ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND
Corchorus olitorius L. one of the abundant species throughout Bangladesh was tested
to evaluate its effect on pain relief on Swiss Albino mice model and for a preliminary
phytochemical screening.

OBJECTIVE
The methanol extract of aerial parts of Corchorus olitorius L. was examined for
peripheral analgesia by acetic acid induced writhing method and phytochemical
screening.

DESIGN
For the experiment a total of 35 adult mice (male: female = 3:2) were divided into 7
groups and 5 mice in each group. The Control group (1) was treated with only 1%
acetic acid by intra-peritoneal administration, Standard group (I) and Standard group
(II) were treated with Aspirin 200 mg/kg & 400 mg/kg and 1% acetic acid by intraperitoneal administration. Group 4, 5, 6 and 7 were treated with aerial parts (MeOH)
extract of Corchorus olitorius L. at 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg
body weight respectively, followed by 1% acetic acid was administered by intraperitoneal injection after 60 minutes. Acetic acid induced mice were subjected to
writhing for 15 minutes of observation. Meanwhile, the crude extract was screened
for the presence of some phytochemicals such as, Saponins, Flavonoids, Alkaloids
and Tannins.

RESULT
Here, the results are expressed as Means. Here we found that the Control mean was
5.2, the Standard I mean was 3.2 and the standard II mean was 1.8. On the other hand,
the Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH extract low dose (50 mg/kg) treated
mean was 4.2, moderate dose (100 mg/kg) treated mean was 3, medium dose (200
mg/kg) treated mean was 2.4 and high dose (400 mg/kg) treated mean was 2.2
Comparing with Control mean all the given doses significantly decreased the pain. So,
we can conclude that, methanol extract of aerial parts of Corchorus olitorius L.
possesses significant analgesic activities. In case of phytochemical screening we
found the presence of saponins, tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids in the extract.
2

Chapter One
Plant profile of Corchorus olitorius L.

1.1 GENUS Corchorus :

Corchorus is a genus of about 40100 species of flowering plants in the family
Tiliaceae, native to tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. Different
common names are used in different contexts, with jute applying to the fiber produced
from the plant (Wikipedia, Corchorus olitorius). Jute was once known as the golden
fibre of Bangladesh, since it was the most important cash crop for the country. Two
species of jute (Corchorus capsularis L. and Corchorus olitorius L.) are being
cultivated in Bangladesh. Capsularis (deshi) has maximum use as vegetable than
Oloitorius (Tossa) due to its bitter taste. Jute leaves are being used as vegetables in
Africa, Middle East, Southeast Asia, including Bangladesh for a long time (hepzibah,
2008).

1.2 BOTANY OF Corchorus olitorius (L.):

Corchorus olitorius (jute) is a native plant of tropical Africa and Asia, and has since
spread to Australia, South America and some parts of Europe. Cultivation is
dependent on the climate, season, and soil. Almost 85% of the world's jute cultivation
is concentrated in the Ganges Delta (Indianjute.blogspot, Corchorus olitorius).
This fertile geographic region is shared by both Bangladesh and India (West Bengal).
China also has a dominating place in jute cultivation. On a smaller scale, Thailand,
Myanmar (Burma), Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan also cultivate jute (Wikipedia,
Corchorus olitorius).

Table 1: Scientific Classification of Corchorus olitorius L. (USDA)

Kingdom

Plantae

Division

Magnoliophyta

Class

Magnoliopsida

Order

Malvales

Family

Tiliaceae

Genus

Corchorus L.

Species

Corchorus olitorius L.

1.3 LOCAL NAME:

Patshak.

1.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION:

The plants are tall, usually annual herbs, reaching a height of 90-120 cm tall; stems
glabrous. Leaves 6-10 cm long, 3.5-5 cm broad, elliptic-lanceolate, apically acute or
acuminate, glabrous, serrate, the lower serratures on each side prolonged into a
filiform appendage over 6 mm long, rounded at the base, 3-5 nerved; petioles 2-2.5
cm long, slightly pubescent, especially towards the apex; atipules subulate, 6-10 mm
long. Flowers are pale yellow; bracts lanceolate; peduncle shorter than the petiole;
pedicles 1-3 and very short, Petals 5 mm long. Style short; stigma microscopically
papillose. The fruit is a many-seeded capsule 3-6.5 cm long, linear, cylindric erect,
beaked, glabrous, 10-ribbed, 5-valved; valves with stransverse partitions between the
seeds. Seeds trigonous, black (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975).

1.5 USEFUL PARTS:

Leaf and stem.

1.6 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS:

The leaves are reported to contain calories, H2O, protein, fat, carbohydrate, fiber, ash,
Ca, P, Fe, Na, K, beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid. Leaves
contain oxydase and chlorogenic acid (Chen and Saad, 1981).It also contain
phytochemicals including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, steroids and
phenols (Harborne, 1998). The seeds contain oil (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962),
reportedly estrogenic (Sharaf et al, 1979), which contains palmitic, stearic, behenic,
lignoceiic, oleic,linoleic, and linolenic acids as well as large portions of B, Mn, Mo,
and Zn.

1.7 MEDICINAL USES:

The leaves are demulcent, diuretic, febrifuge and tonic. They are used in the treatment
of chronic cystitis, gonorrhoea and dysuria (Chopra. R. N et al, 1986). A cold infusion
is said to restore the appetite and strength (Duke,1983). It can also be used in other
medicinal purposes, such as:
-It is used for anti-inflammatory treatment.
5

- Its vitamin content is good for eyesight, as the vegetable contains beta-carotene.
-It is also been connected with curing the chronic inflammation of the urinary bladder
(Rullanamador.blogspot, Corchorus olitorius)
- It being rich in vitamins and minerals generally promotes good health and wellbeing.
-It contains vitamin E and other antioxidants. It is said to prevent wrinkles and
promote youthful looking skin.
-It is used to treat inflammation and pain such as arthritis , headache, stomach ache
and others.
-It being rich in fiber helps to control blood pressure, cholesterol build-up, diabetes
and prevents heart disease.
-Its leaves are rich in fiber and its slimy consistency when cooked is used to treat
various digestive problems such as diarrhea, stomach ache, dysentery, constipation
and ulcers.
-It is also claimed that together with other herbs it can cure cancer.
- In India infusion of leaves used as tonic and febrifuge.
-Cold infusion of leaves used as bitter tonic, used by patients recovering from
dysentery, to restore the appetite and improve strength.
- Powdered seeds with honey and ginger for diarrhea.
- Grains of the powder mixed with equal amounts of Curcuma longa used for acute
dysentery.
- Infusion of seeds for fever and liver congestion.
- Hindus reduce the plant to ashes, mix it with honey, and use it for obstruction of the
abdominal viscera.
- In South India, the dried plant is used as demulcent. Powder of leaves, 5 - 10 grains,
mixed with powdered tumeric in equal parts, used for dysentery (stuartxchange,
Corchorus olitorius)

1.8 THERAPEUTIC PROPERTIES:

Antioxidant activity:
Researchers studied to evaluate the protective effect of aqueous extract of Corchorus
olitorius L. leaves (AECO) against CdCl intoxication. In vivo assay, CdCl treated
rats exhibited a significantly increased intracellular Cd accumulation, oxidative stress
and DNA fragmentation in the organs. In addition, the haematological parameters
6

were significantly altered in the CdCl treated rats. Simultaneous administration of

AECO could significantly restore the biochemical, antioxidant and haematological
parameters near to the normal status. Presence of substantial quantity of phenolic
compounds and flavonoids in extract may be responsible for overall protective effect
(Dewanjee S et al, 2013)

Antibacterial and Antifungal activity:

A group of scientists described the antimicrobial activity of 3 extracts of Corchorus
olitorius L. Successive petroleum ether, methanol and ethyl acetate+water extracts of
C. olitorius leaves were tested (in vitro) for their antibacterial and antifungal activities
by agar-well diffusion assay. All extracts displayed varied levels of antibacterial or
antifungal activity. The petroleum ether extract of C. olitorius leaves presented a good
activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia enterocolitica.
The ethyl acetate+water extract presented a good activity against Geotrichum
candidum and Botrytis cinerea. The results obtained in this study appear to confirm
the antibacterial and antifungal potential of C. olitorius leaves (LHAN et al, 2007).

Arsenic Reduction activity:

A study was undertaken by scientists to evaluate the protective effect of an aqueous
extract of Corchorus olitorius L. leaves (AECO) against NaAsO2 induced brain
toxicity in experimental rats. The animals exposed to NaAsO2 for 10 days. Treatment
with AECO for 15 days prior to arsenic intoxication significantly improved
antioxidant markers in a dose dependant manner. Histological studies on the
ultrastructural changes of brain tissue supported the protective activity of the AECO.
The results suggest that treatment with AECO prior to arsenic intoxication has a
significant role in protecting animals from arsenic-induced toxicity (Das AK et al,
2010)

Gastroprotective activity:
According to previous studies of Corchorus olitorius L. evaluates the gastroprotective
effect of an ethanolic extract of C. olitorius against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in
adult Sprague Dawley rats. Compared with the extensive mucosal damage in the ulcer
control group, gross evaluation revealed a marked protection of the gastric mucosa in
the experimental groups, with significantly preserved gastric wall mucus. The study
7

reports the gastroprotective property of an ethanolic extract of C. olitorius against

ethanol-induced gastric mucosal hemorrhagic lesions in rats (Al Batran R et al, 2013).

Antihyperglycemic activity:
Researchers explored the suppressive effect of Corchorus olitorius L. leaves on
postprandial blood glucose levels in rats and humans. A soluble dietary fiber (SDF)
was extracted from the freeze-dried Corchorus olitorius L. leaves

powder. An

elevation of the postprandial blood glucose level in rats given 1% or 2% SDF solution
orally together with 20% glucose solution was significantly suppressed as compared
with that observed in the control rats given only glucose solution. These results
indicate that the effective substance in Corchorus olitorius L. leaves for suppressing
blood glucose elevation is a kind of mucilaginous SDF (Innami S et al, 2005).

Chapter Two
Analgesic profile

2.1 ANALGESICS
Simply put, analgesics are a class of drugs used to relieve pain. The pain relief
induced by analgesics occurs either by blocking pain signals going to the brain or by
interfering with the brain's interpretation of the signals, without producing anesthesia
or loss of consciousness.

The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and -algia ("pain").
Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems;
they include paracetamol (acetaminophen), the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, narcotic drugs such as morphine, synthetic drugs
with narcotic properties such as tramadol, and various others.

It should be noted that some references include aspirin and other non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) in the class of analgesics, because they have some
analgesic properties. Aspirin and NSAIDS primarily have an anti-inflammatory
effect, as opposed to being solely analgesic.

In choosing analgesia, the severity and response to other medication determines the
choice of agent; the WHO pain ladder, originally developed in cancer-related pain, is
widely applied to find suitable drugs in a stepwise manner. The choice of analgesia is
also determined by the type of pain: for neuropathic pain, traditional analgesia is less
effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally
considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants (Dworkin
RH, et al. 2003).

2.2 TYPES OF ANALGESICS

There are basically two kinds of analgesics:

Narcotics

Non-narcotics

2.2.A Narcotic analgesics

Narcotic analgesics are psychoactive compounds that relief pain by acting on CNS
system. Can cause numbness and induce a state of unconsciousness. They have the

10

tendency to cause tolerance and dependence and have no anti - inflammatory effect.
They do not produce gastric irritation. There are two types of narcotic analgesics:
1.

The opiates (a white liquid extract of unripe seeds of the poppy plant) belong

to the large biosynthetic group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids.

2.

The opioids (derivatives of opiates) are Opioids are any compound which

binds to opioid receptors in the central nervous system or gastointestinal tract.

There are four broad classes of opioids:

a.

Endogenous opioid peptides (produced in the body): Endorphins,

dynorphins, enkephalins.
b.

Opium alkaloids: Morphine, codeine, thebaine.

c.

Semi-synthetic opioids: Heroin, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydrocodeine,

hydromorphine, oxymorphine, nicomorphine.

d.

Fully synthetic opioids: Pethidine or demerol, methadone, fentanyl,

propoxyphane, pentazocine,buprenorphine, butrophanol, tramadol.

(Doyle D., et. al., 2005)

Opiod analgesics exert their effects by binding with opioid receptors. Opioids specific
receptors are G - protein coupled seven transmembrane receptor families. These
receptors are divided into four broad classes named:
o

delta () or DOP or OP1

kappa () or KOP or OP2

mu () or MOP or OP3 and

Nociceptin receptor or NOP or OP4

According to their action on different types of opioid receptors, narcotic analgesics

are classified as:

Full agonists: They stimulate all types of opioid receptors. Among these are

morphine, trimeperidine, fentanyl.

Partial agonist: They have limited intrinsic activity at the receptor, a measure

of the activation of the receptor by the drug. For instance Buprenorphine acts as a
partial agonist at mu opioid receptors, an antagonist at kappa opioid receptors, an
agonist at delta opioid receptors, and a partial agonist at ORL - 1 (or nociceptin)
receptors.

11

Agonists - antagonists: They stimulate some types of opioid receptors and

block others. Example includes Pentazocine, Nalbuphine, and Nalorphine.

Pure antagonists: They bind to the opioid receptors with higher affinity than

agonists but do not activate the receptors. This effectively blocks the receptor,
preventing the body from responding to opiates. Example includes Naloxone, and
Naltrexone.

2.2.B Non - narcotic analgesic

Non - narcotic analgesics also called non-opioid analgesics are compounds that relief
pain locally without causing any addiction or CNS depression. They exert anti inflamatory effect however cause gastric irritation. There are three types of non opioid analgesics:

1.

Salicylates:

The nonacetylated salicylates have fewer gastrointestinal side effects and might be
considered in cases where GI distress is an issue. There are three broad types of
salicylates:
a.

Salicylic acid: Methyl salicylate (topical use).

b.

Na-salicylates: Benorylate.

c.

Acetyl salicylic acid (Aspirin): Deflonisol.

2.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs:

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs but also

referred to as nonsteroidal anti - inflammatory agents/analgesics (NSAIAs) or
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIMs) are a class of drugs that
provide analgesic and antipyretic (fever - reducing) effects, and, in higher doses, antiinflammatory effects. The most prominent members of this group of drugs are aspirin,
ibuprofen, and naproxen. Most NSAIDs act as nonselective inhibitors of the enzyme
cyclooxygenase (COX), inhibiting both the cyclooxygenase - 1 (COX - 1) and
cyclooxygenase - 2 (COX - 2) isoenzymes. NSAIDs are divided into several chemical
derivatives. Some of them are:

Propionic acids: Ibuprofen, Flurbiprofen, Fenoprofen, Naproxen, Naproxen

sodium, Ketoprofen, Ketoprofen, Oxaprozin.

12

Acetic acids: Indomethacin, Indomethacin SR, Slindac, Tolmetin, Diclofenac,

Diclofenac, Etodolac, Etodolac, Ketorolac.

Fenamates: Meclofenamate, Mefenamic acid.

Non-acidic agent: Nabumetone

To some patients NSAIDs can have significant adverse effects including gastropathy,
renal failure, and inhibition of platelet aggregation, irrespective of the route of
administration, with any of the nonselective medications. Trials may be needed to find
one that is efficacious for a given patient. To minimize the risk of renal failure,
including papillary necrosis, ensure adequate hydration and good urine output in all
patients on NSAIDs (sOxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine, 3rd ed.). The
nonselective medications are relatively contraindicated in the setting of significant
preexisting renal insufficiency. If bleeding is a problem, or coagulation or platelet
function is impaired, NSAIDs may be contraindicated. The new COX - 2 selective
inhibitors have less of these toxicities and may be indicated in high risk patients.

Acetaminophen:
Acetaminophen is the most commonly used over - the counter, non - narcotic
analgesic. Acetaminophen is a popular pain reliever because it is both effective for
mild to moderate pain relief and relatively inexpensive. If acetaminophen is not used
according to the directions on the label, serious side effects and possible fatal
consequences can occur. For example, taking more than 4000 mg/day or using it long
term can increase the risk of liver damage. The risk of liver damage with
acetaminophen use is also increased by ingesting alcohol.

2.3 Side effects of analgesics

Although analgesic compounds are meant to relieve pain, unfortunately that often
comes with different side effects. Some of them are temporary and go away as soon as
the drug is out of the system. Few analgesics on the other hand might cause
permanent damage in certain persons and are banned by various authorities.
Irrespective of their uses and mode of metabolism, common side effects of different
classes of analgesics are tabulated below (Driessen B., Reimann W., 1992).

13

Table 2: Types of analgesics and their side effects.

Analgesic

Side effects

Group

Remarks

Constipation,

fatigue,

dizziness,

anxiety, constricted pupils, itching,

tremors,

spasms,

sweating,

Opiate

hallucinations, delirium and allergic

may

trigger

unexpected

physiological and psychological

when

peripheral

administration
Increased pain

hyperalgesia

Opium alkaloids

mediated

by

2004; Stein C., 1993).

vision,

respiratory

depression, euphoria.
CNS

depression

headache,
disturbance,

gastro

as
-

flush,

well

as

intestinal
skin

rash,

tachycardia, sweating, hypotonia.

Nausea,

vomiting,

Particularly at the beginning of

treatment.
May occur at higher doses.

May

occur

administration

after
of

in pleasure doses.

Allergic reactions.

Vary with individuals.

Respiratory arrest.

Liver failure.

Prolonged use.
If taken in combination with
alcohol.
Reaction with other drugs or
history of hepatic disorders.

Loss of appetite, anxiety, muscle Associated

weakness, diarrhea, fever or

some

alkaloids.

retention, miosis, constipation.

tolerance.

oral

urinary Rare in medical doses, common

Physical dependence and develop

Semi - synthetic opioids

exceeds

immune cells (Hermanussen S.,

Impaired

Opioid

which besides the analgesia

Only

Nausea, vomiting, and dry mouth.

Narcotic

opioid and non-opioid alkaloids

condition.

peptides

Endogenous opioid

reaction

Raw opiate contains different

with

withdrawal

(CESAR). Withdrawal effects

14

Analgesic
Group

Side effects

Remarks

flue like symptom.

have been reported in newborn

patients whose mother was on
drug during pregnancy (Rao R.,
2002).

Diarrhea, nausea, constipation, dry

mouth,

somnolence,

confusion, At more than 10 % of patient.

asthenia (weakness), sweating.

Abdominal pain, headache, fatigue,
dizziness, anorexia and weight loss,
nervousness,

hallucinations,

anxiety, depression, flu - like

symptoms, dyspepsia (indigestion),
dyspnea

(shortness

hypoventilation,

of

breath),

apnea,

urinary

At 3 to 10% of patients.

Fully synthetic opioids

retention.
Aphasia.
Suicidal ideation.

Associated with frequently use.

Associated

with

post-acute

withdrawal effects.

Seizure.

Only caused by Methadone.

Skin rash.

Occurs in allergic persons.

Liver toxicity.

Associated with an overdose.

Analgesic Group Side effects

Remarks
Person can experience stomach

Stomach irritation.

bleeding, pain, and ulcers if took

the drug with alcohol.

Salicylic acid

Salicylates

Non - narcotic

Skin peeling and blistering.

Allergic reaction.

Reye's syndrome.

When applied topically.

Individuals

have

allergies

to

salicylic acid.
Severe illness occurs in children
characterized

by

acute
15

Analgesic Group Side effects

Remarks
encephalopathy and fatty liver.

Hepatotoxicity, gastric irritation,

mucosal lesions, worsening of Associated with overdose. May
pre-existing

heart

failure, leads to total C. N. S. failure and

hyperventilation, fever, ketosis, cause

coma,

cardiovascular

respiratory alkalosis, metabolic collapse and respiratory failure.

Na - salicylates

acidosis.
Hypersensitivity reactions.

Individuals have allergies.

Severe illness occurs in children

Reye's syndrome.

characterized

by

acute

encephalopathy and fatty liver.

Gastrointestinal system.
Gastric

ulcers

and

gastric

bleeding.

Can occur in individuals on high

doses of aspirin.

illnesses such as influenza or

Reye's syndrome.

chicken pox who have been given

aspirin.

Liver and kidney failure.

Continuous or high dose.

May also appears as pain or

Loss of hearing.

bleeding in the ears.

Only in patient with thrombotic

Bleeding.

problems.
Both

in

oral

and

parental

administration can be avoided by

Gastrointestinal lesions.

co administration of exogenous
prostaglandins (Elliott G. A.,

Propionic acids

1988).
drugs (NSAIDs)

Non-steroidal anti - inflammatory

Acetyl salicylic acid (Aspirin)

Occurs in children with viral

Nausea,

headache,

dizziness, Generally

epistaxis, priapism.
Dyspepsia,
constipation.

occurs

when

the

analgesia wear off.

diarrhea,

Associated with long term use.

16

Analgesic Group Side effects

Remarks

Raised liver enzymes and Salt Associated

and fluid retention.

with

clinical

overdose.
Occurs if the person is allergic to

Rash.

the drug compounds.

Phototoxic reactions with UVA

Photo toxicity.

as

well

as

UVB

in

vitro

(Ljunggren B., 1985).

Associated with long term use or
Loss of hearing ability.

above clinical dosage (Curhan S.

G., 2010).
Associated with long term use or

Hypertension and cardiac failure.

occurs in patient with cardiac

dysfunction history (HippisleyCox J., 2005).

Analgesic Group

Side effects

Remarks
Some derivatives reduce lithium
its excretion by the kidneys
hence increases the risk of
lithium

toxicity

in

patients

taking medication for depression

or bipolar disorder.
Ulceration along stomach and As a result of inhibition of the
GI tract, dyspepsia, heartburn production of prostaglandins in
and mild diarrhea.

the stomach and intestines.

Acute renal failure, chronic Because of elevations of serum

nephritis

and

nephrotic creatinine caused by some drugs

syndrome.
Acetic acids

Non - steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Non - narcotic

Lithium toxicity.

Edema,
(Akbarpour

of this group.
hyperkalemia
F.,

1985),

hypernatremia, hypertension.

Due to reduced plasma renin

activity and aldosterone levels,
and increases sodium, potassium
retention and the effects of
17

Analgesic Group

Side effects

Remarks
vasopressin.

Headache,

sometimes

with Associated

with

clinical

vertigo and dizziness, hearing overdose and occurs in 10 - 20

loss, tinnitus, blurred vision.

% of the patients.

Psychosis.

Associated with prolonged use.

Hepatitis and bone marrow

damage..

Occurs in patients with heart

Heart attacks and strokes.

disease.

Convulsions, nausea, vomiting,

vomiting

blood,

Less than 10 % of the patients.

shallow

breathing, coma.

Associated

with

clinical

overdose.

Cardiovascular disorders, CNS

depression,
reactions,

dermatological
GI

problems, Occurs less frequently in long-

hematological diseases, hepatic term use.

Fenamates

dysfunction.

acidic

abnormalities

GI disorders.

renal

Skin rash, itching and swelling, Associated

sore throat and fever.
agent

Non

Extremely

liver

damage

Acetaminophen

(Michael S., 2007).

of

2011).
failure

Associated with prolonged daily

Associated with long-term use as

well as patient with alcoholism
or liver disease history.

Blood cancer (Walter R. B.,

hepatotoxicity.

risk

use.

Infertility (Leffers H., 2010).

Liver

low

happening.

L. A. G., 2000).

and

allergic

reactions.

Stomach bleeding (Rodrguez

Kidney

with

due

to

Associated with chronic use.

Caused by clinical overdose.

18

2.4 THE MAJOR CLASSES

1) PARACETAMOL AND NSAIDS

The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol/acetaminophen is uncertain, but it
appears to be acting centrally. Aspirin and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit cyclooxygenases, leading to a decrease in prostaglandin
production. This reduces pain and also inflammation (in contrast to paracetamol and
the opioids).

Paracetamol has few side effects and is regarded as very safe, although excessive
doses can lead to kidney and liver damage in the form of analgesic nephropathy and
paracetamol hepatotoxicity, respectively. NSAIDs predispose to peptic ulcers, renal
failure, allergic reactions, and occasionally hearing loss, and they can increase the risk
of hemorrhage by affecting platelet function.The use of aspirin in children under 16
suffering from viral illness may contribute to Reye syndrome.

2) COX-2 INHIBITORS
These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited
by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: COX1 and COX2.
Research suggested that most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs were mediated by
blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated
by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. The COX2 inhibitors were thus developed to
inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general).
These drugs (such as rofecoxib and celecoxib) are equally effective analgesics when
compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular.
However, post-launch data indicated increased risk of cardiac and cerebrovascular
events with these drugs due to an increased likelihood of clotting in the blood due to a
decrease in the production of protoglandin around the platelets causing less clotting
factor to be released, and rofecoxib was subsequently withdrawn from the market.
The role for this class of drug is debated.

19

3) OPIATES AND MORPHINOMIMETICS

Morphine, the archetypal opioid, and various other substances (e.g. codeine,
oxycodone, hydrocodone, diamorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the
cerebral opioid receptor system. Tramadol and buprenorphine are thought to be partial
agonists of the opioid receptors. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid
toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), but
there is no dose ceiling in patients who tolerate this. Opioids, while very effective
analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Up to 1 in 3 patients starting
morphine may experience nausea and vomiting (generally relieved by a short course
of antiemetics). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid.
Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives (lactulose,
macrogol-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.

When used appropriately, opioids and similar narcotic analgesics are otherwise safe
and effective; however risks such as addiction and the body becoming used to the
drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that drug dosing may have
to be increased if it is for a chronic disease this is where the no ceiling limit of the
drug comes into play. However what must be remembered is although there is no
upper limit there is a still a toxic dose even if the body has become used to lower
doses.

4) SPECIFIC AGENTS
In patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have
analgesic properties. Tricyclic antidepressants, especially amitriptyline, have been
shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. The exact mechanism
of carbamazepine, gabapentin and pregabalin is similarly unclear, but these
anticonvulsants are used to treat neuropathic pain with modest success (Oxford
Textbook of Palliative Medicine, 3rd ed.).

2.5 MECHANISMS OF PAIN INDUCTION IN ACETIC ACID INDUCED

WRITHING METHOD OF ANALGESIC ACTIVITY SCREENING
Intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid (1%) causes localized inflammation in
mice. Following inflammation, there is biogenesis of prostaglandins (from
cyclooxygenase pathway) and leukotrienes (lipooxygenase pathway). The released
20

prostaglandins, mainly prostacyclin (PGI2) and prostacyclin-E have been reported

responsible for pain sensation. The exact mechanism by which prostaglandin produce
pain are not still clear but there are a number of proposed mechanisms of action:

All kinds of pain or noxious stimuli (nociception) are conveyed by specific nerves
called un-myelinated C fiber and myelinated A- fibers, the former being slow.
Conducting and the later being fast conducting. It has been investigated that unmyelinated C fiber are the most usual conveyer of two. The prostaglandin and other
liberated products of inflammation serve as noxious stimuli. They are supposed to
sensitize C fibers and subsequently reduce pain threshold. The C fibers get stimulated
and cause enhanced release of tachykinins, mainly substance P and neurokinins. It is
the substance P released in excessive amount following the stimulation of C fibers
that has been held responsible for sensation of pain in animal.

The precise mechanism by which substance P arouses pain sensation is not well
documented. But upon release, substance P and others tachykinins bind to specific
receptors (NK1, NK2, and NK3) that are G-protein coupled. Among these receptors,
substance P is specifically bound to NK1. After binding of substance P to the
respective receptor, there is stimulation of phospholipase C resulting in the formation
of two second messengers-inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3
causes the exocytotic release of Ca++ stored intra-cellular and DAG activates protein
kinase C which then causes the influx of Ca++ through the voltage gated Ca++ channel.
These happenings may have role in the neural processing of the pain sensation and its
subsequent conveyance to higher centers of the brain. Prostaglandin also potentate the
pain producing activity of bradykinins and other autacoids (Bamigbade TA, et al.
September 1997).

21

2.6 SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF PAIN INDUCTION

Acetic acid induced

(1%)

Inflammation in-situ

Localized biogenesis of prostaglandin

Prostacyclin
(PGI2) & (PGE2)

Stimulation un-myelinated C fiber and myelinated A- fibers

Release of substance P and other nociceptive neurokinins

Nociception or pain

Biological response

Writhing

Flow chart 1: Schematic presentation of pain induction.

22

Chapter Three
Rational for the current project

23

Since Corchorus olitorius L. has been described by folk practitioners to possess

Antinoceciptive property and there was no extensive pharmacological studies
regarding analgesic effect with this species in Bangladesh, so we have selected
Corchorus olitorius L. for my present study. The objective of the present work was to
explore the possibility of developing new and effective as well as natural drugs for the
treatment of peripheral pain.

24

Chapter Four
Materials & Methods

25

Local Name: Patshak

Scientific Name: Corchorus olitorius L.
Accession no: 38715
Place of collection: Rayer bazar
Date of collection: 10-9-2013
Part use for extraction: Aerial parts
Weight of powder used for extraction: 150gm
Methanol used for extraction: 750ml
Temperature used for evaporation: 400C
Date of extraction: 15-11-2013
Weight of extraction: 5.16gm

26

4.1 Place and Period of study

The study was carried out in the Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Lab of Department of
Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, University of Development Alternative
(UODA), Dhanmondi, Dhaka during the period of September 2013 to December
2013.

Figure 2: Animal cage at animal laboratory of University of Development Alternative

4.2 Principle of methodologies

In the present study we choosed maceration approach for extraction using methanol as
menstruum (Handa S. S. et. al., 2008). Acetic acid induced visceral pain model
(Koster R., et. al., 1959 and Dambisya Y. M., et. al., 1999) was used to evaluate
extract's analgesic efficacy. Finally, writhing data were compared using t-test at a
significance of <0.05. Detailed methodologies are elaborated below.

4.3 Preparation of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) powder

Corchorus olitorius L. was collected from Rayer bazar of

Dhaka district of

Bangladesh which is certified by the Bangladesh National Herbarium, Mirpur, Dhaka.

Plant materials were washed before sun-drying. The sun-dried aerial parts of
Corchorus olitorius L. was finely ground using a kitchen blender to make powder and
preserved in an air-tight container at room temperature until extraction.

4.4 Extracting materials

We have done the extraction of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) by non-polar
(methanol) solvent. The following materials were required while extracting
Corchorus olitorius L.:
27

1. Dried aerial parts powder of Corchorus olitorius L.

2. Methanol 750 ml
3. Distilled water
4. Beakers
5. Hot water bath
6. Drier
7. Weight machine
8. Glass rods
9. Tissue paper
10. Spatula
11. Titrating pipette
12. Foil papers
13. Vial.
14. Blender machine
15. Scissor.

4.5 Procedure of extraction

Extraction procedure of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) with non-polar
(methanol) solvent:
1.

After blending of the Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts), it was powder like.

Further filter the powder was taken out for extraction.

2.

Measured the dried powder of Corchorus olitorius L. by digital balance and

took 150 gm powder of aerial parts.

3.

We have taken a beakers and poured out with methanol as per account as 5:1,

i.e. 750ml for 150 gm.

4.

Stirred slowly with glass rod or any stainless steel rod to mix up the solvent

and dry sample for making soft liquid.

5.

Continued stirring after a few minutes and maintained it for one hour and

covered up the beakers with aluminum foil.

6.

Left the system for overnight for 48 hours.

7.

Filtered the solvent with thin cloth (white color) and took the extract to the

water bath then wait till we got dried extract (crude drug).

28

8.

5.16 gm extraction was found after 5 days of evaporation, where the

temperature was always maintained at 40C and finally it was collected by spatula in
a marked glass vial.
9.

The extracted residues were kept in plastic jars and the vial containing extract

kept in refrigerator at temperature of 4-8C.

4.6

MATERIALS

AND

METHODS

FOR

THE

EXPERIMENT

OF

ANALGESIC EFFECT:
The methanol extract of Corchorus olitorius L. aerial parts was subjected to screening
for analgesic activity by well recognized method for peripheral analgesia: Acetic acid
induced writhing method (Koster et al, 1959; whittle, 1964; Vogel & Vogel, 1997)

4.7 PRINCIPLES
In the method, acetic acid is administered intra-peritoneal to the experimental animals
to create pain sensation. As a result, the animals squirms their body at regular interval
out of pain. This squirm or contraction of the body is term as writhing. As long as
the animals feel pain, they continue to give writhing. Each writhing is counted and
taken as an indication of pain sensation. Any substance that has got analgesic activity
is supposed to lessen the number of writhing of animals within in a given time frame
and with respect to the control group. The writhing inhibition of positive control was
taken as standard and compared with test samples and control. As positive control,
any standard NSAID drug can be used. In the present study, Aspirin was used to serve
the purpose.

4.8 EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS

In the present studies, Swiss Albino mice of 4-5 weeks from both sexes, weighed
between 15 to 20 g were used. The animals were obtained from International Centre
for Diarrheal Disease Research (ICDDR, B), Bangladesh. Mice were housed in iron
cages over dried wooden chips. Tagging was done by drawing red or black stripes on
the mices tail to distinguish them within a specific cage.

29

Figure 3: Modeled experimental mouse.

4.9 REAGENTS, CHEMICALS, AND EQUIPMENTS FOR SCREENING OF

ANALGESIC ACTIVITY

Disprin (300 mg)

Acetic acid

DMSO (as suspending agent)

Sterile disposable syringe (1 ml, 100

divisions)

Electronic and digital balance

Stop watch

Micropipette

Yellow tip

Plastic gloves

Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) extract

Figure 4: stop watch

4.10 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

For the experiment, a total of 35 adult mice (male: female = 3:2) were taken, divided
into 7 groups, 5 mice in each group. Then 0.4 gm of the Corchorus olitorius L. aerial
parts (methanol) extract was taken in a vial and dissolved in DMSO (net volume 1 ml)
and 300 mg Aspirin was dissolved in distilled water (net volume 1 ml) in another vial.
Meanwhile we also made the 1% acetic acid solution in a 100ml beaker. Then the
Control group was treated with only 1% acetic acid by intra-peritoneal administration,
Standard group-I and Standard group-II was treated with Aspirin 200 mg/kg & 400
mg/kg respectively; and 1% acetic acid by intra-peritoneal administration. Group M,
30

N, O and P were treated with aerial parts extract of Corchorus olitorius L. at 50

mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight respectively, followed by
1% acetic acid was administered by intra-peritoneal injection after 60 minutes. Acetic
acid induced mice are subjected for writhing for 15 minute observation.

Figure 5: Preparation of extract

Figure 6: Gavaging of mice.

Figure 7: Micropipette

31

The summary of experimental design is given below:

Extraction of Corchorus olitorius L. with non-polar (MeOH) solvent.
0.4 gm extract was dissolved in DMSO whose net volume 1ml and 300 mg aspirin was dissolved in
distilled water whose net volume 1 ml
Taken 35 adult mice and divided into following groups

Control

Standard I

Standard II

Dose-M

Aspirin

Aspirin

50

mg/kg 100

mg/kg 200

bw

bw

bw

200 mg/kg bw 400mg/kg bw

Dose-N

Dose-O

Dose-P

mg/kg 400 mg/kg

bw

5 mice 5 mice were 5 mice were 5 mice were 5 mice were 5 mice were 5
were

treated aspirin treated aspirin treated with treated with treated with were

treated

and 1% acetic and 1% acetic low dose of moderate

with

acid injection

acid injection

Corchorus

dose

medium

mice

treated

of dose

of with high

only 1%

olitorius L. Corchorus

Corchorus

acetic

extract and olitorius L. olitorius L. Corchorus

acid

1%

injectio

acid

1%

injection

acid

acid

1% acetic

injection

injection

acid

acetic extract and extract

acetic 1%

dose

of

and olitorius L.
acetic extract and

injection

Acetic acid induced mice were subjected for 15 minute

observation of writhing.

Flow chart 2: Summary of experimental design.

32

4.11 Procedures of vehicle, extract and standard drug sample preparation

All reagents and extract solution needed were prepared prior to the experiment. In
current experiments we used 1% acetic acid aqueous solution as vehicle to induce
visceral pain. Solution of commercial aspirin tablet in distilled water was used as
standard. Plant extract was made into solution using Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO).

4.11.A Preparing plant extracts

A freshly cleaned, sterilized, dry vial was taken. Using a glass pipette, 1 ml distilled
water was taken and the upper meniscus level marked using a marker on the outer
surface of the vial. The distilled water was discarded and 0.4 g of the extract was
taken in the vial. Then Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) was slowly pippetted into the
vials till the upper meniscus touches 1ml mark, while dissolving the extract with the
help of a spatula.

4.11.B Preparing Dispirin solution

Another freshly cleaned, sterilized, dry vial was taken and the 1ml measurement
marked on the outside surface. In this vial 1 Dispirin tablet (300 mg) was dissolved in
1ml of distilled water. Dispirin is made by Reckitt Benckiser Bangladesh Ltd. and is
readily found at any local pharmacy. This was used as a standard.

Figure 7: Preparing aspirin solution

4.11.C Preparing 1% acetic acid solution

1% acetic acid was made in a beaker adding 1 part acetic acid and 99 parts of distilled
water. This was used as control and to induce abdominal constriction in the rodents.

33

4.11.D Routes of administration

A.

Acetic acid solution was administered intraperitonealy into the left lower

quadrant of mice using a hypodermic needle.

B.

Aspirin and plant extract solutions were gavaged orally using blunt end yellow

tip pipette.

Figure 8: Injection of 1% acetic acid in mice

4.12 PROCEDURES
After 60 minutes of dosing of all the test samples in each mouse, 1% acetic acid is
induced in intra-peritoneal and after the administration of acetic acid, number of
squirms or writhing were counted for 15 minutes for each mouse. Note that first 5
minutes is not counted for data analysis. Only 10 minutes is counted for data analysis.

Figure 9: Writhing of mice.

34

0 min.

60 min.

Time allowed for absorption

Oral administration of
test samples

75 min.

Counting of
writhing

Intra-peritoneal administration of
acetic acid (1%)

Flow chart 3: Schematic diagram of the induction and counting of writhing.

4.13 Phytochemical analysis of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) extract:

4.13.A Appliances (Necessary equipments and materials):

Apron

Beakers

Spatula

Measuring pipette

Digital balance

Plant extract

Distilled water

Spirit lamp

Gloves

Filter paper

5% FeCl3

Funnel

1% Picric acid
35

37% HCl

Ethanol

10% w/v Ethanol solution

4.13.B Saponin analysis:

Preperation of stock solution for saponin analysis:
0.5gm plant extract was taken by using digital balance in a beaker. Then we added 10
ml water with it. After dissolving plant extract into water we heated the solution for 5
minutes. Then we kept it for cooling.
Methods for saponin analysis:
We took 1ml stock solution in a beaker. Then we added 1ml distilled water into it.
After that we vigorously shaked the beaker and kept it in the working bench for
observation.
Observation:
Bubble was formed in the beaker and persisted for some times.
Result:
Saponins are present in Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH extract.

4.13.C Tannin analysis:

Preperation of 5% FeCl3 solution:
0.5 gm FeCl3 was taken by using digital balance in a beaker. Then we added 5ml
water into it and mixed it. Then we adjusted the volume upto 10 ml by adding water.
Methods for Tannin analysis:
At first we took 0.5gm plant extract using digital balance in a beaker. Then we added
10 ml water with it. After dissolving plant extract into water filtered it using filter
paper. Then we added a few drops (3-4) 5% FeCl3 in the filtrate solution and
observed it.
Observation:
Green precipitation was formed into the beaker.
Result:
Tannins are present in Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH extract.

36

4.13.D Alkaloid analysis:

Preperation of 10% w/v ethanol stock solution:
2 gm plant extract was taken using digital balance in a beaker. Then we added ethanol
in the beaker and mixed it and adjusted the volume upto 20 ml.
Preperation of 1% picric acid solution:
2 ml water was taken in a beaker and 0.05 (50 mg) picric acid was added into it by
mesuring with digital balance and mixed it. Then we added water to adjust the volume
upto 5 ml.
Methods for alkaloid analysis:
2 ml of 10% w/v ethanol stock solution was taken into a beaker. Then we added 0.2ml
37% HCl. Then we shaked and mixed it. After that 1 ml of 1% picric acid solution
was added and observed it.
Observation:
Yellow color precipitation was observed.
Result:
Alkaloids are present in Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH extract.

4.13.E Flavonoid analysis:

Methods for flavonoid analysis:
5 ml 10% w/v ethanol solution was taken into a beaker. Then we added 0.1 ml 37%
HCl and 4-5 drops of 5% FeCl3 into it and observed it.
Observation:
Color was changed of the solution and green precipitation was observed.
Result:
Flavonoids are present in Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH extract.

37

Chapter Five
Results & Discussion

38

5.1 Result of analgesic effect of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts)

The MeOH extract of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) was subjected to screening
for analgesic activity by acetic acid induced writhing inhibition method in mice. Intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid (1%) causes localized inflammation in mice.
Following inflammation, there is biogenesis of prostaglandins (cyclooxygenase
pathway) and leukotrienes (lipooxygenase pathway). The release of prostaglandins,
mainly prostacyclin (PGI2) and to lesser extent prostaglandin-E have been held
responsible for pain sensation.

Table 3: 1% Acetic acid induced analgesic effect of methanol extract of Corchorus

olitorius L. (aerial parts) on Swiss Albino mice model system
Control

Serial

10ml/kg

Standard

Standard

II

200mg/kg

400mg/kg

Dose-M

Dose-N

Dose-O

Dose-P

50mg/kg

100mg/kg

200mg/kg

400mg/kg

Sum

26

16

21

15

12

11

Mean

5.2

3.2

1.8

4.2

2.4

2.2

SD

0.44721

1.3038

1.3038

1.0954

1.2247

0.5477

0.8367

SE

0.1996

0.5821

0.5821

0.4890

0.5468

0.2445

0.3735

T-value

3.2444

5.5155

1.889822

3.7730

8.8544

7.0711

P-value

0.01

0.0005

0.05

0.005

0.0005

0.0005

1%

0.05%

5%

0.50%

0.05%

0.05%

Significance
level
5%
Significance

Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant

Level

Data given as Number of writhing.

39

Analgesic activity of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) methanol extract in Swiss

Albino mice

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Different doses (mg/kg)

Bar diagram 1: Analgesic activity of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH
extract by acetic acid induced writhing method.

5.2 DISCUSSION
From the analgesic effect analysis by the number of squirms or writhing counted for
10 minutes after 1% acetic acid injection, we found that the Control mean was 5.2, the
Standard I mean was 3.2 and the Standard II mean was 1.8. On the other hand the
Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) MeOH extract low dose (50 mg/kg) treated mean
was 4.2, moderate dose (100 mg/kg) treated mean was 3, medium dose (200 mg/kg)
treated mean was 2.4 and high dose (400 mg/kg) treated mean was 2.2. Comparing
with Control mean all the given doses significantly decreased the pain.

40

5.3 Result of phytochemical analysis of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts)

MeOH extract:

Table 4: Result of phytochemical analysis of Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts)

MeOH extract:
Serial

1.

Name

of Changes observed in Result

phytochemicals

solution

Saponin

Bubble

forms

and Present

persist for some time

2.

Tannins

Green precipitation

Present

3.

Alkaloids

Yellow precipitation

Present

4.

Flavonoids

Green precipitation

Present

From the phytochemical analysis of plant extract, we found that plant extract contains
saponins, tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids.

41

Chapter Six
Conclusion

42

From our scientific investigation we have observed that the methanolic extract of
Corchorus olitorius L. (aerial parts) has analgesic activity and has the presence of
some phytochemicals like saponins, tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids. As a result, we
can conclude that Corchorus olitorius L., one of the available species in Bangladesh,
has some desired chemical entities that confirm its analgesic activity. Planned and
systematic cultivation and proper scientific investigations, both pharmacological and
phytochemical, of this plant are sure to produce a large variety of new drugs and
pharmaceutical raw materials of natural origin. Thus the indigenous Corchorus
olitorius L. promises to be a very good source of new drugs and pharmaceutical raw
materials in the country.

43

Chapter Seven
References & Bibliography

44

 Al Batran R, Al-Bayaty F, Abdulla MA, Al-Obaidi MM, Hajrezaei M,

Hassandarvish P, Fouad M, Golbabapour S, Talaee S. Gastroprotective effects of
Corchorus olitorius leaf extract against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal
hemorrhagic lesions in rats. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013 Aug;28(8):1321-9.
Bamigbade TA, Davidson C, Langford RM, Stamford JA Actions of tramadol, its
enantiomers and principal metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol, on serotonin (5-HT)
efflux and uptake in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus. Br J Anaesth. 1997
Sep;79(3):352-6.
By hepzibah on July 24th, 2008, Saluyot (Jute Leaves): The Wow Vegetable.
Chen, T.S. and Saad, S. 1981. Folic acid in Egyptian vegetables: The effect of
drying method as storage on the folacin content of mulukhiyah (Corchorus
olitorius). Ecol. of Food & Nut. 10:249-255.
Chopra. R. N., Nayar. S. L. and Chopra. I. C. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants
(Including the Supplement). Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New
Delhi. (1986-00-00).
Curhan S. G., Eavey R., Shargorodsky J., Curhan G. C., 2010. Analgesic Use and
the Risk of Hearing Loss in Men. Am J Med. 123(3): 231237.
Das AK, Dewanjee S, Sahu R, Dua TK, Gangopadhyay M, Sinha MK. Protective
effect of Corchorus olitorius leaves against arsenic-induced oxidative stress in rat
brain. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2010 Jan;29(1):64-9.
Dewanjee S, Gangopadhyay M, Sahu R, Karmakar S. Cadmium induced
pathophysiology: prophylactic role of edible jute (Corchorus olitorius) leaves
with special emphasis on oxidative stress and mitochondrial involvement. Food
Chem Toxicol. 2013 Oct;60:188-98.
Doyle D, Hanks G, Cherney I and Calman K, eds. Oxford University Press, 2004.
Driessen B, Reimann W Interaction of the central analgesic, tramadol, with the
uptake and release of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the rat brain in vitro. Br J
Pharmacol. 1992 Jan; 105(1):147-51.
Duke. J. Handbook of Energy Crops - (1983-00-00).
Dworkin RH, Backonja M, Rowbotham MC, Allen RR, Argoff CR, Bennett GJ,
Bushnell MC, Farrar JT, Galer BS, Haythornthwaite JA, Hewitt DJ, Loeser JD,
Max MB, Saltarelli M, Schmader KE, Stein C, Thompson D, Turk DC, Wallace
MS, Watkins LR, Weinstein SM. Advances in neuropathic pain: diagnosis,

45

mechanisms,

and

treatment

recommendations.

Arch

Neurol.

2003

Nov;60(11):1524-34.
Elliott G. A., Purmalis A., Vandermeer D. A., Denlinge R. H., 1988. The
Propionic Acids. Gastrointestinal Toxicity in Various Species. Toxicolcgic
Pathology. 16(2): 245 -250.
Harborne, J.B. Phytochemical Methods. A guide to modern techniques of plant
analysis. 3rd edn. Springer (India) Private Limited, New Delhi, 1998.
Hermanussen S., Do M., Cabot P. J., 2004. Reduction of beta-endorphincontaining immune cells in inflamed paw tissue corresponds with a reduction in
immune-derived antinociception: reversible by donor activated lymphocytes.
Anesth Analg. 98(3):723-9.
Hippisley-Cox J., Coupland C., 2005. C. (2005). Risk of myocardial infarction in
patients taking cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors or conventional non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs: Population based nested case-control analysis. BMJ 330
(7504): 1366.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corchorus.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jute_cultivation.
http://indianjute.blogspot.com/p/medicinal-use-herbal-use-of-jute-jute.html.
http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=cool.
http://rullanamador.blogspot.com/2010/01/saluyot-or-jute-corchorus-capsularis1.htm
LHAN, Semra; SAVAROLU, Filiz; OLAK, Ferda, Antibacterial and
Antifungal Activity of Corchorus olitorius L. (Molokhia) Extracts. International
Journal of Natural & Engineering Sciences . Sep2007, Vol. 1 Issue 3, p59-61. 3p.
1 Chart.
Innami S, Ishida H, Nakamura K, Kondo M, Tabata K, Koguchi T, Shimizu J,
Furusho T. Corchorus olitorius suppress elevation of postprandial blood glucose
levels in rats and humans. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2005 Jan;75(1):39-46.
Kirtikar, K.R. and Basu, B.D. 1975. Indian medicinal plants. 4 vols. 2nd ed.
Jayyed Press, New Delhi.
Koster et al., 1959; whittle, 1964; Vogel & Vogel, 1997.
Leffers H., et. al., 2010. Intrauterine exposure to mild analgesics is a risk factor
for development of male reproductive disorders in human and rat. Human
Reproduction. 25 (1): 235244.
46

 Michael S., Gross a. D., Altman R., 2007. The Cancer Dictionary. Infobase
Publishing. ISBN 978081606 4113.
Rao R., Desai N. S., 2002. OxyContin and Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome.
Journal of Perinatology. 22, 324 325 DOI: 10.1038/sj/jp/7210744.
Rodrguez L. A. G., Hernndez-Daz S., 2000. The risk of upper gastrointestinal
complications

associated

with

nonsteroidal

anti-inflammatory

drugs,

glucocorticoids, acetaminophen, and combinations of these agents. Arthritis

Research and Therapy 3 (2): 98101.
Sharaf, A., Kamel, S.H., Salama, A., and Arbid, M.S. 1979. Oestrogenicity of
Corchorus olitorius L. seed oil. Egyptian J. Vet. Med. 14(2):87-93.
Walter R. B., Milano F., Brasky T. M., White E., 2011. Long-Term Use of
Acetaminophen, Aspirin, and Other Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and
Risk of Hematologic Malignancies: Results From the Prospective Vitamins and
Lifestyle

(VITAL)

Study.

Journal

of

Clinical

Oncology.

doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.34.6346.
Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. 1962. The medicinal and poisonous
plants of southern and eastern Africa. 2nd ed. E.&S. Livingstone, Ltd., Edinburgh
and London.
www.stuartxchange.com/Pasau.html

47

Appendix

48

APPENDIX

Calculation of SD, SE and unpaired t-value used in different biological studies:

x x

SD=

n 1

Where,
SD

= Standard deviation

= Value of individual observation

= Mean value

= Number of observation

SD
n

SE =

Where,
SE

= Standard error

SD

= Standard deviation

= Number of observation

t value,

t =

x y 0
S12 S 22

m n

49

Abbreviation

50

: Degree Celsius

AECO

: Aqueos extract of Corchorus olitorius

: Boron

bw

: body weight

Ca

: Calcium

Cdcl2

: Cadmium chloride

cm

: Centimeter

CNS

: Central nervous system

CO

: Corchorus olitorius

COX

: Cyclo Oxygnase

DAG

: Diacylglycerol

DMSO

: Ddimethyl sulfoxide

DNA

: Deoxyribonucleic acid

et al

: et alia = and other people

etc

: et cet. era = and the others

Fe

: Ferrus

Fecl3

: Ferric chloride

GI

: Gastrointestine

gm

: gram

GST

: Glutathaione S-transferase

HCl

: Hydrogen chloride

ICDDRB, B

: International Center for Diarrheal Diseases and Research,

Bangladesh

IP3

: inositol triphosphate

: Potassium

L.

: Linnaeus (Name of scientist)

MeOH

: Methanol

mg/kg

: milligram/kilogram

mg/ml

: milligram/milliliter

ml

: milliliter

mm

: millimeter

Mn

: Manganese

Mo

: Molybdenum
51

Na

: Sodium

NaASO2

: Sodium arsenite

NK

: Natural Killer Cell

NSAID

: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

: Phosphorus

PGI2

: Prostacyclin

SD

: Standard Deviation

SDF

: Soluble dietary fiber

SE

: Standard Error

UODA

: University Of Development Alternative

USDA

: United States Department of Agriculture

WHO

: World Health Organization

Zn

: Zinc

52