Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

Incarceration in the United States

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Incarceration in the United States is a concurrent power under the

Constitution of the United States, which means that prisons are
operated under strict authority of both the federal and state
governments. Incarceration is one of the main forms of punishment
for the commission of felony offenses in the United States.

Less serious offenders, such as those convicted of misdemeanor

offenses, may receive a short term sentence to be served in a local
city or county jail, or to alternative forms of sanctions such as
community corrections (halfway house) or house arrest. Different
U.S. prisons operate at different levels of security, ranging from
minimum-security prisons—that mainly house non-violent
offenders—to Supermax facilities that house the more dangerous
criminals such as Oklahoma City bomber Terry Nichols and
September 11 conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui.
Over 7.2 million persons on probation or
parole or incarcerated in jail or prison at
yearend 2006. "About 3.2% of the U.S.
adult population, or 1 in every 31 adults,
were incarcerated or on probation or parole
at yearend 2006." [1][2]

The United States has the highest documented incarceration rate in

the world.[3][4] It also has the highest total documented prison
population in the world.[3][5][6]

According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics: "In 2008, over 7.3
million people were on probation, in jail or prison, or on parole at
yearend — 3.2% of all U.S. adult residents or 1 in every 31
adults."[7] 2.3 million of those were incarcerated in jails or prisons.[2]
In addition, according to a January 2009 OJJDP (Office of Juvenile
Number of inmates. 1920 to 2006.
Justice and Delinquency Prevention) report, there were 94,875 held
in juvenile facilities as of October 27, 2004.[8]

The People's Republic of China ranks second with 1.5 million, while having four times the population, thus
having only about 18% of the US incarceration rate.[9][10]

The federal government, states, counties, and many individual cities have facilities to confine people. Generally,
"prison" refers to facilities for holding convicted felons (offenders who commit crimes where the sentence is
more than one year). Individuals awaiting trial, being held pending citations for non-custodial offenses, and those
convicted of misdemeanors (crimes which carry a sentence of less than one year), are generally held in county
jails.

In most states, cities operate small jail facilities, sometimes simply referred to as "lock-ups", used only for very
short-term incarceration—can be held for up to 72 business hours or up to five days—until the prisoner comes
before a judge for the first time or receives a citation or summons before being released or transferred to a larger
jail. Some states have "unified" systems, in which all the jails and prisons are operated by the state. The federal
government also operates various "detention centers" in major urban areas or near federal courthouses to hold
criminal defendants appearing in federal court.

1 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

Many of the smaller county and city jails do not classify prisoners (that is, there is no separation by offense type
and other factors). While some of these small facilities operate as "close security" facilities, to prevent prisoner-
on-prisoner violence and increase overall security, others may put many prisoners into the same cells without
regard to their individual criminal histories. Other local jails are large and have many different security levels.
For example, one of the largest jails in the United States is Cook County Jail in Cook County (located in
Chicago). This facility has eleven different divisions, including one medical unit and two units for women
prisoners, with each of the eleven divisions operating at a different security level, ranging from dormitory-style
open housing to super-secure lock-down.

In the state of California, to prevent violence, prisoners are segregated by race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation
while held in county jails and in the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation's reception centers,
where newly committed prisoners are assessed prior to being transferred to their "mainline", long-term
institutions.

Contents
1 Duration
2 Security levels
3 Population
4 Comparison with other countries
5 Conditions
6 Privatization
7 Aging
8 Youth
9 Criticism
10 Cost
11 Recidivism
12 See also
13 Notes
14 External links

Duration
Main article: Criminal sentencing in the United States

A judge sentences a person convicted of a crime. The length of the prison term depends upon multiple factors
including the severity and type of the crime, state and/or federal sentencing guidelines, the convicted's criminal
record, and the personal discretion of the judge. These factors may be different in each state and in the federal
system as well. The vast majority of criminal convictions arise from plea bargains, in which an agreement is made
between prosecutors and defense counsel for the defendant to plead guilty to a lesser charge for a lesser sentence
than they would receive if found guilty at trial.

Some prisoners are given life sentences. In some states, a life sentence means life, without the possibility of
parole. In other states, people with life sentences are eligible for parole. In some cases the death penalty may be
applied.

Many legislatures continued to reduce discretion in both the sentencing process and the determination of when

2 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

the conditions of a sentence have been satisfied. Determinate sentencing, use of mandatory minimums, and
guidelines-based sentencing continue to remove the human element from sentencing, such as the prerogative of
the judge to consider the mitigating or extenuating circumstances of a crime to determine the appropriate length
of the incarceration. As the consequence of "three strikes laws," the increase in the duration of incarceration in
the last decade was most pronounced in the case of life prison sentences, which increased by 83% between 1992
and 2003.[11][12]

Security levels
Prisoners reside in different facilities that vary by security level, especially in security measures, administration
of inmates, type of housing, and weapons and tactics used by corrections officers. The federal government's
Bureau of Prisons uses a numbered scale from one to five to represent the security level. Level five is the most
secure, while level one is the least. State prison systems operate similar systems. California, for example,
classifies its facilities from Reception Center through Levels I through V (minimum to maximum security) to
specialized high security units (all considered Level V) including Security Housing Unit (SHU)—California's
version of supermax—and related units. As a general rule, county jails, detention centers, and reception centers,
where new commitments are first held either while awaiting trial or before being transferred to "mainline"
institutions to serve out their sentences, operate at a relatively high level of security, usually close security or
higher.

Supermax prison facilities provide the highest level of prison security. These units hold those considered the most
dangerous inmates. These include inmates who have committed assaults, murders, or other serious violations in
less secure facilities, and inmates known to be or accused of being prison gang members. Most states have either
a supermax section of a prison facility or an entire prison facility designated as a supermax. The United States
Federal Bureau of Prisons operates a number of supermax facilities across the country.

One Federal supermax is deserving of special note: ADX Florence, located in Florence, Colorado, also known as
the "Alcatraz of the Rockies", widely considered to be perhaps the most secure prison in the United States. ADX
Florence has a standard supermax section where assaultive, violent, and gang-related inmates are kept under
normal supermax conditions of 23 hour confinement and abridged amenities. ADX Florence is considered to be
of a security level above that of all other prisons in the United States, at least in the "ideological" ultramax part of
it, which features permanent 24 hour solitary confinement with rare human contacts or opportunity to earn better
conditions through good behavior.

In a maximum security prison or area, all prisoners have individual cells with sliding doors controlled from a
secure remote control station. Prisoners are allowed out of their cells one out of twenty four hours. When out of
their cells, prisoners remain in the cell block or an exterior cage. Movement out of the cell block or "pod" is
tightly restricted using restraints and escorts by correctional officers.

Under close security, prisoners usually have one or two person cells operated from a remote control station. Each
cell has its own toilet and sink. Inmates may leave their cells for work assignments or correctional programs and
otherwise may be allowed in a common area in the cellblock or an exercise yard. The fences are generally double
fences with watchtowers, housing armed guards, plus often a third, lethal-current electric fence in the middle.

Prisoners that fall into the medium security group may sleep in dormitories on bunk beds with lockers to store
their possessions. They may have communal showers, toilets and sinks. Dormitories are locked at night with one
or more correctional officers supervising. There is less supervision over the internal movements of prisoners. The
perimeter is generally double fenced and regularly patrolled.

Prisoners in minimum security facilities are considered to pose little physical risk to the public and are mainly

3 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

non-violent "white collar criminals". Minimum security prisoners live in less-secure dormitories, which are
regularly patrolled by correctional officers. As in medium security facilities, they have communal showers,
toilets, and sinks. A minimum-security facility generally has a single fence that is watched, but not patrolled, by
armed guards. At facilities in very remote and rural areas, there may be no fence at all. Prisoners may often work
on community projects, such as roadside litter cleanup with the state department of transportation or wilderness
conservation. Many minimum security facilities are small camps located in or near military bases, larger prisons
(outside the security perimeter) or other government institutions to provide a convenient supply of convict labor
to the institution. Many states allow persons in minimum-security facilities access to the internet.

Population
American prisons and jails held 2,304,115 inmates in 2008.[2] Approximately
one in every 18 men in the United States is behind bars or being monitored. A
significantly greater percentage of the American population is in some form of
correctional control even though crime rates have declined by about 25 percent
from 1988-2008.[13] 70% of prisoners in the United States are non-whites.[14]
In recent decades the U.S. has experienced a surge in its prison population,
quadrupling since 1980, partially as a result of mandated sentences that came
about during the "war on drugs." Violent crime and property crime have
declined since the early 1990s.[15]

As of 2004, the three states with the lowest ratio of imprisoned to civilian
population are Maine (148 per 100,000), Minnesota (171 per 100,000), and
Rhode Island (175 per 100,000). The three states with the highest ratio are
Louisiana (816 per 100,000), Texas (694 per 100,000), and Mississippi (669 per
100,000).[16]

Nearly one million of those incarcerated in state and federal prisons, as well as
local jails, are serving time for committing non-violent crimes.[17]

In 2002, 93.2% of prisoners were male. About 10.4% of all black males in the
United States between the ages of 25 and 29 were sentenced and in prison,
compared to 2.4% of Hispanic males and 1.3% of white males.[18]

In 2005, about 1 out of every 136 U.S. residents was incarcerated either in
prison or jail.[19] The total amount being 2,320,359, with 1,446,269 in state and
federal prisons and 747,529 in local jails.[20]

A 2005 report estimated that 27% of federal prison inmates are noncitizens,
convicted of crimes while in the country legally or illegally.[21] However,
federal prison inmates are only a 6 percent of the total incarcerated population; noncitizen populations in state
and local prisons are more difficult to establish. The World Prison Brief puts the total number of foreign
prisoners in all federal, state and local facilities at 5.9%.[3]

4 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

Comparison with
other countries
The United States has the highest
documented incarceration rate in
the world at 738 persons in
prison or jail per 100,000 (as of
2005).[20] A report released Feb.
28, 2008 indicates that more
than 1 in 100 adults in the United
States are in prison.[10] The
United States has 5% of the
world's population and 23.6% of
the world's prison population.[3]

By comparison in 2006, the

incarceration rate in England and
Wales was 148 persons
imprisoned per 100,000 Table 1 from Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005.[22] A U.S. Bureau of Justice
Statistics report. According to a January 2009 OJJDP (Office of Juvenile Justice and
residents; the rate for Norway
Delinquency Prevention) report there were 94,875 held in juvenile facilities as of
was 66 inmates per 100,000 and
October 27, 2004.[8] Add those to the total inmates.
the rate in New Zealand was 186
per 100,000.[3] In Australia in
2005, the rate was 126 prisoners per 100,000 residents.[3]

The incarceration rate in the People's Republic of China varies depending on sources and measures: in 2003, for
sentenced prisoners only, the rate was declared at 118 inmates per 100,000; [3] in 2008, an estimate for all forms
of imprisonment in China assessed the incarceration rate at 218 prisoners per 100,000 population.[23]

However, these figures are disputed. According to a 2004 Straight Dope column, US-based human rights activist
and ex-Chinese labor camp prisoner Harry Wu, claims that "16 to 20 million of his countrymen are incarcerated,
including common criminals, political prisoners, and people in involuntary job placements."[24] Ten million
prisoners would mean a rate of 793 prisoners per 100,000 citizens in the People's Republic of China. However, it
is not clear what this figure is based on.

As well, the incarceration rate does not equate with the punishment rate — many other countries may practice
corporal punishment or immediate capital punishment as an alternative to imprisonment.

Conditions
The non-governmental organization Human Rights Watch raised concerns with prisoner rape and medical care
for inmates.[25] In a survey of 1,788 male inmates in Midwestern prisons by Prison Journal, about 21% claimed
they had been coerced or pressured into sexual activity during their incarceration, and 7% claimed that they had
been raped in their current facility.[26]

In August 2003, a Harper's article by Wil S. Hylton estimated that "somewhere between 20 and 40% of
American prisoners are, at this very moment, infected with hepatitis C". Prisons may outsource medical care to

5 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

private companies such as Correctional Medical Services, which, according to Hylton's research, try to minimize
the amount of care given to prisoners in order to maximize profits.

Also identified as an issue within the prison system is gang violence, because many gang members retain their
gang identity and affiliations when imprisoned. Segregation of identified gang members from the general
population of inmates, with different gangs being housed in separate units often results in the imprisonment of
these gang members with their friends and criminal cohorts. Some feel this has the effect of turning prisons into
"institutions of higher criminal learning."[27]

Many prisons in the United States are overcrowded. For example, California's 33 prisons have a total capacity of
100,000, but they hold 170,000 inmates.[28] Many prisons in California and around the country are forced to turn
old gymnasiums and classrooms into huge bunkhouses for inmates. They do this by placing hundreds of bunk
beds next to one another, in these gyms, without any type of barriers to keep inmates separated. In California,
the inadequate security engendered by this situation, coupled with insufficient staffing levels, have led to
increased violence and a prison health system that causes one unnecessary death a week. This situation has led
the courts to order California to release of 27% of the current prison population, citing the Eighth Amendment's
prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment.[29] The three-judge court considering requests by the Plata v.
Schwarzenegger and Coleman v. Schwarzenegger courts found California's prisons have become criminogenic
as a result of overcrowding.[30]

In 2005, the Supreme Court of the United States case of Cutter v. Wilkinson established that prisons that
received federal funds could not deny prisoners accommodations necessary for religious practices.

Privatization
In recent years, there has been much debate over the privatization of prisons. The argument for privatization
stresses cost reduction, whereas the arguments against it focus on standards of care, and the question of whether
a market economy for prisons might not also lead to a market demand for prisoners (tougher sentencing for
cheap labor). While privatized prisons have only a short history, there is a long tradition of inmates in state and
federal-run prisons undertaking active employment in prison for low pay.

Some advantages of private prisons have been cited. These include flexibility, including the ability to terminate a
contract more easily and cost-effectively than it would be to close down a government prison and lay off civil
servants in the event of a decline in prison population. Private prisons also have an incentive to look for ways to
save on costs; for instance, Travis Snelling of the Corrections Corporation of America notes that his prisons are
designed to save on labor, which represents 70% of the total costs over the useful life of a prison. This is
particularly important given that posts must often be manned 24 hours a day, requiring more than five employees
to cover all the shifts. Snelling estimates: "If you can eliminate one post by your architectural design, just one,
that'll save you well over $100,000 in a given marketplace, as far as labor is concerned."[31]

The three leading corporations in the private prison business in the U.S. are the Corrections Corporation of
America, the GEO Group, and Cornell Companies.

Private companies which provide services to prisons combine in the American Correctional Association, which
advocates legislation favorable to the industry. Such private companies comprise what has been termed the
Prison-industrial complex.

Aging

6 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

The percentage of prisoners in federal and state prisons aged 55 and older increased by 33% from 2000 to 2005
while the prison population grew by only 8%. The Southern Legislative Conference found that in 16 southern
states the elderly prisoner population increased on average by 145% between 1997 and 2007. The growth in the
elderly population brought along higher health care costs, most notably seen in the 10% average increase in state
prison budgets from 2005 to 2006.

The SLC expects the percentage of elderly prisoners relative to the overall prison population to continue to rise.
Ronald Aday, a professor of aging studies at Middle Tennessee State University and author of Aging Prisoners:
Crisis in American Corrections, concurs. One out of six prisoners in California is serving a life sentence. Aday
predicts that by 2020 16% percent of those serving life sentences will be elderly.[32][33]

Inmates are unable to apply for Medicare and Medicaid. Housing one prisoner costs a state between $18,000 and
$31,000 annually, $33 per day for the average prisoner and $100 per day for an elderly prisoner. Most DOCs
report spending more than 10 percent of the annual budget on elderly care. State governments pay all of their
inmates' housing costs which significantly increase as prisoners age.[32][33]

Youth
Main article: Youth incarceration in the United States

Through the juvenile courts and the adult criminal justice system, the United States incarcerates more of its youth
than any other country in the world, a reflection of the larger trends in incarceration practices in the United
States. This has been a source of controversy for a number of reasons, including the overcrowding and violence
in youth detention facilities, the prosecution of youths as adults and the long term consequences of incarceration
on the individual's chances for success in adulthood.

Criticism
High rates of incarceration may be due to sentence length for crimes such as theft and drug possession.[34]
Repeat offenders may not be properly handled due to a lack of focus on rehabilitation. Shorter sentences may
even diminish the criminal culture by possibly reducing re-arrest rates for first-time convicts.[35]

Critics have lambasted the United States for incarcerating a large number of non-violent and victimless
offenders;[36][37] half of all persons incarcerated under state jurisdiction are for non-violent offenses, and 20%
(in State prisons, whereas Federal prison percentages are higher) are incarcerated for drug offenses.[38][39]
"Human Rights Watch believes the extraordinary rate of incarceration in the United States wreaks havoc on
individuals, families and communities, and saps the strength of the nation as a whole."[36] The population of
inmates housed in prisons and jails in the United States exceeds 2 million, with the per capita incarceration
population higher than that officially reported by any other country.[40] Because of its size and influence, the
U.S. prison industry may be referred to as the prison-industrial complex. Criminal justice policy in the United
States has also been criticized for a number of other reasons.[41]

Reporting at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association (August 3, 2008), Becky Pettit,
associate professor of sociology from the University of Washington and Bryan Sykes, a UW post-doctoral
researcher, reveal that the mammoth increase in the United States’ prison population since the 1970s is having
profound demographic consequences that affects 1 in 50 Americans. Drawing data from a variety of sources that
looked at prison and general populations, the researchers found that the boom in prison population is hiding
lowered rates of fertility and increased rates of involuntary migration to rural areas and morbidity that is marked

7 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

by a greater exposure to and risk of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV or AIDS.[42]

United States prisons operate like labor camps, according to a comprehensive University of Massachusetts study.
Operating like the labor camps of Communist China, prisons in at least two states, California and Oregon, are
doing "exactly what the U.S. has been lambasting China for", the report says. It discusses the similarities in the
two countries' prison labor systems. "You might just as well call this slave labor", the report continues, explaining
that U.S. prison work is not volunteer work since inmates get time deducted off their sentences for working in the
prison: "If prisoners don't work, they serve longer sentences, lose privileges, and risk solitary confinement." The
report concludes that there is no "real difference between China's forced labor and that in the U.S. prison
system."[43]

The United States prison system is being called "a new form of inhumane exploitation." Current penal labor in
the U.S. is said to have "its roots in slavery."[34]

Cost
According to December 2009 info online
from the United States Bureau of Justice
Statistics (BJS) $68,747,203,000 was spent
on corrections in 2006.[44] The BJS data
online as of December 2009 concerning the
average cost per state or federal prisoner:
"The average annual operating cost per
state inmate in 2001 was $22,650, or
$62.05 per day; among facilities operated
by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, it was
$22,632 per inmate, or $62.01 per day."
There is no BJS info on that page about the
average cost per jail inmate, nor about the
average cost per person on probation or
parole.[45]

U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics. To view the data: [44]

Recidivism
A 2002 study survey showed that among nearly 275,000 prisoners released in 1994, 67.5% were rearrested
within 3 years, and 51.8% were back in prison.[46] However, the study found no evidence that spending more
time in prison raises the recidivism rate, and found that those serving the longest time, 61 months or more, had a
significantly lower re-arrest rate (54.2%) than every other category of prisoner. This is most likely explained by
the older average age of those released with the longest sentences, and the study shows a strong negative
correlation between recidivism and age upon release.

See also
Crime in the United States
Law enforcement in the United States
Capital punishment in the United States
Federal Bureau of Prisons
United States Department of Justice

8 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Religion in the United States' prisons
United States incarceration rate
Inmate telephone system
Federal Prison Industries, Inc.
Kids for cash scandal
Prison Policy Initiative
November Coalition
Lists:
List of U.S. federal prisons
Prisons in California
List of countries by incarceration rate
Notes
1. ^ Probation and Parole in the United States, 2006
(http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/ppus06.pdf)
. By Lauren E. Glaze and Thomas P. Bonczar. U.S.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), U.S. Department
of Justice.
2. ^ a b c Correctional Population Trends Chart
(http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables
/corr2tab.cfm) . U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics
3. ^ a b c d e f g Walmsley, Roy (2009). "World Prison
Population List. 8th edition (http://nicic.org/Library
/022140) " (PDF). International Centre for Prison
Studies. School of Law, King's College London.
http://nicic.org/Library/022140.
4. ^ "New Incarceration Figures: Thirty-Three
Consecutive Years of Growth
(http://www.sentencingproject.org/Admin/Documents
/publications/inc_newfigures.pdf) " (PDF).
Sentencing Project. December 2006.
http://www.sentencingproject.org/Admin/Documents
/publications/inc_newfigures.pdf. Retrieved
2007-06-10.
5. ^ World Prison Brief - Highest to Lowest Figures
(http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/law/research
/icps/worldbrief/wpb_stats.php) . International Centre
for Prison Studies. School of Law, King's College
London.
6. ^ "Prison Brief for United States of America
(http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/rel/icps/worldbrief
/north_america_records.php?code=190) ". King's
College London, International Centre for Prison
Studies. 2006-06-21. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta
/rel/icps/worldbrief
/north_america_records.php?code=190. Retrieved
2007-10-19.
7. ^ "Total correctional population
(http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=11) ".
United States Bureau of Justice Statistics.
9 of 11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=11.
Retrieved 25 December 2009.
8. ^ a b Juvenile Residential Facility Census, 2004:
Selected Findings (http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/ojstatbb
/publications/StatBBAbstract.asp?BibID=244623) .
(NCJ 222721) January 2009. By Sarah Livsey,
Melissa Sickmund, and Anthony Sladky. OJJDP
(Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention).
9. ^ "New High In U.S. Prison Numbers"
(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content
/story/2008/02/28/ST2008022803016.html) . By
N.C. Aizenman. February 29, 2008. Washington
Post.
10. ^ a b One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008
(http://www.pewcenteronthestates.org/uploadedFiles
/One%20in%20100.pdf) . Released Feb. 28, 2008.
The Pew Center on the States.
11. ^ http://www.ncjrs.gov/app/publications
/Abstract.aspx?id=206147
12. ^ http://www.sentencingproject.org/pdfs/lifers.pdf
13. ^ New York Times, March 2, 2009, "Prison Spending
Outpaces All but Medicaid",
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/03/us/03prison.html
14. ^ State University of New York - Binghamton
(http://cpic.binghamton.edu/resisting.html)
15. ^ "US Department of Justice on War on drugs
(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance.htm) ".
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance.htm. Retrieved
2006-12-09.
16. ^ "Prisoners in 2004 (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov
/bjs/pub/pdf/p04.pdf) " (PDF). Bureau of Justice
Statistics. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub
/pdf/p04.pdf. Retrieved 2006-06-28.
17. ^ "America's One-Million Nonviolent Prisoners
(http://www.cjcj.org/pubs/one_million
/onemillionexec.html) ". Center on Juvenile and
01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Criminal Justice. http://www.cjcj.org
/pubs/one_million/onemillionexec.html. Retrieved
2006-06-13.
18. ^ "Prisoners in 2002 (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov
/bjs/pub/pdf/p02.pdf) " (PDF). Bureau of Justice
Statistics. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub
/pdf/p02.pdf. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
19. ^ Elizabeth White (22 May 2006). "1 in 136 U.S.
Residents Behind Bars
(http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06
/0522-03.htm) ". Associated Press.
http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06
/0522-03.htm.
20. ^ a b Paige M. Harrison and Allen J. Beck, Ph.D.
(November 2006). "Prisoners in 2005
(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/p05.pdf) "
(PDF). U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. pp. 13.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/p05.pdf.
21. ^ GAO-05-337R Information on Criminal Aliens
Incarcerated in Federal and State Prisons and Local
Jails (http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05337r.pdf)
22. ^ "Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005".
(http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&
iid=1007) United States Bureau of Justice Statistics.
23. ^ Jiang, Su. "Measuring Prison Population in China:
A Preliminary Observation"
(http://www.allacademic.com
/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/3/8
/8/0/p238803_index.html) Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the The Law and Society
Association, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 27 May
2008
24. ^ Adams, Cecil (2004-02-06). "Does the United
States lead the world in prison population?
(http://www.straightdope.com/columns/040206.html)
". The Straight Dope. http://www.straightdope.com
/columns/040206.html. Retrieved 2009-08-06.
25. ^ "Inhumane Prison Conditions Still Threaten Life,
Health of Alabama Inmates Living with HIV/AIDS,
According to Court Filings (http://hrw.org/english
/docs/2005/02/28/usdom10223.htm) ". Human Rights
Watch. http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/02/28
/usdom10223.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
26. ^ Cindy Struckman-Johnson & David Struckman-
Johnson (2000). "Sexual Coercion Rates in Seven
Midwestern Prisons for Men (http://www.spr.org
/pdf/struckman.pdf) " (PDF). The Prison Journal.
http://www.spr.org/pdf/struckman.pdf.
27. ^ "Gang and Security Threat Group Awareness
(http://www.dc.state.fl.us/pub/gangs/) ". Florida
Department of Corrections. http://www.dc.state.fl.us
/pub/gangs/. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
28. ^ Thompson, Don (2008-04-05). "Prison Attacks
Calling Attention to Overcrowding
10 of 11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States
(http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20080405
/news_1n5prisons.html) ". Associated Press.
http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20080405
/news_1n5prisons.html. Retrieved 2009-08-06.
29. ^ Moore, Solomon (2009-08-05). "California Prisons
Must Cut Inmate Population
(http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/us
/05calif.html?pagewanted=print) ". New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/us
/05calif.html?pagewanted=print. Retrieved
2009-08-06.
30. ^ Order for population reduction plan
(http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/general
/2009/08
/04/Opinion%20&%20Order%20FINAL.pdf) , pg. 9,
three-judge court convened by the Chief Judge of the
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
hearing Plata v. Schwarzenegger and Coleman v.
Schwarzenegger
31. ^ Crime Pays. 14. 60 Minutes. 25 November 1984.
32. ^ a b Aging inmates clogging nation's prisons
(http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-09-29-
aging-inmates_N.htm?csp=34) USA Today
33. ^ a b Aday, Ronald H. (2003). Aging Prisoners:
Crisis in American Corrections. Praeger. ISBN
0275971236.
34. ^ a b Pelaez, Vicky (2005-10-13). "The prison
industry in the United States: big business or a new
form of slavery? (http://www.granmai.cubasi.cu
/ingles/2005/octubre/juev13/42carceles.html) ". El
Diario-La Prensa, New York.
http://www.granmai.cubasi.cu/ingles/2005/octubre
/juev13/42carceles.html. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
35. ^ "The effect of prison on criminal behavior
(http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/res/cor
/sum/cprs199911-eng.aspx) ". Public Safety Canada.
November, 1999. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca
/res/cor/sum/cprs199911-eng.aspx. Retrieved
2009-08-28.
36. ^ a b Fellner, Jamie. "US Addiction to Incarceration
Puts 2.3 Million in Prison (http://hrw.org/english
/docs/2006/12/01/usdom14728.htm) ". Human Rights
Watch. http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/12/01
/usdom14728.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
37. ^ Abramsky, Sasha (January 22, 2002). Hard Time
Blues: How Politics Built a Prison Nation. Thomas
Dunne Books.
38. ^ "Prisoners in 2005 (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov
/bjs/pub/pdf/p05.pdf) " (PDF). United States
Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs.
November 2006. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub
/pdf/p05.pdf. Retrieved 2007-06-03.
39. ^ "America's One-Million Nonviolent Prisoners
(http://www.cjcj.org/pubs/one_million
/onemillionexec.html) ". Center on Juvenile and
01/02/10 1:34 PM
Incarceration in the United States - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States

Criminal Justice. http://www.cjcj.org August 3, 2008.

/pubs/one_million/onemillionexec.html. Retrieved
2007-06-03.
40. ^ "1 in 100 U.S. Adults Behind Bars, New Study
Says (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/28/us/28cnd-
prison.html?) ". The New York Times. February 28,
2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/28/us/28cnd-
prison.html?.
41. ^ Slevin, Peter (June 2006). "U.S. Prison Study
Faults System and the Public
(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content
/article/2006/06/07/AR2006060702050.html) ". The
Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com
/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06
/07/AR2006060702050.html.
42. ^ Bulging Prison System Called Massive Intervention
in American Family Life (http://newswise.com
/articles/view/543147/) Newswise, Retrieved on
43. ^ U.S. Hard labor camps (http://www-
unix.oit.umass.edu/kastor/private/prison-labor.html)
44. ^ a b "Table about trend expenditures on criminal
justice in the United States by function
(http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables
/exptyptab.cfm) ". U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables
/exptyptab.cfm. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
45. ^ "Expenditures/Employment
(http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=16) ".
U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=16.
Retrieved 29 December 2009.
46. ^ "Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 1994
(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/rpr94.htm) ".
Bureau of Justice Statistics.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/rpr94.htm.

External links
Women in Prison: How It Is With Us, by Assata Shakur (http://www.hiaw.org/defcon1/shakurwip.html)
Ken Silverstein - U.S.: America's Private Gulag (http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=867)
"Orleans Parish Prison before and after Katrina" (http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives
/2006/0306gerharzhong.html) from Dollars & Sense magazine
U.S. Incarceration Rate Timeline from 1925 (http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/y/ratesusa.htm) . Yearly totals
and rates. State rates for a recent year.
Table lists. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics. (http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/tost.html)
Table 6.13.2005 - Number and rate (per 100,000 U.S. residents) of persons in State and Federal prisons
and local jails, United States, 1985, 1990-2005. (http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/pdf/t6132005.pdf)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States"
Categories: Incarceration rates | Human rights in the United States | Penal system in the United States

This page was last modified on 1 January 2010 at 19:06.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may
apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Contact us

11 of 11 01/02/10 1:34 PM