Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers
Some simple equations do not admit solutions in the field of real numbers:

We have to introduce extra numbers into our number system.

A complex number, z, has the form
Where

and

are real numbers and is the imaginary unit such that

The real and imaginary parts of z are

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if they have the same real and imaginary
parts:

Field of Complex Numbers

The set of all complex numbers is denoted

Operations on complex numbers

The field of complex numbers is the set C equipped with the arithmetic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division defined by

)(

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

(
(

)
)

(
(

)(
)(

)
)

)
(

)
(

Complex conjugate
For any complex number

, the complex conjugate is defined as

So that

Note the following results:

It is easy to see that for every
(
Furthermore, if

( )
, we have
)
and

, then

and

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

The modulus
The quantity

is called the modulus of the complex number z.
Example: solve a) (

and b) (

)(

)(

Solution:
a) (
(

b)(

)(

)(

Complex Plane
A complex number
can be represented as a point (x, y)
in the plane
. Such diagrams using Cartesian or polar coordinates are called
Argand diagrams:

Figure1: Numbers
diagram.

on the Argand

The complex number z can be viewed as a vector in

numbers satisfies the parallelogram rule.

. Addition of complex

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Figure 2: Addition and subtraction of two complex numbers

Polar Form
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The use of polar coordinates (r,) in R : (x, y) = (r cos , r sin ) gives the polar
form
(

The quantity

is called the modulus of the complex number z. This is the distance of the point z or
(x, y) from the origin 0.

The Argument of

is
( )

The argument is multi-valued

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

The principal argument

is single-valued.

An explicit expression
[

deponds on the location

)

(
)]
Triangle Inequality

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Example: Put z = 2 2i in polar form and find Arg z

(

Solution:

( )

Example: Simplify
Solution: (

)()

)()

Example: Simplify

(
(

)
)

)(

)
)

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Open and Closed Planar Sets

Open Disks: The set of points
inside the circle of radius r about
set
is the open unit disk.

is called an open disk or neighbourhood of

. The

Open Sets: A point

in a set
is an interior point of if there is some open disk
about
which is completely contained in S. If every point of S is an interior point of S we
say S is open. The empty set and C are open sets.
Closed Disks: The set of points
Closed Disk:
is the closed disk of radius r about
.
Closed Sets: A point
is said to be a boundary point of
if every open disk about
contains at least one point in S and at least one point not in S. Note that a boundary point
may or may not be in S. The set S of all boundary points of S is called the boundary of S.
A set which contains all of its boundary points is called closed. A set S is closed if and only if
its complement C\S is open. A point which is not an interior point or boundary point of S is
an exterior point. The empty set

and C are both open and closed sets

Bounded Sets: A set S C is called bounded if there exists a real number R such that
|z| < R for every z S. A set S C which is both closed and bounded is called compact.
Connectedness: An open set S C is said to be connected if every pair of points in S can
be joined by a path (of finite or infinite length) that lies entirely in S. An open set S C is
said to be polygonally-connected if every pair of points in S can be joined by a polygonal
path (finite number of straight line segments) that lies entirely in S. A region is an open
polygonally-connected set S together with all, some or none of its boundary points. We
assume polygonal-connectedness to avoid infinite length paths and fractal-like open sets.

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Complex Function
A function of a complex variable z is an assignment or rule
f : D R, f : z=x + iy w=f(z)= u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
which assigns to each z in the domain D
range R C so that f(z) is single-valued.

C a unique image w = f (z) in the

It is not possible to represent a complex function f (z) by a graph. The

complex function f (z) is however determined by the pair of real functions
u(x,y), v(x,y) of two real variables x and y. D and R are usually regions in
C:

Example: Functions of the complex variable z:

( )

( )
( )

)
)(

(
)

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Limits of Complex Functions

Suppose ( ) is defined in an open disk about
with the possible exception of the
point
itself. The concept of a limit in complex analysis is exactly the same as in real
analysis. So, we say that ( )
as
,
( )
if, given any
.

, there exists

;
( )

such that

whenever

Unlike a function of a real variable, z can approach

along many different paths in the
complex plane. If the limit exists, it is independent of the way in which z approaches .
Example: Show from the limit definition that
Solution:
(

(
(

)(

(
Example: Show that

does not exist:

For the limit to exist, it must be independent of the path along which
. We show that the limits

along the x- and y-axes are different

So the limit does not exit.

10

approaches

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Limit Theorems
Limit Theorems:
If
are constants (independent of z) and

( )

( ) exit then

exist then
1- Linear
(

( )

( ))

( )

( )

2- Product
( ) ( )

( )

( )

3-Quetiont
( )

( )
( )

( )

( )

Example: Find the limit

Example: Find the limit

)(

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Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Limit
We define
( )

( )

An open disk about the point at infinity is

, for

Example:

Continuity
Suppose the function ( ) is defined in an open disk about
. Then ( ) is continuous at if
( )
( )
(

and ( ) is defined at
)

To be continuous at , (i) the function ( ) must be defined at

, (ii) the limit
( ) must exist and (iii) the limit must equal the function value ( ).

A function ( ) is continuous in a region if it is continuous at all points in the region.

Example: Show that ( )
( )

is continuous in C:
is continuous in C since
(
)
(
)
are continuous functions of two real variables in
being products of the continuous
functions ,

Analytical Functions
Suppose the function ( ) is defined in an open disk about
Then ( ) is differentiable at if the limit

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and ( ) is defined at

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

( )

( )

( )

defining the derivative exists.

A complex function is said to be analytic on a region
every point in .

if it is complex differentiable at

The definition above says that a function is analytic basically means that it is differentiable
and analyticity mention that a function can be expressed as power series.
Singular Points: A point at which f(z) fails to be analytic is called a singular point of f(z).

Differentiation Formulas
The basic differentiation formulas for complex function are essentially the same as that of
real function that you have learnt in calculus course. Hence they will be listed here without
proof.

d
cf ( z ) cf ( z ) , c is a constant
dz

d
f ( z ) g( z ) f ( z ) g ( z )
dz

d
( f ( z )g( z )) f ( z )g ( z ) g( z ) f ( z )
dz

d f ( z ) g ( z ) f ( z ) f ( z )g ( z )

dz g ( z )
[ g ( z )] 2

d
f ( g ( z )) f ( g ( z )) g ( z )
dz

provided g(z) 0

( Chain rule )

( LHopitals Rule )

Suppose that f(z0)=g(z0) = 0 and both f(z0) and g(z0) exist with g(z0) 0. Then

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Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

f(z)
f ( z0 )
lim
z z0 g( z ) z z0 g ( z0 )
lim

Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Differentiability of ( )
(
If ( ) is differentiable the limit

) implies strong constraints on (

(

( )
(

) (

).

( )

must exist independent of the path. We conclude that the limit along the x- and y-axes must
agree
( )

Hence necessary conditions for

Riemann Equations

( ) to be differentiable are given by the Cauchy-

( )

Cauchy-Riemann Theorem
Suppose ( )
(
)
(
) is defined in an open region R containing . If (
and (
) and their first partial derivatives exist and are continuous at
(that is (
14

)
)

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

and (
) are
at (
)) and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations at , then ( ) is
differentiable at . Consequently, if (
) and (
) are
and satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations at all points of R then ( ) is analytic in .
Example: Show that the function
derivative

( )

is entire with

Solution: The first partial derivatives are continuous and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations everywhere in C

Hence by the Cauchy-Riemann theorem ( )

is entire and

( )

Example: Discuss where the function ( )

and (b) analytic
Solution: Since (

and (

) is (a) differentiable

, we have

These partial derivatives are continuous everywhere in C. They satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations on the line
but not in any open region. It follows by the Cauchy-Riemann
theorem that ( ) is differentiable at each point on the line
Example: Show that the function

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but nowhere analytic

Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Harmonic Functions
A real function of two variables (
) is harmonic in an open connected domain D if it is
(that is continuous with continuous first and second partial derivatives) in D and satisfies
the Laplace equation

The Laplace equation occurs in many areas of two-dimensional physics including continuum
and fluid mechanics, aerodynamics and the heat equation. We see that the solutions to these
equations (harmonic functions) are naturally associated with analytic functions

Harmonic Conjugates
Theorem Harmonic Conjugates: If u(x, y) is harmonic in a simply-connected open domain D
then there exists another harmonic function v(x, y) on D (called the harmonic conjugate of u)
such that f(z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) is analytic in D. The conjugate is obtained by solving the
Cauchy-Riemann equations.

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Complex Analysis- Mahboubeh Farid

Example: Show that the function

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