Topic 5 Teachers Learners and Teaching in ESL Classrooms PDF

Topic
Teachers,
Learners and
Teaching in ESL
Classrooms
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Identify factors involved in good teaching and learning;
2.
Describe the characteristics of a good teacher and good language

learners;
3.
Discuss the importance of motivation, proficiency levels, and

teacher behaviour in language teaching and learning;
4.
Identify the elements of managing teaching and learning in

language classrooms.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever thought about what makes good teaching? In particular, what are
the factors involved in successful second language teaching? Is it the teacher, the
teaching, or the students? These are important issues for teachers to reflect upon
because they can contribute towards the improvement of the teachers current
practice. As an overview, the key questions covered in this topic include:
(a)
What makes a good teacher?
(b)
How should teachers interact with students?
(c)
How should teachers give instruction?
(d)
Who should talk in class?
TOPIC 5
TEACHERS, LEARNERS AND TEACHING IN ESL CLASSROOMS
(e)
What are the best types of lesson?
(f)
How important is it to follow a teaching plan?
5.1
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WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

GOOD TEACHER?
Can you think of some attributes or characteristics of a good teacher?

Harmer (1999) conducted a survey on a group of students who were studying in
the United Kingdom and who came from various countries around the world.
Some of the responses to the question What makes a good teacher? include the
following:
(a)
Teachers should make their lessons interesting so that students in class do

not fall asleep.
(b)
Teachers who love their jobs will make the lessons more interesting.
(c)
Teachers who show their true personalities are seen as real persons.
(d)
Teachers who are knowledgeable not only in the subject matter, but who
also shares her/his interests with the class.
(e)
Teachers who are entertainers who can amuse students other than being
serious about teaching/learning.
From the above, it can be inferred that the teacher s character and personality is
a crucial factor in the classroom (Figure 5.1). Students seem to think that other
than providing the facts and knowledge, teachers need to create a warm and
trusting relationship with their students.
Other responses from the students include:
(a)
Teachers must be approachable; students should be able to talk to their

teacher when they do not understand their lesson.
(b)
Teachers who can identify with the hopes, aspirations, and difficulties of
their students.
(c)
Teachers who are able to draw out the quiet students and control the more
talkative ones.
(d)
Teachers who are able to correct students without offending them.
(e)
Teachers who are helpful.
(f)
Teachers who make an attempt to know their students.
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TOPIC 5 TEACHERS, LEARNERS AND TEACHING IN ESL CLASSROOMS
Figure 5.1: A teachers character and personality is a crucial factor in the classroom
Teachers who are genuinely interested in their students welfare and progress are
able to control and inspire them. (Figure 5.1) This makes for good classroom
management that forms one of the fundamental skills of teaching. Research
shows that teachers who care more about their students learning than they do
about their own teaching are often good teachers (Brown and McIntyre, 1993;
Harmer, 1999).
ACTIVITY 5.1
1.
Reflect on your own experience as students. What were some of

the characteristics of your favourite teacher? What were some of
her/his strong and weak points?
2.
List down some of your own ideas about what makes a

good English language teacher. Discuss your ideas with your
classmates.
3.
In your own classroom, conduct a survey on your students on

what they think makes a good teacher. Discuss your findings
with your course mates.
4.
Try this too ask your students to graphically illustrate (e.g.,

draw) what a teacher is to them. They can use analogies or
metaphors, e.g., the teacher as gardener, a teacher is like a tree,
providing shade and shelter to students, the fruits are the
students, etc.
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Put simply, good teachers are sincere in their efforts in providing students with a
conducive environment for learning. They are not afraid to be themselves and are
genuinely interested to improve their students learning. Teaching, a profession
of conscience, demands that the teacher be first interested in their students in all
their diversity. An interested and caring teacher starts off on a firm footing and
will inadvertently motivate students to learn. Besides being interested in their
students, other factors also play an important role in student learning the first
of which is the nature of teacher-student interaction.
5.1.1
Interacting with Students
Research has shown that parents use a different tone of voice and simple
language when talking to young children. Eye contact is more frequent and the
vocabulary used is restricted. This is often done unconsciously. Although
teachers and students are not exactly parents and children, this unconscious
effort is seen when teachers attempt to rough-tune the language they use with
students (Harmer, 1999: 3).
Figure 5.2: Interaction is an essential teaching skill
Teachers rely on a general perception of what students can understand when

speaking to them. Experienced teachers will usually adjust their language when
talking to students. Novice teachers often use students comprehension to
determine their speaking styles in classrooms. Other than using language,
teachers also convey or accentuate language with body movements such as
gestures, facial expressions and mime, and even intonation and rhythm of the
voice.
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Interaction in class is more than just talking to students. Brown (2001:165) defines
interaction as the collaborative exchange of thoughts, feelings, or ideas between
two or more people, resulting in a reciprocal effect on each other. Wilga Rivers
(1987) proposes that from the very beginning of language study, the classroom
should be interactive (Figure 5.2). Brown (2001:166) outlines seven interactive
principles:
(a)
Automaticity
In order to process something automatically without conscious monitoring,
learners need to focus on meanings and messages rather than on correct
grammar.
(b)
Intrinsic Motivation
When students interact with each other or with the teacher in a relaxed and
non-threatening manner, they gain a sense of self-fulfilment and their
deepest drives are satisfied.
(c)
Strategic Investments
In interacting with others, students practice strategies which could help
them to negotiate meaning and learn to make decisions in spontaneous
face-to-face communication.
(d)
Risk-Taking
Interaction involves taking risks of making wrong responses,
interpretations of meanings, of being ridiculed or being shunned or
rejected. The learning outcomes are valuable for the language learner.
(e)
Language-culture Connection
In interaction, the interlocutors need to be familiar with the cultural
nuances of the language. For instance, in using English, students will learn
the use of appropriate English expressions and language to communicate
with the speaker.
(f)
Interlanguage
Teacher feedback is important in interaction. The complexity of interactions
is a long process which is marked by errors of production and
comprehension.
(g)
Communicative Competence
In interacting with others, students will learn the various elements
of communicative competence, such as grammatical, discourse,
sociolinguistic, pragmatic and strategic competence. Consult Brown (1994)
for a thorough explication of the different types of competence.
TOPIC 5
In interacting with students, the teacher has a number of roles to play:

(a)
Teacher as Controller
(b)
Teacher as Director
(c)
Teacher as Manager
(d)
Teacher as Facilitator
(e)
Teacher as Resource
ACTIVITY 5.2
The following are explications of each of the roles mentioned above.
Match the roles with the appropriate statements.
1.
The teacher takes the least directive role. Students take the
initiative to consult the teacher who acts as advisor and
counsellor.
2.
The teacher is in charge of every moment in class, determines

what students do, when they should speak, and what language
forms they should use. There is a lack of spontaneity,
unrehearsed language and freedom of expression.
3.
The teacher plans lessons, modules and courses, and structures

class time. However, each individual student is allowed to be
creative within the parameters set by the teacher.
4.
The teacher is like the conductor of an orchestra or director of a

drama. As students engage in spontaneous or rehearsed language
performance, the teacher keeps the process flowing efficiently
and as smoothly as possible. The teacher allows students to
experience improvising language in communicating with others.
5.
The teacher attempts to make learning easier for students by

providing guidance and gentle prodding. Learning is based on
the principle of intrinsic motivation. That is, the teacher allows
students to discover language pragmatically rather than teaching
them about the language only.
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In addition to the above roles that teachers can adopt in interacting with
students, the issue of the types of questions used by teachers to prompt students
response plays a crucial role. In initiating interaction, teachers need to be aware
of the effects of the types of questions they use.
Teachers can develop a repertoire of questioning strategies to initiate and sustain
interaction. Appropriate questioning can fulfil a number of functions (Brown,
2001: 169171):
(a)
Teacher questions act as impetus and opportunity to produce language

comfortably without students having to start producing language on their
own. In the beginning stages, it can be quite challenging and risky for
students to offer initial language to begin a conversation or discussion.
Appropriate questions can assist more reticent students with a structured
opportunity to communicate in the second language.
(b)
Teacher questions can serve as impetus for a chain reaction of student

interaction. One question can help start a discussion which otherwise
students may be reluctant to initiate.
(c)
Teacher questions provide immediate feedback to the instructor to check on

comprehension. Teachers can diagnose linguistic or content problems based
on subsequent interactions initiated by teacher questions.
(d)
Teacher questions help provide students with opportunities to find out

about their thinking via their responses to teacher questions. They also
discover their own ideas and opinions of others with regard to the topic
discussed. This self-discovery method can be helpful in the prewriting
stage of a writing lesson.
What kinds of questions are effective to initiate student interactions? Questions

range from the basic display type to the highly referential question. Display
questions elicit information already known by the teacher, whereas referential
questions request information not known by the questioner. However, not all
questions will help initiate interactions. Some questions may even discourage
interactive learning. For example, Kinsella (1991) caution teachers against the
following types of questions:
(a)
Using too many display questions. Artificial contexts that do not involve
genuine seeking of information can make students feel bored or
demotivated.
(b)
An obvious question with known answers. This can insult students

intelligence.
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97
(c)
Vague questions posed using abstract or ambiguous language, e.g. Do you

pretty much understand more or less what to do?
(d)
Questions which are too abstract, complex, or wordy for aural

comprehension.
(e)
Use of too many rhetorical questions that the teacher intends to answer
herself/himself. Students may think that the teacher wants them to answer
but get confused when the teacher provides the answer instead.
(f)
Random questions which are not in logical, well-planned order which

confuse students.
The following are some common types of classroom questions and question
words which could foster student interaction (Kinsella, 1991 and Bloom, 1956
cited in Brown, 2001:172):
(a)
Knowledge Questions
Eliciting factual answers, testing recall and recognition of information, e.g.,
define, tell, list, identify, describe, select, name, point out, label, reproduce.
Who? What? Where? When? Answer Yes or No.
(b)
Comprehension Questions
Interpreting, extrapolating, e.g., state in your own words, explain, define,
locate, select, indicate, summarise, outline, match.
(c)
Application Questions
Applying information heard or read to new situations, e.g., demonstrate
how, use the data to solve, illustrate how, show how, apply, construct,
explain. For example: What is
used for? What would result? What
would happen?
(d)
Inference Questions
Forming conclusions that are not directly stated in instructional materials,
e.g.: How? Why? What did
mean by? What does
believe?
What conclusions can you draw from
?
(e)
Analysis Questions
Breaking down into parts, relating parts to the whole, e.g., distinguish,
diagram, chart, plan, deduce, arrange, separate, outline, classify, contrast,
compare, differentiate, categorise. What is the relationship between ?
What is the function of ? What is the motive ? What are the
conclusions? What is the main idea?
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(f)
Synthesis Questions
Combining elements into a new pattern, e.g., compose, combine, estimate,
invent, choose, hypothesise, build, solve, design, develop. Some types of
questions along this line: What if? How would you test ? What would
you have done in this situation? What would happen if
? How can
you improve
? How else would you
?
(g)
Evaluation Questions
Making a judgment of good and bad, right or wrong, according to some set
of criteria and stating why, e.g., evaluate, rate, defend, dispute, decide
which, select, judge, grade, verify, choose why. Which is best? Which is
more important? Which do you think is more appropriate?
Other than using questions, teachers can also use other interaction- promoting
strategies such as using pair work and group work, giving directions, and
lecturing. Teachers can also conduct their own study on the interaction patterns
in an English language classroom. They can use an interaction analysis system to
categorise what is observed in terms of teacher talk and student talk.
Moskowitz (1971) provides a detailed foreign language interaction analysis
system (FLINT) which categorises the responses of teachers and students in
classroom interaction.
Another factor to consider in a lesson is the instructional language and
procedures that the teacher adopts.
5.1.2
How Should Teachers Give Instructions?
In talking to students and in initiating interaction, teachers need to also consider

the way they give students instructions to perform tasks. A well-prepared lesson
will not be fruitful if students do not fully understand what they are supposed to
do.
TOPIC 5
5.1.3
99
What Makes a Lesson Interesting?
Students boredom is one of the main deterrents to successful teaching. Routine

and predictability of much of classroom time are often two major causes. Other
factors include drab teaching materials and teacher characteristics.
Students are wise about what occurs in the classroom daily, so much so they can
tell what will take place in class. Fanselow (1987) suggests that teachers violate
their own behaviour patterns so as to break the chain of routine in the classroom.
For instance, if a teacher usually dresses in casual clothes, s/he should
occasionally turn up in formal attire; if the teacher normally sits down, s/he
should stand up; if s/he is usually energetic and noisy, s/he should sometimes
be calm and talk slowly.
According to Fanselow (1987), each time the teacher breaks her/his own
rules, s/he sends a ripple through the class surprise and curiosity foster
student involvement.
If students are in a 60-minute writing lesson, a variety of other activities should

be included to break the monotony. However, teachers need to create a balance
between predictable safety (e.g., structured tasks familiar to students) and
unexpected variety (different tasks on different topics).
Another important issue to consider is the importance of following a prearranged plan. An interesting lesson includes incorporating a variety of tasks and
being flexible during the lesson itself. A balance has to be struck between what
teachers intend to achieve and what students are saying or doing. For instance, a
lesson planned for 45 minutes requires more time because the students might not
finish one of the tasks or the video recorder might not work and so forth.
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Good teachers are thus flexible enough to cope with such situations. Because the
focus is on students and their needs, teachers should be able to react quickly to
any unplanned events. Good teachers also recognise that their plans are only
prototypes and they may have to abandon some or all of them if things go too
fast or too slow in the lesson. Judicious adjustments have to be made to ensure
that eventually students needs are met.
5.2
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNER?
What are attributes of a good language learner?

When considering the qualities or attributes of good language learners, teachers
need to take into account several factors, including learners backgrounds. Why,
for instance, is a particular study method appropriate for student A and not for
student B? Because each student brings a unique personality to the classroom, it
is quite often difficult to assess the factors involved.
Research findings do not always tell us what we really want to know. For
example, a study in Britain wanted to investigate why some children are good at
musical instruments while others are not. The study found that the main factor
seemed to be due to the amount of practice the students have put into the lesson.
Teachers often have some commonly-held views about good learners. They attest
that students who do well are those who always do their homework. But, we
need to also consider the question of why some students do homework while
others do not. Also, why do some exceptional students do well even without
doing homework? Is it the homework or the students underlying state of mind?
We need to find out about any generalisations which can help us encourage the
habits in students that will make them successful learners.
Rubin and Thompson (1982) conducted a study using tests of psycholinguistic
factors, interviews, and other data analysis on the characteristics of good
language learners. The generalisations are as follows (Brown, 2001: 209):
TOPIC 5
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Good Language Learners

(a)
Find their own way, take charge of their own learning.
(b)
Organise information about their own language.
(c)
Are creative; they develop a feel for the language by experimenting

with its grammar and words.
(d)
Create their own opportunities to practice the language inside and

outside the classroom.
(e)
Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by

continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.
(f)
Use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has been
learned.
(g)
Make errors work for them and not against them.
(h)
Use linguistics knowledge, including knowledge of their first language,

in learning a second language.
(i)
Use contextual cues to help them in comprehension.
(j)
Learn to make intelligent guesses.
(k)
Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalised routines to help

them perform beyond their competence.
(l)
Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.
(m) Learn certain production strategies to fill in the gaps in their own
competence
(n)
Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their
language according to the formality of the situation.
Brown (2001) cautions that the characteristics mentioned above are not all based
on empirical findings, but on the collective observations of teachers and learners.
Therefore, not all successful learners exhibit these characteristics. It is important
that teachers are aware of these attributes of language learning to help students
become better and efficient language learners.
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Some learners are often able to take advantage of what goes on in the classroom.
They seem to be more involved in the process of learning than their other peers.
Teachers often agree on the following characteristics of successful students
(Harmer, 1999:10):
Willingness to Listen
Good learners pay attention to whats going on. They dont just hear,
rather they listen attentively to the English being used in class.
Willingness to Experiment
Most good learners are not afraid to take risks, try new things and see
how they work. Not all successful language learners are extroverts, but
the desire to use the language (loudly or silently) is very important.
Willingness to Ask Questions

Students who constantly ask difficult or even irrelevant questions can
sometimes irritate teachers. But, asking questions is part of a good
learners language learning strategy. Good teachers frequently invite
questions from students and ask whether they have understood
something. Good learners ask questions and learn to judge when it is
necessary to ask questions.
Willingness to Think About How To Learn

Good learners bring or invent their own study skills when they come to
class (or when they do self-study). They think about how to record
vocabulary in their notebook; the best way to read a text; the best
method of drafting or re-drafting a piece of writing.
Willingness to Accept Correction

Good learners are prepared to be corrected if it helps them. They are keen
to get feedback from their teachers and to act on what they are advised.
This happens only when the teacher can provide constructive criticisms
rather than castigating students for being wrong. Giving feedback means
giving praises for things students do well and offering them the ability to
do things better where they were unsuccessful. Teachers need to make fair
judgments of their students responses to correction in order to act
accordingly.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the qualities of a good language learner?
TOPIC 5
5.3
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MOTIVATION AND STUDENT LEARNING
Do you think motivation play a vital role in second language learning? Why?
Research shows that motivation is one of the factors influencing successful
language learning (Cook, 2001). Gardner and Lamberts (1972) famous study
suggested that students who felt positively about a language and who wanted to
integrate into the culture of its speakers were more highly motivated and learned
more successfully than those who were learning the language as a means to an
end. In other words, integrative motivation is more powerful than instrumental
motivation. But whatever motivation students have, it is clear that a highly
motivated student will often do better than one who is not.
One of the responsibilities of a teacher is to provoke interest and involvement in
the subject matter. It is really up to the teacher to turn things around by choosing
the right topic, activity and linguistic content for the lesson. The teachers attitude
to class participation, her/his conscientiousness, humour and seriousness can
influence students own attitude and interest to learn. It is by the teacher s own
behaviour and enthusiasm that they can inspire students. Teachers, however, are
not solely responsible for students motivation. They can only encourage
students and provide the environment to foster a positive language learning
experience. Real motivation comes from within the individual.
Motivation works in two directions. High motivation is a factor that causes
successful learning; likewise successful learning causes high motivation (Cook,
2001). Brown (2001) discusses the difference between instrumental and
integrative motivation in comparison to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Instrumental and integrative motivation refers more to the context or purpose of
learning. For example, instrumental motivation or more aptly, orientation,
learners learn a language to further a career or academic goal.
In integrative orientation the learner pursues a second language for social or
cultural purposes. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations designate a continuum of
possibilities of intensity of feeling or drive, ranging from deeply internal, selfgenerated rewards to strong externally administered rewards from beyond
oneself (Brown, 2001: 76).
There are many activities which could help motivate students. As outlined by
Brown (2001:80), activities which could foster intrinsic motivation include:
(a)
Teaching writing as a thinking process whereby learners develop their own

ideas freely and openly
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(b)
Showing learners certain strategies of reading that enable them to bring

their own information to the written word
(c)
Using language experience approaches in which students create their own

reading material for others to read
(d)
Using oral fluency exercises in which learners talk about what they are
interested in and not about a teacher-assigned topic
(e)
Listening to an academic lecture in ones area
(f)
Using communicative language teaching in which language is taught to

enable learners to accomplish certain specific functions
(g)
Giving grammatical explanations, if learners see their potential for

increasing their autonomy in a second language
Brown (2001: 8081) further asserts that every technique the teacher uses in the
classroom can be tested to see the extent to which the technique adheres to the
above principles.
The techniques can be checked against the following questions:
(a)
Does the technique appeal to the genuine interests of the students? Is it

relevant to their lives?
(b)
Is the technique presented in a positive, enthusiastic manner?
(c)
Are students clearly aware of the purpose of the techniques?
(d)
Do students have a choice in (i) choosing some aspect of the technique? and
(ii) determining how they go about fulfilling the goals of the technique?
(e)
Does the technique encourage students to develop or use effective

strategies of learning and communication?
(f)
Does it contribute to students ultimate autonomy and independence from

the teacher?
(g)
Does the technique help students discover for themselves certain principles
or rules (rather than being told by the teacher)?
Does it foster cooperative negotiation with other students in the class? Is it
truly interactive?
(h)
(i)
Do students receive sufficient feedback on their performance (from peers

and the teacher)?
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ACTIVITY 5.3
Answer the following questions and then discuss them with your
friends in class.
1.
Look at some of the following methods used in

teaching language. Consider the extent to which each method
promotes intrinsic motivation.
(a)
Grammar-translation Method
(b)
Direct Method
(c)
Audiolingual Method
(d)
Community language Learning
(e)
Suggestopedia
(f)
Silent way
(g)
Total Physical Response
(h)
Natural Approach
(i)
Communicative Language Teaching
2.
Think of some ways in which a colleague or your own

teacher were successful in increasing students motivation to
learn English. What were some of the techniques they used?
Share this with your coursemates.
3.
Reflect on your own teaching. Were there occasions in which

students were reluctant to learn in your English classroom?
What do you think were some of the reasons? How did you
solve the problem?
You can read the following research article on increasing students motivation:
Dornyei, Zoltan and Csizer, Kata (1998). Ten commandments for motivating
language learners. Language Teaching Research 2: 203229.
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5.4
PROFICIENCY LEVELS AND LEARNING
In teaching ESL, teachers often distinguish learners on three levels: beginner,

intermediate, and advanced. Harmer (1999:12) defines beginners as students who
do not know any English and advanced students as those whose level of English
is high enough to enable them to read unsimplified texts and to communicate
fluently with native speakers. Intermediate level suggests a basic competence in
speaking and writing and the ability to understand fairly straightforward
listening and reading in the learner.
A distinction is often made between beginners and false beginners. An example
of the former is adults who start an English course with virtually no English, and
the latter describes those who cannot use any English but actually know quite a
lot, which needs only to be triggered.
Elementary students are not beginners and can communicate in a basic way.
They can put sentences together, construct a simple story, or take part in
communicative interactions. Upper intermediate students are like intermediate
students, but have a stronger grasp of grammar and skill use. They do not,
however, have the accuracy and depth of knowledge of advanced students.
Figure 5.3 displays the labels often used to describe the different levels of English
language proficiency (Harmer, 1999:12):
Figure 5.3: The different levels of English Proficiency
It must be kept in mind that each student is an individual, but it is possible to

make some broad generalisations of the various proficiency levels. Knowing the
level which a student is at will help the teacher design tasks and activities
appropriate for that particular level.
For a detailed discussion of the various proficiency levels in language teaching,
refer to Brown (2001: 96114).
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ACTIVITY 5.4
Think of your own classroom. How do you prepare your lessons to
meet the different proficiency levels of your students? Provide an
example of activities you have prepared and used to teach a particular
lesson (reading, writing, speaking, etc.) which took into account the
proficiency levels.
5.5
MANAGING TEACHING AND LEARNING
What is the best seating arrangement for a learner to gain optimum learning?
This section discusses the factors involved in managing teaching and learning in
the classroom. How the teacher handles teaching and learning event are
significant efforts toward a successful lesson. Some of these important factors are:
(1) How teachers use their physical presence in class; (2) How teachers use their
voice in class; (3) How stages of a lesson are marked in class; (4) How seats are
arranged in class for optimum learning; (5) What types of student grouping can
be used; and (6) How teachers evaluate the success or failure of their lessons
(Harmer, 1999: 1523).
5.5.1
How Should Teachers Use Their Physical

Presence in Class?
A key factor which influences the effective management of a class is the teacher s
physical presence. The way the teacher moves and stands, and how physically
demonstrative s/he is, play an important role in the conduct of a lesson.
Although each teacher has her/his own physical characteristics and habits, there
are some common issues that need to be considered which have a direct effect on
students perception of the teacher.
According to Harmer (1999:1516), these issues include proximity, appropriacy,
movement, and contact.
(a)
Proximity
Teachers should be aware of how close in physical distance they want to be
with the students. Although this can be a cultural and sensitive issue in that
some cultures do not encourage physical proximity, there are other cultures
which welcome closeness. Distance can mean coldness or can even be
uncomfortable to others. Teachers need to be aware of these subtle
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differences and be able to make the necessary adjustments and be conscious

of students reactions. Teachers should consider the cultural conventions in
terms of whats acceptable. Such factors as gender, religious inclinations,
and age need to be considered.
(b)
Appropriacy
Often teachers adopt an informal, friendly atmosphere when working with
students. For instance, some teachers are happy about sitting on the floor
with their students when working on a project. This may be appropriate in
some situations. However, some students may possibly be distracted by
this. The positions a teacher takes sitting on the edge of the table, standing
behind a lectern, always sitting at the teacher s table, standing in front of
the class (never going to the back of the class), standing on a raised dais
make strong statements about the kind of person the teacher is. It is
important for the teacher to be aware of the kinds of effect all these have on
the students so that the teacher can behave in an appropriate manner
acceptable to the students. This is important in the kind of relationship and
rapport the teacher wishes to build with the students and for effective
classroom management.
(c)
Movement
Some teachers tend to spend much of their classroom time in one position in
the classroom; for instance, at the front of the class, on the side, or in the
middle. Others may walk from one side of the class to the other or striding
up the aisles between the rows of chairs. Although this is a matter of personal
preference, it should be remembered that teachers who are motionless can
bore students, while teachers who are constantly in motion will turn the
students into tennis-match spectators and they will end up exhausted. Again,
the teacher must be aware of her/his personal style and try to create a
balance to ensure students are motivated and comfortable to learn.
(d)
Contact
How do teachers make contact with their students? How close should
that relationship be? To effectively manage a class, teachers need to be
aware of what students are doing and how they are feeling. In other words,
this means that the teacher has to be watching and listening just as carefully
as teaching. It also means making eye-contact with students (if this is
culturally appropriate for the particular group of students), listening to
what they have said, and responding appropriately. In learning a language,
it is impossible to not make some form of contact with students. The nature
of this contact will vary from teacher to teacher and from class to class.
TOPIC 5
5.5.2
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How Should Teachers Use Their Voice in Class
The teacher s voice is a fundamental tool in class management. How we speak

and what our voice sounds like have a significant impact on the class. When we
consider the teacher s voice, we have to think about the following three issues,
according to Harmer (1999:1617):
(a)
Audibility
We need to be heard. Teachers must ensure that students at the back of the
class can hear them just as clearly as those students sitting in front of the
class (Figure 5.4). Audibility is always related to voice quality. A highpitched shout is unpleasant. Teachers do not have to shout to be audible.
Good teachers try to create a balance between audibility and volume.
(b)
Variety
It is also important for teachers to vary their voice quality and volume
depending on the type of lesson and activity. For example, the kind of voice
used in giving instructions or in introducing a new activity is not the same
as the voice used in an informal conversation and in an informal exchange
of views or information.
Figure 5.4: Students need to hear what the teacher is teaching
Speaking softly is often effective in getting students attention because

when students realize that you are talking, they may want to listen in case
they miss anything that is important or interesting. For teachers who never
raise their voice, the occasional loud interjection may have a dramatic effect
and can sometimes be useful.
110 X
(c)
Conservation
Because teachers spend much of their time in class talking, it is important
that they take care of their voice. It important to breathe correctly from the
diaphragm so that they do not strain their larynx. Teachers need to vary
their voice throughout the day. Avoid shouting wherever possible to
conserve energy!
5.5.3
How Should Teachers Mark the Stages of a

Lesson
In order for teachers to have variety in their lessons, they need to include stages
in their lessons. In the beginning, the teacher will start the lesson by telling the
students what they will be doing or what the teacher hopes to achieve.
Sometimes, the teacher does not tell students everything about what he/she
plans to do in order to retain an element of surprise in the lesson. Still, it is
important for the teacher to have a clear start to the lesson.
In addition, to end an activity or to begin another one, the teacher needs to make
this clear through his/her behaviour and what he/she says. It is helpful to
students to know when an activity is ending and when another should start.
Often, teachers need to help refocus students attention, or point it in a new
direction. This can be difficult especially when students are in a speaking activity
or working in groups. Some teachers clap their hands, others may say,
OKthank younow can I have your attention please? or OK, thanksnow
can we all face the front please? Another strategy is for the teacher to raise
her/his hand.
Finally, at the end of a lesson it helps if the teacher is able to give some kind of
closure perhaps, a summary of what has happened or an explanation of what is
to occur in the next lesson. Some teachers prefer that the students provide the
summary to ensure that they have understood the lesson. Sometimes, the teacher
is in the midst of something when the bell rings. It is better for the teacher to then
round the lesson off successfully rather than leave it unfinished, for the latter
would give the lesson a sense of incompleteness.
5.5.4
How Should Teachers Decide on the Best

Seating Arrangement for a Class
Classrooms around the world contain a variety of seating arrangements (Figure

5.5). The seating arrangement helps to assist in the efficiency of language
activities conducted by the teacher. The following are some common seating
arrangement that can be found in many language classes (Harmer, 1999: 1820):
TOPIC 5
(a)
W 111
Orderly Rows
There are advantages in students sitting in rows in the classroom. The
teacher has a good view of all students and students too have a clear view
of the teacher. Lecturing becomes easier because the teacher is able to
address everyone and is able to make eye contact with them. It also makes
discipline control easier because it is difficult for a student to be disruptive
when sitting in a row. The teacher can walk up and down the aisle between
the rows and maintain personal contact with individual students.
Activities which can be conducted are: explanations of grammar points;
watching a video; using the board; and demonstrating text organization on
an overhead projector. It is also useful for conducting language practice
such as pattern-drills. When conducting a lesson with this type of seating
arrangement, the teacher must remember to address the students at the
back also and not just those near her/him. The teacher needs to also move
about the class and questions asked should include students sitting at the
back. This type of seating arrangement can accommodate a large class of
more than 40 students.
Figure 5.5: Different seating arrangements in class (Harmer, 1999:18)
112 X
(b)
Circles and Horseshoes

In a horseshoe arrangement, the teacher is at the open end of the
arrangement where the board, overhead projector or tape recorder is
situated. In a circle arrangement, the teacher s position is where the board
is. With a circular arrangement, there seems to be a sense of equality among
the participants. Even in a horseshoe arrangement, although the teacher has
a central position, s/he can still get close to the students. In this type of
arrangement, the teacher tends to lower the barriers between him/herself
and the students. The students can also see other students clearly. This
arrangement also provides a more intimate atmosphere whereby students
can share feelings and information through talking, eye contact or
expressive body movements.
(c)
Separate Tables
Compared to the previous seating arrangements, an arrangement where the
students sit in small groups at individual tables is less formal. In such a
classroom, the teacher is able to walk about and check the students work or
help out if they have problems. This arrangement is less hierarchical and it
makes it easier for the teacher to work at individual tables while the rest are
doing their work. This arrangement has some limitations. It may not always
be that students prefer to work with the same classmates all the time. It also
makes whole-class teaching more difficult because students are more
diffused and separated.
(d)
To Recapitulate
We have seen that the seating positions of students can say a lot about the
style of the teacher or the institution where the lessons occur. Teachers
often would like to change the seating arrangements of their students. This
is possible when teachers are aware of how they want to conduct the lesson
whether involving the whole class, groups, pairs, or individually as
explicated by Harmer (1999). This is discussed in the next section.
(e)
Student Groupings
Student groupings that teachers can use are:
(i)
Whole class
(ii)
Group work and pair work
(iii) Individual work
TOPIC 5
W 113
Whole class: Often teachers find working with a class as a whole to be the
best type of organisation. However, this does not mean that students sitting
in orderly rows will focus on what the teacher is saying.
Group work and pair work: These types of organisation seem to be popular
in language classes. They have many advantages. Group work is a
cooperative activity. In groups, students are often able to participate
equally and can experiment more with language than in a whole class
arrangement.
Group work and pair work give students the chance to work more
independently. Working together without the teacher controlling
everything, students are able to make their own learning decisions, decide
what language to use to in completing a task without the pressure of others
listening to them. Decisions are arrived at cooperatively and responsibilities
are shared.
Teachers also get the opportunity to work with individual students in
group work and pair work arrangements. However, with separate table
seating, students may not always like to work with the person/s they are
grouped with. In any group or pair, there will always be a situation where a
group member or a partner may be more dominant while the others are
silent. In difficult classes, group work can cause more disruption and when
students share the same native language (L1), they may revert to the use of
the L1 instead of the target language (English).
Individual work: An alternative to the above-mentioned arrangements is
individual work. It has some advantages. It allows students to work at their
own pace and gives them some thinking time. In other words, it allows
them to be individuals. It provides a change from the often group-cantered
nature of language teaching. Students can consider their own individual
needs and progress.
In summary, classroom organisation is dependent upon teacher style and
student preferences. Do the students really enjoy pair work? Do the
advantages of group work (cooperation, involvement, autonomy) outweigh
that of whole class grouping (clarity, dramatic potential, teacher control)?
Do students really work well in individual work sessions?
114 X
Good teachers are able to use different class groupings for different activities.
They can monitor the effectiveness of each type of groupings by being aware
of students reactions and success in the lessons.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Think of some advantages and disadvantages of the different
types of class groupings.
Type of Grouping
Advantages
Disadvantages
Whole class
Group work
Pair work
Individual work
5.5.5
How Can Teachers Evaluate the Success or

Failure of Their Lessons
Questions teachers ask about the activities used in their lessons include the
following:
(a)
Were the activities successful?
(b)
Did the students enjoy them?
(c)
Did they learn anything from them?
(d)
How could the activities be changed to make them more effective?
A simple way to find out about the effectiveness of an activity is to ask students
simple questions. Such questions include: Did you like the exercise? Did you find
it useful? Of course, not all students will openly discuss the answers, in which
case the teacher can ask them to write down their responses. Another way to get
feedback is to ask a colleague to observe the activity and get his/her comments
and suggestions. The lesson could also be videotaped.
TOPIC 5
W 115
Feedback from students is important to help teachers modify the activities used
in lessons. Teachers also need to evaluate how well the students are progressing.
This can be done through assignments, speaking activities, and frequent small
progress tests. Good teachers always keep track of their students progress and
achievements. Only when teachers keep such progress records can they begin to
see the success or failure of their teaching.
5.6
LANGUAGE TEACHING
How do you teach English in your classroom? What are the factors you consider
in carrying out your lesson?
We have come to the last section in this topic. This section provides a discussion
and explanation of the nature of language teaching. The issues discussed include:
(a)
What Language Study Consist of

In teaching a new language, four factors are of significance in the language
classroom: exposure to the language; understanding the meaning
associated with the language; understanding the form of the language; and
practicing the language. In addition, the elements of the language such as
its use or skills (e.g., learning strategies) must be included in the classroom;
what has been selected must be learned (via teacher s facilitation); and
correction or feedback must be given to the learners.
(b)
How Students Should be Exposed to Language

A major role of teachers in classroom language instruction is to provide
students with maximum exposure to the language being learned (e.g.,
English in ESL classrooms). Teachers often start off by exposing students to
the spoken form of the language. For example, they could present
grammatical structures orally and students are given the opportunity to
listen to explanations before they are asked to see it or produce it in written
form. This can also be assisted by using tape-recorders, video, and materials
from the Internet. Students can be asked to visit a particular website that
has language activities which students could attempt for practice. Activities
vary depending on the different proficiency levels of the students (see
Harmer (1999: 52-54) for detailed examples of activities for the different
proficiency levels).
116 X
(c)
How We Can Help Students to Understand Meaning

There are various ways to help students to understand meaning according
to their level of proficiency. For example, for beginners, the teacher may
wish to start by presenting concrete objects through the situational method.
This is a pen is illustrated by showing the actual object. To introduce the
question form, the teacher could use gestures and voice intonation to
demonstrate meaning. Thus, in dealing with low proficiency students
teachers can use objects, pictures, drawings, gesture and expressions to help
students understand meaning and simple concepts. For more advanced
levels, students can be asked to do more cognitively complex tasks to help
them to understand the meaning of the language. For example, students
can be asked to draw a diagram of the content of a text they are reading.
Students could also write a summary to show their understanding.
(d)
How We Can Help Students to Understand Language Forms

Harmer (1999:56) suggests that other than listening/seeing and
understanding meaning, students need to know how the particular
language form is constructed. Students need to understand the constituent
parts the sounds, syllables, words and phrases of the new language. For
example, in presenting the word pen, the teacher can focus on the
pronunciation of the sounds in the words: /p//e//n/pen. Some
sounds can be demonstrated by manipulating the mouth and lips. The
teacher can also use intonation and gestures to clarify sound-symbol
relationships. Practice exercises can be developed to help students practice
the new sounds and words learned. Written tasks can be devised to
reinforce what was taught.
(e)
How Students Should Practice Language

Students can be given further practice with new language forms once they
have heard and understood the meaning and construction of the forms.
Practice should not take too much of the students time. Practice has to be
geared toward the different levels of proficiency. Beginners could be given
repetition exercises, sentence construction exercises, etc. Advanced level
students can attempt tasks that require a higher level of language skill and
cognitive demands such as summarising, making inferences, application
exercises, and so forth.
TOPIC 5
(f)
W 117
Why Students Make Mistakes

Making mistakes is a natural part of language learning. All students make
mistakes at various stages of learning. There is a number of possible
reasons why students make mistakes. They are:
(i)
The students native language may get in the way of learning the L2.
(ii)
Grammatical constructions between the L1 and the target language

are different, e.g. Arabic and English writing system.
(iii) Mistakes are part of developmental errors. This often occurs as a

result of overgeneralisation of rules. For instance, having learned the
form I have to go, a student may say I must to go.
(iv) Some mistakes are persistent and need constant attention (e.g., third
person singular of the simple present tense).
Whatever the mistakes, teachers must realise that all students make
mistakes as a natural and useful way of learning. Students need to be made
aware of the types and nature of their mistakes and how to overcome them.
(g)
The Role of Error Correction

Feedbacks from teachers in the form of corrections help to clarify students
understanding of the meaning and construction of language. Teachers need
to be sensitive though in making corrections of students mistakes so as not
to upset them and make them lose confidence in learning. Other students
can also help correct their peers mistakes. Again, this has to be planned
well. Not all peer-corrections are done efficiently. It can even be more
damaging to the students when it affects their self-esteem and confidence.
Current views of language teaching emphasize the importance of feedback
only when the meanings which students attempt to convey are not
understood (Crookes & Chaudron, 2001:40). Feedback and correction are
important to help learner differentiate between acceptable and
unacceptable target language use. Teachers need to be knowledgeable in
terms of what and when feedback in the form of correction is required.
(h)
Where Language Study Activities Fit in the Teaching Sequence

Harmer (1999) argues that three elements are required in the language
classroom. He termed them ESA or Engage-Study-Activate. At the engage
stage of teaching sequence, the teacher tries to arouse the students interest.
Activities which help to engage students include games, music, discussions,
stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, and amusing anecdotes.
118 X
Study activities are those where students are asked to focus on language
and how it is constructed. The teacher can explain grammar, or students
can work in groups to study how a writer uses a particular expression to
get some effects. Study activities are explicit, conscious efforts at language
learning.
The third element, Activate, describes exercises and activities designed to
get students to use language as freely and as communicatively as possible.
Activate exercises include role-plays, advertisement design, debates and
discussion.
The Engage-Study-Activate sequence need not follow a linear sequence. It
can also be in a mixed sequence or what Harmer (1999:28) terms as a
boomerang sequence whereby the learning could begin with engageactivate-study-activate sequence. A language class seldom uses one
particular sequence. Oftentimes, the teacher uses a mixed order, depending
on the topic and nature of the language lesson.
(i)
Planning the Language Lesson

Planning a lesson is an important aspect of teaching. There are basically
four reasons why we plan teaching lessons (Chitravelu, et al.: 1995).
(i)
Planning gives the teacher the opportunity to weigh the various

options available and to make the appropriate choices for the lesson.
(ii)
A lesson plan allows the teacher to think through and get materials
before the teaching-learning session. The plan acts as a route-map. It
reminds the teacher of what the sequence of activities should be and
what materials are needed.
(iii) Early planning allows the teacher to get the necessary materials,
software and hardware, to implement her/his plan.
(iv) Lesson plans act as records of work done. The written plans serve as
document on which the teacher could reflect on in attempting to
improve on the lesson and on the teacher s own teaching.
ACTIVITY 5.5
Design a 30-minute lesson plan to teach a particular skill (e.g., reading,
writing, etc). Provide a rationale for each activity or stage in the lesson
plan.
TOPIC 5
W 119
We have discussed issues related to the characteristics of a good teacher, and

the nature of effective interaction between teacher and students to promote
optimum language learning.
We have also overviewed the techniques and factors required in giving

instructions to students, the culture of talk in the classroom, lesson types
which promote learning, and the importance of planning and preparation of
teaching in the ESL classroom.
Automaticity
Intrinsic motivation

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Topic

Identify factors involved in good teaching and learning;

Describe the characteristics of a good teacher and good language

Discuss the importance of motivation, proficiency levels, and

Identify the elements of managing teaching and learning in

What makes a good teacher?

How should teachers interact with students?

How should teachers give instruction?

Who should talk in class?

TEACHERS, LEARNERS AND TEACHING IN ESL CLASSROOMS

What are the best types of lesson?

How important is it to follow a teaching plan?

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

Can you think of some attributes or characteristics of a good teacher?

Teachers should make their lessons interesting so that students in class do

Teachers must be approachable; students should be able to talk to their

Teachers who are able to correct students without offending them.

Teachers who are helpful.

Teachers who make an attempt to know their students.