Web Answers for Power Systems - II

Chapter 2: Nature of Faults in Electrical System

Question 5
Answer:
By percentage reactance we mean the percentage of the total phase voltage dropped in the circuit
when full load current is flowing i.e.

%X

IX
100 .(1)
V

where I = full load current, V = phase voltage and X = reactance in ohms per phase.
It can also be expressed in terms of KVA or KV as under:
From equation (1)

.(2) where X is the reactance in ohms.

If X is the only reactance element in the circuit then short circuit current is given by I SC
By putting the value of X from equation (1), I SC

V
.
X

100
%X

i.e. short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by 100/% X.
In view of what have been stated above it is worthwhile to mention here the advantage of using
percentage reactance instead of ohmic reactance in short circuit calculations. Percentage reactance
values remain unchanged as they are referred through transformers, unlike ohmic reactances which
become multiplied or divided by the square of transformation ratio.
Further, as the various equipments used in the power system have different KVA ratings, it is
necessary to find the percentage reactance of all the elements on a common KVA rating which is
known as base KVA and the conversion is effected by using the relation as %age reactance of base
KVA =

Base KVA
%age reactance at rated KVA.
Rated KVA

These all led to conclude that it is preferable to express the reactances of various elements in
percentage values for short circuit calculations.

Question 6
Answer:
Whatever may be the value of base KVA, short circuit current is the same i.e., the value of short
circuit current does not change if different base KVAs are taken.
In order to explain the answer, a single line diagram of the system is shown below in which a 3 phase
transmission line operating at 66 KV and connected through a 1000 KVA transformer with 5%
reactance to a generating station bus bar is considered.
The generator is of 2500 KVA with 10% reactance.
2500 KVA 10%

11/66 KV
66 KV Line

~
1000 KVA 5%

Single line diagram of the system

i) If 2500 KVA is chosen as the common base KVA, the reactance of the various elements in the
system on this base value will be:
Reactance of transformer at 2500 KVA base

2500
12.5%
1000

Reactance of generator at 2500 KVA base = 10

2500
10%
2500

Total percentage reactance on the common base KVA

% X 12.5 10 22.5%
The full load current corresponding to 2500 KVA base at 66 KV is given by:

2500 1000
3 66 1000

Short circuit current I SC

21.87 A

100
%X

21.87

100
22.5

97.2 A

ii) Now if 5000 KVA is chosen as the common base KVA, then:
Reactance of transformer at 5000 KVA base

10

5000
1000

25%

Reactance of generator at 5000KVA base

10

5000
1000

20%

Total percentage reactance on the common base KVA

%X = 25 + 20 = 45%

Full load current corresponding to 5000 KVA base at 66 KV is

5000 1000
3 66 1000

Short circuit current, I SC

43.74 A

100
%X

43.74

100
45

97.2 A

If the two cases as shown above are examined, it may be observed that for two different base KVA,
short circuit current is the same.
Example 8
Solution:
Let base KVA be 35,000 KVA
% Reactance of alternator A at base KVA

%X A

35, 000
30 70%
15, 000

% of reactance of alternator B at base KVA

%XB

35, 000
50 87.5%
20, 000

Line current corresponding to 35,000 KVA at 12 KV

35 ,000 10 3
3 12 10 3

1684 A

Fig. (ii) shows the reactance diagram of the network at the selected base KVA.
Total % reactance from the generator neutral upto fault point,

%X

X A XB

XAXB
XA XB

Short circuit current I SC

70 87.5
70 87.5

100
%X

38.89%

1684

100
38.89

4330 A .

Example 9
Solution:
Assuming base MVA as 1200, the percentage reactance of one generating station is 100% and that of
the other is

1200
100 150%
800
The % reactance of the cable is

0.5 1200
100 496%
11 11

When a 3-

fault takes place at 1200 MVA capacity plant the equivalent circuit will be as follows.

150%

100%
496%
F

When the fault is F, fault impedance between F and the neutral bus will be 86.59%
The short circuit MVA of this bus will be as follows

1200
100 1386MVA
86.59

For fault at the other station, the equivalent circuit will be as follows:
ZPB

100%

150%
496%
F

The equivalent fault impedance between F and neutral bus will be 119.84%
The short circuit MVA will be

1200
100 1001 MVA .
119.84

Example 10
Solution:
10MVA
10%

5MVA
5%

F1

F2

Load
Fig: 1

Let 10,000 KVA be the base KVA

% Reactance of alternator A at base KVA

%X A

10, 000
10 10%
10 103

% Reactance of transformer or base KVA

% XT

10, 000
5 10%
5 103

Since the line impedance is given in ohms, conversion into % impedance is made by using the
following relation.
% impedance =

% reactance of transmission line using the above relation comes to

% resistance of transmission line,

Neutral

i) The reactance diagram of the network on the selected base KVA is shown in
XA = 10%

fig.2
Total % reactance

% X A % XT

%X2

XT = 10%

10 10 40
60%

F1
RL = 10%

% Resistance = 10%
% impedance from generator neutral upto fault point F2

100
short-circuit KVA= 10, 000
16, 440 KVA .
60.83

XL = 40%
F2
Fig: 2

ii) For a fault at the high voltage terminals of the transformer (point F1 ), total % reactance from
generation neutral upto fault point

F1

% X A % XT

Short circuit KVA = 10, 000

10 10

100
20

20%

50, 000 KVA .

Chapter 3: Power System Dynamics

Example 2
Solution:
As the system is operating initially under steady state condition, a small perturbation in power will
make the rotor to oscillate. The natural frequency of Oscillation is given by:12

PC

fn

/M

For 60% loading:

Pe

V1V2
cos
X
1.1 1
cos
.5

M
fn

GH
f

1.1
.8 1.76
.5

[Since sin

0.6
1

0.6 ]

1 3
50

1.76
50
3

9.6 rad / sec. 1.53 Hz.

Example 8
Solution:
a) The equivalent circuit is shown in figure (b), from which the equivalent reactance between the
machine internal voltage and infinite bus is
1

2
B12

G
~

Xd

XTR

X12

0.10
B11

0.30

F
B13 X13

Fig: (a) Single-line diagram

for example 8

0.20

B21

B22

0.10 X
23

jX d

+
~

j 0.30

pe

jX TR

j 0.10

Vbus

1.0

0.20
2

jX12
jX13 j 0.20 3

jX 23

j 0.10

j 0.20

Fig: (b) Equivalent circuit

per unit

1.0 0

The current into the infinite bus is

1.05263 18.195 per unit

and the machine internal voltage is

Vbus

jX eq I

1.0 0

0.54737 71.805

1.1709

j 0.5200 1.2812 23.946 per unit

b) From

per unit.

Example 9
Solution:
Plots of pe and pm versus

are shown in figure (i). From example 8 the initial operating point is
radian. At t

per unit and

0 , when

the short circuit occurs, pe instantaneously drops to zero and remains at zero during the fault since
power cannot be transferred past faulted bus 1.
with

Integrating twice with initial conditions

At t

3 cycles = 0.05 second,

The accelerating area A1 shaded in figure (i), is

and

0
dt

0,

0.05 s the fault extinguishes and pe instantaneously increases from zero to the sinusoidal

At t

curve in Fig. (i).

continuous to increase until the decelerating area A2 equals A1. That is,
p (per unit)

Pmax = 2.4638
A2

pe = 2.4638 sin

A1
pm = 1.0

(radians)

Fig: (i) p plot

Integrating,

The above nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved iteratively to obtain

0.7003 radian

Since the maximum angle

40.12
2

does not exceed

, stability is maintained. In

steady-state, the generator returns to its initial operating point pess

ss

pm

1.0 per unit and

23.95 .

Note that as the fault duration increases, the risk of instability also increases, The critical clearing
time, denoted t cr , is the longest fault duration allowable for stability.
Example 10
Solution:
The p

plot is shown in figure 1. At the critical clearing angle, denoted

extinguished.
3

180

The
0

156.05

power

angle

then

increases

to

cr

, the fault is

maximum

value

2.7236 radians, which gives the maximum decelerating area. Equating

the accelerating and decelerating

p (per unit)

Pmax = 2.4638
pe = 2.4638 sin
A2
pm = 1.0
A1
0

cr

(radians)

Fig: 1 p plot

areas,

Solving for

cr

2.4638cos
cr

cr

0.05402

1.5489 radians 88.74

From the solution to the swing equation given in Example 9,

Solving

Using

radian,
cycles.

If the fault is cleared before t

tcr

11.38 cycles, stability is maintained. Otherwise, the generator

goes out of synchronism with the infinite bus; that is, stability is lost.

Chapter 4: Load Flow Studies

Example 6
Solution:
Three Winding Transformer
Equivalents
13
9
10

1
G

2
G

12

14
13
C

15

16

12

30
18

23

20
10
5

24
21 19

6
17

11
9

22

27
29

25
C

28

26

8
C

30-bus IEEE sample system

G: Generators
G: Synchronous condensers

Bus data for IEEE-30 BUS

Clear
% clears all variables from workspace.
Basemva = 100; accuracy = 0.001; accel = 1.8; maxiter = 100;
%
IEEE 30-BUS TEST SYSTEM (American Electric Power)
%
Bus Bus Voltage Angle
--Load----Generator---Injected
%
N
C
Mag.
Deg- MW
Mvar MW
Mvar Qmin Qmax
o.
O
ree
D
E
Bus[1 1
1.06
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
0
data=
2
2
1.043
0
21.70
12.7
40.0
0.0
-40
50
3
0
1.0
0
2.4
1.2
0.0
0.0
0
0
4
0
1.06
0
7.6
1.6
0.0
0.0
0
0
5
2
1.01
0
94.2
19.0
0.0
0.0
-40
40
5
0
1.0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
0
7
0
1.0
0
22.8
10.9
0.0
0.0
0
0
8
2
1.01
0
30.0
30.0
0.0
0.0
-10
40
9
0
1.0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
0
10 0
1.0
0
5.8
2.0
0.0
0.0
0
0
11 2
1.082
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-6
24
12 0
1.0
0
11.2
7.5
0
0
0
0
13 2
1.071
0
0.0
0.0
0
0
-6
24
14 0
1.0
0
6.2
1.6
0
0
0
0
15 0
1.0
0
8.2
2.5
0
0
0
0
16 0
1.0
0
3.5
1.8
0
0
0
0
17 0
1.0
0
9.0
5.8
0
0
0
0
18 0
1.0
0
3.2
0.9
0
0
0
0
19 0
1.0
0
9.5
3.4
0
0
0
0
20 0
1.0
0
2.2
0.7
0
0
0
0
21 0
1.0
0
17.5
11.2
0
0
0
0
22 0
1.0
0
0..0
0.0
0
0
0
0
23 0
1.0
0
3.2
1.6
0
0
0
0
24 0
1.0
0
8.7
6.7
0
0
0
0
25 0
1.0
0
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
0
26 0
1.0
0
3.5
2.3
0
0
0
0
27 0
1.0
0
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
0
28 0
1.0
0
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
0
29 0
1.0
0
2.4
0.9
0
0
0
0
30 0
1.0
0
10.6
1.9
0
0
0
0

M
v
a
r
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.3
0
0
0
0
0
0];

% Line
%
%
%
Line
data=

Data
Bus
nl
[1
2
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
6
6
9
9
4
12
12
12
12
14
16
15
18
19
10
10
10
10
21
15
22
23
24
25
25
28
27
27
29
8
6

3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
10
11
10
12
13
14
15
16
15
17
18
19
20
20
17
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
27
29
30
30
28
28

bus
nr

R
pu
0.0192
0.0452
0.4570
0.0132
0.0472
0.0581
0.0119
0.0460
0.0267
0.0120
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1231
0.0662
0.945
0.2210
0.0824
0.1073
0.0639
0.0340
0.0936
0.0324
0.0348
0.0727
0.0116
0.1000
0.1150
0.1320
0.1885
0.2544
0.1093
0.0000
0.2198
0.3200
0.2399
0.0636
0.0160

X
pu
0.0192

B
pu
0.02640

0.1852
0.1737
0.0379
0.1983
0.1763
0.0414
0.1160
0.0820
0.0420
0.2080
0.5560
0.2080
0.1100
0.2560
0.1400
0.2559
0.1304
0.1987
0.1997
0.1923
0.2185
0.1292
0.0680
0.2090
0.0845
0.0749
0.1499
0.0236
0.2020
0.1790
0.2700
0.3292
0.3800
0.2087
0.3960
0.4153
0.6027
0.4533
0.2000
0.0599

0.02040
0.01840
0.00420
0.02090
0.01870
0.00450
0.01020
0.00850
0.00450
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0214
0.065

1 for Line code or

tap setting value
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.978
0.969
1
1
0.932
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.968
1
1
1
1
1]

Power Flow solution by Gauss-Seidel Method

Maximum power mismatch=0.000951884
Bus
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Total

Voltage
Angle
------Load----------Generation----Injected
Mag.
Degree
MW
Mvar
MW
Mvar
Mvar
1.060
0.000
0.000
0.000
-17.010
0.00
1.043
-5.496
21.700
12.700
40.000
48.826
0.00
1.022
-8.002
2.400
1.200
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.013
-9.659
7.600
1.600
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.010
-14.380
94.200
19.000
0.000
35.995
0.00
1.012
-11.396
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.003
-13.149
22.800
10.900
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.010
-12.114
30.000
30.000
0.000
30.759
0.00
1.151
-14.432
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.044
-16.024
5.800
2.000
0.000
0.000
19.00
1.082
-14.432
0.000
0.000
0.000
16.113
0.00
1.057
-15.301
11.200
7.500
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.071
-15.300
0.000
0.000
0.000
10.406
0.00
1.043
-16.190
6.200
1.600
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.038
-16.276
8.200
2.500
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.045
-15.879
3.500
1.800
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.039
-16.187
9.000
5.800
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.028
-16.881
3.200
0.900
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.025
-17.049
9.500
3.400
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.029
-16.851
2.200
0.700
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.032
-16.468
17.500
11.200
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.033
-16.455
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.027
-16.660
3.200
1.600
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.022
-16.829
8.700
6.700
0.000
0.000
4.30
1.019
-16.423
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.001
-16.835
3.500
2.300
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.026
-15.913
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.011
-12.0560.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.00
1.006
-17.133
2.400
0.900
0.000
0.000
0.00
0.994
-18.016
10.600
1.900
0.000
0.000
0.00
283.400

126.200

300.950

125.089

23.30

Line Flow and Losses

--Line-From
1

Power at bus & line

To

flow

--Line

2
3

MW
260.950
177.743
83.197

Mvar
-17.010
-22140
5.125

MVA
261.504
179.117
83.354

1
4
5
6

18.300
-172.282
45.702
82.990
61.905

36.126
32.657
2.720
1.704
-0.966

1
4

-2.400
-80.390
78.034

2
3
6
12

loss--

Transformer

MW

Mvar

5.461
2.807

10.517
7.079

40.497
175.350
45.783
83.008
61.913

5.461
1.106
2.995
2.047

10.517
-0.519
8.178
2.263

-1.200
1.954
-3.087

2.683
80.414
78.095

2.807
0.771

7.079
1.345

-7.600
-44.596
-77.263
70.132
44.131

-1.600
-3.239
4.432
-17.624
14.627

7.767
44.713
77.390
72.313
46.492

1.106
0.771
0.605
0.000

-0.519
1.345
1.181
4.686

2
7

-94.200
-79.995
-14.210

16.995
6.474
10.467

95.721
80.256
17.649

2.995
0.151

8.178
-1.687

2
4
7
8
9
10
28

0.000
-59.585
-69.527
37.537
29.534
27.687
15.828
18.840

0.000
3.229
18.805
-1.915
-3.712
-7.318
0.656
-9.575

0.000
59.945
72.026
37.586
29.766
28.638
15.842
21.134

2.047
0.605
0.368
0.103
0.000
0.000
0.060

2.263
1.181
-0.598
-0558
1.593
1.279
-13.085

5
6

-22.800
14.361
-37.170

-10.900
-12.154
1.317

25.272
18.814
37.193

0.151
0.368

-1.687
-0.598

6
28

-30.000
-29.431
-0.570

0.759
3.154
-2.366

30.010
29.599
2.433

0.103
0.000

-0.558
-4.368

6
11
10

0.000
-27.687
0.003
27.731

0.000
8.911
-15.653
6.747

0.000
29.086
15.653
28.540

0.00
-0.000
0.000

1.593
0.461
0.811

6
9
20
17
21
22

-5.800
-15.828
-27.731
9.018
5.347
15.723
7.582

17.00
0.623
-5.936
3.569
4.393
9.846
4.487

17.962
15.640
28.359
9.698
6.920
18.551
8.811

0.000
0.000
0.081
0.014
0.110
0.052

1.279
0.811
0.180
0.037
0.236
0.107

0.000
-0.003

16.113
16.114

16.113
16.114

-0.000

0.461

4
13
14
15
16

-11.200
-44.131
-0.021
7.852
17.852
7.206

-7500
-9.941
-10.274
2.428
6.968
3.370

13.479
45.237
10.274
8.219
19.164
7.955

0.000
0.000
0.074
0.217
0.053

4.686
0.132
0.155
0.428
0.112

12

0.000
0.021

10.406
10.406

10.406
10.406

0.000

0.132

10

11

12

13

tap

0.932

0.978
0.969

14
12
15

-6.200
-7.778
1.592

-1.600
-2.273
0.708

6.403
8.103
1.742

0.074
0.006

0.155
0.006

12
14
18
23

-8.200
-17.634
-1.586
6.009
5.004

-2.500
-6.540
-0.702
1.741
2.963

8.573
18.808
1.734
6.256
5.815

0.217
0.006
0.039
0.031

0.428
0.006
0.079
0.063

12
17

-3.500
-7.152
3.658

-1.800
-3.257
1.440

3.936
7.859
3.931

0.053
0.012

0.112
0.027

16
10

-9.000
-3.646
-5.332

-5.800
-1.413
-4.355

10.707
3.910
6.885

0.012
0.014

0.027
0.037

15
19

-3.200
-5.774
-6.703

-0.900
-1.661
0.787

3.324
6.197
2.888

0.039
0.005

0.079
0.010

18
20

-9.500
-2.774
-6.703

-3.400
-0.777
-2.675

10.090
2.881
7.217

0.005
0.017

0.010
0.034

19
10

-2.200
6.720
-8.937

-0.700
2.709
-2.389

2.309
7.245
9.558

0.017
0.081

0.034
0.180

10
22

-17.500
-15.613
-1.849

-11.200
-9.609
-1.627

20.777
18.333
2.463

0.110
0.001

0.034
0.180

10
21
24

0.000
-7.531
1.850
5.643

0.00
-4.380
1.628
2.795

0.000
8.712
2.464
6.297

0.052
0.001
0.043

0.107
0.001
0.067

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

-3.200

-1.600

3.578

15

-4.972

-2.728

5/756

0.031

0.067

24

1,771

-1.270

2.186

0.006

0.012

22
23
25

-8.700
-5.601
-1.765
-1.322

-2.400
-2.728
-1.270
1.604

9.025
6.230
2.174
2.079

0.043
0.006
0.026

0.067
0.012
0.014

24
26
27

0.000
1.330
3.520
-4.866

0.000
-1.590
2.372
-0.786

0.000
2.073
4.244
4.929

0.008
0.444
0.026

0.014
0.066
0.049

25

-3.500
-3.476

-2.300
-2.306

4.188
4.171

0.044

0.066

25
28
29
30

0.000
4.892
-18.192
6.178
7.093

0.000
0.835
-4.152
1.675
1.663

0.000
4.963
18.660
5.401
7.286

0.026
-0.000
0.086
0.162

0.049
1.310
0.162
0.304

27
8
6

0.000
18.192
0.570
-18.780

0.000
5.463
-2.003
-3.510

0.000
18.994
2.082
19.106

-0.000
0.000
0.060

1.310
-4.368
-13.085

24

25

26

27

28

0.968

29
27
30

-2.400
-6.093
3.716

-9.00
-1.513
0.601

2.563
6.278
3.764

27
29

-10.600
-6.932
-3.683

-1.900
-1.359
-0.537

10.769
7.064
3.722

30

Total loss

0.086
0.034

0.162
0.063

0.162
0.034
17.594

0.304
0.063
22.233