool, mutton and for raw hide.
The exotic breeds which have been introduced in India are Merino, Rambouillet, Polworth,
Southdown, Corriedale, Suffolk, Dorset, Lincoln, Cheviot, Leicester and Karakul.
Origin, prominent characteristics and products of some of the exotic breeds have been
described below
1. Rambouillet
Origin The breed is a descendant of old Spanish Merino. it was developed in France as a
breed.
Prominent characteristics Modern Rambouillets are large-sized and ragged animals. Rams
may have horns but the ewes are hornless. Fleece is heavy, compact and covers most of the
body including fee and legs.
Products : Wool is of very good quality. In India, this breed has performed well as purebreds
and crosses with Indian breeds.

Rambouillet
http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/35/62835-004-065C671B.gif

2. Dorset
Origin
The origin of Dorset is somewhat doubtful or even unknown. This breed is supposed
Southern England, especially to the counties of Dorset and Somerset.
Prominent characteristics
A typical Dorset is medium-sized. The head is also medium-sized. The muzzle (projecting
part of the head including mouth and nose) is somewhat long, clean and full. The neck is
short and strong. The ears are medium-sized, and they are thin, silky and carried well
forward.
The Dorsets may be horned or horniess (polled). These different strains are called Dorset
horn and polled horn. In the horned strain, both the ewes at rams are horned.
The face, ears and legs are white in colour and more or less without any wool. The lips,
nostrils and skin are pink. The hooves are white.
The weight of an adult ram is 80 to 110 kg, and that of a ewe is 50 to 80 kg. weight of lamb
of 4 months is 18 to 22 kg, and a lamb of 9 months weigh 30-35 kg.
The Dorset is a prolific breeder. It is an hardy animal and can be maintained well under
different conditions
The wool of Dorset is fine in texture, short and close. Each sheep produces about 2.75 to 3.25
kg of fleece, that is, the amount of wool sheared at one time.

DETERMINATION AGE OF SHEEP BY THEIR TEETH

Sheep is diphyodont, that is, two sets of teeth, temporary teeth or milk teeth and permanent
teeth develop during the entire life of an animal. The number of milk teeth is 20 and there are
32 permanent teeth. The permanent teeth are of 3 types and their numbers are incisors 8,
premolars 12 and molars 12.
Incisors are the front teeth. The age of a sheep can be determined by the number of temporary
and permanent incisors in the following manner:
Temporary incisors

Permanent incisors

Age (approximately)

610 months

1014 months

24 months (2 year old)

36 months (3 year old)

48 months (4 year old)

Dentition in Sheep
http://www.nabssar.org/images/sheepteethage1.jpg

In a normal condition, when the lamb is about 6-10 months old, there are 4 temporary
incisors on each half of the lower jaw. Thus, there are 4 pairs of temporary incisors or total 8
incisors. The temporary incisors are gradually replaced by permanent incisors as shown
above. The permanent incisors can be easily identified since these are larger in size. First, the
middle pair of temporary incisors are replaced by the permanent teeth when the lamb is about
1
1 year old. When the lamb is about 1 year old, the next two temporary incisors are replaced.
2
In this manner, the innermost (4th pair) temporary, incisors are replaced when the sheep is
about 4 years old. However, the time of appearance of teeth varies in different breeds.
As the animal becomes old, the incisors gradually become long and narrow, and they spread
apart. The incisors start breaking off, one by one after the animal is about 6 years old.
Ultimately, all the permanent incisors are lost. A sheep is called a gummer when all the
incisors are lost.

FEEDING
Sheep like an other animal require proper amount of all the nutrients. But sheep have a
unique ability to maintain themselves on natural and wild grasses, herbs and farm waste
products. However, loss of grazing lands and deterioration of grazing lands have resulted in
inadequae supply of feeds and forages. Therefore, it has become necessary to supply
additional feed in the form f different concentrates order to maintain an average sheep in
good condition.
Supplying proper nutrition at different stages to the ewes is especially important in order to
increase birth of increased number of live lambs, increase the growth-rate of lambs, increase
the ewes milk flow and for many other benefits.

FEEDING OF EWE ROCK

The ewes are fed as a flock because practically it is not possible to feed all ewes individually.
Moreover, at an) one time, the feed requirements of all the ewes in a flock are very similar,
and the hulk of protein and energy requirements are obtained from daily grazing.
The feed requirements of ewe flocks are different depending on the different stages of the
breedin cycle. Therefore, feeding of the ewe flock can be (1) Feeding ewes during resting
period (2) Feeding ewes during gestation period, and (3) Feeding ewes during suckling
period.

1. Feeding ewes during resting period

At this period, the feed requirements of the ewe flock are low. Ordinarily, ewes can be kept in
good condition by allowing them to graze on young green grasslands. The leaves of common
leguminous plants are also excellent feed for the flocks. On an average, a sheep requires ito 2
kg of leguminous hay per day.
Feed supply to the resting ewes should be increased about 2 to 3 weeks before breeding, that
is, before the rams are turned in with the ewes. This process is known as flushing.
Flushing is the process in which ewes are put on a grain ration, or they are moved to fresh
pasture areas where abundant feed is available. The ration for the ewe flock at this time
should be 200 to 250 g o maize, oats, barley or jowar grain daily or a full feed of good quality
legume hay for each ewe per day.
There are three main advantages of flushing (1) the ewes will start heat periods earlier, (ii) all
the ewes are brought into heat at nearly the same time, and (iii) more number of ova are shed.

2. Feeding ewes during gestation period

The gestation period ranges from 143 to 151 days, with an average of 148 days. Feeding of
pregnant ewes or rations for the first half i.e. first ten weeks are different from that of the
ewes during the last half of the gestation period.
Feeding (rations) for the first ten weeks of the gestation period is not very critical so far
nutrition is concerned since the developing embryo does not draw much fo6c from mothers
food supply during this period. Legume hay or good quality legume grass, maize etc. will
provide necessary nutrition However, natural feeds may not always provide the necessary
minerals. Therefore, some mineral mixture should be supplied. It is important that salt is
available at all times. Salt may be provided separately or as a part of mineral mixture.
Feeding (rations) for the last half of the gestation period is important because the developing
embryo draws heavily from mothers food supply. The ewes should he supplied with the best
forages available. About 110 gm of grain should be added to the rations during 11th week to

15th week. This grain ration should be increased to about 225 gm from 16th week. Further,
some additional amount of protein may be added if the roughage is not entirely legume hay.

3. Feeding ewes during suckling period

The ewes that have suckling lambs should be fed liberally so that they can produce maximum
amount of milk to nurse the lambs for at least 3 months. Again the nature of feeding to the
ewes for the first ten days after lambing is somewhat different from that of the ewes after ten
days of lambing until weaning of the lambs.
Feeding for the first ten days after lambing is different in the sense that there should be
reduction of the concentrates in the ration. This is because concentrates may be responsible
for swollen udders or other udder troubles. The amount of grain should he increased
gradually as the lambs grow.
Feeding ewes ten-days after lambing until weaning of the lambs is different because they
should be allowed to feed on the pastures. lithe quality of the pasture is good, only some
compound of mineral mixture and salt should be supplied to the ewes. If the pasture is not
good (short or dry), some additional feed such as high-quality hay, silage, or grain should be
supplied to the ewes.

BREEDING
In India, there are three main breeding seasons or mating seasons, such as March to April
(summer), June to July (autumn), and September to October (post-monsoon) or OctoberNovember (winter season).
The breeding program should he decided considering various aspects such as the purpose of
production, feeding conditions at the time of lambing etc. It is always advantageous to have
lambing confined to one season.

PREPARING THE EWE AND RAM FOR BREEDING

For proper and successful mating, not only preparing the ewe but preparing the ram is
essential. Preparing the ewe for breeding
Preparation of the ewe for breeding includes flushing, tagging and eyeing.
Flushing It is the process of feeding extra ration to the ewe or moving them to fresh pasture
areas where abundant feed is available. The ration for each ewe should be 200-250 g of
maize, oats, barley or jowar grain daily or a full feed of good quality legume hay per day.
Flushing helps in increasing the number of own shed from the ovary for obtaining twins.
Tagging It is the process of removing wool around the dock. This is done because sometimes
wool or tags prevent rams for making satisfactory connection.

Eyeing It is the process of clipping away excess wool around the eyes in order to prevent
wool blindness which occurs due to collection of sharp grass seed awns and other materials in
the wool around the eyes.

Preparation of ram for breeding

Preparation of the ram for breeding includes shearing and ringing.
Shearing It is the process of removing the wool. Shearing is done when the breeding season
coincides with warm weather. This is done to mark the ram make active and improve fertility.
Many rams which are good breeders during cool weather may become infertile during hot
summer months. Shearing may be done even twice a year when ewes are required to be bred
during summer.
Ringing It is the process of clipping of wool from the neck and from the belly in the region of
the penis, in case the ram is not completely shorn. This is done so that the ram can make
proper contact with ewes during the act of mating.

SYSTEM OF MATING
Sheep can be bred naturally or by artificial insemination. For natural breeding, three types of
mating system can he Practiced. These mating systems are (1) flock-mating system (flock
system), (ii) semi-flock system (pen system), and (iii) hard mating system (hard service
system).

i) Flock-mating system (Flock system)

In this system, breeding rams are turned out in the flock during the mating season at the rate
of 2 to 3 per cent of the ewes all through day and night. in other words, 2 to 3 rams are
provided for 100 ewes. However, each mating block consists of 30-45 ewes and I ram.
This system is followed by most commercial flock owners. There is one drawback of this
system. The ewes are disturbed by the ram (rams) because of fighting amongst themselves.
This can be avoided if smaller mating flock is provided for a single ram.

ii) Semi-flock system (Pen system or pen breeding)

in this system, the rams are turned out for service with the flock in the pen during only at
night, and grazed or stall-fed separately during the day time.
The advantage of this system is that the rams can get rest and consume energy.
iii) Hand mating system (Hand service system)
In this system, the ewes in oestrus or in heat are first detected by employing teaser rams
which are mostly vasectomised rams. This is done because sheep in heat do not show any
breeding symptom.

After detection, the ewes are taken out of the flocks and allowed to mate with the selected
ram.
This system is practiced when exotic purebred rams are used or when the service of the ram
is used for large flocks. This system, therefore, is mostly used in experimental farm and not
in commercial farms.

Artificial Insemination (Al)

Artificial Insemination (Al) technique or method is used for improving sheep within a short
period of time. Al has been used for improving sheep in several European countries. In India,
this technique has not be used for commercial purpose on a large scale probably except in
Rajasthan.
In case of sheep, for Al, it is desirable to use fresh semen because the fertility is reduced very
rapidly with storage. However, with the help of modern technique, the semen can be
successfully stored up to 7 days.
Ram semen is diluted with extenders like fresh cow milk (boiled and cooled) immediately
after collection. By this method, semen can be used up to 5 hours of its collection. For the use
of semen up to 24 hours, freshly prepared egg-yolk citrate glucose (EYCG) is used for
dilution. EYCG contains 20% egg- yolk and 0.8% glucose in 2.879% solution of sodium
citrate. For better preservation and fertility, a new diluter called egg-yolk Mclllvaine glucose
(EYMG) can be used. EYMG contains 20 ml egg-yolk, 0.8 g glucose, 300 mg
streptopenicillin and 100 ml Mclllvaine buffer.
For fertilization, 0.05 to 0.2 ml of fresh semen containing 120 to 125 million sperms is
effective. However, in stored semen, the dose should be doubled since fertility is reduced in
stored semen. In case of ram, an ejaculate of I ml contains 3 to 4 billion sperms. This semen
if diluted I 1.5 will be able to inseminate 25 ewes if inseminated with 0.1 ml dose containing
about 120 million sperms in each dose.

Controlling heat (Oestrous Synchronization or Synchronization of Heat)

The heat period or oestrous is the period during which the ewes permit ram to mate. The heat
period lasts for Ito 3 days. It can also be said that it lasts from 2 to 60 hours with an average
of 27 hours. The oestrous cycle ranges from 14 to 19 days with an average of 17 days. The
ewes come in heat usually about 60 days (2 months) after lambing. But unlike other farm
animals, ewes generally do not come in heat at regular intervals throughout the year but it is
somewhat seasonal.

Controlling heat (oestrous synchronization) is the method by which oestrous cycle of the
ewes is synchromized so that a large number of them can come in heat at one time. There a
number of advantages of controlling heat. The main advantages are:
1. It helps in reducing the cost of breeding programme either by natural breeding or by
artificial insemination.
2. The breeding prOgramme can be planned in such a way that lambs can be raised when the
feeds are easily available and the climate is suitable. Thus, raising lambs become
economically cheaper.
3. Flock management becomes easier since most of the ewes will be in the same stage of
pregnancy.
4. The breeding programme can be planned according to the best market time (market price).
5. (Destrous cychronization is also an integral part of embryo transfer.
Oestrous synchronization can be done in a number of ways, such as (I) telescoping breeding,
(ii) administration of hormones or their analogues.
I) Telescopic breeding : It is done by introducing ram in the flock after keeping it away for 2
to 3 months. It has been seen that 70 to 80 per cent of ewes come in heat in the first oestrous
cycle by this method.
ii) Administration of hormone or their analogues : In this method, synchromization of
oestrous is done with simultaneous administration of progestegen hormones or their analogies
through feed, as implant or as impregnated vaginal sponges. The hormone is withdrawn after
14 days of administration. The ewe comes into heat within 3 days.
A common method is to insert a peccary (a plug in vagina) containing a synthetic hormone
Crinoline into the vagina of each ewe with help of a special device. The pssary is removed
4ter 15 to 17 days by pulling a string attached to it. By this method, hormone is gradually
absorbed thropgh the lining of the vagina into the blond stream. The function of the hormone
is to prevent ovulation.
Prostagland F2 or its synthetic analogues can also he used for synchromization di heat. This
hormone causes lvsis of corpus luteum. The hormone is administered by intramuscular
injection of 10 mg each at interval of 10 days. All the ewes then come in heat within 3 to 4
days.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY
It is important to know whether the ewe is pregnant or not, because pregnant ewes need
special care.
A very simple sign of pregnancy is that the ewe will not return to the ram.

The signs of pregnancy become more prominent a few weeks before lambing. Some of the
common signs are:
i) Ewes who are not pregnant will gain weight and improve in condition.
ii) Ewes carrying a single lamb will be heavier than at mating time but leaner in appearance
or when handled.
iii) Ewes carrying twins will be much more heavier that at mating time (heaviest) but
maximum lean in appearance or when handled.
Ewes who are about to lamb can be identified by the following signs:
i) enlargement of vulva
ii) formation of wax on the ends of the teats.
iii) sign of filling of teats (teats will be tight)
iv) distention of the udder
v) sinking away on either side of the rump (end of the back) in front of the hips.
Ewes when lambing can be identified by the following signs:
i) separation from the flock or lagging behinu the rest of the animals in the flock.
ii) characteristic vertical movements of the tail.
iii) scratching the ground with fore-legs.
iv) becoming restless, changing position either by standing or sitting alternately.
v) trying to find a sheltered place away from the flock.

LAMBING
Lambing is the process or the act of bringing forth a lamb. It can, therefore, be also described
as lambing parturition. The ewes when about to lamb or when lambing can be identified by a
number of signs which have already been described.
It has been observed that an ewe about to lamb prefers to leave the flock. She becomes
restless. The udder is distended and external genitilia are in a flushed and flaccid condition.
This restless condition is described as labour pain. With the increase in labour pain, the ewe
tries to force the lamb from the uterus to the vaginal passage and this is done by making a
tremendous muscular effort which is described as strain. The first effect of the strain is that
the water hag is forced into the vagina. The water bag is a fluid-filled bag which is used
as a cushion to prevent injury to the developing lamb.
In the next stage, the fluid comes out because of burring of the hag and the forefeet of the
lamb protrudes through the vulva. Next, the legs with the head resting on the knees can he
seen. After this, the head and shoulders come out through the opening of the vulva and the
lamb i r quickly born. As soon as the lamb drops to the ground, the navel cord snaps.

Now, the ewe will almost immediately stand up and will start licking the I mb. At the same
time, the lamb will stand on its legs and start seeking for teats of its mother to suckle m1 1k.
If the newly-born lam cannot do so after sufficient time (15 to 30 minutes), help should be
provided so that it can suckle colostrums, the first milk which is very important for good
health and survivability of the lamb.
The navel cord should be tied, cut and dressed with some antiseptic lotion.
In case of twins or triplets, the ewe, afterthe birth of the first lamb, will again lie down and
deliver the second lamb or the third one, as the case may be. This time, the lambs are born
more easily and quickly.
Generally, in a healthy ewe lambing is normal. However, if there is any difficulty, the ewe
must be assisted. for example, if there is failure of normal birth even after undergoing strain
for about an hour, the lamb should be pulled downwards slowly. But before doing so, it
should be seen whether lamb is in right position or not. If this cannot be done or for any other
complication, prompt veterinary assistance and advice must be taken.

RAISING LAMBS
Raising lambs from the time they are born up to the stage of weaners require proper care and
management. After a lamb is born, the first 48 hours is the most critical period because a
number of problems may arise in the life of the lamb due to which it may not be able to
survive. Even after this critical period proper care must be taken for the lambs for proper
growth and maintenance.
The care includes (i) care of navel cord, (ii) removal of mucous, (iii) feeding, (iv) weaning,
and (v) if required marking, castrating and locking, and weaning.
Care of navel cord
Immediately after birth, the navel cord (umbilical cord) should he tied and pinched off about
10cm from the body. The navel should be disinfected with tincture of iodine to prevent
infection.
ii) Removal of mucous
All mucous should be removed fron. the nose and mouth of the newly-horn lamb to prevent
suffocation.
iii) Feeding
Feeding requires different kinds of care at different stages, such as
a) Immediately after birth (within about 15 minutes), the lamb starts seeking for teats of its
mother to suck milk. This is very irnporant because the first milk, colustrum must be obtained
by the lamb for good health and for its survival. If the lamb is weak, assistance must be given

in different ways. The lamb maybe held up to the udder of the ewe, and a little milk maybe
forced into its mouth. If it does not work, it will then he necessary to draw a little amount of
first milk from the udder and feed the Iamb with the help of a feeding bottle.
h). In case of an orphan lamb or disowned lamb (sometimes mothers may be ad feent and
may disown lambs), feeding of milk should he arranged through foster mother. F:.. this . ur.
so. ewes which have lost their lambs early after birth or even goats can he used.
c) When the lamb is about 10 days old, it should be trained to to feed at some green
leguminous fodder or fresh leaves besides suckling milk. This is known as creep feed.

iv) Marking, castration and docking

Marking is done for identification. While marking, it is absolutely necessary to use clean and
red color.
i) Weaning .
Weaning is to get the lambs accustomed to do without mothers milk. It should be preferably
done when the lamb is about 3 months old. However, if rebreeding is desired it can be done
when the lamb is 2 months old. In case the breed is with low milk production, the weaning
should be done when the Iamb is 2 months old.
The growing weaners should be supplied with supplementary feed and good clean pastures.
They should be taken away from the ewes for grazing separately for a few days and then
mixed with main flock. In the concentrate mixture, 20 parts of oil cake should be added in
place of grains.
Weaned lambs should be drenched against gastro-intestinal parasites within 30 days.
Drenches may be given with either a bottle or syringe. Copper sulphate solution has been
found to be the cheapest treatment for sheep affected with stomach worms. They also should
be vaccinated against enterotoxaemia and sheep pox.

CATTLE FARMING
ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
The systematic position or taxonomic position (zoological classification) of cattle is as
follows:
Phylum:
Subphylum:
Class :
Sub-class
Infra-class
Order
Sub-Order
Family
Genus

Speies

Chordata-

animals with notochord, gill-slits (pharyngeal lits),

and tubular nerve cord a some stage of development.
Vertebratanotochord replaced by vertebral column (hackbo
ie) in the adult.
Mammalia - presence of mammary gland, hair and pinnae
(eternal ears)
Theria
mammals giving rise to living young ones and n on
teats. ammary glands opening
Eutheria
placental mammals
Artiodactyla- even-toed, hoofed mammals (even-toed ungulats)
Ruminantia- cud-chewing herbivores with multi-chambered
stomach stomach)
Bovidaeruminants with truly, bony, hollow, unbranched
horns which are smooth or keeled.
Bos
true cattle, mostly with dark short-haired coat,
horn cores circular in cross section, dewalps and
humps well developed in some special.
B.indicus
humped cattle with a long face, upright horns,
drooping ears, slender leg and a dewalp.
B. laurus
cattle without any hump.

Genus

Bubalus

Species

B. bieha

without hump, dark-coloured with hair generally

sparse, horn cores triangular in cross section, no
dewalp.
buffaloes both river and swamp buffaloes, slateblack coat colour, horns heavy and backswept.

BREEDS
A breed can be defined as a group of animals that are related by descent and similar in most
characters like general appearance, features, size, configuration etc. It is true that there may
be some differences between individuals but even then, the distinct common characteristics
of a group are very clear, and because of this, different groups or breeds can be easily
distinguished.
The pure line or the purity of a breed can be maintained by inbreeding, that is, restricting
mating of individuals of a breed to within the breed.
So far as cattle is concerned, the breeds have mostly evolved out of generations of
adaptability to local environment. Different breeds, therefore, may often resemble each other
with very little morphological changes but the independent breeds have been maintained
because of continuous inbreeding in the locality where they are found,

According to some estimate, there are 231 recognized breeds in the entire world. Of these,
26 or 28 breeds of cattle and 6 to 7 breeds of the buffaloes have been classified as distinct
breeds in India.
SPECIES
A biological species can be defined as a population or group of populations whose members
have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce fertile offspring, but
cannot successfully interbreed with members of other populations.
A biological species can also be defined as the largest unit of population in which gene flow
is possible, and which is genetically isolated from other populations.
So far as cattle is concerned, earlier, a number species were described by different authors but
to day only three species of the genus Bos are recognized. These are Bos indicus, B. taurus
and B. bubalis (the buffalo).

CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN BREEDS OF CATTLE

Indian breeds of cattle have been classified in two ways: (i) on the basis of types, and (2) on
the basis of utility.

1. Classification on the basis of types

In this case, cattle breeds have been described on the basis of morphology, colour, bony
frame-work of head and visual appraisal.
According to FAQ Manual, Zebu cattle of India and Pakistan ( p53), the Indian cattles can be
divided into 6 groups. These groups can be described as follows:
Group I Light-horned grey cattle eg. Kankrej, Kanwariya, Kheriagarh, Malvi, Tharparkar
Group II : White or light grey cattle with coffin-shaped skulls eg. Bachaur, Gaolas,
Hariana, Krishna valley, Mewati, Nagauri, Ongole, Rathi
Group III : Animals with heavy built and curly horns eg. Dangi, beoni, Gir, Namari, Red
Sindhi, Sahiwal.
Group IV : Mysore breeds with prominent foreheads and long horns eg. Almadi, Amritmahal,
Hallikar, Kangayam, Khillari.
Group V Hilly breeds or Heterogenous mixture of strains eg. Ponwar, Sin
Group VI Breed that cannot fit in any other group eg. Dhani breed presently found only in
Pakistan.

2. Clarification on the basis of utility

In this case, cattle breeds have been classified on the basis of utility, that is, usefulness of the
animal. According to this classification, the cattles have been divided into 3 groups
I. Draft breeds (Draught-purpose breeds or Draught breed)

II. Dairy breeds (Milch breeds)

III. Dual-purpose breeds
IV. New breeds
It should be mentioned here that although there is not much discrepancy amongst various
workers about the groups of breeds but in some cases, one breed might have been included s
a duaIpurpose breed by one and the same breed has been shown as a much-breed by another.
Simi1arly,some breeds have been included as draft breeds by one but dual-purpose breeds by
others.
I. Draft breeds (Draught-purpose breeds or Draught breeds)
These cattles are raised mainly for draft purposes. The bullocks of these breeds are good draft
animals, but the cows are poor milkers. The cattles belonging to this group have well
proportioned body, strong limbs and tight skin. They can walk fast and are very alert.
Some of the important breeds of this group are Khillari
Origin (Home tract or Breeding tract) and distribution
The breed actually originated in Sholapur and Satara districts, and Satpura range of the
former Bombay state. The breed is now well distributed all over Maharashtra.
Prominent characteristics Head is massive with deep furrows in the centre of the forehead.
Horns are long and pointed, emerging close to each other. Neck is short and firmly set. Legs
are strong. Tail is thin and short. Ears are small and fine. Colour is usually greyish white.
Products : Bullocks are fast and powerful draft animals. They are used throughout
Maharashtra. Cows are poor milkers.
II. Dairy breeds (Milch breeds)
The cows of these breeds, produce large quantity ot milk. The milkyield may vary from about
1,500 to 2,500 litres in one lactation period. The bullocks have poor draft quality. These
cattlec usually have very heavily build body with heavy dewaips (fleshy skin which hangs
down from the throat) and loose
Some of the important breeds in this group are
Red Sindhi (Sindhi)
Origin and present distribution
This breed actually originated in West Pakistan (Sindh), from Karachi to as ar is Baluchistan.
it is widely distributed on the western banks of lndus river. In India, the pedigree herds are
found in lunja[. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.
Prominent characteristics The animals are medium-sized with a compact hody Head sized
with broad forehead. Fluinp has heavy dewalp. Horns are short, thick and cur

Legs are short. Tail is long. The udders are sizable and may become pendulous iii nea y
milkers. Ears ar medium-sized and drooping. Colour is red, hut some animals mas have white
ma kings. Bullock are darked red than the cows.
Products Cows are good milkers; Milk production on an average is about 1,89 kg in a
lacLLio period of 300 days. However, production as high as ,400 kg of milk in a Jactati n
period has I ee is moderateing in blunt P01nt. observed in individual cows.
Sahiwal (Montogomery, Lola, Multani) Origin and present distribution
It originated in Montogomery district, now kxown as Sahiwal district in Pakistan.
This breed occurs in large numbers in central and south dry areas of West Pakistan near the
river Ravi, particularly in Montogomery district. In India, pedigree herds are maintained in
Punjab, Uttar
Fradesh, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.
Prominent characteristics Head is long with a medium-sized forehead. Horns are short and
thick.
Hump is massive particularly in bullocks and dewalp is voluminous. Legs are short. Tail is
very long, whiplike almost reaching the ground and tapering to a black switch. Udders are
well developed. Ears are medium-sized. Colour is red or light-red. In some animals, patches
of white may be found.
Products Cows are very good milkers. Under village conditions, the milk-yield is about 2150
kg in a lactation period of 300 days. Well-bred cows in the farms may produce 2,700 to 3,200
kg. in some cases, yielding up to 4,500 kg has been observed in individual cows.
Ill. Dual-purpose breeds I.
The cattles of these breeds can he used for both as dairy cows (milk cows) anda d raft catiles.
Cows are fairly good milkers and the hullocks are good at draft work. The yield of milk may
vary From about 1,200 to 1,500 litres in one lactation period.
Some of the important breeds ot this group are Hariana (Haryana)
Origin and present distribution
It originated around Rohtak, Hisar and Gurgaon districts of Haryana. This breed is found in
several districts of F larvana, Delhi and in West Uttar Pradesh.
Prominent characteristics Head is small with a narrow face. Horns are short and stumpy. Ears
are small and sharp. Skin is of fine texture and close to the body. Legs are somewhat long and
thin. Tail is thin, short and ending in a black switch. In cows, the udder is well developed and
the teats are prominent. Colour is usually white or light grey.

Products : Bullocks are used for fast ploughing and road transport. Cows are fairly good
milkers. Average milk yield is about 1400 kg in one lactation period. In individual cows, milk
yield can be up to about 3250 kg.
Main characteristics and examples of the three groups of Indian cattle-breeds. The groups
have been formed on the basis of utility
Draft breeds (Draughtpurpose breeds or
Draught breeds)
1. Khillari
1. Main Characterisfics
Hullocks good draft
animals
Cows poor milkers
II. Examples

Dairy breeds
breeds)

(Milch Dual-purpose breeds

I. Main characteristics
Bullocks poor draft
animals
Cows good milkers
Examples
Red Siodhi (Sindhi)
2.
Sahiwal
(Montogomery)\

I. Main characteristics
Bullocks good draft
animals
Cows good milkers
1. Hariana
II. Examples

IV. New breeds

New breeds are the new strains or breeds which have been evolved out of crossbreeding
between Indian breeds of cattle and breeds from other countries.
The three new breeds are Karan Swiss, Karan Fries and Sunandini. The description of two
important new breeds Karan Swiss and Karan Fries is given below:

Karan Swiss
Origin and distribution A new strain was evolved at the National Dairy Research Institute,
Karnal, Haryana out of crossbreeding Sahiwal cows with American strain of Brown Swiss
bull. The semen was imported as a frozen semen from USA. This new strain is now
recognized as a breed. Ibis new
breed has also been evolved by using Red Sindhi cows. Karan Swiss breed, now-a-days, is
found in many areas of Haryana;
Prominent characteristics The breed has inherited about 50 per cent characters of Brown
Swiss. Thus, the characters are mixture of Sahiwal and Swiss Brown. Body size and general
appearance is similar to that of the Sahiwal. A bull grows to 600 to 750 kg in body weight
and a cow to 400 to 550 kg. Males are strong and powerful. Forehead is slightly dished,
Hump is almost absent. Ears are small. Tail varies in length and in some animals it may reach
the ground. Colour varies from light grey to deep brown but usually the colour is red dun, i.e.
dull greyish-brown (deep brown or almost red).

Products Cows of this breed are very good milkers. The lactation yield is about 3,000 to
4,500 kg in a lactation period of 305 days. The highest daily yield may be upto 43 kg. The fat
percentage is 4.2 to 4.4. The average age 0fq rst calving is 32 months and the intercalving
period is 400 to 425 days.

Karan Fries
Origin and distribution This breed was evolved by crossing Tharparkar and Holstein
Friesian at the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana. This breed is becoming
popular in many areas of Haryana.
Prominent characteristics The breed has inherited about 50 pr cent characters of the I
lolsteinFriesian. Colour is predominantly of black patches and sometimes is completely dark
with white patches on the forehead and the switch of the poll. Udder is dark with white
patches on the teats. Animals are extremely docile.
Products Cows of this breed are very good milkers. The lactation yield is about 3,700 kg in a
lactation period. The fat peftentage is 3.8 to 4.0 per cent. The average age of first calving is
30 to 32 months and the intercalving period is 400 to 430 days.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN BREEDS (EXOTIC BREEDS)

A number of exotic breeds such as Jersey, HolsteinFriesian, Brown Swiss, Red Dane,
Ayshire and Guernsey have been introduced in India mainly to improve the milk yielding
capacity of the indigenous cows. The characteristics of the exotic breeds are given below

Jersey
Origin : this breed originated on the Island of Jersey in the English Channel.
Prominent characteristics The animals of this breed are small in size. The female grows to
about 450 kg in both weight and males about 675 kg. lhe female has a straight top line, Ic el
rumps and sharp wither (the ridge, between the shoulder-bones at the bottom of the neck). Ilead is with a double dish. Udders are exceHent, colour varies from light fawn to black or
white, and from whi c-spotted to solid in marking.
Animals have a tendency to be nervous and sensitive. Thoy can become good pets under
proper management. Bulls, however, are often vicious, that is, unruly and cannot be tamed
perfectly. The) have very good grazing ability. Age at first calving is 38 months. The
average gestation period is 280 days (fable 20.111)
Products : Cows are very good milkers . Average milk yield is about 4000 litres in 305 days.
The fat content is about 5.3 per cent and tota sc.Ld protein, lactosu,ashandiat) 15 per cent,

Holstein Friesian
Origin This breed originated in Holland.
Prominent characteristics Animals are ruggedly built. Male grows to about 1000 kg and
female 615 kg. Head is long, narrow and straight. Thighs are straight and withers are slightly
rounded. Colour is black and white, but it may vary from white with a few black spots to
almost black. The switch is always white, Udders are large.
The feeding capacity of the animals is large. Cows are quite and docile but the bulls may be
vicious.
The age at first calving is 36 months. The average gestation period is 280 days (Table
20.111).
Products : Cows are very good milkers. Average milk yield is about 6150 litres in 305 days.
The fat content varies from 2.5 to 4.3 per cent, the average is about 3.5 per cent and total
solids (protein, lactose, ash and fat) about 12.2 per cent.

Brown-Swiss
Origin This breed originated in mountains of Switzerland.
Prominent characteristics : Male grows to about 900 kg and female 625 kg. Cows have large
bones and large heads. Head of cows are usually dished. Skin is thick and loose.. A. those of
other dairy breeds. Animals are docile, quite and can be easily manag fawn to almost black
usually the colour is distinctlj brown.
Products : This breed is used for ploughing and pulling carts, as well as for m1k and beef
production in Switzerland. Average milk yield is about 5250 litres in 305 days. The milk
contains about 4 per cent fat and total solids (protein, lactose, ash and fat) about 13.3 per cent
(Table 20.111).

VARIOUS BREEDS OF BUFFALO

INTRODUCTION
The domesticated buffalo is Bubalus bubalis. It is the descendant of the wild buffalo Bos arni.
Buffalo species originated in India. The wild buffaloes are present even today in the nor*eastern parts of India especially in Assam and the adjoining states. They are found in grassjungles near vamps. Wild buffaloes are larger in size than the present-day domesticated
buffaloes and the horns are also large.
The distinguishing characters of a buffalo are : (i) the horns, which are dstinctly flattened,
and triangular in cross section, and (ii) presence of a well-marked ridge on the anterior half of
the back in place of the hump.

The buffaloes are normally classified into two categories, namely, River buffalo and swamp
buffalo, and both are Bubalus bubalis. Both these buffaloes are water buffaloes because
they prefer to wallow in some kind of water body. The difference between the two categories
is that the river buffalo prefers clean running water and the swamp buffalo prefers mud pools
such as swamps, mud holes and stagnant pools. Most of the buffaloes in India are river
buffaloes. Swamp buffaloes are found only in some areas in the eastern part in our country.
Buffalo is the main milch producing animal in our country. The contribution nf buffaloes
to the total milk production, in our country, is more than that of cattle. Moreover, India is
considered as home tract for some of the best buffalo breeds in the world.

COMMON TERMS IN RELATION TO BUFFALO

Some of the common terms used in relation to buffalo are as follows
Adult male

Buffalo bull

Adult female

Buffalo calf

Young male

Buffalo bullock

Young female

Spayed

New-born animal

She-buffalo or buffalo cow

Castrated male

Buffalo bull calf

Castrated female

Buffalo heifer calf

Act of mating

Serving

Act of parturition

Calving

Female with its offspring

Calf at foot

Pregnancy

Gestation

Sound produced

Bellowing

Group of buffaloes

Flerd

Species called as

Bovine of Butaline

BREEDS OF INDIAN BUFFALOES

In India, there are six or seven well-defined or important breeds of buffaloes. They are found
in various parts of [he country. These breeds are Bhadawari, Jaffarabadi, Mehasana, Murrah,
Nagpuri, NihRavi, Ravi and Surti.
Besides these well-known breeds, there are a number of less-known breeds which occur in
isolated pockets and they may have some local importance. However, these less-known
breeds can be easily identified because of some peculiar morphological traits. Considering all

the well-known and less-known breeds, the buffaloes in India have been placed in different
group by some workers, as follows:
Central India group

Nagpuri, Jerangi, Kalhandi, Manda, Pandherpuri, Sambalpur.

Gujarat group

Jaffarbadi (Jaffarabadi), Mehsana, Surti.

Murrah group

Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Godavari, Kundi.

Uttar Pradesh group

Uhadawari, Tarai.

South India group

Toda, South Kanara.

The most important and well-known breeds of buffaloes are described below:

1. Bhadawari
Origin and present distribution : The breed originated in Bhadawari estate in Agra district. At
present, the breed is found besides Bhadawari Tehsil, in Etwah district in Uttar Pradesli and
Gwahior district in Madhya Pradesh.
Prominent characteristics : Body is medium-sized and wedge shaped. Head is comparatively
small and the lace is narrow. Legs are short and stout, and hooves are black. Ears are small.
Tail is long, thin, flexible with black and white or pure white markings. Colour is usually
light or copper coloured which is a characteristic feature of this breed. Udder is not very well
developed and teats are olmediuni size. Age of first calving is about 51) months and calving
interval is about 453 days.
Product: Average milk production is 1100 kg in a lactation period of 270 days. Fat percentage
in the milk is high. Males are good as draft animals.

2. Jaffarabadi (Jafarbadi)
Origin and present distribution :11w breed originated in Jaffarabad in Gujarat. The breedin
tract is Ketch, and Jamnagar districts of Gujarat. Buffaloes of this breed are found in the
purest form in the gir forest of Kathiawar, specially towards Jaffarabad.
Prominent characteristics : Body is long but not very compact. Head and neck are massive.
Forehead is very prominent. Horns are heavy, inclined to droop at each side of the neck and
then turning up at point . In female, the dewalp is somewhat loose and udder is well
developed. Colour is usually black.
Product: Average milk yield is 1,000 to 1,200 kg in a lactation period. Bullocks are useful for
plaguing and carting.

Murrah (Delhi buffalo)

Origin and present distribution The breeding tract of this breed is Delhi, Rohtak, Hisar and
Jind of Haryana, and Nabha and Patiala district of Punjab. Now-a-days, animals of this breed
are found all over the country.
Prominent characteristics : Body is massive, measuring about 1.5 m in length in both the
males and females, and 1.5 m in height in males and 1.4m in females. Head and neck are
somewhat long. Tail is long reaching up to the fetlocks. Limbs are short and massive. Horns
are short and tightly curled, Udder is well developed. The age at first calving is about 41.3
months. The calving interval is about 495 days (400 days to 550 days). Colour is mostly jet
black with white markings on tail. A and B) Murrah (Delhi buffalo)
Origin and present distribution The breeding tract of this breed is Delhi, Rohtak, Hisar and
Jind of Haryana, and Nabha and Patiala district of Punjab. Now-a-days, animals of this breed
are found all over the country.
Prominent characteristics : Body is massive, measuring about 1.5 m in length in both the
males and females, and 1.5 m in height in males and 1.4m in females. Head and neck are
somewhat long. Tail is long reaching up to the fetlocks. Limbs are short and massive. Horns
are short and tightly curled, Udder is well developed. The age at first calving is about 41.3
months. The calving interval is about 495 days (400 days to 550 days). Colour is mostly jet
black with white markings on tail.
Prominent characteristics Male grows to about 1.4 m and female 1.3 m in height. The average
body weight is about 525 kg for male and about 425 kg for female. Thus, the breed is
somewhat lighter than some other breeds. Face is long and thin. Neck is somewhat long.
Horns are long, flat curved, bending backwards on each side of the back almost to shoulders.
Legs are light. Tail is comparatively short. Colour is mostly black. The age at first calving is
45 to 50 months. The calving interval is 450 to 550 days.
Products Milk yield is 700 to 1,200 kg in a lactation period of 300 days. Males are good for
heavy draught but they are slow in movement.

BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF BUFFALOES

So far as breeding of buffaloes is concerned, a thorough knowledge about various phenomena
connected with breeding and nature of care of the animals is essential for proper management
of buffaloes. In buffaloes, a number of phenomena are connected with breeding. Some of
these important phenomena are (1) Anestrus or seasonal anestrus; (2) Silent heat (silent
estrus) and sub-estrus; (3) Repeat breeding; and (4) High calf mortality.

1. Anestrus or Seasonal anestrus

Anestrus is the absence of estrus. It is characterized by quiescent functionless ovaries and

reproductive tract. Seasonal anestrus is the occurrence of anestrus in a particular season. In
case of buffaloes occurring in tropical countries like India, seasonal anestrus or seasonal
periodicity in respect of conditions. In case of Indian breeds of buffaloes, about 63 percent of
females show less ovarian activities
during March to September, when days are comparatively longer and the intensity of sun is
higher. These females show high ovarian activities and high conception rate during October
to February and the peak period is around December. An interesting aspect of seasonal
anestrus is that during seasonal anestrum, there is no clinical changes of ovaries and genital
tract.
Seasonal anestrus may be caused due to various factors such as (i) nutritional status of the
animal, (ii) hormonal profiles and (iii) environmental conditions. For proper management
efforts should be made to correct the conditions or modify factors so that the animals are able
to breed almost throughout the year and calving could also be evenly spread round the year to
a large extent.
For proper management, the following corrective measures should be taken:
I) Nutritional status of the animal is closely connected with ovarian activity. Inadequate
nutrition has been found to suppress ovarian activity and estrus in both young and adult
females. This is because inadequate nutrition affect pituitary functions. It has also been
observed that vitamins like A and F, and minerals such as phosphorous and copper are
responsible for irregular estrus cycle. Thus proper feeding with necessary vitamins and
minerals may improve the condition. Thus, feeding particularly energy intake must be
improved.
H) Hormonal profiles play a very important role in seasonal anestrus. However, for any
treatment adopted for correcting seasonal anestrus condition, a careful examination of ovaries
to ensure that ovarian functions are established must be followed. It is also to be observed
that pregnancy occurs after service.
The corrective measure or treatment can be done in different manners such as :
a) administration of progesterone estrogen combination.
b) administration of PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin) in dose rate of 3000-4000
lU.,
c) administration of GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) in a single dose of 0.5 mg,
d) administration of PRID (Progesterone releasing intravaginal device) containing 1.55 g
progesterone and 10mg of estradiol for 10 days,

e) infusion of 1% lugols iodine (20 ml) in the cervix,

f) oral administration of clomephene citrate (30 mg) etc.
iii) Environmental conditions particularly excessive heat also causes seasonal anestrus.
Therefore, in summer, animals should be protected from direct sunlight by keeping them in
sheds. In addition to proper wallowing facilities, the animals should be given showers
regularly.

2. Silent heat (silent estrus) and Sub-estrus

Silent heat (silent estrus) and sub-estrus refer to normal follicular development and ovulations
without the behavioural signs of estrus. In other words, these conditions occur when ovarian
cyclical activity is normal without well marked behavioural heat symptoms.
Incidences of silent heat is very high in buffaloes. It is believed that some gehetic
predisposition is responsible for these conditions in certain breeds of buffaloes. It is possible
that the buffaloes do not come to regular heat because of the stress due to high heat in
summer along with increaed day lighi. It is also possible that anestrus or sub-estrus
conditions ma) appear due to persistant corpu luteum. It may occur when the corpus luteum
fails to regress and inhibits anterior pituitary activities. If this happens, corpus luteum will
continue to release progesterone and will inhibit further release of LH(luetinizing hormone)
resulting in anestrus or sub-estrus condition. The failure of corpus luteum to regess may
occur due to excessive environmental stress. I Management: These anestrus and sub-estrus
condition can be improved by not exposing the animals to extreme environmental conditions
like high temperature, and also by treating them with prostaglandin F2 (PG F2 a).
Introduction of PG F2 a causes rapid luteolysis resulting in sharp fall of serum progesterone
level, and this helps in bringing back normal estrus cycle, that is, estrus occurs with ovulation
in 3 to 5 days after treatment.

3. Repeat breeding
Repeat breeding is the phenomenon or condition in which an apparently normal buffalo cow
with normal estrus cycle and genitalia fails to conceive with three or four consecutive
services. These buffalo cows are called repeat breeders.
There are a number of causes for repeat breeding. Some of the important causes are (a)
failure of fertilization, (b) aberration of estrus, (c) functional ovarian disorders, (d) endocrine
disturbance, (e) infections of the female genital tract and (f) sperm abnormalities.
a) Failure of fertilization : This may happen due to defective or pathological ovum even if the
sperm is normal. A defective ovum may be formed due to empty zona pellucida with
degenerative changes, shrinkage or rupture, and post-ovulatory ageing of ova.

b) Aberration of estrus Aberration of estrus, that is, defective estrus or abnormal estrus may
be delayed ovulation, anovulation or irregular short or prolonged heat. These kinds of
aberrations may cause improper detection of heat, resulting in lack of synchronization
between insemination and ovulation. In buffalo cow, aberration in estrus and failure of heat
detection are largely responsible for repeat breeding.
c) Functional ovarian disorders : A number of functional ovarian disorders such as silent or
subestrus accompanied by ovulation, heat without ovulation etc. may be responsible for
repeat breeding. These abnormal ovarian activities as well as an ovulation and delayed
ovulation may be caused due to insufficient level of LH or some obstacles in the release of
Gn RH.
d) Endocrine disturbances : Release of the hormone such as progesterone may be disturbed
due to cystic ovarian degeneration, and this may result in short or prolonged estrus cycles and
abnormal ovulations. Thus, cystic ovarian degeneratioR is a maj.5 cause for repeat breeding.
e) Infections of the female genital tract Genital tract of the female may become infected due
to various pathogens like many bacteria, viruses and fungi. The common pathogens are
coryne bacterium, Pyogenic cocci, coliform organisms, Brucella organisms, Trichomones
fetus, vibrio fetus and many others.
The two most common pathological conditions are known as endometritis and metritis.
Endometritis is the inflammation of the endometrium of the uterus, and metritis is the
inflammation of the entire thickness of the uterus. Both endometritis and metritis may affect
fertilization of the ovum by the sperm and may cause early embryonic mortality.
Endometritis is very common in buffaloes and it must be attended very promptly.
Endometritis can be treated with the help of antibiotics which may include intra-uterine
infusion or chemotherapeutics.
Endometritis may also occur if artificial insemination is carried out in unhygienic condition.
Thus, proper care must be taken while carrying out artificial insemination.
f) Sperm abnormalities: Abnormal sperms of buffalo bull are also responsible for repeat
breeding. The defects in the morphology of sperms may be genetic or congenital. The
morphological defects may be of different kinds such as cork-screw sperms, knobbed sperm,
crater depression in the sperm nucleus etc. These abnormal sperms fail to fertilize a normal
ovum.
Sometimes, artificial insemination may also be responsible for repeat breeding. This happens
due to artificial insemination service with semen from relatively slow ageing of sperms in the
reproductive tract of the buffalo bull.

Management techniques In many cases, repeat breeding takes place due to neg igence or
application of improper techniques. For example, not supplying proper nutrition to the cow
buff loes or buffalo bulls, and not providing proper conditions to reduce environmental stress
like heat are s me of the aspects of managerial deficiencies which are responsible for repeat
breeding. So far as imp oper techniques are concerned, use of artificial insemination widely
for breeding in a large herd results repeat breeding due to ageing of sperms br ova or both as
a result of failure to detect correct time of regulated artificial insemination. Further, improper
extension, freezing and storing of semen, improper thawing of frozen semen etc. are also
responsible for repeat breeding.
Therefore, a good management should include:
i) Strict sexual health control : This can be done by examining general microflora and
antibiotic sensitivity patterns, and then to treat the buffalo cows with antibiotics such as
Gentamycin, Kenamycin, Neomycin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline or any suitable antibiotic.
Animals may also be treated by intra-uterine antibiotic therapy.
Treatment with Lugols iodine solution also help in correcting repeat breeding.

ii) Proper application of artificial insemination (AT) technique This includes use of good
quality semen to improve fertility rate in a herd and breeding of cow buffaloes in midestrus.
lithe quality of semen is good, the sperms can survive up to 48 hours in the female genital
tract, and the maximum fertility rate will be between 12-24 hours after service.

4. High calf mortality

Mortality of buffalo calf may vary from about 3 to 30 per cent in individual herds. The rate of
mortality for calves below one month of age may be 10 per cent. According to one estimate,
the loss in net profit of a buffalo farm may be reduced by about 38 percent, if the mortality
rate of buffalo calves is 20 per
There are a number of factors responsible for calf mortality. Some of the important factors
are (a) environmental conditions, (b) diseases, (c) improper feeding.

a) Environmental conditions The buffalo calves are not able to tolerate extreme
environmental conditions. In summer months, high temperature (heat) may he responsible for
calf mortality. In winter months, low temperature (cold) and winds are responsible for the
death of calves.

b) Diseases A number of diseases such as enteritis (diarrhoea), pneumonia, toxaernia

(septicemia), bloat, worm infection etc. are also responsible for the death of buffalo calves
before they become three months old.

Enteritis or diarrhoea may he caused due to plant or mineral poisoning, feeding stale food,
pathogens like viruses, bacteria and, protozoan and helminth parasites.

Pneumonia may be of differnt types such as viral pneumonia, bacterial pneumonia, fungal
pneumonia and parasitic pneumonia.

Septicenua may be septicaemic colibacillosis which is caused by the bacteria Err! jerichia
co/i. It is a very common disease of newborn calves.

Bloat or Tympanites is the excessive accumulation of gases in rumen and reticulum. It may
be caused due to excessive fermentation of ruminal foods or due to physical obstruction.

Worm infection may be due to a number of tapeworms such as Sf1/usia Iwpatira. S

glohipunctahi, Moiiie:ia cxprnisn etc. or due to roundworms such as Toxocara Moniezia and
some other species.

5. Improper feeding
Negligence in feeding colostrum to newly born calves and not feeding antibiotics may be
responsible for calf mortality.

Colostrum is the milk secreted by the buffalo cow immediately after parturition and for the
next three to five days. It supplies antibodies which protect the calves from viral and bacterial
attacks. It also supplies protein (20 per cent or more), fat (more than 20 per cent), and, large
amount of vitamin A and vitamin D. It also acts as a natural purgative and helps in cleaning
accumulated faecal matter.
Antibiotics play important role by helping the calves till they are three months old to
overcome some of the stress conditions.

Management practices to reduce calf mortality

A. Feeding
Feeding includes (i) feeding colostrurn, (ii) feeding milk replacer or milk subst tute, (Hi)
feeding antibiotics and vitamins.

i) Feeding colostrum
Colostrum should he fed to the calves from the birth up to five days. Even if the weaning is
Practiced at birth, colostrum should he fed at the rate of Ito 1.5 kg per day.
In case, a buffalo cow on calving fails to produce milk, the calf should be fed on colostrum
from another cow. If colostrum is not obtainable, the calf should be fed with ordinary milk
after adding 28 ml of castor oil to I or 1.5 kg of milk. Another substitute having equal
nutritive value can he prepared by mixing the contents of two eggs with one ounce of castor
oil.

ii) Feeding milk replacer or milk substitute

A milk replacer or a milk substitute is essentially a sold food containing a good protein
source such as fish meal, ground grains and pulses, and oil-cakes fortified with minerals,
vitamins and antibiotics. Various milk replacers or milk substitutes have been suggested for
Indian breeds of buffalo. An example of a milk replacer with its various constituents or
ingredients is given below
Fish meal

12kg

Milk (DM)

16kg

Linsed meal

40kg

Whcat

8 kg

Molasses

8 kg

Coconut oil

7 kg

Linseed oil

3 kg

Mineral mixtures

3 kg

Citric acid

1.4 kg

Butyric acid

0.660L

Antibiotic mixture

300 g

Rovimix A, B2, D3

15g

It is considered that 200 gm of this particular milk replacer is equivalentu 1 litre of milk.
A milk replacer (milk substitute) is used to partially or wholly replace milk. The milk
replacer is usuElly fed at the same rate as that of milk, that is, about 10 per cent of body
weight daily. However, according to some workers, the amount should be slightly more.
Thus, for a calf weighing 40 kg, an amount of 400 to 500 gm of milk replacer should be
supplied. Similarly, for a calf weighing 50kg, it should be 500 to 600 g, for 60 kg calf, it
should be 600 to 700 g and so on. It is always better to supply 1 kg of milk per day along
with the milk replacer.

iii) Feeding antibiotics and vitamins

Antibiotics such as Aureomycin, Terramycin must be given to the calves when they are only
1-day old along with the feed to prevent scours (See Table 21.1). These antibiotics may be
given at any other time before the calves become 3-month old. This is because after this age,
rumen of the stomach starts functioning and addition of antibiotics may interfere with the
normal functioning of ruminal microbes.
Table 15.IV
Some aspects of the care of calf to prevent diseases

Age
(Days)
1

1
2

Kind of care
Terramycin animal mix
TM 5 to be given orally
Dosage - 1.5 mg/4.5 kg body weight
Aureomycin Nutritional formula to be
given orally
Dosage 2.spoonful
Sealing ot navel vessels
Vitamin A Concentrate
Dosage I ml of Vitablend along with
feed
Piperazine compounds (usually adipate) to
be given orally.
Dosage 250 to 400 mg/kg body weight
Sulfadimidine to begin orally.
Dosage 19/7.5 kg body weight

Prevention against
(disease)
Scours Causing weakness, loss of
apepite, dehydration due to faecal
discharge and rapid death.

Navel ill fever, weaess, laneness

Night blindnesscornea becoming
opaque, less vision in dim light.
Ascariasis parasitic pneumonia,
intestinal obstruction

Haemorrhagichigh
fever,
widerspread
Septicaemia
haemorrhages, death
Sulphaquinoxaline 0.0l25 to be mixed Coccidiosis bloody diarrhoea,
with feed
loss of apetite, weakness
Vitamin A also must be added to the feed to prevent night blindness (see Table 15.1). On the
second day, 1 ml of vitamin A concentrate such as vitablend should be given along with the
feed.

iv) Care of calf to prevent diseases

From the first day when the calf is born fill it becomes about 8 to 11 days old antibiotics,
vitamins and some other drugs must administered to prevent some of the common diseases.
Care also should be taken to avoid infection during the first few days after the calf is born.
Some aspects of the care of calf to prevent diseases is given in table 15.1.

C. Housing
In all the medium or large-sized commercial farms, there should be separate calvingsheds and
calf pens. In case calves are kept in small groups after weaning, the animals should be fed
individually, and they should be tied up at feeding time and for about an hour afterwards to
prevent them sucking each others ears, teats or navels. A pen should have a minimum space
of 1.8 m2. It is desirable to have solid or railed partitions of at least 1 m high between the
pens. The advantage of solid partition is that it reduces the risk of drafts and the spread of
disease. The advantage of railed partition is that it allows the calves to see each other easily
and facilitates free circulation of fresh air. Keeping the calves in separate pens reduces or
eliminates the spread of scours and parasitic infections among the calves.
The calves should have ready access to clean drinking water.

DAIRY SCIENCE
Dairy literally means the place for making butter and cheese. Both these products are
obtained froth milk of domesticated animals, mainly cows and buffalo cows. Besides butter
and cheese, several other products are obtained or produced from milk of these animals.
Dairy science is a branch of science that deals with various aspects of milk such as its
composition, properties, bacteriology etc. as well as the production of milk and various milk
products.

MILK
Milk is a white opaque fluid secreted by the mammary glands of the mammals.
Mammary glands (udder) are actually skin glands (modified sweat glands) -

COMPOSITION OF MILK
Milk is composed of water (85.5 to 89.5%) and total solids (10.5 to 14.5%). Total solids can
be classified into two major types, Fat (lipid) and solids-not-fat (SNF). SNF contains lactose,
nitrogenous substances (protein and non-protein), lactose, mineral matter, and other
constituents such as vitamins, enzymes, dissolved gases, pigments and bacteria.
The major solid constituents have been described below:

FAT (LIPID)
Milk fat occurs in the form of small spherical globules of different sizes. The size of the fat
globule varies from 0.1 to 20 im and there may as many as 30004000 million fat globules
in one ml of whole milk. The size and number of fat globules vary in the different breeds of
the animal and method of milking.
Milk fat is a mixture of different fatty acid esters called triglycerides, which are compounds
of an alcohol called glycerol and various fatty acids. These fatty acids constitute about 90%
of the total milk fat. In the milk fat, numerous triglycerides may be present since milk
contains as many as 64 fatty acids.

LACTOSE
Lactose is called milk sugar. It is the main carbohydrate of milk. It consists of one molecule
of glucose and one molecule of galactose.
Milk may contain 3.6 to 5.5% of lactose. Lactose contributes to the nutritive value of milk
and milk products.
Lactose in the most unstable constituent of milk because it is fermented quickly
microorganisms. Lactose is attacked by lactic acid bacteria. These bacteria possess an
enzyme known as labtase which breaks down lactose molecules into glucose and galactose.

There are other kinds of enzymes of lactic acid bacteria which convert glucose and galactose
into various acids of which the most important is lactic acid. This fermentation of lactose to
lactic acid is responsible for the milk to become sour.

PROTEIN
Milk proteins are made up of about 25 different amino acids. All these amino acids are
essential amino acids for human beings. Milk proteins are usually divided into 4 classes, such
as, casein, albumin, globulin and membrane protein. Some important aspects such as
composition, properties etc. of these different classes of proteins are as follows

Casein
Casein is a conjugated protein or compound protein since it is composed of simple protein in
association with a non-protein. Casein is a phosphoprotein, that is, it contains phosphoric
acid. The phosphoric acid is combined with serine of the proteins. Casein is a mixture of at
least three proteins, namely, a casein, I casein and y casein. The amount of these different
caseins vary in cow milk and buffalo milk. In cow milk, a casein 54.5%, fi casein 39.1% and
y casein 6.4(, and in buffalo milk, a casein = 44.5%, j3 casein = 52.4% and y casein = 3.1%.
Total casein constitutes a out 78% of the protein in milk and 2.6% of the whole milk.
In fresh milk, casein occurs in chemical combination with lime salts nd is held in colloidal
suspension. The white colour and variety of milk are largely due to casein. Casein in milk can
be precipitated with dilute acids, salts or rennet. The liquid portion of milk left over after the
removal of casein is called whey. It contains proteins known as whey proteins.
Casein is the most important nitrogenous constituent so far as commercial use of milk is
concerned.

Albumin
Albumin is a simple protein because it contains only amino acids, Albumin present in milk is
called lactalbumin. It is also called whey protein because it goes in whey when cheese is
prepared from milk by the coagulation of casein.
Albumin constitutes about 10-15% of the protein in the milk. The average albumin content of
milk c Indian cows is about 0.4% and of buffaloes 0.383%. In colostrum, the albumin content
is generally about twice than in normal milk.
Lactalbumin is similar in character to albumen found in white of egg. It is coagulated by heat
and the extent of coagulation depends on the temperature of holding, salt concentration and
pH of milk. It is no precipitated by rennet.

Globulin

Globulin is a simple protein. Globulin present in milk is known as lactoglobulin. Milk

contains small amount of globulim, as low as 0.1%. However, colostrum may contain as high
as about 12%.
Lactoglobulin is similar to that of blood globulin since it filters from the blood into the milk.
It insoluble in water but soluble in dilute salt solution. It is coagulated by heat.

MINERAL MATTER (MINERALS),

Several minerals occur in milk. However minerals such as calcium, sodium, potassium am
magnesium are the most important salts, These minerals occur as phosphates, chlorides,
citrates and caseinates. Calcium and potassium salts are the most common in normal milk.
Besides these four minerals a number of other minerals such as copper, iron, zinc, aluminium,
manganese, nickel, boron, cobalt lithium, barium, strontium; molybdenum and silica are
present in milk in very small quantities.
The total concentration of minerals in milk is less than 1%. In normal milk, the ratio of
chloride am lactose remains somewhat constant. However, its ratio changes because sodium
chloride content increase under certain conditions like diseases of udder or the milk secreted
towards the end of lactation. Third increase in sodium chloride gives the milk a salty taste.
Although present in small quantities, milk is an important source of dietary calcium. Usually
buff ak milk contains more amount of calcium, phosphorous and magnesium than cow milk.

VITAMINS
Milk contains a number of vitamins such as A1 B1, B2, B12, C, D, E and K. Vitamins, A, D,
E and K an fat soluble and others are water soluble.
Amongst all the vitamins present in milk, vitamins such as A, B1, B2, C and D are best
known. Milk i a good source of all these vitamins for adult human beings as well as for
children and pregnant women The daily requirement of these vitamins in human beings
varies according to the age and pregnancy. The recommended daily requirements of these
vitamins in adults and the amount present in milk is given ir Table 16.1 in order to understand
the importance of milk as a source of vitamins for human beings.
Table 16.1
Some best known vitamins present in milk and recommended daily requirement by adult
human being

VITAMIN

AMOUNT PRESENT IN I
LITRE OF MILK
(mg)

A Retinol
B1 Thiamin
B2 Riboflavin
C L- Ascorbic add
D Anti-rachitic vitamins

0.22
0.4
1.7
5 20
0.002

AMOUNT
RECOMMENDED AS
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
FOR AN
ADULT HUMAN BEING
(hg)
1.2
2
1. 2
60 1000
0.01

PROPERTIES OF MILK
Physical properties Colour Colour is white mainly due to the presence of casein. Sometimes
due to the presence of the pigment carotene, the intensity of golden yellow colour may
increase.

Taste and odour

Milk is slightly sweet in taste. It has a mild aromatic flavour due to lactose and milk fat.
Abnormal taste or flavour may be produced if the animal is fed with certain kind of fodder,
onions, garlics etc or if there is any infection of the udder.

Specific gravity
Milk is heavier than water. The specific gravity of cow milk varies from 1.018 to 1.036 and
that of buffalo milk varies from 1.018 to 1.038.
Specific gravity varies with the temperature. It is lower at high temperature and higher in low
temperature. The specific gravity is measured at 15.6C using a lactometer.

Density
Density, that is, the thickness or degree of consistence of milk varies with temperature since
milk expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Density of milk is measured with the
hydrometer at 20C.

Viscosity
The viscosity of milk is always higher than viscosity of water due to the presence of solid
constituents. The viscosity of milk depends on the temperature and the amount, and state of
dispersion of the solid constituents. The casein micelle and the fat globules largely contribute
to the viscosity of milk. The viscosity of milk at normal temperature varies from 1.5 to 2 cp
(centiposes). The viscosity of the whole milk at 25C is about 2.0 cp.

Surface tension
Surface tension of the milk, that is, the force acting on the surface of the milk is about 50
dynes per centimeter at 20C. (dyne is a unit of force equal to that needed to produce
acceleration of 1 cm per second in a mass of 1 gm or 1 dyne = 10-5 N, where N (Newton) is a

unit of force equal to that creating an acceleration of 1 m per second when applied to a mass
of 1 kg).
The surface tension of milk depends on fats, proteins, phopholipids and fresh fatty acids
present in it. The surface tension increases by the process of homogenization and sertilization
by heat.

Refractive index
The refractive index of milk at 20C varies from 1.3440 to 1.3485. The refractive index
depends on the total solids and the other constituents present in the milk, In fact, the relation
between solids present in the milk and refractive index is linear. It is, therefore, possible to
use refractive index as a means of determining the total solids in milk or even the quantity of
water that might have been added in milk.

Boiling point
The boiling point of milk is about 100.17C. The boiling point may reach up to 100.2
depending on the dissolved constituents.
Freezing point
The freezing point of cow milk varies from 0.512C to 0.572C, and that of buffalo
milk varies from 0.521C 0.575C. The freezing point of milk is lower than water
because of the presence of water soluble constituents. Amongst all the constituents, lactose
and chloride are mainly responible for depressing the freezing point.
Determination of freezing point is important because it helps by determining he water content
of the milk.

Heat stability
Heat stability can be defined as the length of time required to induce coagulation at a given
temperature or the temperature required to induce coagulation in a given time. The heat
stability of milk or milk system is given in Table showing Heat stability of milk systems

MILK SYSTEM

ANIMAL

HEAT
COAGULATION
TIME (minutes)
34.6
Cow
Skim-milk
26.7
Buffalo
Miscelles in
20.8
Cow
corresponding
35.4
Buffalo
Milk diffusate
The heat stability is governed by the salt balance. Phosphates and citrates improve the heat
stability of cow and buffalo milk but calcium destabilizes milk. Amongst milk proteins,
casein which exists as micelle is responsible to a great extent for the heat stability of milk.

Heat stability of milk is very important in the manufacture of concentrated milk products
such as evaporated and condensed milk and milk powder.

Chemical properties of Milk

Buffering action of milk
Fresh milk acts as a complex buffer due to the presence of C02, phosphates, citrates, proteins
and other constituents. This property of milk is important so far as curdling of milk is
concerned, as well as for heat stability.

Natural acidity of milk

Fresh milk has very little acid in it because of the presence of C02, citrate, casein and some
other constituents. The pH of fresh milk has a range of 6.5 to 6.7. The titrable acidity of fresh
milk is between 0.14 and 0.20 per cent calculated as lactic acid.
The natural acidity of milk is important so far as heat stability is concerned.

BACTERIA (BACTERIOLOGY OF MILK)

Bacteria occur even in fresh milk because of contamination. The milk is practically or
normally sterile when it is secreted in the udder. But as soon as it leaves the udder arid even
before leaving the udder, it becomes contaminated with bacteria because the bacteria may be
present even inside the streak canals (teat channels). Subsequently milk may be contaminated
through various sources.
The bacteria which commonly occur in milk belong to different groups, such as (i) Lactic
acid bacteria,
(ii) Coliform bacteria (coli bacteria), (Hi) Butyric acid bacteria, (iv) Propionic acid bacteria
and
(v) Putrafaction bacteria.
i) Lactic acid bacteria (Lactic acid forming bacteria)
The lactic acid bacteria are collectively placed in the family Lactobacteriaceae. This is rather
a heterogenous group and includes cocci of the streptococcus type as well as long and short
rods. These are mostly non-motile and they do not form spores. All of them are grampositive. These bacteria depend on carbohydrate for their energy supply and excrete lactic
acid. In milk, they ferment lactose to lactic acid and may also produce acetic acid, CO2 and
hydrogen. For growth, they require organic nitrogen compounds which are present in casein
in milk. They break down casein with the help of protein splitting enzymes. They also require
vitamins for their growth which they obtain from milk.

The peculiarity of these bacteria is that they have the ability to utilise actose, which most
microorganisms lack. They contain the enzyme I - galactosidase which is found orly in a few
bacteria. Thus, the reaction that takes place is:
b - galactosidase

Lactose + H glucose + D galactose

Lactic acid bacteria are usually killed at about 70C although the lethal temperature of some
of them may be as high as 80C. A list of some of the most important lactic acid bacteria,
their shape, optimum temperature and lethal temperature have been given in following Table.

Table: A list of most important lactic acid bacteria, their shape, optimum temperature and
lethal temperature

SPECIES/SUB.SPECIES

1. Lactococcus Iactis
Subsp. lactis
(Streptococcus lactis)
2. Loctococcus lactis
Subsp. lactis
var. diacetilactis
(Streptococcus
diacetilactis)
3. Lactococcus locUs
Subsp. Creiuosis
(Streptococcus creluosis)
4. Lcucoustoc citrotoruui

LETHAL
SHAPE
OPTIMUM
(0C)
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
(0C)
Cocci
2530
6070
(Streptococci)
(15
minutes)
Cocci
2530
6070
(Streptococci)
(15
minutes)

Cocci
(Streptococci)

2530

6070
(15
minutes)
Cocci
2530
6065
(Streptococci)
(15
minutes)
5. Lactohacillus casei
Rods
3037
7075
(Streptobacteria)
(15
minutes)
Lactic acid bacteria are very important as acid and flarrur producers in the dairy industry.

ii) Coliform bacteria (coli bacteria)

There are short rods, gram-negative and non-spore forming bacteria. They ferment lactose
with gas formation. The gases that are formed by these bacteria are carbon dioxide and
hydrogen.
The two important species of coliform bacteria are EscJ;erichia coh and Enterobacter
acrogenes. Amongst these two bacteria, Eutcnthacter aerogenes is more dangerous in milk,
cheese and other milk products since it produces more gas than E coli. The gas formed by
those coliform bacteria may cause serious trouble in cheese making by fermenting cheese
with a bitter taste.

Coliform counts in milk is widely accepted as a routine bacteriological quality control

method.

iii) Butyric acid bactena (Butyric acid-forming bacteria)

Most bacteria of this group are spore-forming, anaerobic and gram-positive bacilli belonging
to the genus Clostridiutn The vegetative cells are rods and the endospores are oval or
spherical. The optimum temperature for growth is 3040C.
The common species are Closhidiuni tyrobutyricuni and C. huhricum. The fermentation
products are butyrate, acetate, CO2 and H2.
Since they are anaerobic, they do not grow well in milk which contains oxygen but grow very
well in cheese where more anaerobic conditions are found.

iv) Propionic acid bacteria (Propionic acid forming bacteria)

These bacteria are also spore forming, anaerobic and gram-positive bacilli b longing to the
genus Clostrid iun . The common one is Clostridium propionicurn
According to Frazier and Westhoff (1978), most bacteria of this group belong to the genus
Propinohachriunz although propionic cocci have been reported.
The optimum temperature for these bacteria is about 30C. The fermentations roducts are
propionic acid (propionate), acetate and CO2.

v) Putrefaction bacteria
These bacteria are proteolytic species, that is, they produce protein splitting enzymes and
with the help of these enzymes, they break down proteins and amino acids to ammonia
(NH3). These bacteria, therefore, are known as putrefaction bacteria.
These bacteria also belong to the genus Clostridium. Therefore, they are sport-forming,
anaerobic and gram-positive bacteria. The common species are Clostridium putrefaciens and
C. leutoputrescens.
These bacteria enter milk from water, fodder and manure.

PROCESSING OF MILK (METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MILK)

For maintaining quality of milk, necessary steps must be taken to stop bacterial growth from
the time milk is taken out in the farm and till it reaches the dairy. In this dairy, further
processing is done for various purposes. Thus, the main stages are (1) cooling of milk and (2)
treatment of milk (milk treatment).

1. Cooling of milk

Artificial cooling is done on the farm and during transport from the farm by the dairy. Milk
is, therefore, chilled to 4C, soon after milking. The cooling of the milk may be done by
anyone of the following methods:
a) By keeping milk in a can and then keeping it in another vessel containing the cooling
medium. The cooling medium ay be cold water, chilled brine or chilled water. In this
method, milk must be continually stirred to obtain uniform cooling.
b) By keeping milk in a special type of can provided with an inner cylinder filled with ice.
This method is widely used in many parts of our country especially during summer.
c) By keeping milk in a can or storage tank and by circulating a cooling medium. The cooling
medium may be melted ice from an ice tank or chilled brine water from a brine water tank.
Cooling also may be done directly with the help of directly expanding refrigerant. In all the
cases, a mechania. refrigeration system is necessary to chill the cooling medium.
d) By using a special type of cooler in which cooling mediuM flows through tubes and the
milk flows in a thin film over the exterior of these tubes. The cooling medium may be chilled
water, brine or directly expanding refrigerant.
e) By using a plate-heat exchanger and maintaining temperature of milk to within 4 to 6C.
The plate-heat exchanger is made up of a number of stainless-stall plates fitted closely (0.69
cm apart) and the liquid can flow as a colder or warmer medium through the plates in such a
way that one plate represents the heat exchanging dividing wall between the two streams.

2. Milk treatment
Milk treatment includes : (a) clarification, (b) homogenization, (c) standardization, (d)
pasteurization, (e) aseptic filling, and (f) sterilization.
a) Clarification It is the first stage of milk treatment in the dairy. It is the process by which
sediments present in the milk are removed in a centrifugal clarifier. During clarification,
some cells and bacteria may also be removed.
b) Homogenization : It is process by which fat globules are subdivided into smaller globules
so that the creaming property of the milk is lost. It is done by heating milk to about 60C so
as to inactivate the lipase and then pumped through a small orifice at a very high pressure.
By homogenization, the viscosity of milk is increased.
c) Standardization of milk : In some cases, as in toned milk, a standard composition of milk
must be maintained. It may be required to standardize the fat content of quite a large
propotion of the cream.
To obtain the required standardization, the whole milk and the skim milk are ifnixed in a
particular proportion by using Pearsons square method. For example, a whole milk

containing .0 per cent butter-fat is standardized to 4.0 per cent butter-fat by adding skim milk
containing 0.1 per cent fat, and in this case, the whole milk and skim milk are mixed in the
ratio of 3.9 : 1 by using Pearsons square method as follows
d) Pasteurization : Pasteurization of milk is carried out at temperatures below 100C to
destroy disease-causing organisms present in the milk. In order to destroy all the pathogenic
microorganisms it is necessary to heat the milk to a certain temperature to a certain length of
time before it is cooled down, by using following pasteurizing methods:
Method
Temperature
Length of time
1. Batch heating
62 65C
30 minutes
(Holder method)
2. High temperature
71 72C
15 to 40 seconds
short time heating
(HTST)
3. High temperature
85 90C
1 to 4 seconds
(Flash heating)
e) Aseptic filling (Aseptic packaging) In order to maintain the quality of milk for longer
periods (months), the aseptic filling (aseptic packaging) method is used. This can be done by
using cans or polyethylene paper board.
In this process, the cans are passed through superheated steam or hot gas at about 205C to
sterilize cans. The cans are then filled with the pasteurized milk and the sterilized can covers
are used to seal the cans.
Now-a-days, a new method of aseptic cartooning has been developed using polyethylene
paper board.
f) Sterilization : Pasteurization definitely reduces the number of microorganLrns drastically
but pasteurized milk is not sterile. In tropical and sub-tropical countries, pasteurized milk
cannot maintain keeping quality in room temperature for a long time. Therefore, pasteurized
milk is required to be kept below 10C under refrigeration. On the other hand, sterilized milk
can be kept for a long time in ordinary temperature.
Sterilization is done by heat-treatment processes such as very-high-temperature (VHT)
system or ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) system.
In case of VHT system, there is no definite definition.
UHT system usually refers to pasteurization technique with temperatures of at least 130C in
a continuous flow, with holding times of approximately I sec or more. It is carried out by
direct-heating methods such as steam-injection technique or steam-infusion technique.

MILK PRODUCTS
Milk products include market milk, that is, the fluid milk, and various other milk products
such as cheese, curd (yogurt or dahi), butter, ice-cream, condensed milk, milk powder, infant
food, as well as several indigenous products such as khoa and chhana, which form the basis
of several sweet preparations, lassi, shrikhand etc.

MARKET MILK
It is the liquid milk product made from milk and cream. It is consumed directly by
consumers. Market milk is sold in the market after it has been processed. The various stages
of opeation for processing market milk is as follows:
In India, about 40 per cent of the total milk produced is consumed as fluid milk.

CHEESE
Cheese is the curd substance formed by the coagulation of the milk of certain mammals by
rennet or similar enzymes in the presence of lactic acid produced by added or adventitious
microorganisms from which part of the moisture has been removed by cutting, warming
and/or pressing, and which has been shaped in moulds and then ripened by holding for some
time at suitable temperatures and humidities.
The name cheese has been derived from the Latin caseus, German kase, and Anglo-Saxon
cese.
The fundamental procedures of cheese making is as follow:
1. The starter culture, containing a mixture of lactic streptococci or lactobacilli such as
Streptococcus cremoris and Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus bulgricus is added to the
milk.
2. As the microorganism grow, they produce acid, because these microorganisms convert
milk sugar, lactose to lactic acid as the temperature is raised to 30C (86F).
3. The milk now coagulates because the major protein in milk, casein precipitates as the milk
becomes sour i.e. acidic.
4. To facilitate coagulation of the casein and inhibit its digestion, an enzym rennet, derived
from the stomach (abomasum, the fourth chamber or the real stomach) f the nursing calves
(ruminants) is added,
5. For many varieties, especially harder cheese, the coagulated milk i.e. th card is cooked in
its whey (the watery part of the milk that is separated) at a particular temp rature which not
only deternuines the final texture but also the survival of microorganisms which are involved
in ripening.

6. With or without cooking, the curd is cut with special knives to release as much whey as
possible. The degree of cutting also affect the final product.
7. The curd is pressed to remove even more whey.
8. The curd is now placed in a suitable container for ripening and curing.
The ripening and curing vary in different kinds of cheese. In Swiss cheese, it is a fermentative
process requiring no air. After pressing, the cheese is placed in a brine solution for many days
at about 13C (54F).
It is then removed from the brine and kept at the same temperature but at a relatively high
humidity. Now, the salted cheese is kept in the curing room at 20C (68F) and the microbes;
propionibacteria bacteria grow in large number.
The bacteria ferment lactose, oxidize lactic acid, and produce a number of end products
which are supposed to be responsible for inimitable flavour of the cheese.

CURD (YOGHURT OR DAHI)

Yogurt is a type of sour milk but thick in consistency. Yogurt was originally made from
goats milk. But now-a-days it is made from cows milk.
The method of preparing yogurt is as follows:
1. The whole milk or skim or partly skim milk is boiled down, to one half its initial volume.
However, a more or less similar effect can be achieved by adding 4 to 5 percent dry-milk
solids to whole milk or by using condensed milk. In this case, the heat treatment can be as
high 200F (about 93.5C) for as long as 90 minutes.
The heat treatment not only lowers the level of resident microbial flora but also makes the
milk more suitable for growth of the yogurt culture.
2. The milk after boiling or heat treatment, allowed to cool down.
3. After cooling, the milk is inoculated with 2 to 3 percent starter, that is, the material
containing microorganisms to induce a desired fermentation.
Two species of bacterial are responsible for the production of yogurt. There are Streptococcus
tJzermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
There is no general agreement on their relationships other than both the species of bacteria
are necessary to produce both acid and flavour.
4. The inoculated milk or culture is then incubated at 113F (45C).
A rather large inoculums produces the desired effect i.e. about 0.9 percent acidity in about 3
hours.

BUTTER

Butter is a fatty substance obtained from milk by churning. Butter, therefore, is essentially the
fat c the milk which can be directly consumed along with bread, biscuits etc. at the table.
The essential procedures for making creamerybutter (salted) in dairies and creameries using
moder: technology are as follows:
1. Preheating, Separation and Storage : The whole milk is preheated and then separated. The
crean is then cooled and kept in a storage tank.
2. Standardization : It is done so that the fat content of the cream should be at least 35-40%.
3. Pasteurization : Cream is pasteurized to 63C for 60 minutes or in 85 95C for about
10 minuteE Pasteurization in high temperature is done to destroy microorganisms and
enzymes for better keepin1 quality of butter.
4. Cooling and Ripening : Cream is now cooled to 20-22C and a good starter (acid producin
bacterial culture) is added. However, the acidity is not allowed to exceed 0.5 per cent.
Ripening takes abou 12 to 15 hours.
5. Churning and Washing : Cream is now churned, that is, it is vigorously agitated to break
dowr the fat globules and thus causing the fat to coagulate into butter grains and butter milk.
It is done at 10( for obtaining butter of firm consistency. The churning process continues for
30 to 40 minutes.
At this stage, butter milk is drawn off and the butter is washed two to three times with fresh
clear water.
6. Salting and Working : Salt is added as per requirement and the butter is worked to a
continuom fat phase containing a finely dispersed water phase. It is done so that the salt is
uniformly incorporated, and the butter does not contain any excess moisture.
7. Packaging and Storage : Butter is now packed in a packaging unit and stored in a cold
storage at about23C.

CONDENSED MILK
Condensed milk is the product obtained either by concentration of full-cream milk by
removing part of its water or from skimmed milk by concentration. In both the cases, the
condensed milk is produced with or without the addition of sugar. Thus, the condensed milk
may be of 2 types (i) unsweetened condensed milk and (ii) sweetened condensed milk.
The essential procedures for making these two types of condensed milk is given below

i) Unsweetened Condensed Milk

1. Standardization of milk Raw milk is standardized to maintain the composition of fat and
dry solids. If the condensed milk is obtained from full-cream milk, the total solids and fats in
the finished product should be about 31% and 9%, respectively.

2. Stabilization of protein : This is done by heat treatment. Stabilization of protein is done to

avoid risk of coagulation in the subsequent sterilization process. Heat treatment also helps in
destroying the microorganisms.
3. Concentration of milk This is done by evaporation. For concentration, heat treated milk is
taken to an evaporator in which vaporization of water takes place. It is done at 50 to 60C.
The milk is concentrated till its density reaches a value of about 1.07.
4. Homogenization The concentrated milk is homogenized under a pressure of 12500 to
25000 kpa (pa = pascal a unit of pressure equal to the force of 1 N acting over an area of
1m2).
5. Cooling The homogenized milk is now cooled to 5C if it is to be stored or to 14C if it is
packed directly. At this stage, vitamins and phosphates may be added.
6. Packaging : Cooled condensed milk is then filled in the cans and then sealed.
7. Sterilization It is done autoclaving at 110 120C for 10 to 20 minutes.
8. Cooling and storage The packed condensed milk is now again cooled and stored at 0 to
10C for maintaining quality of the milk for a long period.
The flow diagram for the preparation of unsweetened condensed milk is given in Fig. 16.5.

ii) Sweetened Condensed Milk

Sweetened condensed milk is manufactured in almost similar way as that of un3weetened
condensed milk except that sugar is added and there is no sterilization after packaging.
Sugar may he added by two methods addition of dry sugar before heat treatment, and addition
of sugar syrup in evaporator.
In sweetened condensed milk, concentration is done till the density reaches about
sweetened whole milk, and about 1.36 kg/I for sweetened skim milk.
The finished product should have a about 44% sugar, 8% fat and 29% water.

MILK POWDER
Milk powder is prepared using the principle of food preservation by drying. The water
content of the milk is reduced to 2.5% to 5% in milk powder and the microorganisms cannot
grow at this low water content.
The main objectives for the manufacture of milk powder are: (i) to increase shelf life of milk
so that it can be used for a longer period, (ii) to supply milk during emergency or in scarcity
areas, (iii) to prepare infant foods, (iv) to reduce space requirement for storage by reducing
volume and weight, and (v) to lower cost of transportation.
Milk powder may be produced by two methods, such as (A) spray-drying process and (B)
roller- drying process. Thus, milk powder may be spray-dried powder or roller-dried powder.

A. Spray-drying process
The process includes the following main stages:

1. Pretreatment and concentration of milk The milk is concentrated to the extent that the
total solids are about 45 to 50 per cent.

2. Spraying or dispersion The concentrate is sprayed or dispersed into fine droplets by

pumping and admitting through atomizer. Thus, small milk droplets are sprayed into the
mixing chamber or drying chamber.

3. Drying : The milk droplets are dried in the drying chamber by pumping heated air into the
chamber. The stream of hot air help in evaporating water very quickly.

4. Separation The dried milk droplets fall or settle as dry powder on the floor of the
chamber.

5. Packaging The dried milk droplets are now pneumatically conveyed by means of cooling
air to the packaging section. Cooling is done in order to avoid any damage to the powder due
to unnecessary heat.

B. Roller-drying process
The process includes the following main stages

1. Distribution of milk into roller-drum : Original milk (milk in original state) or

condensed milk (after condensation in a vacuum pan) is distributed in a thin film on to steamheated roller drums (metal rolleis). These metal drums revolve at a low rate of revolution.
They are heated internally by super-heated steam.

2. Evaporation The milk immediately on coming in contact with the hot roll surface
becomes dry as water in the milk evaporates and water vapour is removed by flow of air.

3. Removal of dried milk : The thin film of dried milk is scrapped off continuously by metal
scraper blade. The dried milk film drops down into a conveyor in which it is ground and
sieved on a screen.

4. Packaging The dried milk powder is now packed and marketed.

INFANT FOOD
Infant food is prepared from cow milk or buffalo milk or a mixture of both by pray-drying
process or by roller-drying process.
For the preparation of infant food, milk is used after conditioning and standar izing in order
to meet the standards of requirements. The milk may be modified by (i) partial removal of fat,
(ii) addition of carbohydrates such as sucrose, dextrose and dextrins, maltose and lactose, (iii
addition of vitamins A, B and C, (iv) addition of calcium and iron, and (v) addition of salts
such as phosphates and citrates.

ICE CREAM
Ice cream is a frozen product of milk. Ice cream can be defined as a frozen dairy product
made by blending and processing of cream and other milk products along with sugar, flavpur
with or without stabilizer and colour.
So far as the manufacturing process is concerned, there are two main aspects, such as,
ingredients and mixing process. These two aspects can been described briefly as follows:

Ingredients
The various ingredients used in the manufacture of ice cream are -

1. Fat Fat is added in the form of whole milk, sweet cream and unsalted butter. Fat is added
to increase richness of flavour and to impart a smooth texture.

2. Solids not fats : Proteins, lactose and mineral salts and other solids not fats are added in
the form of milk, cream, skim milk and whole milk powder, and condensed milk. These
substances give high nutritional value and also improve the texture.

3. Sugar: Sugar is added to give sweetness. Generally 10-18% sugar is added.

4. Stabilizers : There are substances which binds a large number of water molecules when
dispersed in a liquid phase. Gelatin, sodium alginate, casein albumin and globulin are
commonly used as stabilizers. The amount of stabilizers should be 0.2 to 0.4% volume of the
mix.

5. Emulsifiers : There are substances which help emulsification by reducing surface tension
of liquid products. Yolk of egg is a good emulsifier. There are also other emulsifiers such as
sorbitol esters, glycerin esters, sugar esters etc. Emulsifiers should be about 0.3 to 0.5% of the
volume of the mix.

6. Flavouring substances: A number of flavouring substances are used such as vanilla,

chocolate etc.

7. Colouring matter : Colouring matter is added as a powder or paste. The amount of

colouring matter should be 10 to 20 ml per 100 litres of mix. Sodium benzoate is added as a
sterilant.

8. Fruits Different kinds of fruits may be added to give ice cream their characteristic flavour.
Mixing process
This is the process of mixing all the ingredients in definite proportions and then subject the
mix to various treatments. The different stages of the entire mixing process can be described
as follows

1. Measuring and mixing of ingredients All the ingredients are accurately measured or
weighed and are mixed in a definite order which is determined by the temperature and
soluhility.
All the liquid ingredients are added in a vessel or container provided with a stirrer. The mix is
thus continuously agitated with the stirrer. The mix is also slowly heated to help the mixing
process. The dry ingredients are added to the mix and agitation of the mix is continued, and at
the same time, the temperature is slowly raised up to about 50C.

2. Homogenization and pasteurization : The mix is homogenized and then pasteurized to

kill microorganisms.

3. Cooling : The pasteurized mix is cooled and chilled to about 5C.

4. Ripening It is the process by which fat is crystallized and the protein and stabilizers are
allowed to bind water. This is done by holding the mix in the ripening tank for three to six
hours at 2-3C and agitating the mix continuously. At this stage, colouring matter and
flavouring agents may be added. Ripening contributes to the consistency of the cream.

5. Freezing The mix is now taken (pumped) to the freezer. The freezer co4sists of a cylinder
which is refrigerated. A controlled amount of air is released into the mix so that the watr
content in the mix can form a large number of small ice crystals.

6. Moulding (Filling) The mix is now moulded (filled) in different ways i argo cartoons or
packs, cones, cups etc.

7. Hardening This is done in order to complete the process of crystallizati n. For this. the ice
cream i.e. the moulded (filled) mix is subjected to a temperature of 5C or below.

8. Storing : The ice cream is usualht stored at a temperature oF 25C or- 3( The flow
diagrams of ice cream manufacturing has been given in Fig. 16.6.

INDIGENOUS MILK PRODUCTS

There are a number of indigenous milk products. Some of them are:
Chee It is essentially clarified butter fat of milk. Chee can be defined as the clarified fat
derived solely from milk or from desi butter or from cream to which no colouring matter is
added. In India, bulk of ghee is prepared from buffalo milk. Chee can be prepared by desi
method or creamery method. In desi method, dahi is prepared by seeding lukewarm milk with
old dahi or butter milk. The dahi is then churned in a vessel to obtain butter, which is heated
and ghee is produced.
Khoa : It is a partially dehydrated (desiccated) whole milk, produced by continuous heating
of milk in an open pan. It contains 70 to 75 per cent of total solids. During heating or boiling,
the milk is constantly stirred. Khoa is used as the base in the preparation of various sweets.

Chhana : It is a solid product produced from acid coagulation of milk. It is prepared from
partially or wholly skimmed milk by the addition of acid in the form of citrus fruit juice or
citric acid solution or sour whey while the milk is boiling. Whey is drained off through a
muslin cloth or any fine cloth. This product is similar to soft cheese prepared in western
countries. In chana, the fat content should not be less than 15%. Channa is mainly used for
the preparation two famous Indian sweets rasogolla and sandesh.
Lassi : It is a mixture of curd, water, sugar and may be some essence. Curd is prepared by
standard method and the soft curd is broken with agitator and required amount of water and
sugar. The mixture is then passed through a single stage homogenizer. In lassi, fat content
may he 3 to 3.5% and, total solids 16 to 18%.
Shrikhand It is a fermented and coagulated product of milk. It is prepared from dahi. Whey is
drained off from dahi and semisolid material is produced after mixing sugar and may be
essence. Shrikhand contains 5 to 15% fat, 40-45% moisture and 45 to 55% sugar.
The cocoons are small, about 2 to 2.4 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm broad. Generally, one
individual comes out of one cocoon.
In India, summer is the reproductive season. Cocoons are usually laid from August to
October. The young worm comes out of the cocoon in about 2 to 3 weeks.

VERMICULTURE
PROCEDURE OF VERMICULTURE
Selection of earthworms
It is very important to know about different species of earthworms and their activities. In
other words, it is important to know what different species of earthworm can do and cannot
do.
The earthworms have been divided into different types on the basis of their structure, habits
and habitats. Some of these earthworms which are important so far as vermiculture is
concerned are as follows

Red worms (Lumbricus rubellus)

These are medium-sized earthworms. They cannot survive in ordinary garden and farm soils
for a very long time. Butthey can thrive Well in manure piles and compost heaps. These are
very useful in indoor culture because they can reduce the time required to produce finished
compost to a great extent. In the presence of this earthworm, turning the heap is also not
required.

Field worms (Allolobophora caliginosa)

These are medium-sized earthworms. They attack compost heaps and manure piles from the
bottom. They mix and turn the earth with organic matter. After some period, they prefer to
retreat into the soil.
The main problem is that they cannot thrive in active compost and are killed more easily than
red worms and brandling worms.
They reproduce quickly and increase their population many times in a short period.
Therefore, if the heap is maintained for one year or more in one location the earth below it
will become rich and loaded with earthworms.

Night crawlers (Lumbricus terrestris)

They are large-sized earthworms. They also attack manure piles and compost heaps from the
bottom and after some period retreat into the soil.
They prefer cool soil temperature, and therefore, they do not enter into the compost and
manure piles. These earthworm will, therefore, simply die and melt, if they are forced to live
in active compost.

Brandling worms (Eiseniafoetida and F. andrei)

Eiseniafoetida is a medium to large sized earthworm. The growth rate and reproductive rate
are high.

This earthworm is usually sold for fish bait.

F. andrei is another important brandling worm. It has been found that it can produce about
400 kg of nitrogen rich compost per hectare per year.

Pheretima
Various species of Pheretima are common large-sized earthworms occurring in various
regions. In India, the common species is Pheretiina posthuma. However, the data on
Pheretimas are still not complete. But it appears that their requirements are similar to those of
the night crawlers and field worms. They are soil-living species.
Other earthworms
A number of earthworms belonging to different genera have been found to be suitable for
vermiculture and production of compost in India. Some of these earthworms are
Drarvida wilisi, Dicliogaster bolani, Lanipito rnauritts, Pcrioyx excauntus,

Materials for culturing earthworms

Nearly any discarded organic matter can be used for growing earthworms. The common
materials are garbage containing mountains of valuable food scraps; leaves a valuable
compostable material available abundantly; grass clippings a true green manure; banana
residue containing large amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, and decomposing
rapidly; shredded bark1 sawdust, Ld word shavings; citrus waste thicker the peel, the more
nitrogen contained; bagasse waste plart esidue of sugarcane; fish scrap well supplied
with nitrogen and phosphorous and also valuable niicronutrients, and mant such materials.
Although nearly any organic material can he used, there are some that should heavoided. The
wastes from birds, dogs, and cats should not be used. Human faces should not he used unless
they have been properly treated. Bird droppings are potential disease sources. Large amounts
of highly acid materials should not he used. The diseased plants should not he used. Toxic
materials should not he used. Plant debris from roadside may he highly coated with lead
emissions from passing vehicles.

TYPES AND METHODS OF VERMICULTURE

Vermiculture can be carried in a small scale either by outdoor or indoor method. It can also
be carried out in a large scale on farms.

Bins
Vermiculture can be carried out in bins, cages (pens), pits and holes.

Bin is any container with brick, wood, concrete etc. that is somewhat substantial and
permanent.
The bin should be located in a shady, shattered place not far from either garden or kitchen.

Lehigh-type bins (Lehigh-style bins)

The Lehigh type bin can be erected using logs or poles or rods. The bin is constructed by
drilling out corners of rods or logs of particular size and fixing them with 4 rods at the
corners. The rods on the adjacent sides are placed alternately.
This type of bin is easy to erect. It is long-lasting, portable, and it provides proper protection
and ventilation.
The bins may be of different types such as Lehigh-type bins, cage-type bins, New Zealand
bins, block and brick bins, movable slat bin and so on.

Cage-type bins
This is box-type constructed with the help of wood and wire or wire-mesh.
The cage-type bins are simple and inexpensive to build. They allow good air circulation and
are portable.

Block and brick bins

These kinds of bins can be constructed either by cementing the bricks or by just placing the
cemement blocks without fixing.
Thus, block and brick bins may be permanent or movable.

Cages (pens)
It is a very simple type made of ioven-wire fencing. It is constructed by bringing both ends of
the fencing together to form a cylinder. The cylinder is then filled with waste organic matter,
and when it is half full a stout stick or post is driven into the pile.
The stick helps not only in maintaining the shape of the pile, but also aids in directing water
into the heap.

Indoor heap method

In case of indoor heap method, a heap consisting of organic wastes is constructed which
should be longer and wider than a normal heap. The height should be 12 to 18 inches. The
materials (organic wastes) should be shredded as finely as possible before preparing the heap.
First, the manure type of earthworms should be introduced immediately. They will start their
activities right away, and the heap will not heat up greatly due to large surface area. Now,
other types of earthworms should be introduced.

The night crawlers will penetrate only the bottom layer. The field worms will spread to the
two bottom layers of material. The red worms and brandling worms will occur throughout the
heap.
The earthworms should not be introduced immediately into the heap, because the intense heat
of a working compost heap may kill all the worms. The temperature in the beginning my
reach up to 66C. The earthworms, therefore, should be introduced usually about three weeks
after th last materials have been added to a well-constructed heap.
After about three weeks, the interior of the pile cools down to the outside temperature.
Now, a number of holes should be digged at various points in the heap, and 50 to 100
earthworms should be dropped in each hole. Thus, about 1000 earthworms will be sufficient
to inoculate a 4 by 6-foot pile.
After a few days, the earthworms will begin consuming the organic matter and will leave rich
castings wherever they go. They will also start reproducing at a high rate For example, in a
well-maintained compost heap, 1000 red worms or brandling worms can increase to
10,00,000 in a year or two.
A very important aspect is the maintenance of earthworm population in such a way that the
finished compost can be used and at the same time a good number of earthworms can be
saved for future use.
This can be done in many ways. The best way is to remove only half the heap at a time, and
then spreading out the remainder to serve as the base for the new heap.
Earthworms can also be grown in bins and pits. But for this method, proper care should be
taken so that the predators cannot enter and penetrate into the heap and eat away large
number of earthworms. This can be achieved by digging the pit little below the surface and
outfitted with a heavy, coarse screen on the bottom to keep the predators away but allow a
free passage of soil-dwelling earthworms. Manure type earthworms will not move deep into
the soil.

BENEFITS OF VERMICULTURE (APPLICATION OF VERMICULTURE)

So far as benefits of vermiculture are concerned, there are two main aspects (1) production
of vermicompost and its use and (2) using earthworms for various purposes.

1. Production of vermicompost and its use Composting has been the basis of the organic
method of farming and gardening since long. However, the modern concept of compost was
developed in India by Sir Albert Howard, who was British Government agronomist during
1905-1934. He is, therefore, known as father of the organic concept.

Today, organic farming is considered as a legitimate agricultural alternative, It not only

helps in organic farming but there are many other uses of compost.
Some of the benefits or uses of compost are as follows:

a) Increase in agricultural production Compost is more than a fertilizer, It is more than a

soil conditioner. It imp4ves the soils moisture- building capacity because it is porous and it
has the ability to absorb moisturd. It is more than a soil conditioner because along with
conditioning the soil, it also acts as a plant-growth promoter. It helps to increase the
agricultural productivity in various ways by increasing production of crops, fruits,
vegetables and flowers.

b) Compost is a great recycler of plant nutrients Waste can be disposed of by chemical

means that is, burning, or by physical means, that is, using for landfills. But, the best method
is recycling of plant nutrients by biological means, that is, composting, because by this
method, the wastes return to the soil in the form in which they can be used most effectively.

c) Reduction of chemical fertilizer By using compost we can drastically reduce use of

chemical fertilizers. These chemical fertilizers such as ammonia-type fertilizers are
manufactured from natural resources such as natural gas, the supply o which is finite. We can
save lot of our natural resources by using compost.

d) Recycling of wastes Composting is considered as a giant step toward recycling wastes.

Millions of tons of waste generated from livestock production (live stock excreta, animal
wastes etc.) agricultural wastes, waste from food processing industries and many other kinds
of waste can be used a substrates for vermicomposting, and thus they can be easily recycled.

e) Drought protection Soil improved with compost is able to hold more moisture. Water is
soaked up like a sponge and stored on the soil granules. For example, 100 pounds of humus
can hold 195 pounds of water. This stored water can be absorbed by the roots of the plants
during drought conditions. Thus, increase in permeability of soil due to supply of organic
matter is a potent weapon against drought damage.

f) Stoppage of erosion Erosion is mainly caused by gradual loss of top soil. Compost helps
in building the top soil and resists erosion. In fact, in recent times, thousands of tons of top
soil have eroded due to shortsighted agricultural practices.

g) Neutralization of toxins Compost has been found to be very useful in neutralization of

soil toxins.
An example of this kind of neutralization of toxin is the removal of aluminium from the soil
by locking up in a stable complex. Large amount of aluminium is highly toxic to plants
because it prevents them from taking up phosphorous. Actively decomposing organic matter

produces organic acids with phosphorous, some of which form stable complexes with
aluminium and iron. The excess aluminium is thus locked up in a stable complex and cannot
cause any harm to the plant.

2. Use of earthworms
a) Earthworms as fish bait
Earthworms are used as fish bait. The earthworms particularly red worms and brandling
worms are sold for fish bait.

b) Use of earthworms for sewage sludge management

A huge amount of sludge is formed at the sewage treatment plant. This sewage sludge must
he treated and disposed in a manner that it should not damage the environment. This
treatment and disposal are very expensive.
This sewage sludge can be converted to compost with the help earthworms. It has been found
that earthworms in sludge can bring about increased oxygen consumption, increased
mineralization, and decreased anaerobic decomposition.

c) Use of earthworm for treatment of industrial wastes

By using earthworms such as E. fetida and certain bacteria in trickling filters of sewage
treatment plant, industrial wastes can also be treated.

d) Reclamation of land with the help of earthworms

A piece of land which is not suitable for agricultural use can be made suitable by introducing
certain species of earthworms. Earthworms are able to improve the physical structure of soil
and improve nutrient cycling.
The same method can also be used for reclamation of open-cast mining sites.

e) Use of earthworm as food for animals and humans Earthworms contain 70-80 percent
protein on dry weight basis, and this protein has good balance of amino acids. It is also rich in
lysine.
Nutritionally, earthworm proteins have been found to be equivalent to fish meal.
Earthworm protein can be used for manufacturing biscuits, and other similar products.
For large scale use, bulk of earthworms is needed. It is for this reason, earthworm farming
has become very popular in many countries.