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Three
Dimensional
Shapes
(3D Solids)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
X INTRODUCTION
We live in the world of three dimensional (3D) shapes or solids. Everything
around us is in the form of solids such as the house we live in, the garden, the
trees, the cars, the fruits and the furniture we use. The round shape of an apple
we consume, the cylindrical shape of a pencil we use to write with and the
cubical shape of the thick books that we read are all examples of 3D shapes
around us. Most of the objects around us are three dimensional solids and occur
as either regular or irregular solids.
TOPIC 9
9.1
183
ACTIVITY 9.1
How do architects, engineers or designers interpret the graphic
drawings of 2D shapes in 3D models of houses, apartments, cars,
aeroplanes, ships and tankers? Discuss.
9.2
WHAT IS GEOMETRY?
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ACTIVITY 9.2
Think of some examples of real-life applications of geometry. Discuss the
importance of geometry in real life.
9.3
(b)
(c)
Learning about geometry and its applications to real life provides the basic
knowledge and geometric understanding vital for application in future
careers especially in the technical and vocational areas. Understanding
geometry is essential in the fields of navigation and exploration. Geometry
comprises important elements or essential knowledge for astronauts, pilots,
sea navigators, architects, engineers, mathematicians, carpenters, interior
decorators, models and fashion designers.
ACTIVITY 9.3
How do children learn geometry? Why should children learn geometry in
stages? Explain.
TOPIC 9
9.4
185
(b)
9.4.1
Integration of Jean Piagets research, Van Hiele's Model and other research
findings will be the basis for designing instructional tasks and learning
experiences for young children. There is no one universal theory in designing the
teaching strategies or learning activities of geometry. Thomas Fox (2000)
suggested that instructional tasks should be in line with the childrens ability or
their level of reasoning. Hannibal (1999) suggested the importance of language,
vocabulary and description in helping childrens development of defining and
categorising features of shapes.
9.4.2
Pierre van Hiele and Dina van Hiele-Degolf are two Dutch educators who
provided guidance in designing the instruction and curriculum of geometry. The
Van Hieles work which began in 1959 attracted a lot of attention especially in the
Soviet Union (Hoffer, 1983).
Today, the Van Hiele theory has become the most influential factor in designing
the curriculum for geometry worldwide. Pierre and Dina van Hiele believed that
children should learn geometry in five levels or stages. Learning activities must
be in progressive stages and avoid gaps resulting in confusion. Hypothesis
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showed that when children miss certain stages of these experiences, they would
face obstructions in their progress in understanding geometric concepts.
According to research by the Van Hieles, teachers or educators must provide
children in elementary or primary school with at least the first three stages in the
process of learning geometry. Instruction and learning activities should be well
planned according to the pupils level of geometric thought. Pupils will
successfully learn geometry when they are given the opportunity of a good
learning environment and the right experiences according to Andria Troutman et
al. (2003).
Van Hieles five levels of geometric thought are explained in Table 9.1:
Table 9.1: Van Hieles Five Levels of Geometric Thought
Level
Description
Level One
Visualisation
Level Two
Analysis
Level Three
Informal
Deduction
Level Four
Deduction
Level Five
Rigour
TOPIC 9
9.5
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9.6
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KINDERGARTEN OR PRE-SCHOOL
GEOMETRY
Children at the early age of four to seven are unable to visualise shapes or solids.
To them, shapes or solids look alike or are similar and confusing. The spatial
concepts of solids and space are still undeveloped in young children of three,
four and five years of age. They cannot visualise shapes from different
perspectives or do not possess visual imagery as yet.
The way children learn about geometry is through exposure or appropriate
learning activities and experience. Teachers have to plan and choose appropriate
learning activities and suitable materials for relevant tasks to develop childrens
understanding of topology, simple Euclidean concepts and discovery of the
properties of shapes, solids and space. Andria Troutman (2003) suggested that
activities for kindergarten or preschool children should be of three kinds (see
Table 9.2):
Table 9.2: Andria Troutman's Three Kinds of Activities
for Kindergarten or Pre-school Children
Activity
Description
Refine topology
ideas
Extended geometric
knowledge of
simple Euclidean
and topological
ideas
Discover properties
and relationships of
geometric figures
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9.7
A wide range of teaching and learning activities can be used for teaching
Geometry at pre-school level. Various learning outcomes to be achieved pertaining
to the learning of pre-school geometry include:
(a)
Identifying shapes using the surface area and exploring the relevant solids;
(b)
(c)
(d)
Using the correct vocabulary and language to describe shapes and solids
during activities.
Some samples of teaching and learning activities suitable for teaching geometry
to pre-school children are described below.
Activity 1: Identifying and Matching Shapes and Solids
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this activity, pupils should be able to:
(a)
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Materials:
x
Pencils;
A4 paper.
Procedure:
(i)
Divide the children into small groups of four to five pupils each.
(ii)
Each group will get a set of playing blocks, a set of coloured pencils or
crayons, a piece of A4 paper and pencils for each pupil.
(iii) Get pupils to match the surface area of the solids (blocks) to the respective
template or hole in the circular box (see Figure 9.2). Teacher will facilitate
the activities and give instructions to guide them while doing the activity.
This activity should take about 10 to 15 minutes.
(iv) Children in their groups will insert the blocks into the appropriate hole and
each pupil should be given the opportunity to explore and discover on their
own.
(v)
When they are done, check the childrens findings. Point to one of the holes
and ask the pupils to choose or select the suitable or appropriate block from
the pile. See Figure 9.3 (a).
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Check to confirm the pupils understanding. Repeat with other solids and
let them try to fit into the respective hole of the shapes. See Figure 9.3 (b).
(vi) Guide pupils to label and identify the shapes and solids given using their
pencils and the piece of A4 paper.
Activity 2: Visualise Shapes and Solids
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this activity, pupils should be able to:
(a)
(b)
Materials:
x
Set of solids;
A4 paper;
Pencils;
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Procedure:
(i)
Let the children trace the surface area/shape of the blocks on the piece of
A4 paper, match and then compare with that on the circular box.
See Figure 9.4 (a).
Figure 9.4 (a): Set of playing blocks and shapes of surface area
(ii)
Introduce appropriate vocabulary and guide pupils to label each shape and
solid with the correct geometrical terms (word cards). Use relevant
language to describe the relationship between the 2D shapes and 3D solids.
(iii) Using arrows, match or pair the shapes with the correct solids. The colour
clue for respective pairs of shape and solid will guide the children to pair
them up. Ask them to look at the similarities between them. Encourage
them to use the right vocabulary and language in their descriptions.
See Figure 9.4 (b).
Figure 9.4 (b): Matching activity: Match the correct surface area to the playing block
(iv) Match the shape and solids by colouring the correct pairs with the same
colour. See Figure 9.4 (c).
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Materials:
x
Names of 3D solids.
Procedure:
(i)
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(ii)
Naming of solids: Rearrange the letters (or spelling) to form the name.
Ask the children to rearrange the letters to form the names of the solids from
the flash cards. Each flash card bears a single solid and scrambled letters.
(See Figure 9.5).
Group given shapes and solids according to their similarities and differences.
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Materials:
x
Cut-outs of 2D shapes.
Procedure:
(a)
2D
Shapes
3D
Solids
Circular/Oval
Cylinders
Triangular
Prisms
Quadrilateral
Prisms
Polygonal
Prisms
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9.8
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Some teaching and learning activities for elementary geometry are discussed
here.
9.8.1
Skills related to the learning of elementary geometry generally extend from what
is learnt in pre-school and include the following:
(a)
Naming, labelling and using the correct vocabulary for describing each 3D
solid;
(b)
(c)
Ability to assemble and explain types of shapes used to build models and
relate models to solids in real life.
9.8.2
With respect to the learning of elementary geometry, three levels of the Van
Hiele model discussed earlier are emphasised:
(a)
(b)
(c)
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9.8.3
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9.8.4
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In general, activities for learning early geometry at the primary level are mostly
extensions of pre-school activities and are concentrated on achieving the
following learning outcomes:
(a)
(b)
Making skeletons and opaque solids from straw and play dough (coloured
plasticine);
(c)
(d)
Materials:
x
Chart; and
Procedure:
The following activities are suitable for group activities.
(i)
(ii)
Repeat the activity until all the solids have been identified and named.
TOPIC 9
(iii)
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Each group will be given a chart as shown in Table 9.4 and a set of picture
cards of various solids; pupils have to match and name the appropriate
solids accordingly.
Table 9.4: Set of 3D Models or Manipulative
Cube
Cuboid
Tetrahedron
Pyramid
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
At this level, children are guided to identify geometric figures through the
visualisation of 3D shapes.
(iv)
(b)
(c)
Materials:
x
Chart;
Worksheet.
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Procedure:
(i)
Visualisation
of shapes or
figures
Teacher
1.
2.
Introduce appropriate
vocabulary to describe the
properties of a cube.
3.
4.
5.
Pupils
1. Pick out a cube and other
similar solids out of the pile.
x same shape or size
x similar size
(bigger or smaller size)
TOPIC 9
(ii)
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Cube;
Cuboid;
Triangular Prism;
Quadrilateral Prism;
Pyramid; and
Tetrahedron.
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3 sides
3 edges
3 corners
3D
Solids
5 flat surfaces
6 vertices
Quadrilateral Prisms
4 sides
4 edges
4 corners
6 flat surfaces
8 corners or
vertices
Sets of 3 pairs
(surfaces)
12 edges
(iv)
Repeat the above step and compare different groups of solids such as e.g.
cubes with cuboids, pyramids with tetrahedrons, etc.
(v)
Build models and nets of solids (cuboids and cubes) from 2D shapes.
Materials:
x Blocks of solids/3D shapes (e.g. cubes, cuboids, pyramids, cones, cylinders,
tetrahedrons, prisms, spheres);
x
Cardboard;
A4 paper (multi-coloured);
Pencils; and
Worksheet.
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Procedure:
(a)
Trace the surfaces of the cuboid from the top and bottom to get two
similar faces.
Cut the traced shapes and slide the two pieces over one another to
check if they are congruent and similar. See Figure 9.8 (b).
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(ii)
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Trace the surfaces from the left and right sides of the cuboid.
Cut the traced shapes and slide the two pieces over one another to
check if they are congruent and similar. See Figure 9.8 (c).
Figure 9.8 (c): Left and right side views of the cuboid
(iii)
Trace the surfaces from the front and back elevation (looking from
the front and back/behind).
Cut the traced shapes and slide the two pieces over one another to see
if they are congruent and similar. See Figure 9.8 (d).
Step 3: Match and relate the traced surfaces for geometric reasoning
Figure 9.8 (e) shows how to trace the surfaces of the cuboid.
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Step 4: Attach the traced surfaces on to the cuboid/pencil box and make a
net of a cuboid
The cuboid/the pencil box has six surfaces (3 pairs of similar surfaces).
Refer to Figure 9.8 (f)).
(b)
Using the same procedure as in (a), produce nets of a cube like the ones
shown in Figure 9.9:
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Draw 3D solids with the help of essential tools like graph paper and GSP;
and
(b)
Materials:
x
Procedure:
(a)
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Figure 9.10: Examples of regular and irregular prisms drawn using the GSP
(b)
(b)
Make a summary of the properties for each skeleton of the 3D solids made.
Materials:
x
Drinking straws.
Procedure:
(i)
After the drawing of solids, a suitable follow-up activity will be the making
of skeletons of 3D shapes using drinking straws and play dough as
illustrated in Figure 9.11. All properties of solids (corners/vertices, edges
and flat surfaces) will be discussed here.
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(ii)
Ask pupils to name each of the skeletons of 3D solids and make a summary
of the properties for all the skeletons constructed.
(b)
(c)
Materials:
x
Procedure:
(i)
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(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Ask pupils to label and describe the parts of the solids constructed using
appropriate vocabulary, language, name and word cards such as cube,
cuboid, triangular prism, vertex, edge, face, etc.
In this topic, the theory and approaches of learning geometry are highlighted.
During the earlier part of the topic, discussion focused on the importance of
learning geometry and the use of geometric concepts to solve real life
problems.
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Examples of teaching and learning activities for geometry given in this topic
take into account the theory and childrens levels of thought, starting from
kindergarten or pre-school and extending to early primary school.
Apex
Polygon
Area
Polyhedron
Boundary
Prism
Capacity
Solid
Cone
Sphere
Corner
Symmetry
Cube
Tessellate
Cuboid
Tetrahedron
Cylinder
Edge
Vertex
Oval
Volume
List three levels of teaching geometry for early primary or pre-school and suggest
a suitable learning activity for each level.
Pupils learn the concept of geometry while playing with and building models
using the three dimensional solids. Think of a strategy to teach Euclidean
Geometry to young children through play.
TOPIC 9
APPENDIX
WORKSHEET
1.
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