TIGHT BINDING BOOK

03

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TO MY FRIEND

WALTER DALLENBACH

FROM THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO

THE FIRST GERMAN EDITION
importance of the standpoint afforded by the theory
groups for the discovery of the general laws of
quantum theory has of late become more and more

THE
of

Since I have for some years been deeply concerned

apparent.
with the theory of the representation of continuous groups, it
has seemed to me appropriate and important to give an account

knowledge won by mathematicians working in this

a form suitable to the requirements of quantum physics.

of the
in

additional impetus

is

to be

found

purely mathematical standpoint,

draw such sharp

distinctions

it

in
is

field

An

the fact that, from the

no longer justifiable to

between

finite

and continuous

groups in discussing the theory of their representations as has

been done in the existing texts on the subject. My desire to

show how the concepts arising in the theory of groups find their
application in physics by discussing certain of the more important
examples has necessitated the inclusion
foundations of

quantum

of a short

account of the

physics, for at the time the manuscript

was written there existed no treatment

of the subject to

which

could refer the reader.

In brief this book, if it fulfills its

to learn the essentials of the
the
reader
purpose, should enable
theory of groups and of quantum mechanics as well as the relaI

the mathematical
tionships existing between these two subjects
in
have
with
the
been
written
portions
mind, and vice
physicist
M
"
versa. I have particularly emphasized the
bereciprocity
tween the representations of the symmetric permutation group
;

and those of the complete

yet been unduly neglected
the fact that
structure of

it

follows

linear

group

this reciprocity has as

in the physical literature, in spite of

most naturally from the conceptual

quantum mechanics.
vii

THE THEORY OF GROUPS

viii

There exists, in my opinion, a plainly discernible parallelism

between the more recent developments of mathematics and
Occidental mathematics has in past centuries broken
physics.
away from the Greek view and followed a course which seems
to have originated in India and which has been transmitted,
with additions, to us by the Arabs
in it the concept of number
;

appears as logically prior to the concepts of geometry. The

result of this has been that we have applied this systematically

developed number concept to

all branches, irrespective of whether

most appropriate for these particular applications. But
the present trend in mathematics is clearly in the direction of a
return to the Greek standpoint
we now look upon each branch
of mathematics as determining its own characteristic domain
it

is

The

algebraist of the present day considers the

"
"
of real or complex numbers as merely one
field

of quantities.

continuum

among many
geometry

may

the recent axiomatic foundation of projective

be considered as the geometric counterpart of

newer mathematics, including the modern

"
abstract algebra," is clearly motivated
theory of groups and
"
a
from
different
that of
classical mathematics," which
by spirit
found its highest expression in the theory of functions of a
complex variable. The continuum of real numbers has retained
this

view.

This

ancient prerogative in physics for the expression of physical

measurements, but it can justly be maintained that the essence
its

of the

new Heisenberg-Schrodinger-Dirac quantum mechanics

to be found in the fact that there

is

is

associated with each physical

quantities, constituting a non-commutative

algebra in the technical mathematical sense, the elements of
which are the physical quantities themselves.

system

set

of

ZURICH, August, 1928

AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO

THE SECOND GERMAN EDITION

the academic year 1928-29

held a professorship

mathematical physics in Princeton University.

lectures which I gave there and in other American

The

in

DURING
tutions afforded

me

insti-

much

desired opportunity to present anew,

pedagogical standpoint, the connection

and from an improved

between groups and quanta. The experience thus obtained has
found its expression in this new edition, in which the subject
has been treated from a more thoroughly elementary standpoint.
Transcendental methods, which are in group theory based on
the calculus of group characteristics, have the advantage of
offering a rapid view of the subject as a whole, but true understanding of the relationships is to be obtained only by following
an explicit elementary development. I may mention in this
connection the derivation of the Clebsch-Gordan series, which is
of

fundamental importance

for the applications of

for the

whole

quantum theory

on the Jordan-Holder theorem and

of spectroscopy

and

to chemistry, the section

analogues, and above all

the careful investigation of the connection between the algebra
of symmetric transformations and the symmetric permutation
its

The reciprocity laws expressing this connection, which

were proved by transcendental methods in the first edition, as well
as the
group-theoretic problem arising from the existence of spin
have also been treated from the elementary standpoint. Indeed,
group.

the whole of Chapter

which was,

in

the opinion of

many

THE THEORY OF GROUPS

impossible to avoid presenting the principal part of the theory

first in Chapter III, where the repreof representations twice
sentations are taken as given and their properties examined,
and again in Chapter V, where the method of constructing the
;

representations of a given group and of deducing their properties

But I believe the reader will find this two-fold
developed.

is

treatment an advantage rather than a hindrance.

To come

to the changes in the

more physical

portions, in
Chapter IV the role of the group of virtual rotations of space
is more clearly presented.
But above all several sections have
been added which deal with the energy-momentum theorem of

the quantization of the wave equation

in accordance with the recent work of Heisenberg and Pauli.

quantum physics and with

This extension already leads so far away from the fundamental

purpose of the book that I felt forced to omit the formulation
of the

quantum laws

in

accordance with the general theory of

developed by V. Fock and myself, in spite of its

desirability for the deduction of the energy-momentum tensor.
The fundamental problem of the proton and the electron has
relativity, as

been discussed

in its relation to the

symmetry

properties of the

respect to the interchange of right and left,

and
At
and
future,
positive and negative electricity.
past
in
I
seems
fear that
sight
present no solution of the problem

quantum laws with

the clouds hanging over this part of the subject will roll together
I have intentionally
to form a new crisis in quantum physics.
presented the more difficult portions of these problems of spin

and second quantization in considerable detail, as they have

been for the most part either entirely ignored or but hastily
indicated in the large number of texts which have now appeared
on quantum mechanics.
"
"
is
It has been rumoured that the
gradually
grcTup pest
being cut out of quantum physics. This is certainly not true
in so far as the rotation and Lorentz groups are concerned
as for the permutation group, it does indeed seem possible to
;

avoid

it

with the aid of the Pauli exclusion principle.

theless the theory

must

Never-

retain the representations of the per-

mutation group as a natural tool in obtaining an understanding

of the relationships due to the introduction of spin, so long as
I have here followed the
its specific dynamic effect is-neglected.

PREFACE TO SECOND GERMAN EDITION

xi

trend of the times, as far as justifiable, in presenting the groupThe

theoretic portions in as elementary a form as possible.
calculations of perturbation theory are widely separated from
I have therefore restricted
these general considerations
myself
;

method

without either going into

the
details or mentioning
many applications which have been
based on the ingenious papers of Hartree, Slater, Dirac and
to indicating the

of attack

others.

The constants
of

action,

and

A,

the velocity of light and the

The

have caused some trouble.

insight

quantum
the

into

significance of these constants, obtained

by the theory of relatheory on the other, is

on the one hand and quantum

most forcibly expressed by the fact that they do not occur in
the laws of Nature in a thoroughly systematic development of
But physicists prefer to retain the usual c.g.s.
these theories.

tivity

principally because they are of the order of magnitude of

the physical quantities with which we deal in everyday life.
Only a wavering compromise is possible between these practical
units

I
and the ideal of the systematic theorist
initially adopt, with some regret, the current physical usage,
but in the course of Chapter IV the theorist gains the upper

considerations

hand.

An attempt

has been

made

to increase the clarity of the

exposition by numbering the formulae in accordance with the

sections to which they belong, by emphasizing the more im-

portant concepts by the use of boldface type on introducing

them, and by lists of operational symbols and of letters having
a fixed significance.

H.
GOTTINGEN, November, 1930

WEYL.

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
was

planned, and in part completed,

during the academic year 1928-29, when the translator
was acting as assistant to Professor Weyl in Princeton.
translation

first

THIS

Unforeseen delays prevented the completion of the manuscript

at that time, and as Professor Weyl decided shortly afterward
to

undertake the revision outlined

in the preface

above

it

seemed

desirable to follow the revised edition.

this

In the preparation of
has been followed as closely as

manuscript the German

any alterations would but detract from the elegant and logical treatment which characterizes
While an attempt has been made
Professor Weyl's works.
to follow the more usual English terminology in general, this

possible, in the conviction that

is limited by the fact that the fusion of branches of

which
have in the past been so widely separated as
knowledge
the theory of groups and quantum theory can be accomplished

programme

only by adapting the existing terminology of each to that of

the other
a minor difficulty of a similar nature is to be found
;

in the fact that the

in

Chapter

is

accomplished

in

"

"

"

"

and
algebras
a manner which makes it appear

development

of

fields

desirable to deviate from the accepted English terminology.

It is a pleasure to express my indebtedness to Professor Weyl

encouragement and assistance, to Professor R. E.

Winger of Union College for the assistance he has rendered in
correcting proof and in preparing the index, and to the publishers
for general

for their cooperation in adhering as closely as possible

original typography.

H. P.
PRINCETON, September, 1931

to the

ROBERTSON

CONTENTS

..........
...........
.........
......

PAGE

AUTHOR'S PREFACES

vii

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE

xiii

INTRODUCTION

xix

CHAPTER
I.

UNITARY GEOMETRY
The n-dimensional Vector Space
1

2.
3.

4.
5.

Linear Correspondences.

Matrix Calculus

The Dual Vector Space

Unitary Geometry and Hermitian Forms
Transformation to Principal Axes
.

6.

Infinitesimal Unitary Transformations

7.

Remarks on oo-dimensional Space

H. QUANTUM THEORY
1. Physical Foundations
2.

3.

4.
5.

The de Broglie Waves

of a Particle

Phenomena

The Conceptual Structure of Quantum Mechanics

The Dynamical Law. Transition Probabilities
Perturbation Theory

Motion of a Particle

in

an Electro-magnetic

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

11.

48
54
60

Field.

Zeeman

.....
.

TO

.no
113

.123

Schur's Lemma and Burnside's Theorem

Orthogonality Properties of Group Characters
xv
.

.116
.

98
102

Transformation Groups
Abstract Groups and their Realization
Sub-groups and Conjugate Classes
Representation of Groups by Linear Transformations
Formal Processes. Clebsch-Gordan Series
The Jordan-Holder Theorem and its Analogues
Unitary Representations
Rotation and Lorentz Groups
Character of a Representation
.

63
70
74
80
86
89
93

12.

3.

41

........
........
...
........

11.

2.

41

The Problem of Several Bodies. Product Space

Commutation Rules. Canonical Transformations

1.

.15
.21
27
.31

.....
.

Effect and Stark Effect

13. Atom in Interaction with Radiation
III.

tization

9.
10.

Schrodinger's Wave Equation. The Harmonic Oscillator

Spherical Harmonics
Electron in Spherically Symmetric Field. Directional Quan-

6. Collision
7.
8.

.....12

i
i

120
131

.136
.140
.150

152
157

THE THEORY OF GROUPS

xvi

PAGE
12.
13.

14.
15.
1

6.

Extension to Closed Continuous Groups

.160
The Algebra of a Group
165
Invariants and Covariants
.170
Remarks on Lie's Theory of Continuous Groups of Transformations
175
.180
Representation by Rotations of Ray Space

3.

4.

THEORY OF GROUPS TO QUANTUM MECHANICS

185

A. The Rotation Group

The Representation Induced in System Space by the Rotation

2.

.........
.

IV. APPLICATION OF THE

1.

Group

.........

185

Simple States and Term Analysis. Examples

.191
Selection and Intensity Rules
.197
The Spinning Electron, Multiplet Structure and Anomalous
Zeeman Effect
202
.

B. The Lorentz Group

6..

Relativistically Invariant Equations of Motion of an Electron

Energy and Momentum. Remarks on the Interchange of Past

7.
8.

Electron in Spherically Symmetric Field

Fine Structure
Selection Rules.

5.

and Future

9.
10.

C. The Permutation Group

Resonance between Equivalent Individuals
The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Structure

.218
.227
.232

........
.......
.......
..........
.

of

The Problem

12.

the Wave Equation

Quantization of the Maxwell-Dirac Field Equations

The Energy and Momentum Laws

of

Quantum

15.

V.

246
253

Physics.

Relativistic Invariance

14.

242

Bodies and the Quantization of

11.

13.

238

the

Periodic Table

of Several

210

D. Quantum Kinematics
Kinematics
as an Abelian Group of Rotations
Quantum
Derivation of the Wave Equation from the Commutation
Rules
.

264

272

277

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP AND THE ALGEBRA OF SYMMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS

A
1.

The Group induced

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

Symmetry

in

12.

.281

.281
286

Invariant Sub-spaces in Group Space

.291
Invariant Sub-spaces in Tensor Space
296
Fields and Algebras
.302
304
Representations of Algebras
Constructive Reduction of an Algebra into Simple Matric
309
Algebras
.

the

Theory and Physical Applications

The Characters

mutation and
11.

......
....
......

of the Symmetric Group

Degeneracy in Quantum Mechanics
9. Relation between the Characters of the

10.

Tensor Space and the Algebra of

Classes of Tensors

B. Extension of
8.

General Theory

Symmetric Transformations
2.

Amne Groups

and Equivalence
.

.....

Direct Product.
Sub-groups
Perturbation Theory for the Construction of Molecules

The Symmetry Problem

of

319

Symmetric Per

Quantum Theory

326
332
339
347

CONTENTS

xvii

C. Explicit Algebraic Construction

13.

Young's Symmetry Operators

......

.........
..........
.........
........
....
.........
...........

Linear Independence, Inequivalence and

Completeness
Group-theoretic Classification of Atomic
Spin and Valence.
Spectra
Determination of the Primitive Characters of u and IT

PAGE

358

14. Irreducibility,
15.
16.
17.
18.

Calculation of

APPENDIX
1.

2.

3.

Volume on

Branching Laws

PROOF OF AN INEQUALITY

A COMPOSITION PROPERTY OF GROUP CHARACTERS

A THEOREM CONCERNING NON- DEGENERATE ANTI-SYMMETRIC

LIST OF OPERATIONAL SYMBOLS

LIST OF LETTERS HAVING A FIXED SIGNIFICANCE

INDEX

369
377

386
390

393
395

BI-

LINEAR FORMS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

362

....

.............

397

399

409
410
413

INTRODUCTION
"^IIE quantum theory of atomic processes was proposed by
NIELS BOHR in the year 1913, and was based on the

p"

JL

atomic model proposed earlier by RUTHERFORD. The

deduction of the Balmer series for the line spectrum of hydrogen

Rydberg numbe~ from universal atomic constants

This theory gave
constituted its first convincing confirmation.

and

of the

us the key to the understanding of the regularities observed in

optical and X-ray spectra, and led to a deeper insight into the
structure of the periodic system of chemical elements.
The issue
"
of Naturwissenschaften, dedicated to BOHR and entitled
Die
ersten zehn Jahre der Theorie von NIELS Bohr iiber den Bau
"
der Atome
(Vol. 11, p. 535 (1923)), gives a short account of the
successes of the theory at its peak.
But about this time it began
to

become more and more apparent that the BOHR theory was

a compromise between the old "classical" physics and a new

quantum physics which has been in the process of development
since Planck's introduction of energy

BOHR
quanta in 1900.
"
Atomic Theory and

described the situation in an address on

Mechanics" (appearing in Nature, 116,

words: "From these results it seems

p.

845 (1925)) in the

to follow that,

in the

general problem of the quantum theory, one is faced not with

a modification of the mechanical and electrodynamical theories

describable in terms of the usual physical concepts, but with

an essential failure of the pictures in space and time on which
the description of natural

phenomena has
a new stage of

hitherto been based."

The rupture which led to

the theory was made
by HEISENBERG, who replaced Bohr's negative prophecy by a
positive guiding principle.
its

The foundations of the new quantum

more important theoretical aspects, are
xix

least

physics, or at
to be treated in this

THE THEORY OF GROUPS

xx

For supplementary references on the physical side,

which are urgently required, I name above all the fourth edition
"
of SOMMERFELD'S well-known "Atombau und Spektrallinien
"
Atomic
(Braunschweig, 1924), or the English translation

book.

"
(London, 1923) of the third
Spectral Lines
"
the
recent
Wellenmechanischer
with
edition, together
(1929)
"
"
"
Erganzungsband or its English translation Wave Mechanics

Structure and

An

(1930).

AND UREY,
which

equivalent original English book

"
Atoms, Molecules and Quanta

"

appears in the

by RICHTMEYER.

but valuable survey

theorie

sented in

is

RUARK

that of

(New York,

1930),

"

International Series in Physics," edited

should also recommend GERLACH'S short

"

Experimented Grundlagen der QuantenThe spectroscopic data, pre(Braunschweig, 1921).

the
new
accordance with
quantum theory, together

with complete references to the literature, are given in the

"
Struktur der Materie,"
following three volumes of the series

by BORN AND FRANCK

"
F. HUND,
Linienspektren und periodisches System der
Elemente" (1927);
"
Zeemaneffekt und MultiplettE. BACK AND A. LANDE,

edited

struktur der Spektrallinien" (1925);

W. GROTRIAN, " Graphische Darstellung der Spektren von

Atomen und lonen mit ein, zwei und drei Valenzelektronen "
(1928).

The spectroscopic aspects of the subject are also discussed

in PAULING AND GOUDSMIT'S recent "The Structure of Line
Spectra" (1930), which also appears in the "International
Series in Physics."

The development of quantum theory has only been made

possible by the enormous refinement of experimental technique,
which has given us an almost direct insight into atomic
the following little is said concerning the
experimental facts, it should not be attributed to the mathematical haughtiness of the author; to report on these things

processes.

If

lies

outside his

all,

my

field.

Allow

me

deep respect for the work

his fight to

who

in

wring significant facts

says so distinctly

our theories.

to express now, once

of the experimenter

"No"

from an

and so

and
and

for
for

inflexible Nature,

indistinctly

"Yes"

to

INTRODUCTION
Our generation

xxi

witness to a development of physical

knowledge such as has not been seen since the days of KEPLER,
GALILEO AND NEWTON, and mathematics has scarcely ever
is

Mathematical thought
experienced such a stormy epoch.
removes the spirit from its worMly haunts to solitude and
renounces the unveiling of the secrets of Nature.
But as
recompense, mathematics is less bound to the course of worldly
While the quantum theory can be traced
events than physics.

back only as

far as 1900, the origin of the theory of groups

a past scarcely accessible to history; the earliest
works of art show that the symmetry groups of plane figures
is

lost

in

were even then already known, although the theory of these

was only given definite form in the latter part of the eighteenth

and

in

the nineteenth centuries.

F.

KLEIN considered the

group concept as most characteristic of nineteenth century

mathematics.
Until the present, its most important application
to natural science

lay in the description of the symmetry of

crystals, but it has recently been recognized that group theory
is of fundamental
importance for quantum physics; it here
reveals the

essential

special form

of the

features which are not contingent on a

dynamical laws nor on special assumptions

just this part of

quantum

We may

well expect that it is

physics which is most certain of a

concerning the forces involved.

Two

groups, the group of rotations in 3- dimensional space and the permutation group, play here the principal
role, for the laws governing the possible electronic configurations
lasting place.

grouped about the stationary nucleus of an atom or an ion are

spherically symmetric with respect to the nucleus, and since the
various electrons of which the atom or ion is composed are
identical, these possible configurations are invariant under a
permutation of the individual electrons. The investigation of
groups first becomes a connected and complete theory in the
theory of the representation of groups by linear transformations,

and it is exactly this mathematically most important part

which is necessary for an adequate description of the quantum
mechanical relations.

All quantum numbers, with the exception

of the so-called principal quantum number, are indices characterizing representations of groups.

THE THEORY OF GROUPS

xxii

This book, which

consists

,and quanta,

is

to set forth the connection between groups

of

five

chapters.

concerned with unitary geometry.

It

is

The first
somewhat

of these

is

distressing

the theory of linear algebras must again and again be

developed from the beginning, for the fundamental concepts

that

branch of mathematics crop up everywhere in mathematics and physics, and a knowledge of them should be as

of this

widely disseminated as the elements of differential calculus.

In this chapter many details will be introduced with an eye
it is to be hoped that in
future use in the applications
spite of this the simple thread of the argument has remained
Chapter II is devoted to preparation on the
plainly visible.

to

physical side

only that has been given which seemed to

me

an understanding of the meaning and methods

A multitude of physical phenomena, which
of quantum theory.
have already been dealt with by quantum theory, have been

indispensable for

omitted.

III develops the

elementary portions of the

theory of representations of groups and Chapter IV applies them
Thus mathematics and physics alternate
to quantum physics.

Chapter

but in Chapter V the two are fused

completely the mathematical theory is

in the first four chapters,

together, showing how

adapted to the requirements of
the

quantum

permutation group and

its

physics.

In this last

chapter
representations, together
with the groups of linear transformations in an affine or unitary
space of an arbitary number of dimensions, will be subjected to
a thorough going study.

THE THEORY OF GROUPS AND

QUANTUM MECHANICS

CHAPTER

UNITARY GEOMETRY
1.

The

n-dimensional Vector Space

mathematical

field of

THE

operation of

quantum mechanics,

as well as of the theory of the representations of groups,

is the multi-dimensional affine or unitary
The
space.

axiomatic method of developing the geometry of such a space

is no doubt the most appropriate, but for the sake of clearness
I shall at first proceed along purely algebraic lines.
I begin
with the explanation that a vector j in the n-dimensional
linear space 9ft
9ft n is a set of n ordered numbers (x l9 x 2
,#,);
vector analysis is the calculus of such ordered sets. The two
fundamental operations of the vector calculus are the multiplication of a vector $ by a number a and the addition of two vectors j

and

On

t).

introducing the notation

these operations are defined

ax n ),

by the equations
j

+ =
1)

(x l

y l}

The fundamental rules governing these operations of multiplication by a number and addition are given in the following table
of axioms, in which small German letters denote arbitrary
vectors and small Latin letters arbitrary numbers
Addition.

(a)
1.

2.
3.

vector
C

+ b = b-fa (commutative law).

= a + (b + (associative law).
(a + b) + c
a and
being any two vectors^ there exists one and
// is called the difference
which
a + J =
I for

and a

c)

c.

(possibility of subtraction)*

only one
c
a of

UNITARY GEOMETRY
Multiplication.

(j8)

+ V)l = (aj) + (&?) t/^rf distributive law).

= (aft)j (associative law).
3. lj = j.
= (aj) +
(second distributive law}.
a(j +
The existence of a vector = (0, 0,
0) with the property
1.

(a

2.

a(fej)

4.

(at))

t))

need not be postulated separately as

it

follows from the axioms.

Affine vector geometry concerns itself entirely with concepts

which are defined in terms of the two fundamental operations

with which the axioms (a) and (j8) are concerned

we mention
a few of the most important. A number of vectors a ly d 2
dh
are said to be linearly independent if there exists between them
no homogeneous linear relation
;

=
except the

trivial

one with coefficients

c2

0,

0,

k such vectors are said to span an

space

9ft'

i<*i

&a 2

0.

h- dimensional (linear)

sub*

form

consisting of all vectors of the

I

ch

where the f's are arbitrary numbers.

fundamental theorem on homogeneous

>flh

It

l.l)

follows

from the

equations that
there exists a non-trivial homogeneous relation between any
I vectors of 9ft'.
The dimensionality h of 9ft' can therefore
h
be characterized independently of the basis every h
I vectors
in 9ft' are linearly dependent, but there exist in it h linearly
independent vectors. Any such system of h independent
vectors a lf a 2
d h in 9ft' can be used as a co-ordinate system
or basis in 9ft'
the coefficients g lt f 2
H i n the representation
',
are
then
said
to
be
the
of
(1.1)
components
j in the co-ordinate
linear

'

system

The

(a lf a 2

entire space

a A ).
9ft

is

e2

n-dimensional, and the vectors

(1,0,0,=(0, 1,0,-

define a co-ordinate system in

vector

it

in

-,0),)

-,0

which the components

of a

THE n-DIMENSIONAL VECTOR SPACE

agree with the

"

"

absolute components

the standpoint of affine geometry, however, the " absolute

"
co-ordinate system
(1.2) has no'preference over any other which
We now add to the
consists of n independent vectors of 91.
previous axioms, which did not concern themselves with the
dimensionality n, the following dimensionality axiom :

From

The maximum number of

(y)

linearly independent vectors in 91

is n.

These axioms

(a),

and

()8),

tion of vector calculus, for

if

for a

(y) suffice

e lf C 2

en

complete formulaany n independent

are

vectors and J is any other vector there must necessarily exist

a linear dependence

between them.

#1^1

~f~

#2^2 4"

Since not

all

'

~f"

#n^n ==

the coefficients

may

vanish we

have a 4= 0, and consequently any vector j

can be expressed as a linear combination

must

in particular

= *i*i + * e +

+ x n*n

2 2

(1.3)

"

"

fundamental vectors
c lf C 2
Cn
We specify j by
in
of
this
#
x
co-ordinate
n)
2
(#!,
components
system.
In accordance with axioms (a) and (j8) for addition and multiplication we then have for any two vectors (1.3) and t)

of the

the set

and we arrive at the definitions from which we started. The

only but important difference between the arithmetic and
the axiomatic treatment is that in the former the absolute coordinate system (1.2) is given the preference over any other,
whereas in the latter treatment no such distinction is made.
Given any system of vectors, all vectors J which are obtained,
as (1.1), by linear combinations of a finite number of vectors
the
f the system constitute a (linear) sub-space
<*2> *"!&&
<*!
"
"
a.
the
vectors
spanned by
sub-space
9t is said to be decomposed or reduced into two linear subcan be
9t'
9T) if an arbitrary vector
spaces 9T, 9T (91
a
of
vector
and
a
vector
of
as
the
sum
9T
j'
expressed uniquely
co-ordinate
in
a
and
of
A
co-ordinate
91'
9i".
system
system
j"
in 91" constitute together a co-ordinate system for the entire
"
"
to the
this co-ordinate system in 91 is
adapted
space 91
n"
dimensionof
the
n'
The
sum
91".
decomposition 91'
the dimensionality of 91.
alities of 91' and 9t" is equal to n

UNITARY GEOMETRY

4
Conversely,
in
ft

if

the sub-spaces 91', 9t" have no vector except

if the sum of their dimensionalities is n, then

common, and

ft'

9t'

+ 9T.

being an w'dimensional sub-space, two vectors j and

said to be congruent modulo 9T

(mod.

t)

t)

are

9i'),

their difference lies in 9t'.

Congruence satisfies the axioms
every vector is congruent
postulated of any relation of equality
if J = t)
if j = ty
to itself
(mod. 9T) then t> = j (mod. 91')
=
and
then
It is
ty
5 (mod.
91'),
j
5 (mod. 9T).
(mod. $')
therefore permissible to consider vectors which are congruent
mod. 91' as differing in no wise from one another by this abstraction, which we call projection with respect to 91', the
n-dimensional space 9t gives rise to an (n
n') -dimensional
a
for
from
is
vector
also
91
91.
space,
space
if

Ji

*)i

2,

^2 (mod. 9T)

follow the relations

1

)i

t)

(mod.

5R').

of multiplication by a number and addition can

be considered ones which operate directly on the
vectors J of 91. All vectors J of 9? which are congruent mod. 91'

The operations
therefore

same vector j of 91. If 91' is one-dimensional

spanned by e the above process is the familiar one of

give rise to the

and

is

parallel projection in the direction of e

give an (n

it is

not necessary to
which the

i)-dimensional sub-space of 91 on to

projection is made.
If a is a non-null vector, all vectors J which arise by multiplying a by a number are said to lie on the same r&y as a. Two
non-null vectors determine the same ray when, and only when,
In a given co-ordinate system
one is a multiple of the other.
*
an
the vector o is characterized by its components a lf
2
*>
an
whereas the ray a is characterized by their ratios a t a 2
these ratios have meaning only when the components of a- do
not all vanish, i.e. only when a =4= 0.
The transition from one co-ordinate system e t to another e/ is
accomplished by expressing the new co-ordinate vectors e/ in
terms of the old
"

LINEAR CORRESPONDENCES

x i9 Xi are the components of an arbitrary vector j in the old

and in the new co-ordinate systems, respectively, then
If

2><

e,

= 2>*V,
k

from which the law of transformation

'

The requirement

that the co-ordinate vectors e

also
be linearly independent is expressed arithmetically by the nonThe comvanishing of the determinant of the coefficients a ik
the
same
transformation
in 3ft undergo
ponents of vectors j, t),
on transition to the new co-ordinate system e/ and are said to
follows.

fc

transform cogrediently.

2.

Linear Correspondences.

Matrix Calculus

The formula

(1.4) can, however, be otherwise interpreted;

the expression of a linear or affine correspondence or
mapping of the space 9ft on itself. But for this purpose it
will be found more convenient to interchange the roles of the
accented and the unaccented co-ordinates. On employing a
definite co-ordinate system e,-, the equation
it is

*/

<***

(2.1)

*=i

associates with an arbitrary vector J with components x i a vector

This correspondence
j' with components #/.
J -> j' of 9ft on
itself can be characterized as linear by the two assertions
if

t) into
go over into j', t)', then ag goes over into ag' and g
Linear correspondences therefore leave all affine relaj'
ty'tions unaltered
hence their prominence in the theory of affine
In order to show that these two conditions fully
geometry.
determine the linear correspondence (2.1), consider the following
if a
correspondence A which satisfies these conditions sends the
fundamental vector e over into

j,

ty

fc

then, in consequence of the

E

goes over into

'

above requirements,

(2-2)

UNITARY GEOMETRY

On

substituting (2.2) in this equation we see that the new vector

has in the co-ordinate system e the components #/ obtained
from the components # t of by means of (2.1). It has become
customary in quantum physics to call the linear correspondences
of a vector space 9ft operators which operate on the arbitrary
vector of 9ft.
Let A, B be two linear correspondences, the first of which
over into
sends the arbitrary vector
A%, while the second
'
into j"
sends
Eg B(A$). The resultant correspondence
'

'

which

C,

by (BA)

directly into

carries
(to

be read

", is also linear

right to

from

and

is

denoted

left !}

(BA)i =
"

"

This

satisfies

multiplication

of multiplication of ordinary
sociative law

laws which are similar to those

in particular, the asnumbers
;

C(BA)
here valid,

is

AB

=(=

BA.

(CB}A

but the commutative law is not in general

"
"
1
in this domain, which we here denote by

The

the identity, i.e. that correspondence which associates every

->
vector with itself
Hence
1, is

Al
The correspondence

it is

i.e. if it

lA

A.

then and only then reversible in case

carries no non-vanishing vector into
non-degenerate,
the vector 0, or if distinct vectors are always carried over into
The algebraic condition for this is the nondistinct ones.
the
of
determinant \a ik
det A
there then exists
vanishing
is

the inverse correspondence A~*

AA~ = A- A
l

The

1.

multiplication theorem for determinants states that

det (BA)

det

det A.

"
"
two correspondences, we can
Not only can we
multiply
"
"
also
add
them. This concept of addition arises quite naturis sent over into
if the arbitrary vector
/ by A and-into
ally
which
sends
into / + 2' s
then
that
J 2 by 5,
correspondence
also linear and is denoted by A + B
:

'

(A

We may

also introduce multiplication

by an arbitrary number

aA that correspondence which sends into a(A$. Addition

and multiplication by a number obey the same laws as the

is

LINEAR CORRESPONDENCES

analogous operations on vectors. Addition is commutative,

and has as its inverse subtraction. The role of
is
played by
the correspondence
which transforms every vector j into the
vector 0. Addition obeys the distributive law with respect to
multiplication

(A

= AC +
(aA)C = a(AC)

B)C

BC,

C(A

= CA + CB,
= a(CA).

B)

C(aA)

Before proceeding to the arithmetical expression of these

operations in a given co-ordinate system, we consider another
natural generalization.
We can map an w-dimensional vector
this is accomspace 91 linearly on an n-dimensional space (3
plished when with each vector j of 91 a vector t) of (3 is associated
in such a way J -> t) that from y x -> ty l9 2 -* ty* it follows that
;

?i

Such a correspondence
the form

-->

->

*h-

expressed by equations of

is

t)

h+

n)

(2.3)

x m are the components of J in a given co-ordinate

where # lf
in
the
system
space 91 and y l9
y n have the corresponding
,

interpretation in @.
associated the matrix

With

this

correspondence

there

is

a 21
a nl a n2

a nr

with n rows and m columns, and which we also denote by

The first index indicates the row and the
the same letter A.
second the column to which a ki belongs. We can also add correspondences of the same space 91 on the same space @. Addition
and multiplication by a number is accomplished on matrices by

subjecting their n

^=
then

aA

=
||

components to these operations

and B=\\b k<
||a w
||,

if

\\

||

a ki

A+B=

\\

a ki

b ki

||.

we have a

third (p-dimensional) vector space 5C, the consec-> t) of 9t on

and
utive application of the correspondences
B t) ~> J of on 2 gives rise to the correspondence C
g -> 3
If

= BA

on 2. This composition
components by the law

of 5R

b l1ea ki

is

expressed

ls=l '*>'
2,

terms of matrix

in

''

Vt=l,

m)]

(24)'
(

has

p rows and

UNITARY GEOMETRY
n columns and A n rows and m

columns

the

has
possible when the first factor
the same number of columns as the second factor
has rows.
The component or element c u which is found at the intersection
of the /th row and the t th column, is formed in accordance with

composition of matrices

is

from the components in the /th row of B and the z th column

An important special case is that in which % is the same
as
A is then a correspondence of Sft on @, B of @ on 9t.
9t
space
here
Already
concepts of the theory of groups play an important
(2.4)

of A.

FIG.

i.

role
on beginning Chapter III, which deals with the
theory of
groups, the reader should return to the matter here discussed
;

as an illustration.

The matrix calculus allows us to express the formulae for

a linear correspondence, such as (2.3), in an abbreviated form.
We do this by denoting by # that matrix whose only column
consists of the vector components x l} x 2}
xm
similarly
for y.
In accordance with the rule
for
the
(2.4)
composition of
matrices, equations (2.3) can be written
,

Ax.

(2.5)

LINEAR CORRESPONDENCES

This form is particularly useful in examining the effect on the

matrix A of a linear correspondence of a space 9t on a space @
when the original co-ordinate systems are replaced by new ones.
If this change of co-ordinates is effected by the transformations

=
jk =
Xi

SiiXt

or

Sx' in

9t,

^y' n

H^khjh

r=:

then from

(2.5)

TV -

ASx'

or

FIG.

The same correspondence

in the

/-

(T' AS)x

f
.

2.

new

co-ordinates

is

therefore

expressed by the matrix

A'

9t

Let us now return

on to itself. If 91'

we say

that

T~ AS.
1

(2.6)

correspondence A of a space
a linear n'-dimensional sub-space of 9R*
invariant if it carries any vector of 9t',

to the linear
is

leaves 9t'

If the co-ordinate system is so chosen

3t'.
that the first n' fundamental vectors lie in 9t', the matrix of
a correspondence which leaves SR' invariant will assume the

over into a vector of

UNITARY GEOMETRY

10

form given by Fig. I. All elements in the rectangle of ri columns

A contains
n' rows denoted by zeros in Fig. I, vanish.
and n
a correspondence of 91' on to itself and at the same time a correspondence of the space 91, arising by projecting 91 with respect
The matrices of these correspondences conto 3t', on to itself.
If 91 is decomposed into 9^
sist in the shaded squares.
9t 2
if
the
leaves
n
an
d
A
both
subx
^2
correspondence
}>
(n
spaces 9^ and 9R 2 invariant, then A is completely reduced
into a correspondence of 9ft t on itself and a correspondence of
n to itself. If the co-ordinate system is adapted to the
9^2
decomposition 9t t + 9U, the matrix A is completely reduced into
two square matrices arranged along the principal diagonal as
in Fig. 2.
The unshaded rectangles are empty the elements

situated in these portions are all zero.

Let the n-dimensional linear space 91 be decomposed into
the dimensionality n a n is
9t 2 -f
*, 9Ra having
sub-spaces 9^
sum
n
n
then equal to the
2
Any vector j can then be
which
written uniquely as the sum of components $ l
2
~>
is
lie in the sub-spaces 9^, 9t 2
The association
a linear correspondence Ea of 91 on to 9ta.
Given a correspondence A j ~> j' of 9t on to itself, we consider that linear corre-

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

>

(XJajs which
component a

an arbitrary vector j of 9^ over

We call [A]^ the portion of
'.
A in which 9t<x intersects 9^. This terminology arises from the
on adapting the co-ordinate system
matrix representation of A
to the decomposition 9?i
the set of variables x it or
9^ +
rather their indices i which number the rows and columns of
the matrix, is broken up into segments of lengths w a (a
1, 2,
).
The matrix A is thereby divided into the single rectangles
th
th
set of columns,
[A]*p in which the a set of rows intersects the
and which consist of n a n elements.
If A is the matrix of a correspondence of 9? on to itself in
a given co-ordinate system, and A' its matrix in a co-ordinate
system obtained from the first by means of the reversible
transformation 5, then in accordance with (2.6)
carries

spondence
into the

'

in 9ta of

'

ft

A'

S~ 1 AS.

The search

(2.7)

for an invariantive characterization of correspondences

formulated
be
to find expressions which
may
algebraically
are so formed from the components of an arbitrary matrix that
they assume the same value for equivalent matrices, i.e. for
matrices A, A' between which a relation (2.7) exists.
The way
in which this can be accomplished is indicated by the related
which is transformed into
problem of finding a vector j 4=
:

LINEAR CORRESPONDENCES
f

11

multiple A of itself under the influence of A. The column %

the components of
must then satisfy the equation

he
Jut n

or

Ax,

A)x

(Al

0.

n unknowns have a
the
their determinant vanishes

linear

in

homogeneous equations

on-vanishing solution only if

"
characteristic
A is therefore necessarily a root of the
;

lultiplier

polynomial

/(A)

rom

This polynomial
(2.7) or

SA'

A)

is

an invariant

it

follows that

= AS

5(A1

det (Al

A')

(Al

(2.8)

above

in the

sense, for

A)S,

whence by the theorem concerning the multiplication of deterninants

det
Since the
ranish,

det (Al

A'}

det (Al

det S.

A)

determinant of the reversible transformation

we can

divide

by

|A1-

s |A1-

A'\

The characteristic polynomial

/(A)

^|.

of degree

is

- ^A"- +
1

5 cannot

and obtain the required identity

it

'

'

in A

'

sn

vhose coefficients, certain integral functions of the elements

"
sn
The " norm
i
ik} are invariants of the correspondence A.
s merely the determinant of A.
The first coefficient s^ the

of

au

a 22

more importance,

as

it

Sl

tv(A l

'

'

a nn

trA

(2.9)

depends linearly on the a ik

+A =
2)

trA l

trA 2

If A is a linear correspondence of the m-dimensional vector

;pace SR on the ^-dimensional space @, and 5 is conversely a
linear correspondence of (3 on 9ft, then we can build the corre-

spondences BA of 9ft on to itself and AB of

two correspondences have the same trace

tr(BA)
'or,

in

on to

itself.

tr(AB)

(2.10)

accordance with the rule of composition

we have

(2.4)

definition (2,9)

tr(BA)

= Sb
i,

lk

a ki

tr(AB)

These

a u b lk
i,

and the

UNITARY GEOMETRY
where i runs from 1 to m and k from 1 to n.
in which A and B are both correspondences
12

The
of 9t

special case
on to itself

naturally deserves particular consideration.

3.

The Dual Vector Space

function L(j) of the arbitrary vector

'

is

'

<*

form

of the
nX n

(3.1)

This concept is invariant in the sense of

can be defined by means of the functional

called a linear form.

affine

geometry

properties

L(J)

it

Lfe

Lfe),

It is obvious that the expression (3.1) has these properties, and

conversely, on introducing a co-ordinate system e t and setting
27^6*, it follows that
j
-

On

going over to another co-ordinate system such that the

#, of an arbitrary vector
undergo the transforma-

components

tion (1.4), the linear

form becomes

the coefficients a/ of which are related to the original a t by the

equations
JLX-* a t
a*'

-.

The coefficients a,- 0/ a linear form

grediently to the variables x
{

are said

to

transform contra*

however, not necessary to consider the a t as constants

When the a, do not all vanish the equavariables.
"
n
defines a
an (n
tion L(j)
i.e.
plane,
l)-dimensional
a
in
vector
lies
if
the
its components satisfy
sub-space
plane
this equation.
But on the other hand we can ask for the equation
of all planes which pass through a given non-vanishing vector
Q
the Xi
It is there%i SLYG then constants and the o^ variables.
fore most appropriate to consider the two sets (x lt x 2
# n ),
It is,

and the x i as

=
;

'

(i,

'

<*2,

',

n)

in parallel.

We

therefore introduce in addition to the space 3t a second

n-dimensional vector space, the dual space P. From the comof P and a vector
ponents (f lf 2
^) of a vector
of 91 we can construct the inner or scalar product
x it X 2>
"> ^)
(
'

>

'

>

"

fi *!

+ &* +

&*,.

(3.2)

THE DUAL VECTOR SPACE

13

This product has, by definition, an invariantive significance, for

when 9t is referred to a new co-ordinate system by means of
a transformation of the x t the variables f< of the dual space P
undergo the contragredient transformation. This dual space is
in fact introduced in order to enable us to associate a contragredient transformation with each one-to-one transformation.
To repeat, two linear reversible transformations

Ax',

= Af

are contragredient with respect to each other

unaltered

(3.3)
if

they leave

(3.2)

vector J of 91 and a vector

of P are said to be in involution
A ray in 91 determines a
their product (3.2) vanishes.
in
the
of
the vectors which are in
i.e.
P,
plane consisting
plane
involution with the given ray, and conversely.
Duality is
a reciprocal relationship.!
The dual or transposed matrix A* of a matrix A
\\a ki
is
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.
is therefore defined by a*k
A*
a ki} and has
rows
||tf*J|

when

and n columns.

We

dicate this process.

shall

\\

always employ the asterisk to

And what

in-

is its

geometrical interpretation ?
Let 91 be an m-dimensional, (3 an n-dimensional, vector space
A -> t) a linear correspondence of 91 on (3, specified in terms
of given co-ordinate systems in 91 and
by the matrix A
;

and

let P,

be the dual spaces.

The product

k,\

where 77 is an arbitrary vector of 27 with components rj has then

an invariantive significance. A bilinear form which depends
linearly on a vector 77 of 2 and a vector j of 9? is therefore invariantively associated with a linear correspondence of 9t on @,
and conversely. This gives rise, as the expression of the bilinear form given in parentheses shows, to a correspondence
fc ,

2 on P, i.e. the dual A* of A. The reciprocal relation existing

between the correspondence A and its dual A* may be expressed

of

In the theory of relativity

variant

and

it is

usual to call vectors in

covariant vectors, respectively.

9ft

and P

contra-

UNITARY GEOMETRY

14

an arbitrary vector in 9t and 77 is an arbitrary

vector in 27, then the product of the vectors A$ and 77 is equal
The dual correspondences obey
to the product of j and A*r).
the linear laws
as follows

if

J is

+A

(A,
If

2 )*

- AS + Af

A is a correspondence of
on 2, then since

91

on

(BA)*

(aAY ^a-A*.
and

a correspondence of

^4*5*

(3.5)

ZL4 maps 9? linearly on SE, and /!** maps the dual space T
Z on the dual P of 9t.
We have agreed once and for all to consider the set
the
x n f components of a vector j as a column
x i> X 2>
*i
inner product of the vector j in 9i with the vector f in P can
*x or #*. The
therefore be written in matrix notation as
transformations (3.3), from the first of which it follows that
x*
x'*A*, are consequently contragredient to one another if
of

'

^*A

or

(A*)~

(3.6)

and we have arrived at an explicit expression for the contragredient transformation.

Let Sfl' be an n'-dimensional sub-space of 31
All
9R n
vectors of P which are in involution with the totality of vectors
of 9T obviously constitute, in consequence of the simplest
.

theorems on linear homogeneous equations, an (n

tt')-dimenAnd from this we are led immediately
sional sub-space P' of P.
to the result that if a correspondence A of $1 on itself leaves the
sub-space 9T invariant, then the dual correspondence A* of P on
-

itself leaves the associated

9fti

Let

9ft

9ft 2

be
*

sub-space P' invariant.

decomposed

into

of dimensionalities

two or
n l9 n 2

more

sub-spaces

and

let

the.

sub-space of P which consists of all vectors in involution with

all vectors of 9R 2
'be denoted by P ly the dimension9t 3

n v Defining P 2 P 3 analogously, we arrive

for the sum of a
decomposition P = P l + P 2 +
vector of P a vector of P 2 etc., can only be, zero when each
ality of
at the

which

is

also

summands vanishes. In order to prove

we note that if the sum is
then the
summand belongs to P l as well as to P 2 + P 3 +
i.e.

of the individual

this

latter statement,

first

*>

in involution

with

it is

the vectors of 9R 2
as well as
9t 3
with all those of 9^, and is therefore in involution with all the
vectors of 9t.
But this is only possible if this first, and therefore
P l can be considered as the space dual
any, summand is zero.
to Sflj, for if g is an arbitrary vector in 9^ and TJ a vector in P
all

UNITARY GEOMETRY AND HERMITIAN FORMS

15

in the various P a then the

ij
product of
(I)
to
the
product of j and TJ
j and 77 is equal
of 91 on itself leaves the n'-dimensional
If a correspondence

with components

(flp)

ri] -dimensional sub-space

sub-space 9T invariant, then the (n
P' is invariant under the dual correspondence A* of P on itself.
an d if A leaves each
SR 2
If 3t is decomposed into 9fti
of the sub-spaces 3t a invariant, then A* leaves each of the sub-

If A is any correspondence in 9R and

spaces P a invariant.
[A] a p
that portion in which 3R* intersects 9ft0, then the portion [A*]
of A* in which P^ intersects P a is dual to [A\^

ft(X

[^*]*=MV

(3.7)

[A] a ft maps 810 on 9R and [A*]^ maps the dual space P a on P^.
All these results are conceptually evident, but can be seen

even more readily directly from the matrices on adapting the

9t 2
co-ordinate system to the decomposition 3^

4.

Unitary Geometry and Hermitian Forms

The metric is introduced into affine geometry by means of

new fundamental concept the absolute magnitude of a vector.
In Euclidean geometry the sum of the squares

S
of the

its

+*

+ *, +
=
vector

*!

of a
absolute value.

components

the square of

(x l9

x2

(4.1)

x n)

is

taken as

The only co-ordinate systems

which are then equally permissible are the Cartesian systems,

is given by (4.1)
in which the square of the absolute value of
the range of values which the
in terms of the components #
components may here assume is taken as the continuum of all
But the content of the preceding paragraphs
real numbers.
t

the only requirement is, in fact,

not bound to this choice
"
"
in
that the range of permissible values constitute a
field
which the four fundamental operations (excluding division by
We shall hereafter consider the conzero) can be performed.
tinuum of all complex numbers as the range of values which our

is

components may assume. The expression (4.1) loses its definite

the sum of the squares can vanish
character in this domain
without implying that each term is zero.
It is therefore desirable
"
to replace the quadratic form (4.1) by the
unit Hermitian
;

form

"

'

'

*n*n

(4/2)

where x denotes the complex conjugate of a number x. The

value j 2 of (4.2) will be taken as the square of the absolute

UNITARY GEOMETRY

16

of the vector

magnitude
ing bilinear

jc

(x lt

x2

x n ) and the correspond-

form

the two vectors j and t)

is said to be normal
A
co-ordinate
%
system
yn)
y2>
(yii
when the square of the absolute magnitude of a vector j is
expressed in terms of its components x i in this co-ordinate
In a normal co-ordinate system e, these
system by (4.2).
scalar products
are
the
components

as

the scalar
*

product

(jt))

of

(e*).

(4.3)

The transformations which lead from one normal co-ordinate

system to another such, which therefore leave the form (4.2)
invariant, are called

unitary transformations.^
The conditions which characterize unitary transformations

are entirely analogous to those for orthogonal transformations,

with which we are familiar from the elements of analytic geoSx' be such a transformation
under the
metry. Let x
influence of 5 the fundamental metric form (4.2) goes over into

the
1
x'*S*Sx'. S is therefore unitary if and only if S*S
follows immediately from this.
fact that det 5 4=
Indeed,
since a matrix 5 and its transposed S* have the same determinant, it follows that the determinant of a unitary transformation
1.
Those conditions may
has the absolute value 1 jdet S| 2
;

is

the matrix S~

but also 55*

be expressed by the assertion that S*

to 5, and therefore not only S*S

reciprocal
--=

1.

The

of these equations states that the sum of the squares of

the absolute values of the elements of a column is 1 and that

first

the

sum

of the

mixed products 2s ri s rk

of

two

different

the second equation contains the

4= k) is
for the elements of the rows.
(i

same

columns
assertion

We

carry over the terminology usual in Euclidean geometry.

In particular, the vector t) is said to be perpendicular to j if
In virtue of the symmetry law
the scalar product (jty) vanishes.

(%)

(*T)

There exists no
perpendicularity is a reciprocal relationship.
all
to
which
vectors
vector a, except a
are
0,
perpendicular
is the only vector which is perpendicular to itself.
in fact, a
Normal co-ordinate systems can be characterized by the fact

t The name "orthogonal" has been used in the physical literature to

denote these transformations, but in mathematics it is necessary to have

different

names

for these

two

different concepts.

UNITARY GEOMETRY AND HERMITIAN FORMS

them the

that for
e<

among

17

scalar products of the fundamental vectors

themselves are

On comparing

the fundamental metric form (4.2) with

(3.2)
the
is seen that
unitary space 9t can be characterized by the
fact that its conjugate complex 91 coincides with its dual P, or
it

more

precisely, that the conjugate complex

same time be considered as its dual.

of a vector j

can
found that with
a correspondence A of an m-dimensional unitary space 91 on
an n-dimensional
is associated in an invariant manner the
of
A*
the dual space S on the dual P,
As a
correspondence
at the

We

= SR for unitary spaces

A* - A

consequence of the equation P

is

a correspondence of

conjugate of A."

AA

of

on

itself.

AA
A

on
is

9?
a,

we

call

the

it

correspondence of

"

Hermltian
JR

on

itself,

correspondence (5 which carries the

is
unitary if it leaves the

general vector j over into j'

5j
absolute magnitude of j unaltered

tions consisting of vectors, either of

j'*

Two

configura-

which can be obtained from

the other by a unitary transformation, are congruent in unitary

i.e. unitary geometry is the theory of those relationgeometry
which
are invariant under an arbitrary unitary transformaships
The characteristic property of such transformations is
tion.
expressed in terms of the matrix calculus by either of the two
;

equations

55-1, 55-1.
Let 91' be an m-dimensional linear sub-space spanned by
We consider
Qm
the linearly independent vectors a,, a t
a vector J as belonging to the sub-space 91" if and only if it is
such a vector
perpendicular to 9t', i.e. to all the vectors of 9T
the
must therefore satisfy
equations
.

these it follows that 91" is (n

m)-dimensional. The
a
is
and
relation between 91'
91"
every vector
reciprocal one
and
of
vector
9T
to
of 91" is perpendicular
conversely.
every
9T. for if the sum j'
We then have 91 9t'
j" of a vector
in 9T vanishes then j'
j" is a
j' in SR' and a vector j"

From

vector which belongs to

both sub-spaces and

is

- -

consequently

UNITARY GEOMETRY

18

A
0.
perpendicular to itself, and this can only occur if j'
which
invariant
will
also
leave
leaves
9ft'
unitary correspondence
9ft" invariant since the relation of perpendicularity will not be
In dealing with unitary
destroyed by such a transformation.
correspondences or transformations it is therefore always possible
find an invariant sub-space 9ft" associated with a given invariant
8T +Dft". The previous remarks
sub-space 9ft', such that 9ft
about projection suggest that here in the unitary geometry we
identify the space generated by projecting 9ft with respect to
we project on to the space 91" per9ft' with the sub-space 9ft"
pendicular to 9ft'. To this end we remark that among all vectors
in 9ft which are congruent mod. 9ft' there is one (a) which lies
to

in

9ft"

we then have

(a-a)

With an

(a

(a),

+ b) =

(a)

arbitrary linear correspondence

*)-+*)'

= 2>y*

y/

At):

(b).

(4.4)

of

9ft

on

we have

itself is, as

seen, associated a bilinear

form

ik

which depends linearly on a vector

in P and a vector
In unitary space we can therefore associate the form

t)

in

9ft.

ik

depending linearly on
ence

(4.4).

It is in

special case in

t(
(y t-) and j
(#<), with the correspondfact the scalar product of
and At). The

which

A=A

or

A(\), j)

Afa,

t))

or

a ki

a ik

(4.5)

bears the name of the French mathematician Hermite. The

correspondence (4.4) is consequently Hermit/an if the scalar
product of J with A ty is the conjugate complex of the scalar
we obtain the
product of t) with" A J. On identifying t) with
"
Hermitian form
A(l}

= A(i,i} = Sa

ik

x i cc k}

(4.6)

in consequence of (4.5) its

the scalar product of j and A%
value is real. An Hermitian form or correspondence A is said
to be non- degenerate if there exists no vector J, except J
0,
whose transform A% vanishes
It is positive definite if the value
of the form A fa)
for all vectors j 4=
a positive definite
i.e.

>

form

is

non-degenerate.
The fundamental metric form

(4.2)

is

one such positive

UNITARY GEOMETRY AND HERMITIAN FORMS

definite Hermitian form, the
which consist of the numbers

"

19

unit form/' the coefficients of

* Kf

(i

On

1, 2,
introducing an arbitrary co-ordinate system a (i
n)
into the n-dimensional space, the absolute magnitude of an
arbitrary vector
t

I
is

Xl

<*1

*2

<*2

'

'

given by

Z^-S&fcX,**,

The expression
form

for j

conversely,

is

'

g, fc

<*n

(a,a t ).

accordingly always a definite Hermitian

any positive

Hermitian form

definite

G(jr)

could be taken as the fundamental metric form. To show this

we employ the associated Hermitian bilinear form G(j, ty) to
carry through the following procedure, which is patterned after
the step-by-step construction of a Cartesian co-ordinate system.
since G(t^) >
we may,
Choose any non-vanishing vector t l
on multiplying e x by an appropriate numerical factor, normalize
1.
When the process
it in accordance with the equation G(ti)
of constructing a system of unitary-orthogonal vectors e l
;

G(e,, e*)

m the next
has been carried through m steps, i
i, 2,
is accomplished by choosing a solution j
e m+1 of the
step
for the n
m < n homogeneous linear equations G(e,-, j)
and normalizing it
unknown components of the vector J 4=
1.
The procedure
in accordance with the equation G(c m+1 )
we then have n vectors
comes to an end after n steps
e n of such a kind that
e i> e 2>
,

'

'

G(,
where

J)

f i^i

^2^2

^ ^1^1 + x*e +
2

'

'

^n

en.

#n

follows from the equations themselves that

can only vanish
all of its components x t vanish, and consequently the e<
are linearly independent and constitute a co-ordinate system
It

when
in K.

The

from

affine to metric geometry can accordingly

be accomplished by the introduction of the axiom
is a real
(S) The square of the absolute magnitude of a vector
number j 2 which is a positive definite Hermitian form in the

transition

components of$.
These last considerations are useful in another connection.
If 91' is a linear sub-space of 9i we can employ the construction

20
used above to find

and are mutually

UNITARY GEOMETRY
m vectors t C
e,n in
lt

2,

9ft'

which span

unitary-orthogonal in the sense of the

9ft'

equations

continuing the construction we can supplement

vectors by n
additional ones
Cfi so that the two sets together form a co-ordinate
Cm+i>
system for the entire space 9ft. We can therefore adapt our
normal co-ordinate system to the separation of 9ft' out of 9ft or
to the decomposition of 9ft
9ft'
9ft" into two perpendicular
(e,e*)

S,fc.

these

'

By

fundamental

'

>

sub-spaces.
of 9ft on to itself is invariantively
Since the correspondence
connected with the Hermitian form A in 9ft, we may speak of

the product BA of two Hermitian forms A,

product is not in general Hermitian as

BA = AB =
The
The

in

but this

9ft,

AB.

trace of an Hermitian form or correspondence

real.

is

positive definite expression

tr(AA)

Z\a ik
t,

(4.7)

\*

When 9ft is decomposed into

importance.
the section
1, 2,
mutually perpendicular sub-spaces 9ft a (a
)
in
or
which
form
A
intersects
the
of
9fta
correspondence
Aaip
9ftp
it is a correspondence of
on 9fta,
is uniquely determined
9ft0
and A$j the jSa-section of A, is a correspondence of 9fta on 9ft^.
When the co-ordinate system is adapted to the decomposition
is

of

particular

of

9ft

we have
tr

where

in the

(AafiAp)

sum

tr

(A B *Aa

ft )

Z\a ik

(4.8)

\*

runs through the a th k through the

,

th
j8

set

of indices.

non-vanishing vector a determines a ray a which consists

form Aa, A being an arbitrary complex number.
The generating vector a can be so normalized that its absolute
this does not, however, determine a to within
I
value a
a change of sign, as in the real domain, as the normalization is
unaltered on multiplying a by an arbitrary (complex) number e

Any

of all vectors of the

modulus 1. We shall call the totality of vectors

vector field 9ft and the totality of rays the ray field

of

of
9ft.

9ft

the

Any

non-degenerate linear correspondence A of the vector field 91

on itself is at the same time a correspondence of the ray field
on itself, but this latter correspondence is unaltered by
9ft
A unitary
multiplication with any non-vanishing number.
correspondence or transformation of the ray field on itself will

TRANSFORMATION TO PRINCIPAL AXES

21

S we
the symbol S'
lall mean that the two transformations 5, S' of the vector
eld on itself differ only by a numerical factor e of modulus 1
'
sS, whence they both give rise to the same rotation of
briefly referred to as a rotation.

By

le

field.

ray

5.

Transformation to Principal Axes

The fundamental theorem on Hermitian forms

is that conthe transformation to principal axes.

We are here
)ncerned with the analogue of the familiar problem of finding
ic principal axes of an ellipse or ellipsoid in the ordinary
sometry of two or three dimensions. We wish to find a normal
j-ordinate system e, associated with a Hermitian form A(%) such
\al in addition to

>rning

I
2

J
e also

= *i*i -f
= Xi*i +

z 2* 2

x nx n

(5.1)

have

a nx n* n

(5.2)

is, A shall be brought into the normal form (5.2) by means

The real numbers a^ a 2
an
a unitary transformation.
re called the characteristic numbers of the form A, and
c n the corresponding characteristic vectors.
e2
To this end we first consider the correspondence j > j'
A%
which are transformed into
id seek those vectors j =4=
We then obtain the
Aj of themselves by A.
mltiples j'
"
secular equation

iat
[

/(A)

det (Al

A)

According to the fundamental theorem of

oc t
corresponding
Igebra this equation certainly has a root A
can
be found which satisfies
Cx
> it a non-vanishing vector
ic equation A^
a^i, and on multiplying this vector by an
ppropriate numerical factor we may take it such that its modulus
1 further vectors
C! can then be supplemented by n
unity.
;,, c n in such a way that these n vectors constitute a normal
>r

the multipliers

A.

3-ordinate system.

In these co-ordinates the formulae

e,'

A*i

a kle. k
k

>r

the

in accordance with the

a ail a sll
a nl vanish and
a ik
Because of the symmetry conditions a ki

correspondence

require,

gfinition of c lt that the coefficients

iat

an

a ls

UNITARY GEOMETRY

22

a m must also vanish.

a i3>
">
assumes the form
A
the matrix
"

Hence

#i2>

in the

new

co-ordinates

(5.3)

and the Hermitian form becomes

A(i)

+ A'

aA*!

(5.3)

(i)

where yl' is an Hermitian form containing only the n 1 variables

% #n
#2 X 3f
Repeating this process, or calling on the method
of mathematical induction, we establish the validity of the
fundamental theorem stated above.
'

The

'

characteristic polynomial of (5.2)

-A) =

det (Al

From

(A

ai )(A

is

a a)

(A

a n ).

it
follows that the characteristic numbers a 1?
a n including their multiplicity, are uniquely detertheir sum is the trace of A.
mined by the Hermitian form A
What can we say concerning the characteristic vectors ? Let
which satisfy the equathe vectors
a be a given real number
tion A$
aj constitute a linear sub-space 9t(a) of 3ft, the
characteristic space belonging to a. When the normal
co-ordinate system e t is so chosen that A is in the normal form,
the equation A%
aj is, in terms of its components,

a 2>

this

*>

from which
for which oc<

it

follows that 91 (a)

is

spanned by those vectors

e,

a
If, for example, the three roots o^, a 2 a 3
while all the others are different from a, the characteristic space
9t(oc)

is

a.

3-dimensional.

If

none

of the characteristic

numbers

equal to a, 91 (a) consists only of the vector 0. This again

characterizes the characteristic numbers, including their multia,- is

plicity,

in

way which

is

independent of the particular co-

ordinate system chosen, and

in

corresponding sub-spaces
characteristic spaces 91 (a)

9i(a).
:
91

addition it characterizes the

3? is thus decomposed into the
JlR(a)
only a finite number
;

sum, i.e. those for which a is a characterCn

complete co-ordinate system Cj, e 2
for the entire space 9t can be obtained by choosing a normal
co-ordinate system in each non-null sub-space 9t(a).
The
normal form (5.2) is undisturbed on subjecting the variables

of terms occurs in this

istic

number

of

A.

TRANSFORMATION TO PRINCIPAL AXES

23

a to an

Xi associated

with the same characteristic number

arbitrary unitary transformation.

If, for example, a is a triple characteristic

a l == a 2

number

a3

the remaining <x 4= a, then xfa + ^ 2e 2

normal projection J a of the vector j on 91 (a) and

while

<x f

^3^3

is

the scalar product of j a with itself.

The equations
(5.2) may then be written in the invariant form

is

?=ZE&),
a

A(i}

Z-E,(z).

The

"

"

can be uniquely
is perpendicular

-> 5'
orthogonal projection
which
has
the
obviously
correspondence
property
91'.

E'E'
for the projection of j'

on

(5.4)

9T being a sub-space of 9t, any vector

broken up into j' + o where j' lies in 9T and
to

(5.1),

9?'

is

is

/J'j

a linear

E',

(5.5)

simply

j' itself.

Furthermore,

'

is Hermitian, for the scalar product of t) into j'

the operator
is equal to the scalar product of i)' into j', where ^' is the projection
of t) on 9t'.
(The Hermitian form E'($) is accordingly the square
We shall call Hermitian forms
of the absolute value of j'.)

which

satisfy equation (5.5) idempotent.

the sub-spaces 9t'. 9R" are orthogonal, the

When

sponding projection operators

E'E"

E"

E',

E"E'

0,

two

corre-

satisfy the equations

(5.6)

0,

the space 9T per"j lying

component
which
satisfy these
Idempotent operators
to
The
be
second
are
said
equation is,
independent.
equations
moreover, a consequence of the first, as may be seen on going

for E' ("jr) is the

".
pendicular to

of

in

E"E'
If 9t is decomover to the Hermitian conjugate
0.
into
several
*,
mutually orthogonal sub-spaces 9?'+9t"+
posed
then
:

E
It is easily

E'l

E"i

shown that the converses

(5.7)

of all these assertions

"

an idempotent operator and

1
are also valid.
',
form
constitute
a
linear sub-space 91' and
all vectors of the
E'j
The equation
all vectors of the form E"j a sub-space 91".
If

E'

E'E"

is

= E'E" -

'(1

- E'} -

UNITARY GEOMETRY

24

shows that the scalar product

of a vector

'j

in

9T and a vector

The decomposition of a
0.
zero
xE'E"y
and one perpendicular
in
a
9V
vector J into
component lying
to 81' is accordingly expressed by
in

"ty

9ft"

is

E" satisfy the equation (5.6)

the two idempotent forms
',
the
two
corresponding characteristic
then, as we have just seen,
If the sum (5.7)
spaces 81', 9?" are mutually perpendicular.
then
consists of independent idempotent forms,
by the above
the corresponding mutually perpendicular sub-spaces 9T, 9t"
exhaust the entire space 3?.
The theorem on transformation to principal axes can accordAn Hermitian form A associates with the real
ingly be stated
If

numbers a mutually independent idempotent Hermitian forms

E*.

such that

non-vanishing for only a finite member of values

correspondence A can be reiterated

Ha, is

a.

AA = A

A*A

2
,

A*,

and we can accordingly obtain polynomials

f(A)
in

cQ l

c^A

c*A*

with numerical coefficients

c.

+
On

c h A*

reiterating (5.8) h

times

A = Z**Ea
h

whence

for the general polynomial

f(A)

= /()-

(5.9)

The

characteristic numbers of f(A) are therefore the values of

the polynomial /(a) for the characteristic numbers a of A.
This
suggests defining the Hermitian form f(A), where /(a) is any
real function of the real variable a, by means of the equation
.

Given two Hermitian forms A, 5, under what conditions can

they be brought simultaneously into diagonal form, i.e. when is
it possible to find a normal co-ordinate
system in which

25
TRANSFORMATION TO PRINCIPAL AXES
A necessary condition is that they commute BA =- AB, for if
A and B are in the normal form (5.10) BA as well as AB is
:

the diagonal matrix with elements

is also sufficient ;

which

in

system

BA = AB

requires that the matrix

b ik a*

divide the indices

variables x+ into classes

at

or

<x.ib ik

We

class

^a<

=-

This condition

a^.

to prove this, chqose a normal co-ordinate

The equation
is already in normal form.

x k)b ik

(a,

0.

(5.11)

the fundamental vectors

i,

by considering

satisfy

\\b ilc \\

and k

to be of the

that b ik

states

and the

same
when

a*.
Equation (5.11)
and k belong to different classes. B is consequently decomposed into smaller matrices B' B" aligned along the principal
diagonal, corresponding to the way in which the a,- are distrithe correspondence B consequently
buted in classes a', a",
if

of
leaves each of the characteristic spaces 9*(<x'), 9t(oc"),
co-ordinate
we
can
then
a
normal
invariant.
But
choose
system in each of these characteristic sub-spaces 3ft(a) in such
a way that the Hermitian correspondences 5', B" in them are

referred to principal axes

by

the normal form of

is

undisturbed

this procedure.

This process can immediately be applied to any number of

Any number of Hermitian forms can be brought

Hermitian forms

simultaneously into normal form if and only if they commute

with one another.
By a slight modification we can further
extend this theorem to an arbitrary finite or infinite system
of
Hermitian forms. This will be briefly discussed here, although
in general the consideration of systems of forms or correspondence is postponed until Chap. III. Let the space 91 be decomin
posed into mutually perpendicular sub-spaces 9T, 91",
such a way that each correspondence of the system 27 takes
on adapting the co-ordinate system
place in these sub-spaces
to this decomposition each Hermitian matrix A of 2 consists
of sub-matrices
A"
aligned along the principal diagonal.
If all the A' are already multiples of the unit matrix 1 in 91'
and similarly for all A",
our goal is reached, for each correof
A
the
then
transforms 9t' into itself and
system
spondence
;

is

a simple multiplication in

this is not the case let

it

similarly for 91",

be a correspondence

of the

But

if

system

not merely a multiplication in the sub-space 9T. On

transforming the constituent A' of A to principal axes, 91' is
of A', of
9V
decomposed into characteristic spaces 9V
which there are at least two. For any Hermitian matrix

which

is

of

we have A'X'

= X'A',

from which

it

'

'

follows, as

we saw

above, chat X' transforms each of the sub-spaces 9V, 9V,

UNITARY GEOMETRY

26

into itself.
The decomposition 9T
91"
/
further reduced to the decomposition (91 1

'

91"
after at

'

in this

way we

can thus be

+ 9V +

finally reach our goal

Proceeding
most n steps, proving
The Hermitian forms of any system
:

can be simultaneously
referred to principal axes if they all commute with one another.
The theory developed above for Hermitian correspondence is
stands for unitary transformations.
S being any unitary
normal co-ordinate system e, can be introduced in such
a way that S carries each of the fundamental vectors e, over into
a multiple cr e of itself. The characteristic numbers tr of S are
numbers of modulus 1. In these co-ordinates the matrix of 5
is a diagonal matrix, the elements in the principal diagonal
of which are the numbers or,-.
The proof is quite analogous.
again start with the
valid as

it

operator, a

We

secular equation

det

S)

(o*l

and consider the root c^. There then exists a vector c, of modulus
1 which is transformed into c^ by the correspondence S.
Sup1 further vectors C 2
C n so that these n
plement e l with n
In these co-ordinates
vectors form a normal co-ordinate system.
,

the matrix

is

of the correspondence

\\s ik \\

again of the form

s \\

$21

^i,

*''

Since S is unitary the sum of the squares of the moduli of these

1.
elements of the first column must be unity, whence \a^
the
elements
sum
moduli
of
the
of
the
of
the
Similarly
squares
in the first row must also be 1
:

but since

l^i)

it

follows that
*12

'

'

'

= *ln =

The matrix 5

0.

is now broken up into a 1-dimcnsional a l and

the truth of the above
an (n
l)-dimensional S' as in (5.3)
induction.
theorem then follows immediately by
The further results can be obtained in exactly the same way
The characteristic numbers o\,
as above for Hermitian forms.
including their multiplicity but not their order, are uniquely
determined by 5, and similarly for the corresponding sub-spaces.
If we wish to find a linearly independent system of characteristic vectors, the fundamental vectors of each such sub-space
;

INFINITESIMAL UNITARY TRANSFORMATIONS

27

be taken as forming a normal co-ordinate system. Finally,

a finite or infinite set of unitary transformations can be simul-

may

taneously reduced to normal form

among themselves.

if

they

commute

Infinitesimal Unitary Transformations

6.

and only

if

body in continuous motion about a fixed point

an
performs
infinitesimal rotation in each interval dr of time.
Denoting by (dx^ dx 2 dx-^ the infinitesimal displacement of
that point of the rigid body which is at the point P(x lJ X 2 # 3 )
at the time r, the equations of motion of the body must be of
the form
rigid

*<

^r= Jp**

(6.1)

which the coefficients c ik are constants, i.e. independent

the particular point P under consideration.
Employing a
2
as origin, x^ -f- x z 2
Cartesian co-ordinate system with
*a
this requires
must remain unchanged throughout the motion
that
in

of

=
2X^
ar

rr

or

lfc

*,**

<>.

\k

Since this equation must be satisfied identically in the #,, the

matrix C ~= \\Cik\\ which characterizes the motion must be antic lk
CM
Introducing the vector r with origin
symmetric
at
and terminus at the point P, and the vector c
12 ),
(c 2 ^ c 3l

equations

(6.1)

become
di

Tr

[TC]

'

the familiar fundamental formulae for the kinematics of a rigid

body. The square brackets denote the vector product and C
the vectorial angular velocity, the absolute value and direction
of which give the angular velocity and direction of the axis of

rotation respectively.

The continuous compounding

example

of

interest

of

offers

an infinitesimal linear transformation.

The

another
interest

rate being c, a real number, the increase in the capital x in time

dr is xcdr. Radioactive disintegration is the same kind of a
The capital x considered as a function
process with negative c.
y

of the time, satisfies the equation

UNITARY GEOMETRY

28

and consequently increases exponentially with r. If the

= 0, it will have increased
cipal has the value XQ at time r
x(r)

=X

printo

To obtain an alternative solution we divide, as in

method of finite differences, the time interval r into a large
% will increase by xcrjn in
number n of equal elements r/n
at time r.

the

each of these intervals .and the capital x will accordingly be

n at
the end of time r.
The familiar
multiplied by (1
cr/n)

definition

#*

lim f 1
n->oo\

+ -V
n)

(6.3)'
V

of the exponential function follows from a comparison of these

two results. But we can also solve the differential equation

by the method

We

take as
the
initial
value
x
X
x
The
O (T)
approximation
th
is
obtained
from
the
n
by substituting
(n -f- l)st approximation
the latter in place of x on the right-hand side of (6.2) and
(6.2)

the

integrating

On

of successive approximations.

th

carrying out this process

Xn (r)

we

find

from which we obtain the familiar power

series

expansion

the exponential function. The convergence of (6.3) and

the identity of their limits is rigorously proved by
(6.4) and

for

elementary analysis.
These examples will assist in understanding the concept of an
infinitesimal unitary transformation of the w-dimensional

In order
9t n which we now proceed to introduce.
space 91
to avoid the use of infinitesimals we introduce a (purely fictitious)
time r and think of the infinitesimal linear correspondence which
carries the vector j over into j -f- rfj as taking place in the time
interval dr
,

INFINITESIMAL UNITARY TRANSFORMATIONS

29

"

the in(For the sake of brevity we refer to this simply as

n
transformation C. ) Since the transformation is
x { Xi must
unitary, on employing a normal co-ordinate system

finitesimal

remain unchanged

J^'+l^-O.
ar

On

(6.5)

ar

setting

the left-hand side of (6.5) reduces to the Hermitian form

Z(Ctk
it

and since
+ CM

it

+ Cki)XiX k

must vanish

identically in the x<

or the transformation
the sense of the equation

c ik

0>

=-

c ik

is

we must have

anti-symmetric

C=-C.

CM,

in

(6.6)

domain there exists no intimate relationship between

symmetric and anti-symmetric matrices, but the situation is
For on setting C = iH (i being
different in the complex domain.
In the real

the imaginary unit

1)

it

follows from (6.6) that

satisfies

the equation //
//, and C is consequently i times an Hermitian
In an infinitesimal unitary rotation of a vector field the
matrix.
i

velocity

is related to j

by means of a correspondence whose matrix

times an Hermitian matrix.

The theorem on transformation
Hermitian forms to principal axes is accordingly the limiting
case of an analogous theorem on unitary transformations.

is i

of

By repeated application of the infinitesimal unitary transformation

dr- Cl
dl
(6.7)
we obtain after time r

E~>!(T)=/(T)J
where the exponential function e A

by

= *' CS

for a

matrix

either

lim
(l
A->ocA

A*

or the power series

1
1

+
O-

Naturally

U(r

D.

+
_!_

2i

+ T') -

/
n )*

+
_i_

'

"'

U(r) U(r').

(6.8)

can be defined

UNITARY GEOMETRY

30

Accordingly U(r) runs through all the transformations of a

1-parameter continuous group of unitary transformations generthe parameter r is
ated by the infinitesimal transformation C
is
The
obtained by the
additive on composition.
power series
this method can also
method of successive approximations
be applied to obtain a solution in the more general case in which
the infinitesimal unitary transformation C is not the same for
each time element dr i.e. in which C is a matrix C(r) depending
on the time r. The solution of the equation
;

for this case

is

given by
j( T2 )

the unitary transformation U(r^r^ which takes place in the

time interval r l9 r 2 obeys the law of composition

=j

If

imations

at time T
Jj (r)

0,

U(r3r z }U(r zr,}.

the formulae for the successive approx-

are

= jo

joM
for U(r)

=
UM
=

ji+iM

- EO +
oo

we

f/(rO)

obtain the infinite series

Ui
/--=

(r) in

rf/.

Written

which

(6.9)

explicitly,

=
(0 <,

ff
i

'

'

<j

T)

The proof of the convergence of this process is readily obtained with the aid of the quantity A associated with a matrix
a lk by the equation
^4
|

||

||

i,

It

Ul&l

follows from the well-known Schwarz inequality

<*2&2

^(|a 1
that

2
|

'

+ #nU
+ --- + |aj)(|fc |+
2

M + 51

MI+

|5|

and that
\A\ \B\.

|frj)

(6.10)

REMARKS ON oo-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

The second inequality

is

31

obtained by applying (6.10) to the

element

and summing with respect to

be stated in the form

and

k.

The

first

inequality

may

\\A(t)dt
for integrals.

The convergence

with the aid of these auxiliary

under the assumption
\C(t)\

SUi

of

(r)

can now be established

results, for

^C

we can prove

that

(0<^T)

that

For

and the recursion formula

if it holds for
holds for f/
The
follows
from
this
absolute
/j.
convergence
convergence,
for the absolute value of each component of the matrix A is
certainly not greater than A \.
We have only gone into these matters to reassure the reader
of the legitimacy of dealing with infinitesimal quantities of the
kind met here. The only thing of importance for the following
is
the simple relation existing between infinitesimal unitary
transformations and Hermitian forms.
is
certainly true for /
us to conclude that
enables
(6.9)

this

0,

it

7.

Remarks on oo-dimensional Space

The unitary spaces which appear in quantum mechanics

Such a space
usually have an infinite number of dimensions.
consists of all vectors
whose components x constitute an
for which
{

infinite

sequence of numbers

Within this domain addition and multiplication

converges.
with numbers, as well as the construction of the scalar product
of two vectors, are possible.
All the axioms employed so far

UNITARY GEOMETRY

32

are satisfied, with the exception of the dimensionality

axiom y

introduced in
1.
Since the vector components x l9 x%,
constitute a de"
"
Hilbert space
has a denumerably infinite
numerable set, this
number of dimensions. But in addition to these, spaces of
non-denumerably infinite dimensions may occur. Consider, for
example, all continuous complex functions ifj(s) of a real variable
We need not distinguish between two values of s
s of period 27r.
which are congruent mod 2?r, i.e. whose difference is an integral
multiple of %TT it is consequently more convenient to consider ifj(s)
as a function defined on the periphery of the unit circle than on the
The various values of s at points on the circumstraight line.
ference play the r61e of indices, the value <//($) at the point s being
"
"
the component of the
with index s. The totality
vector
"
of such functions *f*(s) therefore constitute a linear
function
M
of these
of
infinite
dimensions.
Addition
continuously
space
vectors and multiplication by a number have here the same
interpretation as in the ordinary operations with functions.
The square of the absolute value of the vector $ is taken to be
;

(0, I)

and the scalar product

of

l$(s}t(s)ds

two vectors

<f>

and

</r

as

set of functions

&(*)

'

#i(*),

4>(*)

constitutes a unitary-orthogonal system of vectors

if

These vectors span an n-dimensional sub-space 9t n of the oo-dimensional function space, i.e. that sub-space consisting of all
vectors of the form

x i> x *
^i> ^2,

'

'

>

'

'

x n are the components

<f>n

of the vector

<f>(s)

2*
<f>(

S ) ds

in the co-ordinate

in 9l n

X lX l

We

have

system

REMARKS ON oo-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

An

arbitrary vector

which

lies

in

9R n

can be broken up into a component

<//
perpendicular to 3t n

\ft

<f>

and a component

M=
It follows

33

27 *<*<(*),
<- 1

from these equations that

[cf. (4.3)]

2*

These integrals are called the Fourier coefficients of the function

The orthogonal
with respect to the orthogonal system $
have
on
cannot
be
5R
n
greater absolute
longer (i.e.
projection
is the content of the so-called
than
itself
this
magnitude)
t

</r

<f>

Bessel inequality
2*
(7.1)

*jj(s)ds.

In fact, since (<,

</r')

0,

('A,

(f, ^)

A)

W, *)

0,

the

(f

4<

Pythagorean theorem'

0')

holds.

The simplest unitary-orthogonal system

in

the

domain

periodic functions, with which the theory of Fourier series

concerned, consists of the functions
1

e(ns)

[n

0,

l
f

2,

e(x)

e**].

of
is

(7.2)

ITT

This infinite system has the property of completeness] it

is a
complete co-ordinate system for the entire function space.
The theorem that any periodic function *fi(s) can be expressed
as a linear combination of the functions (7.2)
:

4-

oo

(Fourier expansion of ifi(s)) is true only if certain conditions

concerning the differentiability of ^(s) are fulfilled, but any

continuous function

satisfies
2

f ^(

ParsevaVs equation

UNITARY GEOMETRY

34

We

learn from this example that there is no essential distinction

between spaces of a denumerable and of a non-denumerable infinitude
of dimensions ; we have introduced into our function space

complete normal co-ordinate system (7.2) consisting of a

In an ninfinite set of fundamental vectors.
dimensional unitary space a system of unitary-orthogonal
vectors is complete if their number is n, but not if it is less
however, such an enumeration gives no criterion for oo -dimenIf we leave out a finite number of the functions
sional space.
(7.2) we still have an infinite set left, but the completeness of the

denumerably

The real criterion for completethe validity of the completeness relation (7.3).
can understand the relations existing in Hilbert space
by analogy with or as limiting cases of those existing in spaces
of a finite number of dimensions.
If we consider the values of
an arbitrary periodic function $(s) only at the points
is

system
ness

destroyed thereby.

lies in

We

27T

27T

and

(n

1X
1

'
)

27T

set

we

are dealing with an n-dimcnsional vector space in which the

components of the arbitrary vector iff are these quantities
n
Let e A be the vector in this space
(v
gv
0, 1,
1).

with components

these vectors e A (A
n
0, 1,
1) constitute a normal coordinate system for the space, relative to which the vector
has the components # x lj
xn
which are to be calculated
,

from

n-

In accordance with (4.3)

= -71

*A

^>

Vn^-f

/27
27rAv
e
\

whence
n-l

n-l

*-0

J-O

REMARKS ON oo-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

35

passing to the limit n -> oo we obtain the equation of ParsevaL

do not concern ourselves here with the further considerations
which may be necessary to establish a rigorous proof, but content
ourselves with such reasoning by analogy.
We consider the linear correspondence or " operator "

By

We

D=

-r -.i

ds

which transforms a function Ji(s)

rv
'

periodic functions into --TT

of

(characteristic function)
characteristic number n

is

e(ns]

this

in

the domain of

the characteristic vector

operator

to

belonging

the

de(ns]
-

-r
i

e(ns).
x
'

ds

the scalar product of

and Difi
This operator is Hermitian
is the conjugate complex of that of Jj and Z)<, where
and
<f>

<

</>

are

any two periodic functions,

for

by
In

'in

partial integration

it
rv

05

N
x

and the right-hand

f
I

a^

J
o

^v =
-/-rf5

<^
-^rfs
rf5

side

is

conjugate to

r
i

ds

In fact, the Hermitian form

2.TT

If rrff
~^-r
(/r

rf^

assumes the normal form

-f

oo

xn
H nxw n~n

+-*

in

(7
V

}
/

the normal co-ordinate system whose fundamental vectors

The reiterated

are the characteristic vectors of the operator D.

operator

DD =

string, together

appears in the theory of the vibrating

-7-^

with the corresponding Hermitian form

2*

2*

which represents the kinetic energy

of the string.

UNITARY GEOMETRY

36

We

have here been dealing with a discrete spectrum of charnumbers. But in an oo-dimensional space Hermitian
forms with a continuous spectrum can also be constructed.

acteristic

Consider, for example, the function space consisting of all conTT

s
TT
tinuous functions \jt(s} defined in the interval
M
4<
of
is
the
vector
then
of
the absolute magnitude
the square
if/

^+

The Hermitian form

+

A\$\

71

\s$(s}$(s)

ds

(7.5)

n
is

already in normal form, which shows that

has as character-

it

and + TT. The functions

normal
co-ordinate system in
a
constitute
complete
(7.2) again
terms of which

istic

numbers

all

numbers between

TT

4- oo

Substituting this in

(7.5)

we

oo

find

The

evaluation of
4-

(s

m}s}ds

e[(n

=m

when n

yields

when n

partial integration

*[(n-m)s]-} *_
7j
m) _]_
i(n

r
S

and by

.
*

therefore

77

and

The
value a
at

all

as

characteristic

i(n

m)

m
numbers

all

values

between

77.

characteristic vector
(

1)

The Hermitian form

=^ m.

n
has

(ATT-Tj

77

^+

77)

points s 4= a and

to the characteristic
that function which vanishes
there so large that the integral of

$a belonging

of A[^i\
is

is

REMARKS ON oo-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

37

has the value 1.

Of course such a function does not really
but
we
can
exist,
approximate it as closely as we wish. In
order to arrive at a formulation which is mathematically rigorous
for the case of continuous spectra, we must introduce in place
of the idempotent Hermitian form E a in (5.4) the idempotent
form AE
E x for the entire interval A Af (a A j3).

$*ifia

^ <

a^A</3

For any given vector

A(j)

+ A(s) =

AL< (j)

0,

AE(j)

(7.6)

and the idempotent forms Afi associated with two separated

intervals A are mutually independent.
In dealing with the continuum, the sum in (5.4) is replaced
Consider the straight line described by
a
by
Stieltjes integral.
the real variable A as being covered with a substance, and let
the amount of this substance on the interval A be denoted by

We

Am.

then have,

in

Am ^
If

0(A)

is

analogy to

+ Am = Aw.

Afw

0,

(7.6),

a continuous function of

position

we can construct

the integral
i

(7.7)

f^(A)^m.

An approximation
point

A< in

to this integral can be found

1
into small intervals
A

<

interval

entire

A, and evaluating the

sum

'

2//>(^i)

by dividing the

A,w.

choosing a
This sum

then converges to the integral on allowing the A, to approach

If the distribution has a continuous density
zero.

Am

..

hm
the integral

is

with

identical

f</>(A)p(A)dA.

But the

Stieltjes

integral (7.7)
finite

also includes the cases in

continuous density

of discrete points at

which

which there exists no

in particular, it allows the existence

a finite amount of the substance is

the substance is distributed over a finite

number of points A -- a in amounts m,, the Stieltjes integral
reduces to the sum 2//>(a )m

concentrated.

If

We

thus arrive at the following more inclusive formulation

fundamental theorem concerning the transformation to

(1) The Hermitian form A associates with each
principal axes
of the

UNITARY GEOMETRY

38
interval
intervals

A an idempotent form A(j)

(2) when two
A A 2 are added together to form an interval A,
AS = A + A 2 E,
;

adjacent

1?

and

idempotent forms associated with separated intervals are

independent ; (3) we have
the

In this form the theorem is adapted to the appearance of continuous spectra of characteristic numbers, and is particularly
7).
appropriate for the purposes of quantum mechanics (cf. II,
The discrete characteristic numbers lie at those points where
the monotonic increasing function Ai^Efe)
E(X j) of A has

a discontinuity.

In our

must be taken
here
The evaluation in terms
iff

example

as

(7.5)

outside the interval

of the co-ordinates

xn

is

(-

TT,

TT).

readily accom-

plished.
all

Consider the function space consisting of the totality of

functions t/(s) of a variable s, which assumes all values from
oo to
o> & n d which have a finite absolute magnitude

i.e.

which are

"

integrable square."

The

characteristic functions

associated with the linear correspondence

ifi(s)

-> - -~ are again

7

t*sj

the functions ^(^), but the frequency v can now assume

The components of ifj(s) are the quantities
values.
-f

all real

00

Fourier's integral theorem then allows us to conclude the validity

of the expansion
-f

00

REMARKS ON oo-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

39

under certain assumptions concerning the differentiability of

but in any case the completeness relation l
the function ifi(s)
;

-f

is

valid.

We

oo

somewhat

arrive at a

require that the functions

possess a definite mean value

only

-f

lim
-> oo

problem when we

different

be

ifj(s)

such

that

$(s)i{t(s)

-[f(sMs)ds

(0,0);

*-wj

this leads to the theory of almost-periodic functions developed by

of the completeness relation

H. Bohr. 2 Here again the validity

can be established.

The theory
in infinitely

numbers

Hermitian forms
by Hilbert and
bounded forms
of

variables has been developed

many

Hellinger* but

i.e.

of the characteristic

applicable only to

it is

forms whose values have a fixed upper bound when

J*

2;*,*,

^1.

(7.8)

Indeed,

without

convergence

of

this

A()

consider the form

assumption

in the entire

(7.4),

Znx nx n

we cannot guarantee

the

domain (7.8)
as an example
That this form only converges
;

domain

(7.8) is merely another expression of

the fact that not every continuous function is differentiable.
The situation is more favourable for unitary forms as they
"
4t
in consequence
bounded
satisfy the condition that they be
of their very definition
a unitary transformation is thereby
to be taken as satisfying both of the conditions

in a portion of the

UU =

l,

[717=1.

The theorem on principal axes has been proved rigorously for

bounded Hermitian and for unitary correspondences in oodimensional space. A method due to A. Wintner 4 seems
particularly

ences

it

is

appropriate for dealing with unitary correspondbased on the consideration of the discrete group of

UNITARY GEOMETRY

40

powers U of the given unitary transformation U, and determines the monotonic increasing function E(X j) of the real
variable A (0 ^ A ^ 2rr) by means of the equations
n

all

2*

(7.9)

i)

of trigonometric moments).
J. v.
furthest in dealing with linear operators for

problem

(the

gone
ness

is

form

In accordance with

not postulated.

Neumann

has

which bounded6 with a Hermitian

A is associated a group of unitary correspondences e irA = U(r)

depending on the

real

parameter r and satisfying the equation

tf(r

+ T')=

U(r}U(r');

(7.10)

It is
the study of this group is equivalent to the study of A.
therefore perhaps appropriate to replace this latter for oodimensional space by the former, for no convergence difficulties
appear in the domain of unitary transformations. We must
therefore attempt to bring the operators C/(r), which are continuous functions of the real parameter r satisfying (7.10)
simultaneously into the form

2*

U(r; E)

= ^rf

(A;j).

(7.11)

accomplished with the aid of Wintner's method on replacing the discrete parameter n in (7.9) by the continuous
parameter r. The problem (7.11) bears the same relation to

This

is

(7.9) as Fourier's integral

bears to Fourier

series.

In setting up a system of axioms for oo-dimensional vector

1 and the metric axiom
4
space the axioms (a), (/?) of
(8) of
for the proper substitute for the dimension
can be retained
;

4<

Mathematische Begriindung
axiom (y) see, e.g., v. Neumann,
der Quantenmechanik." 6
The algebraic and geometric tools developed in this chapter

medium

for the expression of quantum mechanics

they already hold a dominating position in the classical physics
of continuous media.
masterly exposition of their mathe-

offer a natural

matical content and application is found in the first part of

"
Courant- Hilbert's
Methoden der mathematischen Physik,"

2nd

ed. (Berlin, 1930).

CHAPTER

II

QUANTUM THEORY
Physical Foundations

1.

THE

magic formula

E=

hv

(1.1)

from which the whole

of quantum theory is developed, establishes

a universal relationship between the frequency v of an oscillatory
The
process and the energy E associated with such a process.
quantum of actio'n h is one of the universal constants of nature

6-547

10~ 27 erg sees.

It was first discovered by Planck at the turn of the century in

the laws of black body radiation ; that is, radiation which is
enclosed in a cavity and is in thermodynamic equilibrium with
matter of a definite temperature, which by emission and absorption causes an exchange of energy between the various
Since this equilibrium
frequencies contained in the radiation.
is independent of the
of
nature
the matter involved,
particular
Planck considered, as a kind of schematic matter, a system of
linear oscillators of all possible frequencies.
A charge oscillating
with frequency v interacts with the electromagnetic field by emittPlanck asing and absorbing radiation of the same frequency.
sumed that the exchange of energy took place in integral multiples
of an energy quantum e
he at first considered this assumption
as
a
mathematical
device, and intended to pass to the
merely
limit e-^-0.
In order to obtain agreement with the Wien
displacement law, which was derived from general thermodynamieal principles, the energy quantum associated with a
;

definite frequency v must be taken proportional to v\ e

In this way Planck obtained his radiation formula, which

is

hv.

in

according to it the amount

of energy contained
in the spectral interval
volume
unit
per
v v -f- dv in
thermodynamic equilibrium at temperature is
excellent accord with observation

ce
41

(1.2)
1)

QUANTUM THEORY

42

the velocity of light and k the Boltzmann constant

(%kO being the mean energy of an atom of a monatomic gas at
we obtain the
temperature 6). On passing to the limit h
radiation
law
Rayleigh- Jeans

where

c is

(")

The assumption
spectrum
lead to an

is

'

73-

kea
i

law for the entire

as it would
with
the
facts,
disagreement
a state of
value for the total energy \u(v)dv

of the validity of this latter

in gross

infinite

equilibrium would therefore be impossible with given finite

energy,
The idea of a quantized exchange of energy, which occurs
in Planck's derivation somewhat schematically and only in
application to statistical thermodynamical consequences, was
seriously applied to individual atomic processes by Einstein.
In 1905, guided by the observations of H. Hertz, Hallwachs
and Lenard on the photo-electric effect, he enunciated the idea
"
of a light quantum or photon as
an heuristic viewpoint conM 2
of light
the
and
transformation
according
cerning
generation
to which not only the exchange of energy between matter and
radiation of frequency v occurs in quanta of amount hv, but
further, light of frequency v can exist in the ether only in quanta
of energy hv.
The decisive experiments were first performed
Millikan
ten
by
years later.
By allowing ultra-violet or Xradiation of frequency v to fall on a metal plate electrons are

first

released

whose kinetic energy

(as

was already known

to Lenard}

increases with the hardness (i.e. with decrease of wave-length)

of the incident radiation
the energy with which the electrons
are emitted is, however, not influenced by the intensity of the
;

The exact

radiation.

relation predicted

Pn

hv

where

e,

mv *
-52t

by Einstein

is

j/
eV

and v are the charge, mass and velocity

of the

The energy hv of the photon is transelectron, respectively.

formed into kinetic energy of the electron, after subtracting
from it the work
required to pull the electron out of the metal

the potential difference between the metal surface

and a plate placed in front of it is
the electron current will

surface.

If

disappear as soon

as

exceeds the

critical

value

Millikan found that the potential at which the current vanished,

obtained by extrapolation, was in fact exactly proportional to

PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS

43

the frequency v for monochromatic light of various frequencies,

and that the constant of proportionality was equal to the
quotient of the h obtained by Planck from black body radiation
and the elementary quantum of electric charge e. The difference of the mean energy P for two different metals is furthermore
equal to e times their contact difference of potential. The
value of P, or at least its order of magnitude, is therefore known,
and we find that for X-rays of a few Angstroms wave-length
10~ 8 cm.) P is negligible in comparison with hv. The
(lA

equation
to

f*

= eV

(1.3)

governs not only the generation of secondary cathode rays by

primary X-rays, but also the inverse process the transformation
at the glass wall or on the anode of the incident cathode rays
If an
into the impulse radiation first observed by Rontgen.
electron which has run through the potential drop
V in the
X-ray tube loses its entire energy on collision, a photon of fre:

v and energy hv
eV will spring into existence. The
electron may, however, only be slowed down
consequently
v is only the upper limit for the frequency of the impulse radia-

quency

tion,

which

continuous spectrum with

will therefore consist of a

a sharp
r limit at v

was entirely unable

eV
-7-.

to

The

old classical theorv of radiation

account for this most characteristic

property of the impulse radiation. The frequency of the limit

and this is
increases in proportion with the applied potential
"
the exact formulation of the fact that
the higher the potential,
"
the harder the rays
so familiar to every X-ray operator.

The observed phenomena thus confirm the hypothesis that

radiation of frequency v can be absorbed and emitted only in
quanta of energy hv. This hypothesis will of course have further
consequences for the theory of the structure of matter. The

Planck

oscillator will, for example,

be unable to alter

its

energy

continuously since it can only emit or absorb these fixed quanta

of energy, and it will consequently spring to and fro on the rungs
of its

energy ladder, which are equally spaced at intervals hv

v is here the frequency of the oscillator, a constant determined by

the constitution of the oscillator.
An application of the essential

elements of this idea to actual atoms gave rise to the frequency

by Niels Bohr (1913)
An atom can exist only in certain discrete stationary states
f>
(" quantum states ) in which it does not radiate.
Light will be
emitted on transition from one state into another ; the energy which
rule enunciated

QUANTUM THEORY
E
transition, the difference E

44
it

loses in this

of

energy in

its

the two states, will be transformed into a photon of energy hv, the
frequency v of which is determined by the equation

=E -E

(1.4)

2.

E E 2 may

be any two of the discrete energy levels

In this equation lt
2 ).
(E l
Conversely, in absorption a photon raises the atom from
to a higher
the energy level
2 by giving up its energy hv to the
l

>E

atom.
to

According

classical

an

electrodynamics

atom

should

continually emit radiation in consequence of the vibrations of

its constituent electrons, and the frequencies of the emitted
light should agree with the frequencies of the simple oscillations
into which the motion of its electronic system can be resolved.
But the atom will itself lose energy through this radiation, the
motion of its electrons will thereby be modified and the frequencies will consequently be displaced. This entire point of
view is therefore irreconcilable with one of the most fundamental
On the
the existence of sharp spectral lines.
physical facts
other hand, Bohr's assumption is not only in agreement with
this fact, although it offers no such detailed picture of the
reaction between matter and ether as the classical theory, but
contains in addition the fundamental Ritz-Rydberg combination
If we order the energy levels in an increasing series
principle.
:

EQ < E < E <

2

frequency

is

then

v(i

-> k)

vt

"

terms

vk

(i

Consequently there will occur in addition

v(k -> /) the frequency
v (i

->

/)

=v

(i

with

accordance

in

the difference of two

_> k)

"

vl

>

to the

(1.4)

each

EJh,

k).

frequencies v(i -> k),

+ v(k ->

(1.5)

/)

obtained from them by addition.

This combination principle is
valid without exception in the whole of spectroscopy, in the
optical region as well as in that of X-rays, and has proved to
be a valuable guide in the classification of spectra
it reduces
the complex line spectra to the simpler term spectra.
Unthe
is
that
made
more
difficult
the
fact
fortunately
problem
by
not all lines corresponding to possible transitions i ~> k need
"
"
with a
combine
actually occur not every term v+ need
term
v
for
the conditions of excitation may be such
k
given
that certain lines have zero intensity.
The selection rules for
the allowable transitions will therefore be contained in the
;

rules which determine the intensities of spectral lines.

The
combination principle, or the Bohr frequency rule, determines,

PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS

45

which tones
so to speak, only the keyboard of the spectrum
are really struck is dependent on the mode of excitation.
But
it

in general

will

be possible under proper conditions of ex-

citation, e.g. the influence of strong external electric fields, to

bring out the lines which are not observed under ordinary

conditions.
"

In the

unexcited

state of lowest
41

"

series

n ->

energy
0, of

normal

or

atom

state the

is

in the stationary
lines of the

and consequently only the

"<,,

frequency v n

VQ (n

1,

2,

),

occur in

The lowest of these 1 -> (i.e. with greatest waveabsorption.

length), or more precisely the lowest which is not forbidden by
"
resonance line."
the selection rules, is called the
The simplest atom is that of hydrogen in it a single electron
of charge
e revolves about a nucleus of opposite charge
e.
The terms of the spectrum of atomic hydrogen are found by
observation to tfe given by the equation
;

-'
c

=-*

(1.6)

n2

where R = 109700 cm." 1 is the Rydberg constant (spectroscopists

are accustomed to give the wave number v/c, the reciprocal wavelength, instead of the frequency

i>).

The energy

En

sponding to these frequency terms are

levels correy-.

To

this

term spectrum we must add the continuous spectrum

the additive constant in the energy is so chosen that
separates the hyperbolic electron orbits from the elliptic.
The Balmer series consists of the lines n -> 2 with wave numbers
discrete

E^
E=

^t)

(n

3, 4,

).

Balmer obtained it in
This is the oldest known series formula
1885 by abstraction from the first four lines of the series, called
which lie in the visible region. The lines of
a
//y, //,
this series converge with increasing n to a limit with wave
;

H H
,

ft ,

= 3650A V

is the work required

n
4
to ionize an f/-atom in the stationary state n
2, i.e. the work
atom without
an
to
from
such
remove the electron
required
The continuous spectrum,
leaving it with kinetic energy.
arising from transitions which ionize the atom, will join on to
this series limit on the short wave side.
are further acquainted with the Lyman series n ~> 1 which lies in the ultraviolet and also occurs in absorption, the Paschen series n -> 3

number

4 \

~
wave-leneth
*

-7

We

QUANTUM THEORY

46

lying in the infra-red, and finally with some members of the

Brackett (n -> 4) and Pfund (n -> 5) series in the far infra-red.
In order to ionize hydrogen in the normal state an amount cRh
"
ionization potential,'*
the corresponding
of work must be done
must
traverse before it
i.e. the potential difference an electron
;

is

able to ionize atomic hydrogen

/*/?/!

by means

of its kinetic energy,

is

13-53 volts.

Bohr's frequency rule goes beyond the combination principle

in asserting that the terms are actually energy levels, an assertion
That this is,
irrelevant to and not verifiable by spectroscopy.

however, in fact the case is confirmed by the experiments of

Franck and Hertz on collision phenomena* In these experiments
electrons are given an amount eV of kinetic energy by allowing
them to pass through an electric field of known potential difference
V and are then allowed to pass through a gas consisting
of the atoms which are to be investigated with the velocity thus
The
obtained, without further influence from external fields.
electron can give up no energy to the atom until eV is greater
EQ of the resonance line if
than the excitation energy E l
;

EQ

<

<E

eV

EQ

2
*'

elastic collision," in
then the electron can either suffer an
"
which case it loses no energy, or it can suffer an
inelastic
an
it
loses
amount
E
in
which
case
E
l
Q to the
collision,"
atom. The electrons which have passed through the gas are
of two kinds, those with kinetic energy eV and those with
E ). When the atoms which have been raised
eV
(E l
to the state 1 by collision with electrons fall
from the state
normal
state they emit the resonance line and,
back into the
under the above conditions, only this line. This is fully confirmed by the experiment. The kinetic energy of the emerging

electrons is measured by introducing a retarding potential

the electrons only come through it if their energy is greater
"
In general the electrons possess a discrete
than
energy
"
after collision with an atom of the gas
the possible
spectrum
energy values are

eV

eV^

^eV -

(E n

'

in so far as V n is still positive

we here dis0, 1, 2,
regard the possibility that a single electron may suffer more than
one inelastic collision). On allowing the retarding potential
to decrease gradually from a value which is greater than V the

(n

PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS
electron current decreases suddenly
one of the values FQ, V\>

47

whenever

passes through

Bohr's frequency rule reduces the determination of spectra

to the

problem

of obtaining the stationary states

and

the correspond-

of a mechanical system of known

ing energy
The
constitution.
example of the linear oscillator
dynamical
notions of the theory of
above
and
the
fundamental
given
oscillations suggest the following as a general guiding principle
the frequencies derived from the energy levels by means
(P)
of Bohr's frequency rule shall correspond to the frequencies of
the simple vibrations into which the actual motion of the atomic
constituents can be resolved in accordance with the laws of
dynamics. Such a resolution into simple oscillations is convincingly attainable in classical mechanics only if the system
levels

of an atom,

i.e.

"

4t

l4

conditionally periodic," and for this case it

to sharpen the general principle (P)
In the years 1913-25 the
into a definite rule for quantization.
application of this quantum rule yielded a great harvest of
results, and it seemed that we were in possession of the key that
is

multiply

or

was actually found possible

would unlock the mysteries of atomic processes. But the wards

did not quite fit
toward the end of this epoch its failure became
more and more apparent and the physical theory was gradually
reduced to a symbolic calculus of quantum numbers which had
We do
to be corrected each time a new fact was discovered.
not wonder now that it ran such a course, but rather are surprised
that it was as successful as it was
From the beginning the quantum rules were a compromise.
If a mechanical system of one degree of freedom undergoes a
periodic motion the frequencies v of the simple vibrations into
which its motion can be resolved are integral multiples of a
fundamental frequency a>. This frequency depends on the
energy of the orbit under consideration, and this latter is re;

by the quantum

stricted

rules

to

the discrete set

En

internal frequencies of the motion are therefore given

The
by the
.

formula
v

(1.7)

co(n)

which depends on the two integers n and k. By the analogy

with quantum mechanical frequencies this internal frequency
The fact that
(1.7) is to be ascribed to the jump n -> (n
k).
v depends linearly and homogeneously on the jump k is expressed

by the

"

classical combination principle

v(n

-+n

k)+

v(n ->

/)

"

v(n ->

/)

(1.8)

QUANTUM THEORY

48

consequence of which frequencies with the same initial state

combine. But this is not in accord with the correct
n
combination principle
in

will

v(n ->

k)

+ v(n

The changes k

k -> n

1)

= v(n -> n

quantum number

in the

but the final

are here the

/)

(1.9)

same

as

k of the first frequency coincides

with the initial state of the second
only for quantum numbers
n which are large compared with k and / does the classical
principle agree asymptotically with the Ritz-Rydberg comin (1.8),

state

Consequently if the general principle (P)

is to be satisfied without compromise our mechanics must be
altered in such a way that the false combination principle (1.8)
In 1925 Heisenberg disis replaced by the correct one (1.9).
covered a way in which such an alteration can be naturally
in order to do this, however, it was necessary
accomplished
to give up the picture of an atom with its electronic orbits.
The quantities with which the Heisenberg theory deals are
only the frequencies and intensities of radiation associated with
transitions between the various states of the atom.
It should be observed that the correct combination principle
(1.9) is in one important respect simpler than the false one (1.8).
As the formulation
bination principle.

v(n" ->

+ v(n' -> n) = v(w"-> n)

(1.10)

quantum numbers serve only as distinguishing marks

or indices which do not involve a law of composition, whereas
the classical formula requires the addition of quantum numbers,
which are therefore numbers on a definite scale.
Another approach to quantum mechanics was discovered
by L. de Broglie and E. Schrodinger.* This approach seems to
me less cogent, but it leads more quickly to the fundamental
principles of quantum mechanics and to the most important
shows, the

experimental science. We shall therefore

are more concerned in giving a short but
comprehensive account than in giving a complete discussion of

consequences
follow

it,

for

since

we

the physical foundations. The physical, essentially statistical,

interpretation of the theory, with which Schrodinger has not
been entirely in accord, is due mainly to M. Born.
2.

We

The de

Broglie

Waves

of a Particle

consider the undulatory character of light as guaranteed

by the phenomena
decisive feature

is

and interference. Their most

them we are dealing with the linear

of diffraction

that with

THE DE BROGLIE WAVES

position of waves with arbitrary differences of phase.

49

From

lathematical standpoint, they are characterized by the fact

they involve addition and multiplication with complex
>ers, and we are consequently dealing with vectors in a
lex space.
We can, in fact, consider a complex function
in the description of the phenomena and
employed
:yz)
id over time and space as such a vector, where each spacepoint represents one dimension of a complex vector space
or for several
ifferential laws for such a wave function ^
functions simultaneously, such as the components of the
;

and magnetic field strengths are linear and homoBut on the other hand the quantum phenomena
we discussed above speak just as plainly in favour of
The intensity of the mono'orpuscular nature of light.
natic radiation employed in the production of the photoic effect has no influence on the velocity with which the
ic

>us.
i

it influences only the frequency of

ons leave the metal
Even with intensities so weak that on the classical
ivent.
y hours would be required before the electromagnetic
;

passing through a given atom would attain to an amount

to that of a photon, the effect begins immediately, the
s at which it occurs being distributed irregularly over the

;y
>

metal plate. This constitutes a proof of the existence of

which is no less direct than the proof that a-particles are
rpuscular nature by observing the scintillations caused by
on striking a sensitized screen. Further, if one considers

>ns

exchange of momentum in addition to that of energy in

ing the laws of black body radiation, conflict with Planck's
thesis concerning energy quanta can be avoided only by
ning that in addition to the emission of the energy quantum
quantum hv\c of momentum is emitted in a definite direction,
5
We here replace
jcing an equivalent reaction on the atom.
ontinuous radiation of a spherical wave by the discontinuous

photons in definite directions which are irregularly

ibuted over the compass.
/e unite the two standpoints by retaining the linear wave
>ion of

'ion,

the

but considering the intensity

photon appears
sely, that

at the

point

$</r

as the relative probability

at time t ; or, more

(x, y, z)

$<f*dxdydz

(2.1)

probability that at time t it will be found within the small

llelepiped with sides of length dx, dy, dz about the point
e

QUANTUM THEORY

50

But we can only expect to arrive at a rational theory

with
material particles in the same way as with photons.
if we deal
view
was developed in the Bose-Einslein treatment
This point of
of an atomic gas, which paralleled that employed in the theory
6
of black body radiation (" light quant gas ").
Schrodinger's
researches took as their point of departure the Hamiltonian
(x

y, 2).*

theory of mechanics, which was originally obtained by Hamilton

himself from an analogy with geometrical optics.
He argued
that since we replace geometrical optics, with the aid of which
interference and diffraction cannot be treated, by wave optics,
it is reasonable to attempt the analogous transition in mechanics.
The results amply justified the attempt. The investigations of
Davisson and Germer which prove the existence of interference
1

beams

from a crystal lattice, were already

The experiBroglie published his theory.
mental evidence that moving material particles behave in much
the same way as a beam of light with respect to these phenomena
in

of electrons reflected

in progress

is

when de

now

and with no

certainty than for

investigations by the same
7
The
Thomson, F. Rupp and others.

fully established,
X-rays, by a series of

authors and by G. P.
real difference

between

"

less

further

"

light-like

and

4t

electron-like

"

beams

the fact that the particles composing the latter possess

and
proper mass and can consequently be deflected by
charge
lies in

electric

and magnetic

fields.

simple oscillation
the state of the system,

which the function //, defining

on
the time in accordance with
depends

is

one

the law

in

e~ ivt

(2.2)

where a and v are independent of t. [We choose as our unit

of angular measure that one which proves most useful in differential calculus, for

it

yields the simple relation

the fundamental trigonometric function e ix

The
e(x).
sum of the angles about a point is then 2?r it would, admittedly,
be more correct from the integral standpoint to take this as 1,
but then the factor 2n would appear in the differential relation.
we shall not
V/ZTT is the number of oscillations in unit time
for

Just as in the classical wave theory we have an expression for the flow
energy in addition to its density, so in the more refined formulation of
quantum theory we will have an expression for the probability that the
photon passes through a given element of surface ("probability current") in
addition to one for the probability that it be found in a given element of

ot

volume ("probability density").

THE DE BROGLIE WAVES

"

51
"

for v.
hesitate, however, to use the name
frequency
If we
denote Planck's constant of action by 2irh instead of h, and we shall

throughout the present work, the fundamental formula (1.1)

In accordance with
will still be valid in the new nomenclature.]
the simple oscillations (2.2) are the characteristic functions
of the linear Hermitian operator which carries $ over into

(2.3)

~
Z

the

j>

characteristic

corresponding

ClL

hv.
energies E
time is described

~-

If

by

numbers are

the

the dependence of a state of the system on

a superposition of simple oscillations

<f,(t)=:a 1

e-^

a 2 e- i

^+

(2.4)

-,

the energy is capable of assuming only one of the values hv lt

a r 2 of the
and we shall take the intensity d r a r
hv z
oscillation of frequency v r in ifj as the relative probability that

The relation E
hv is accordthe energy is observed to be hv r
if v is indeterminate because an entire
ingly to be interpreted
spectrum of frequencies v is contained in the oscillatory process, then
the intensities
the energy is indeterminate to the same ex-tent ;
with which the various simple oscillations occur in the process
.

measure

the

probabilities

h
operator

of the

corresponding

energies.

The

d
-.-

at

represents the energy

a characteristic function of (2.5) represents

in the following sense
the
with certainty.
a state in which
energy assumes a definite value
This value is the corresponding characteristic number ; in an
:

arbitrary state the components a of

^ wilh respect to these characterfunctions determine the relative probabilities a a of these

values E.
According to the theory of relativity energy is to be considered as the time component of a 4-vector whose spatial comThe
(p X} p vy p z }.
ponents constitute the linear momentum |)
fundamental metric invariant of the two vectors running from
the origin to the points (t, xyz), (t', x'y'z') is the scalar product

istic

c*tt'

(%%'

+ yy' +

zz}.

Under a Lorentz transformation, which transforms from one

space-time co-ordinate system to another equally permissible
one, the quantities
c*t,

x,

y,

must consequently transform contragrediently to

xyz\ they
are therefore the components of the vector associated with
t,

QUANTUM THEORY

52
(t t

xy z)

space which is the dual of the 4-dimensional spaceSuch a dual vector is given by

in the

time world.

H,
or,

what amounts

to the

Hdt

Pz

/>*,

py,

same

thing,

(pidx

+ pydy + pjz)

invariant under Lorentz transformations.

of the total differential operator
is

The same

is

true

Hence the correx, y, z.

applied to an arbitrary function of /
the
further
relations
spondence (2.5) necessarily implies
;

*
v>

/o A\
(2 6)

^i-^' '"-^s/ *-*;*

which

are to be given the analogous interpretation.

homogeneous plane wave

^(-'< +

+ ^y + ^r*)
(2.7)

simultaneously a characteristic function of the four mutually

commutative operators (2.5), (2.6), which has as characteristic

is

numbers

H = hv;

px

&a,

pv

Aj8,

#>,

- hy.

(2.8)

represents a state in which the energy and linear momentum

quantum possess these sharply defined values.
In classical mechanics the laws governing the motion of a
in terms
particle are known as soon as we express its energy
"
"
canonical variables
I
n
of the
Newtonian
xyz, pxpvPiIt

of the

mechanics the Hamiltonian function for a free material particle

of mass m is

H = *' +

+
|*

'
/>

(2.9)

on employing the transition scheme developed above we obtain

the corresponding

wave equation

a solution of this equation provided the values (2.8) of

in this
energy and linear momentum satisfy equation (2.9)
But the equation (2.10)
sense (2.9) and (2.10) are equivalent.
is linear and has as its most general solution a linear supersuch a superposition corresponds
position of simple waves (2.7)
(2.7) is

THE DE BROGLIE WAVES

53

momentum of the particle

4<
with a certain definite
values
assume their various permissible
probability/'
The space vector (a, ft, y) in (2.7) gives the direction of
propagation of the plane wave, and the modulus of this vector
is the wave number ft (the number of waves contained in 2n
is the wave length A).
Hence by (2.8)
units of length
2ir/ft
to a state in

which the energy and

the absolute value

is

the

of

the phase velocity of the

v

h^/2m

it is

momentum
wave

in

= 6*-- ^
2m

equal to

is

= --

hp,

accordance with

(2.9) or

P-

= hrr/Xm and depends on the wave

Since

(dispersion).
particle, the

mv, where v

"group velocity"

-y-

is

length or frequency
the velocity of the

v coincides with the

velocity of the particle.

Experiments on diffraction and interference phenomena in electron beams, such as those performed

by Davisson and Germer, have made it possible to test directly

these relations set up by de Broglie.
In relativistic mechanics we have in place of (2.9) an equation
which states that the square

momentum

4-vector

is

of the absolute value of the energyconstant and equal to m 2c 2

:

^-(Pl + Pl + Pt) =

*c*

(2.11)

or

For the transition' to a wave equation it is of advantage to employ

the rational form (2.11) of this expression
:

Here again the group velocity

is

equal to the velocity v of the

the former
particle, but the phase velocity is found to be c*jv
is always less, the latter always more than the velocity of light.
"
"
In order to return from the relativistic to the
or
ordinary
Newtonian mechanics by passing to the limit c -> oo, we must
;

first

replace

The

H by mc*-{-H

differential

tained from (2.11)

i.e.

iff

must be replaced by e(

--r

^r.

equation governing light waves can be obby dropping the term on the right-hand side,

QUANTUM THEORY

54

Hence from the corpuscular standpoint

or particles of proper mass

light consists of

photons

In accordance with the expression (2.1) for the probability

density, we are to consider as the vector in unitary system-space
describing the state of the system the function Jt in so far as it

The integral of (2.1)

depends on the spatial co-ordinates xyz.
with respect to the spatial co-ordinates gives the probability
"
within the volume V at time /."
that the particles will be found
Space and time must be separated from one another the system
has at each time t a definite state ift(xyz) which will in general
vary with /. The operators which represent physical quantities
must accordingly be ones which operate on an arbitrary function
of the spatial co-ordinates.
This requirement is satisfied by
;

the operators (2.6) corresponding to the momentum co-ordinates,

but not by differentiation with respect to time, which we have
associated with the energy.
We must instead consider the
situation as described as follows
from the expression for the
of
in
the
canonical
terms
variables
energy
p xj p vj p z we obtain
the operator // which represents the energy and which operates
on the function $(xyz). The equation
:

is

then the dynamical law which determines the change

state

tfj

in the

in time.

The separation

of space and time offers certain difficulties

the development of quantum theory from the relativistic
standpoint
consequently, for the present, we base our development on the Newtonian mechanics.
Our procedure must eventually be modified in another
we have here tacitly assumed, for the sake
important respect
to

of

mathematical simplicity but without physical

that the

wave

justification,

a material particle is described by a scalar

The
modification, which is required in order to
quantity ifi.
an
give
adequate description of the facts of spectroscopy, will
be made in Chap. IV.
3.

field of

Schrddinger's

Wave

Equation.

The Harmonic

Oscillator

When the particle is moving under the influence of forces

the kinematic part (2.9) of the energy is augmented by the

WAVE EQUATION

SCHRODINGER'S

55

potential energy, which usually depends on the co-ordinates

must therefore know
alone and not on the momenta.
which Hermitian operator acting on ifj corresponds to the co-

We

this operator
multiplication by x
its
characteristic
values
principal axes,
and finally *l>(x), or more precisely ifi(x)\/dx,
"
"
associated with the charactervector
is the component of the
istic number x (we have here ignored the other co-ordinates y, z).

ordinate

x.

assert that

already referred to
are all real numbers x
is

it is

its

In accordance with the statistical interpretation of the relationship between physical quantities and operators, our assertion is

the probability that x has a value between x

and x 2

is

agreement with the expression

(2.1) for the probability

V(xyz) is a function of position in the 3-dimensional
space, e.g. the potential energy, then the physcial quantity V
is
represented by the operator

this

is

in

density.

If

-> V(xyz]
for the probability that

lies

$,

between

and V\

is

given by the

integral
\ \\ijjifjdxdydz

extended over that portion of space in which V ^ V(xyz) ^ F 2

The operators corresponding to x, y, z commute with each
other, but the operator Q corresponding to x and the operator
P corresponding to p x do not. In fact
.

PQ-QP^~.l

or

where the 1 on the right-hand side stands for the operator

-> </>(#).
Because of this non-commutative reidentity:
*fi(x)
lation between the operators P and Q, p x cannot assume a definite
In fact, if p x
value with certainty when x does, and conversely.
is known to have the value hex. with certainty, then the dependence
in consequence of this the
of
on x is given by the factor e iax
ifj

position x of the particle is entirely indeterminate, since the

probability $$ of localization is the same for all points x.
If V(x, y, z) is the potential energy of the field in which the
particle moves, the total energy

H-

y>2

is

QUANTUM THEORY

56

We

assume with Schrcdinger that

in spite of the fact that all

still apply our rules for the

our variables do not commute we may

formulation of the wave equation we thus obtain Schrodinger' s
;

differential equation

"

"

"

"

We

or
understand by
stationary
quantum states iff those
in which the energy E has a definite value
they are character;

ized as solutions of the

the equation

wave equation which

satisfy in addition

[cf. (2.5)]

On

E=

such a
the new function denoted by
setting

iff(xyz),

hv,

will

iff

is

iff

have the form

independent of

t.

e~* vt

iff

where

This function

which depends only on the spatial co-ordinates,

satisfies

the reduced equation

^AA +
The problem

is

[E

V( Xyz}]t

0.

thus reduced to finding values of

and functions

of position which satisfy this equation and are such that

iff
the integral of $ iff over the entire space is finite. They are the

characteristic

numbers and

characteristic vectors of the Hermitian

operator H associated with the energy

(3.1) in the function space

The characteristic numbers E
functions of position iff.
are the possible energy levels of the particles.
Before going any further into the interpretation of the theory
we have developed, it will be well to convince ourselves that it
leads to energy levels which are in agreement with the facts.
The simplest example is that of the linear oscillator ; with it
we are dealing with only one co-ordinate x. The potential

of all

energy

is

V(x]

= -x

and the

total energy

=+
The equation

"

<

3 2>
-

for the determination of the characteristic values

and the associated characteristic functions

2m

dx\2

\-

(E

=
!*)*(*)

is

0.

(3.3)

WAVE EQUATION

SCHRODINGER'S

57

Hermitian polynomials. The solutions of this equation are

ih
Herexpressed in terms of Hermitian polynomials. The n
mitian polynomial r] n (x) is defined by the equation

is exactly x
The
degree and the highest term
set
of
an
functions
constitute
orthogonal
0, 1, 2,
*)
r) n (x) (n
"
"
e~ x*l 2
with the
density function
it

is

of

fch

4-co
/

'

c~
Jj/>
-

7]

\ _7

n (x)'n m (x)dx

f\

u,

=f=

/O K\
(^-^)

00

the functions

are consequently orthogonal in the ordinary sense.

this

we need merely

To prove

to note that
-f 00

becomes, on integrating n times by parts,

-f

00

OO

and the integrand vanishes

for

m<

n.

For

m=

n we obtain

-f-oo

x *' 2

\e-

dx

00

so the equations (3.5) can be

y2

=:
f

supplemented by

*-/* i(*)rf*

n!

oo

From

(3.4)

we have

_,

and we can cons,der

^ Btl

^^

-.u

as e.ther

d n /<*N
or

^^- j

^/^ n \

^(^J.

c
Since
.

QUANTUM THEORY

58

and

the

first of

these interpretations yields the recursion formula

1?n+l(*)

From

we

the second

Hl?n-l(*)-

XV)n(x)

3 6)
-

find

or

On

subtracting the recursion formula

the simple relation

^=
Differentiating (3.7)
of

in
7? n41

(3.8),

The equation

for

n () is

<

we

find

(3.8)

(n
l}rj n for the derivative
obtain the differential equation

we

-*

(3.6)

,,_,.

and substituting

accordance with

from

(3.7)

+ * -

consequently

- Vn +

+ 1^. -

0.

(3.9)

On

going over to a new unit of length by the substitution

<x, the left-hand side of (3.3) is equal to the left-hand side
of (3.9) multiplied by /* 2/2wa 2 provided

/t

2ma

1
2

aa 2
2

y/afm denote the

Let

a>

The

first of

'

classical

2/

""

frequency of the

these conditions determines the

a2

1\

new

oscillator.

unit of length a

and the second requires that

+
characteristic

(3.10)

show that the n () constitute a complete orthoand consequently there can exist no further
numbers and functions. The oscillator possesses

It is possible to

gonal system,

i).

<

SCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION

59

That the
the discrete energy levels (3.10) at intervals ha> apart.
is of itself of
lowest energy level turns out to be i/tco instead of
no significance, as we may always introduce an additive constant
into the energy, although it is meaningful to assert that the least
possible value of the quantity //, (3.2), is equal to \ha).
However, the wave equation not only yields the energy levels
as characteristic values, but it also gives us information concerning the probability of localization by means of the character-

For convenience we now take a

functions.

istic

unit of length.
the

n ih energy

at

~x*/>

When

\l~
>

as the

the oscillator is in the state described

by

level, the probability that the oscillating particle is

distance x from its position of equilibrium is given by

ifi^x).

relative,
points of

probabilities are to be understood as

equal infinitesimal intervals about the

These

and

to

refer

In particular, for the lowest energy

x.
the probability density is e~~ x *f 2 we can therefore
no longer say that the mass-point is at rest in the position of
equilibrium, but rather the probability of its displacement from
The normalized
this position is given by a Gauss error curve.
characteristic functions of (3.3) are given by
level

On

comparison

tt~0

expressing any function

if/(x)

terms of this set

of position in

-fco

and the operator belonging

to the energy

is,

seen, expressed in terms of these co-ordinates

x n -> hco(n

i)

xn

as
*f*

we have already

by

In order to find the operator associated with the co-ordinate x

we must express x\l* n (x} linearly in terms of the characteristic

functions themselves

by

*<n

(3.6)

we have

</Wl

W^n-l

whence
xt n

= *J!
in

nf l

The correspondence

tfj(x)

these Fourier coefficients

in

->

by

,/,_,

x*f/(x)

=
is

V,7+~l

n+1

+ Vn $ n _i.

thus expressed in terms of

QUANTUM THEORY

60
its

matrix

\\q

nm

contains only the elements

\\

qn. n-i

Vn,

q n w+1
,

= Vn +

1.

(3.11)

(On returning to the original unit of length the right-hand side

must be multiplied by the factor a.) On applying the operator
-r-

to

<f>

we

obtain, in accordance with (3.8)

and

(3.6),

d^ n

whence

The

linear

mentum p

its

for

Hermitian correspondence associated with the moh

A
- d is
.

accordingly

matrix \\p nm has as

1
which m
n

its

\\

Pn, n -i

=-

%-Vn,

only non-vanishing elements those

p ntn+1

gi

Vn +

1.

(3.12)

to the original unit of length these elements are

1 are to
by I/a. Terms with the index n

(On returning

to be multiplied

be omitted when n
of the above formulae.)
4.

in fact,

they automatically drop out

Spherical Harmonics

In order to discuss the energy levels of an electron in a

spherically symmetric electrostatic field we must first discuss
spherical harmonics

and

their principal properties.

denote the distance from the origin in

Definition.
the 3-dimensional space with co-ordinates x, y, 0, and let r, 0, ^
be polar co-ordinates with polar axis along the positive z
direction
r cos 0.
r sin Oe**,
x
z
iy

Let

1.

On
6,

<f>

and

is

th
homogeneous polynomial u of 9 degree in x y, z
F YI depends only on the directional co-ordinates
a function of position on the unit sphere.
If u is

setting a

equal to r

a harmonic function, i.e. if it satisfies the equation Aw

0,
YI is said to be a surface harmonic of degree / and the harmonic

SPHERICAL HARMONICS
function u itself is said to be a spherical
Since in polar co-ordinates
degree I.

61

(or solid)

harmonic of

the surface harmonic Y^ satisfies the differential equation

Q.
2.

On

Orthogonality.

spherical harmonics u

unit sphere,

we obtain

Y kl

which dw

the orthogonality relations

*7,^ =
in

formula to the
on
the
interior of the
Yi

Green's

applying

(4.2)

= sin0dOd<f>

is

fe=|=/,

0,

(4.3)

the surface element on the unit sphere.

Yk

Since the conjugate complex

harmonic

of a surface

is

surface harmonic, the first factor in (4.3) can be replaced

3. Basis.
On writing

=x+
Au

the differential equation

we

iy,

T]

(w

Yk

becomes

homogeneous polynomial u
breaks up into harmonic polynomials u^ m

- 27tt<"0

by

iy

see that a

also a

of degree

in

77,

=-/,,/-

1,

where w (m) consists of all terms in which the exponents of and

have the fixed difference m. The recursion formula for the
77
coefficients of u (m \ which is obtained from the differential
equation Aw ~ 0, further shows that there exists one and to
within a multiplicative constant only one, such harmonic u (m)
}

there

exist

exactly 2/ -f 1 linearly independent

we may take them to be the
surface harmonics of degree /
defined
by
7<7>

Accordingly,

u (m)
Writing
u<

and

>

(x

(^

y(m)

- z- m P -

(x

P+

iy)

placing
iy)(x

^y)

by

r2

22

QUANTUM THEORY

62

and P+ depend only on

we have

= ^tm*

y(m)

For
P(z)
<f>

m=
= (1

This basis

(l l)

in

p(m)

which the

CQS

4)

/,

m' 4=

o,

for m = +
P^ =
Since Y^ depends

and

1,

y(*>yO'>deo

-m

S j n 0)

Hence on taking

z.

latter case.

for

this
in the factor e im *,

only

and

P=

we take

2 2 )'

r2

tn.

1
;

on

(4.5)

2-axis occupies a preferred position,

is

accordingly unitary-orthogonal.
That the totality of surface harmonics
4. Completeness.
constitute a complete orthogonal system on the unit sphere can
be proved by showing that any polynomial in x, y, z on the
Now
sphere can be written as a sum of surface harmonics.
the general polynomial of degree / contains
(/

1)

+ +
/

(/

1)

But exactly this same number of

independent homogeneous polynomials are contained
arbitrary constants.

linearly

the

in

expression
r

(Yi

+Y_ +
t

)[=

Ul

(x*

+ y* + *>,_

+],

(4.6)

are linearly
for the polynomials of the form r Y^ r Fi_ 2
of
the
of
surface
harmonics.
in
virtue
orthogonality
independent
,

+ =

1
/
Yi contains exactly 21
linearly independent
(/
1)
contains
and
functions,
exactly
consequently (4.6)

[(/

+!)

/]

[(/

-!)

</-

2)]

',

as asserted above.
5.

Closed

expressions for

stituting (4.4) in (4.2)

(1

sub-

~ l]z dP +
+ 1) - nt(m - 1)] P =
+
2(m
Tz
7P
From this equation
polynomial P = P p in z = cos
d*P

22)

for the

we

On
surface harmonics.
the differential equation

the

we obtain

[l(l

(n

find that -7- satisfies the

0.

same

differential

dz

placing

by

we thus obtain

p '-"w
and the expression

on
equation
^

the recursion formula

re-

SPHERICAL HARMONICS
In particular, the

"

zonal harmonic

63

"

Further formula.

6.

YkYtdoj^
unless

-f

Yk _

in
l

(4.7)

a polynomial of degree
be
4,
expanded in the form
Consequently on the unit sphere

1.

and may,

r k+l (Y k +

For x*r Y k
accordance with
k

')

xY,=^ Y

is

M + !Vi +

(4.8)

and the only values of / ^> k for which the integral (4.7) can
is / = k + 1.
Hence our assertion
have a value other than
it also follows from the above that only the first two
(4.7)
;

terms can appear

Further,

we

in (4.8).

have occasion to use the differential

shall also

expressions
I

L 2u
in

L x (L x u]

On

terms of polar co-ordinates.

.

au

'du,

ax

^x

L y (L y u]

-\

(L t u)

setting in

tu,
^HJ
--dz
ay
.

'

ty

-\

^z

the changes dx, dy, dz obtained by allowing <f> to increase

and holding r,
fixed, we obtain immediately
d<f>

L7 u
z

-.

by

14 1A\
(4.10)

Similarly,

cos

U=-A
5.

Now

[eq. (4.1)].

Electron in Spherically Symmetric Field.

Directional Quantization

e
Consider an electron of charge
back to physics
at
Ze
situated
of
the
charge
revolving about a fixed nucleus
1 we have the hydrogen atom, for Z
For Z
2
origin.
!

64
singly ionized

QUANTUM THEORY
helium He + for Z = 3 doubly
,

The

Li 4"*", etc.

potential

--

is

energy

ionized lithium

Ze*
;

we

shall,

however, for the present take V(r] more generally as any function
The wave equation for the determination of
r.
the energy levels is then

of the radius

*^y +
On expanding
of terms

in

f (r)Y
l

on the left-hand side of

= 0.

K(r)tf

terms of surface harmonics

(/=0,

[E

2,

1,

(5.1)

The

).

sends the

(5.1)

i/r

becomes a sum

differential operator
term of this sum into

times

Consequently each individual term must satisfy the differential

we thus obtain a complete set of charequation separately
acteristic functions of the form
;

The

factor

f (r) depending only on

and

vanishes

numbers and
equation by

Ei,

En

must be such that

(5.2)

the

char-

characteristic functions of this

differ-

converges.

\r*fi(r)fi(r)dr

acteristic

ential

fm(r)

(n

Denoting

0, 1, 2,

),

+
+

is a (21
i
l)-fold energy level, as the expression /nl (r)F,
1
contains 21
linearly independent characteristic functions
we may choose
associated with this single characteristic value
as a basis the functions
;

W=

Y<f

fm(r)

(m

=-/,-,/-

1, /).

We

thus arrive at three integral quantum numbers

the
"
"
"
radial quantum number
the
azimuthal
number
n,
/,
quantum
"
n
and the
m. The energy level
magnetic quantum number
:

"

depends only on the

first two.
In justification of this nomenclature we determine the angular
momentum hQ of the electron with components

hL x

yp z

In quantum mechanics L x
Hence for
^<3>

=f

nl (r)

Y ri (

Lv L

zp y
,

in

(a

.
,

are

the

operators

function of r and

0)

(4.9).

(5.3)

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELD

we have,

in

accordance with

L
and

65

(4.10),

ifj

m-

</r,

for the general characteristic function

* = fni(r)Y
with azimuthal quantum number /

(5.4)

L*<f*= 1(1+ !)<*.

Hence

in the state described

E ni

a definite value
of

by

(5.4)

not only the energy has

but also the absolute value of

the

moment

momentum
2

/(/

1)

(5-5)

azimuthal number is that it fixes this

indeed remarkable that there exist states
with spherically symmetric character/
0, 1, 2,
0, n
istic functions
fn $(r} for which the moment of momentum
In the states described by (5.3) not only the energy
vanishes.
and the absolute value of the moment of momentum have
definite values, but also the z-component of the moment of momentum assumes a definite value with certainty, for then

The

of the

significance

magnitude.

It

is

iff

L
Since a magnetic dipole

m,

(5.6)

moment
eh
(5.7)

associated with the angular momentum hQ of the revolving

electron (the mass of the electron being denoted by /x whenever
there is danger of confusion with the magnetic quantum number

is

m), the influence of

magnetic

field.

will be felt on subjecting the atom to a

existence of the Zeeman effect under such
traced to this cause.
A fundamental ex-

The

conditions can be
periment to observe the magnetic moment of the electron directly
Let a stream of one-electron atoms,
is due to Stern and Gerlach.
which are all moving in the direction of the #-axis and are in

with energy level E nb be subjected to an inhomogeneous magnetic field in the direction of the s-axis. Let
the x- and y-components of the magnetic field vanish in the
(#-0)-plane, in which the beam moves, and let the 2-component
be a function of z alone. A magnetic dipole, the ^-component
the state

of

(n,

/)

whose moment

is

sz

is

in the positive ^-direction.

then acted upon by a force -yaz

sz

In consequence of (5.6) the atomic

QUANTUM THEORY

66

beam should be broken up

force

into 2/

beams by the

smaller

the ^-direction,

corresponding to the various values

/
m
/
of the magnetic quantum number.
1,
/,
On performing the experiment on silver atoms in the normal
state two beams, corresponding to n\
1, were observed
"
the value of the
Bohr magneton/ the elementary magnetic
moment corresponding to one unit of angular momentum, was
in

eh

found to agree with the value

Why

obtained from

beam corresponding

the unperturbed

to

(5.6)

m=

and

(5.7).

did not

appear remained unexplained.

The older quantum theory, which employed the quantum

number k = / + 1 with values 1, 2,
allowed m to assume
,

the integral values from

k to
k
it seemed
plausible to
exclude the case k =.- 0, although one was thereby led into
"
"
difficulties on applying the so-called
adiabatic hypothesis
to the behaviour of an atom under the influence of crossed
electric and magnetic fields.
ad hoc hypothesis is required

only the values 0, 1,

or the present scalar

number
of

the

2,

In the

new quantum theory no

for this exclusion, as / can assume

But according to either the old

wave theory

of permissible values of

case

m=

there should exist an odd

/
the exclusion
required by the Stern-Gerlach

for given k or

apparently
experiment cannot be accounted for on cither theory. Nor
can we explain the related fact that in the anomalous Zeeman
effect
may assume either an even or an odd number of values,
according to the nature of the atom under consideration.
Obviously something is lacking in our present scalar wave
we return to this
theory as well as in the older formulation

4.
The older quantum theory
point again in Chap. IV,
"
described the situation met above as
directional quantiza"
tion
since the absolute value of the moment of momentum
was hk and the component along the z-axis was hm, it concluded
that the magnetic axis of the atom could assume only
positions
described by the inclination 8 with the 2-axis determined
by
the formula
;

cos0-~
Thus

(m

0,

1,

2,

-,

k).

1 we should
expect only three possible
orientations for the magnetic axis
parallel and anti-parallel
to the field, which we have taken in the direction of the
2-axis,
and perpendicular thereto unless we empirically exclude this

in the case k

latter possibility
in which case we

m=

because of the Stern-Gerlach experiment,

have but two. In either case we find ourselves

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELD

67

faced with a serious dilemma, for the direction of the z- axis is

an arbitrary direction in space. In order to avoid this one
then assumed that the quantization was due to the influence of
the magnetic field, and consequently the preferred z-direction
was interpreted physically as the direction of the magnetic field.
But even so the difficulty is not avoided in the limiting case of
vanishing magnetic field, for the directional quantization should
be maintained in arbitrarily weak fields. Or stated more
physically, the radiation mechanism required by the SternGerlach effect for the orientation of the atoms, which were
originally in random orientation and precessing about the
8
times as long as the greatest time
z-axis, requires about 10
consistent with the observations.
The stand taken by the new

quantum theory on

this point

is

The
different.
by the functions

fundamentally

possible states (u, /) of the atom are described

of the (21 -f- l)-dimensional linear family
i/r

or by the vectors of a (21 -f- l)-dimensional space with comThe z-component of the moment of momentum, as
ponents x m
well as the component in any arbitrary direction, is capable of
1,
assuming only the discrete values hm (m ~ /, /
/).
But in a state in which the z component, for example, assumes
.

the value hm with certainty there is only a certain probability

that any other component will assume a definite one of its
values h 0, h (
h (
The name
/).
possible
1),
,

"

directional quantization
of this situation. 9

"

is

hardly an appropriate description

When

the electro-static central force satisfies the Coulomb law

in a nucleus of charge
Ze, the differential
"
for
the
function
radial
characteristic
"/ fn \( r ]
equation (5.2)

and originates
becomes

The character of this equation is unchanged on going over

the new dependent variable v defined by rf = e~* r v

to

_
We

2a _
Ja

a'
a

4-

|^

choose a in such a
vanishes

efficient of v

4-4+ ^ + ^
way

^}

-a

that the constant term in the co-

(5.8)

QUANTUM THEORY

68

We know from the general theory of linear differential equations

10

that there exist solutions of this equation in the neighbourhood

in the form of a power
(regular) singular point r

of the
series

= Z a^

which the exponent /x begins with a certain value MO> which

1
need not be an integer, and runs through the values /x /x

in

Mo +

2,

we

tion

On

substituting this

series into the equa-

power

find the recursion formula

F7

-2\

*.

(5.9)

In order that

for the coefficients a^.

= 0,
(a^

a^i

We

be satisfied for

/LI

we must have

0)

=\=

it

1)

thus have the two possibilities

^ == +
/

/(/

1).

or

ji

/.

Considering the first possibility and taking the coefficient a j+1

of the lowest power as unity, all remaining coefficients can be
obtained by successive applications of the recursion formula
1) never vanishes
/(/
(5.9), as the denominator ^(^ -f- 1)
The second
let the solution thus obtained be denoted by v.
the
denomias
a
not
does
lead
to
however,
solution,
possibility
the second
/ vanishes
nator in the recursion formula for //,
solution of the differential equation can be obtained by quadrature from the first and involves logarithmic terms.
The power series for v breaks off if for a definite exponent

or

*L
In this case

/ is

of the

e -*r
it is

finite at r

ri

form
(polynomial of degree n in

and the

r)

integral
/(r)/(r)rfr

(5.11)

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELD

as

exists,

numbers
n

+ 1+

is

E
I

to

are

69

be required. The corresponding characteristic

on writing n in place of
the energy levels

and solving

(5.8), (5.9) for

E we

find
.

9
'

'

The

integer n, the principal or fofa/ quantum number, is

There exist no other solutions
/.
subject to the condition w

>

which the integral (5.11) converges. 8

The energy levels depend only on the principal quantum
number n ; the terms fur which n is a fixed number and
1 coincide in a
/ = 0,
n
1,
single degenerate term E n
for

of multiplicity

1)

n2

J-0

77ns theoretical result agrees with the empirical formulce for the
We find, in fact, the
Balmer, Paschen, Lyman, etc., series.
expression

(v

L7TC

E1- \
)

LTfCh/

expression for the Rydberg constant R in terms of the fundamental

constants of nature (the charge and the mass of the electron, the
of light and the elementary quantum of action) agrees
All terms and therefore
numerically with its empirical value.
all actual line frequencies v depend on the integer Z describing
velocity

the charge on the nucleus in such a way that \'v increases in

Since the X-ray terms are due to the innerproportion with Z.
most electrons, which are but slightly affected by the outer
ones, we should expect to find that the hardest X-ray lines,

arranged
law.

It

in

accordance with the atomic number Z, follow

this

was discovered by Moseley and gave a conclusive proof

of the fact that on going through the elements of the periodic table
the charge on the nucleus increases by e from element to element.

This law uncovers with unerring certainty the holes yet reat present we lack
maining in the system of known elements
2
in
but
the scries beginning with hydrogen,
(or 3) elements
Z
92.
1, and ending with uranium, Z
The characteristic functions associated with these energy
levels, which determine the relative probabilities of the various
positions of the electron, can be expressed in closed form in
;

QUANTUM THEORY

70

terms of the so-called Laguerre polynomials. The character/

function belonging to the normal state n
1,
0, is

istic

spherically symmetric

,/,=
for

*
:

IVna*

*-'/";

(5.13)

hydrogen

a= me =
9
2

0-532

(5.14)
'
x

(According to the older Bohr theory, a is the radius of the innera determines the order of magnitude
orbit.)
of atomic dimensions.
In the normal state hydrogen possesses
but
spherical symmetry (according to the scalar wave theory

most electronic

see Chap. IV,

8).
The radial characteristic functions r

fnl (r] do

not, however,

constitute a complete orthogonal system for a given / for the

in addition to the
full domain which we wish to consider
discrete term spectrum (5.12) we have the continuous spectrum
0.
covering the whole region
go no further into this
matter. 11
:

E^

6.

We

Phenomena

Collision

The optical phenomena show that the quantum theory leads

to the correct energy levels, but they do not lend themselves
to an attempt to interpret the vector i/r in system space as a
phenomena, which deal with the deunder the influence of other
material bodies, are best suited for this latter purpose.
The
fundamental experiments of Franck and Hertz, as well as those
of Davisson and Germer, belong to this latter category.
Neglecting the reaction of the moving particle on the perturbing body, the potential energy due to this latter may be
Collision

probability.

flection of electrons or a-particles

taken as a given function V(xyz) of position.

Considering
a one-dimensional problem, the energy of the moving particle is
then

fl-s^+rw.
=

We

can think of the curve y

V(x) as the contour of a hill
which
the
The wave equation for a
runs.
against
particle
*

The normalizing

factor i/N/ira 1
oo

f f

(e-Wadxdydz

4* te

is

calculated from

PHENOMENA

COLLISION
state with given energy

is

-j-

2m

ax*

71

l/i

'('vJ

rrr VJ.

(u.l)

V we

If we neglect for the moment the perturbing field

as solutions of (6.1) the familiar de Broglie waves

obtain

a linear

is

combination of the waves e iax and e~** x proceeding in the positive

and negative directions along the #-axis, the wave number a
of which is determined by
2

(Aa)

-=

2m E

Aa

or

/>.

Writing

~V(x)
equation

(6.1)

U(x)

becomes

+
?t
a.r
2

We now

--=

assume that

[*

as # ->

- u (*)]
i

oo, f^(^)

behaves

in

6 2)
-

such a way

t-oo

that the integral

|[/(*)|</#

converges;

equation

(6.2)

then has

00

one solution which behaves for x -> + oo asymptotically like

lAX
and another, which is linearly independent of the first,
e
which behaves like e~ * x in the same region.
This can most readily be seen by solving (6.2) by the method
Let
of successive approximations.
1

in general
and take as the th approximation the function e ia *
in
of
is
terms
the
determined
n by integrating
^ nll
equation
;

*{/

Hence
oo
l

(x

We
that

restrict ourselves

for the

f)

moment

U(g)

n (f)

d.

to a region

.v

(6.4)

XQ such

QUANTUM THEORY

72
If

|^ n (#)

we can

the integral

SSfl n f r all *>

therefore take aQ

1,

Consequently the series for

geometric series with ratio g.

a n+1

converges and we have

(6.4)

= g# n

Then a n

=g

consequently a solution of

is

or

converges at least as fast as the

It satisfies the integral equation

%
and

(6.2).

(6.5)

Since
1

(6.5) leads to

the estimate

from which it follows that ^(x) behaves asymptotically for

^^
Not only is
but also
x ->
oo like <//o(#) = ^

_i_

^,

l<ata?

i/r

_j_^

or the equation
^

cosa.r

gives as an upper bound for the absolute value

on the left-hand side the quantity

which approaches

as x ~>

of the difference

oo.

^r(#) which we have found in the region x ^; %

can naturally be extended over the entire real axis by analytic
continuation.
Since our considerations apply just as well for
#->
we
know
that i/j(x) satisfies an asymptotic equation
oo,
of the form

The

solution

if>(x)

~ be"* +

b'e~~'*

for

x ~>

oo.

PHENOMENA

COLLISION
same time we must

le

(x)

have

also

~ i.(be* AX

b'e~ iax ').

dx

73

being a solution of the differential equation, $(x)

[<**

U( X )W

~=

iply the first equation

0,

U(x)]f

second by

$, the

by

ift

is

0.

and subtract

nd
d

dx

\l>

dx

^-0^
i.1

determinant
or

A;

>

(6.6)

,V

f*

Hows from

this

ave a solution

-f-

oo

that

&'*'),

- VV /;

4= 0.

1.

On

(6.7)

multiplying

whose asymptotic behaviour

ift(x)

is

by

1/6

described

equations
0(r)

~
</r(.v)

(6.6)

has the limiting value 2fa for x ->

frfr

const.

.V

oo

2ia(W

ic

=0

dx-)/

a -

/;,

'**

~^

a' -- b';b.

a'e"'**
ia *

(6.7)

for
is

for
A-

->

A'

-->

oo,

oo

(6.8)

now

particle of definite energy runs against the potential energy

the left, i.r. from .v
H7zm:w zn classical
GO.

from

anics the particle certainly eitlier gets over the hill or is throicn
according to whether its initial kinetic energy is greater or
than the maximnm of F(.v) quantum mechanics states that
2
that it gets over and a probability ja'j 2
is a probability aj
back.
//
is thrown
Furthermore, these probabilities are
the disnuous functions of the energy of the particle
broken
of
down.
the
classical
is
unity
theory
completely
a
number
large
perform the experiment successively with
irticlcs we find that they arc divided into two streams,
cordance with (6.8.), proceeding in the positive and negative
f

QUANTUM THEORY

74

the relative intensities of these

directions along the #-axis
are given by 1 and |a'| 2 for x -+
oo, respectively, while for
x ->
o there exists only the positive stream of intensity
2
Equation (7.5) thus expresses the conservation of the
;

|a|

number

of particles

and shows

\a\* of the absolute value of the

we must consider

the square
as
a
relative
a
intensity
amplitude

that

or probability.
If

the integral
+

oo

<

Adx

the solution ^

formula
with the

is

represented throughout the whole space by the

In perturbation theory one is usually satisfied

(6.3).
first term
The theory of the familiar experiments

of Rutherford, in which oc-particles are allowed to fly in a given

direction with given momentum into and be deflected by the
of an atom, has been developed by Wentzel in a similar
manner. 12 The influence of the a-particle on the atom is thereby
on taking it into account we are led to the theory
neglected
of the experiments of Franck and Hertz, giving formulae for

field

particles specified according to their various

This
kinetic energies and their various directions.
calculation has been carried through for hydrogen by Born and

the

dispersed

discrete

Elsasser. 1 *

very important application of this picture of

"
"
through a potential hill has been

seeping
corpuscular waves
made by G. Gamow and R.

IV.

Gurney and E. U. Condon

to

14
explain radioactive decay.

7.

The Conceptual

Structure of

Quantum Mechanics

The fruitfulness of the theory has been amply established by

the above applications and the examples given have served to
illustrate its physical interpretation
it now seems time to set
forth its general abstract formulation.
EC
Consider a physical system of known constitution.
r
each
a
is
individual
case
such
particular state,
of
system
e^
sented by a vector j of modulus 1 in a unitary system space.
ft
j
physical quantity associated with the system is represented^ ^
;

Hermitian form in this space. The fundamental question

w^j
we put to the theory is not, as in classical physics, " What vain
"
has this physical quantity in this particular case ?
but rather
"

What

are the possible values of the physical quantity A, and

what
it assumes a definite one of these
value? M

is the probability that

"
The
a given case ?

answer

to this question

is

The

probabilitv

THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE

A

75

assumes

the value <x is the value

*($) of the characteristic
associated
with
the
value
where
the vector j repreform
a,
sents the case in question and the quantity A is represented by

that

of A

Ea.

Hermitian form
in the system space.
The quantity represented by
is capable of assuming only those values a which
are characteristic values of the form A.
In accordance with the

the

equations
(S),

sum

the

is

of the probabilities is 1 and the value Afe) of the form

value or expectation of the quantity
in the state

Since

mean

the
all

assertions concerning the probabilities in a given state

when j is replaced by e j, where e

an arbitrary complex number of modulus 1, we cannot disThe pure case or state is
tinguish between these two cases.
more
consequently
properly represented by the ray J than by

j are numerically unaltered

is

the vector

and we must therefore operate

system space rather than in the vector

in

The
that

the ray field in

field.

significance of probabilities for experimental science

they determine the relative frequency of occurrence in

is

series of repealed observations.

According to classical physics it
is in
to
create conditions under which every
principle possible

quantity associated with a given physical system assumes an

arbitrarily sharply defined value which is exactly reproducible
whenever these conditions are the same. Quantum physics

We illustrate this by
We know conditions

the example of
under which we
can guarantee with practical certainty that the atoms of a
hydrogen gas are in the normal state. Let us therefore assume
that we can create conditions under which we can be certain
that the atoms under observation are in the quantum state (H, /)
with azimuthal quantum number / == 1 and energy E. A
certain quantity L z which can, under these conditions, assume
1 is associated with each direction
1, t), or
only the values
z in space.
Stern and Gerlach have shown us how to sharpen
these conditions so that L z takes on a definite one of these values,
~f 1.
say L z
According to the theory the utmost limit of
then
If x is another direction in space,
is
reached.
precision
then under these conditions which determine L z and E only the
relative probability that the quantity L f assumes any one of the
1 can be given.
values -f- 1, 0,
Why is it impossible to go
further and insure conditions under which in addition L r takes
on a definite one of the values, say 0, with certainty ? Because
t4
"
the
measurement of L x which is accomplished by separating

denies this possibility.

directional quantization.

QUANTUM THEORY

76

=+

the atoms into three classes L x

1, 0,
1, is only possible
conditions
which
the
by creating
destroy
homogeneity already
Polarization of photons is obviously
existing with respect to L z
somewhat analogous to directional quantization of atoms. The
conditions for the production of a monochromatic beam of
light
in a definite direction determine the
energy and momentum of
the photons.
To each orientation s of a Nicol
corre.

prism
capable of assuming only
the values
I
if A,
1 the light
goes through and if
Aa
1 it does not.
With the aid of such a prism we separate
out the photons for which A s
1
without disturbing their
and
momentum.
The utmost limit of precision is then
energy
reached
a monochromatic pencil of
polarized light is the most
homogeneous light possible. If we now place a second Nicol
of orientation a in the
path of this beam, then naturally only
those photons which have A,
1 can
But
pass through.
the light which we thus obtain is of the same constitution as
if the first Nicol of orientation 5 were not
used at all
the condition that all the photons have A,
-f 1 is obviously destroyed
by the second Nicol.
Natural science is of a constructive character. The concepts
with which it deals are not
qualities or attributes which can
be obtained from the
objective world by direct cognition. They
can only be determined
by an indirect methodology, by observing
their reaction with other
bodies, and their implicit definition is
consequently conditioned by definite laws of nature governing

sponds a definite quantity A s which

;

=+

is

=+

reactions. 15

Consider, for example, the introduction of the

Galilean concept of mass, which
essentially amounts to the
"
following indirect definition
Every body possesses a momentum, that is, a vector mt) having the same direction as its
the scalar factor
is called its mass.
velocity t>
The momentum of a closed system is conserved, that is, the sum of the
momenta of a number of reacting bodies is the same before
the reaction as after it."
On
this law to the observed
:

applying

collision

phenomena data

which allow a determination of the relative masses of the various bodies. But
scientists have long held the
opinion that such constructive
44
concepts were nevertheless intrinsic attributes of the
Ding an
sick/ even when the manipulations necessary for their determination were not carried out.
In quantum theory we are confronted with a fundamental limitation to this metaphysical standare obtainable

point.

We have already seen, toward the beginning of this chapter,

that a co-ordinate x and its associated momentum
p stand in
a peculiar
the precise determinarelationship to one another
:

THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE

77

tion of either one of these quantities precludes the precise

determination of the other.
In the state represented by the
00

-f

wave function

Q^ ^dx=\] the mean values x =

f(x)

<*> and

00

given by
+ 00
I

No

x $(x)

loss of generality

as zero

by

the

or

ro?J
2

(p

/>

and

00

T~dx.

incurred by taking these

is

can be
x
by ifj(x

first

*fj(x)

*l*(x}dx

-f

to vanish

Thc mean values (A ^2

are then given

mean

values
by replacing x by
and the second by replacing tfj(x)

made

A p)2

Of

x __ x

by

f 00

(A.r)

(A,,

~-

From

these expressions the general inequality

A*

A/>

r-

JA

ran readily be obtained (I am indebted to W. Paidi for this

the less the uncertainty in ,v, the greater the unremark)
;

certainty in />, and conversely.*

In general the conditions under which an experiment is
performed will not even guarantee that all the individuals con"

11

state,
stituting the system under observation are in the same
as represented in the quantum theory by a ray in system space.

example, the case when we only take care that all

quantum state (w, /) without undertaking
to separate them, with respect to m by means of the SternIn order to apply quantum mechanics it is
Gerlach effect.

This

is,

for

the atoms are in the

therefore necessary to set up a criterion which will enable us to

determine whether the given conditions are sufficient to insure
'*
effect
such a
pure slate."
say that the conditions

We

'

a greater homogeneity than the conditions & if (1) every quantity

which has a sharp, reproducible value under has the same definite
*Cf.

Appendix

at the end of the book.

QUANTUM THEORY

78

value under (' and if (2) there exists a quantity which is strictly
determinate under &' but not under
The desired criterion
is obviously this
The conditions
guarantee a pure state if it
is impossible to produce a further increase in homogeneity.
(This
maximum of homogeneity was obtained in classical physics
only when all quantities associated with the system had definite
.

values.)
In the pure state represented by the vector a
tity Q represented by the Hermitian matrix Q
expectation or mean value

it

=
=

(#,-),
\\q tk \\

a quanhas the

The numbers

are the
trace

components

of a positive definite

Hermitian form

of

1, i.e.

be understood here in the weakened

be noted that \Q/ depends linearly
and homogeneously on the quantity \\q+ k under consideration
(Positive definite
sense A($)
0.)

is

to

It

is

to

\\

=
A

tr

(AQ).

(7.2)

created by subjecting a large number

system under observation to the
conditions (, then the mean value of a physical quantity Q
will be given by (7.2) where A is a certain positive definite
Hermitian form of trace 1 which is characteristic for the
If

a statistical aggregate

is

of individuals of the physical

do not guarantee maximum

aggregate even if the conditions
homogeneity. The reason for this is that (7.2) is still correct
if we
mix statistical aggregates, each of which does possess
(

maximum homogeneity, in any proportions

any statistical
case may indeed be considered as a mixture of pure states.
As y. v. Neumann has remarked, this formula (7.2) can be derived
;

from the simple axioms

If

1.

<AP>

P Q
1

= A^P/,

17
:

are physical quantities

<P

0>

<P>

and A a

real

number, then

<fi>.
capable of

the quantity Q is
assuming only positive
0.
if the form Q is
positive definite), then (Q/
3. If Q is a pure number, i.e. if it is independent of all
Q.
physical conditions, then {Q)
not
that
Assuming
any physical quantity Q is repreonly
sented by an Hermitian form, but also that conversely any
2.

values

If

(i.e.

THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE

79

Hermitian form represents some quantity associated with the

system, it follows from (1) that
i,

where the

a ki

are

independent of Q. (We shall

The matrix
Chap. IV,
assumption
9.)
is
A
must
be
Hermitian
since
<0>
!|0,-fc||
always real. On
form
A
into
the
normal
Za,*^, (2) requires for the special
bringing
Hermitian forms of the type Q
for
Zq x i x i that Ja # f ^
values
and A
arbitrary non-negative
qi
consequently a, 2?
return

to

coefficients

in

this

is

positive definite.

The probability that

tity

in the statistical

assumes the value K

w
where
istic

the quan-

tr

(AE K

(7.3)

the idempotent form associated with the character-

is

number

We

aggregate

is

K.

can also distinguish

"

"

"

pure states

mixed states," by the

aggregates,
be obtained by mixing two or more different
tistical

among

general sta-

fact that they

cannot

statistical aggregates.
Hermitian matrix
of

This corresponds to the theorem that an

A
the form (7.1) is not expressible as the sum B -\- C of two positive
definite Hermitian forms B and C which are not merely multiples
of A.
This can be readily proved on taking the vector a
(a,-)
as one of the co-ordinate axes in system space.
The positive
definite Hermitian forms A with unit trace, i.e. the statistical
aggregates, constitute a convex region (5 in the sense that with
A and B their " centre of mass " \A pB (A, p, arbitrary positive
numbers whose sum is unity) belongs also to @. A point of
which cannot be considered as such a centre of mass of two

from the point in question is called, following

an
"extreme
@ is the "convex core" of
Minkowski,
point"
the class (J of all extreme points, i.e. it is the smallest convex
domain which includes all the points of (. We cannot dispense
if we leave out but a
with a single extreme point of @
single
shrinks together.
core
the
entire
convex
We may
of
point
points of

distinct

accordingly characterize the pure states as the

"

extremes

"

among

all the possible statistical aggregates.

often convenient to dispense with the normalization

(7.3) then gives the relative rather than the absolute
The simplest statistical aggregate is that one
probabilities.
it
characterized by the unit Hermitian form with matrix 1
In thermo-dynamics the important
represents total ignorance.
It

tr

is

A =

role

is

played by the canonical aggregate

A=

e~ H

k
t

*\

is

here

QUANTUM THEORY

80

the Hermitian form which represents the energy, k the Boltzmann

constant and the number 6 the temperature. 19
8.

The Dynamical Law.

Transition Probabilities

Having considered the general probability laws

we now turn

of the

quantum

dynamical law governing the change

theory,
in the state
of a physical system during an interval dt of time.
The dynamical law states that this change is effected by
to the

the infinitesimal unitary operator

j-

where

77,

Hermitian form which represents the energy

is

the

(8.1)

The

peculiar significance of the energy in quantum mechanics

due to its appearance in the dynamical law. We also consider
this law as a fundamental axiom of quantum theory of universal
For the matrix X
validity.
is

which characterizes a

statistical

described by the vector j

equation
h d*

(x

aggregate
[cf.

eq.

of the

pure state

we obtain the

(7.2)],

^ XH - HX

(8.2)

on applying (8.1) and taking into account the fact the 77 is

Hermitian. This same equation also governs the change in
for a mixed state. 20
time of a statistical aggregate
For the integration of (8.1) it is convenient to choose as our

the correco-ordinate system the characteristic vectors of 77

E
numbers
characteristic
are
the
We
levels.
n
energy
sponding
the
call
this
co-ordinate
Heisenberg
particular system
;

as Heisenberg tacitly employed it in his fundamental

on
quantum mechanics. This Heisenberg co-ordinate
paper
is in
the essential
general not uniquely determined
system
of
the
is
the
decomposition
system space 5R into the
point
ascharacteristic sub-spaces 91'
$('), 3T
9t("),
sociated with the various characteristic numbers 7T, ZT",
The states represented by vectors j in such a characteristic
in them the
space are called quantum or stationary states
energy has a sharply defined value. The cases in which 77

system,

"

cononly discrete characteristic numbers include

for
the
ones
older
which
the
motion/'
ditionally periodic
only
possesses

THE DYNAMICAL LAW

81

The nomenclature and

quantum theory could be formulated.

symbolism employed in the following is adapted to discrete characteristic spectra, but this by no means precludes the possibility
that the spectrum
(8.1)

is

entirely or partly continuous.

Equation
it into
components with respect to

becomes, on resolving

Heisenberg's co-ordinate system,

hdx n
and has

as solution

x n (t)

xn

*-'

= K).

(8.3)

an

This
explicit formulation of the unitary transformation
-> j(f)
which the state vector
/(*)
undergoes in time t.
Since |# n (/)j 2 is constant, the probabilities for the various energy
The finite law
values do not change in the course of time.
is

X(t)

U(t)XU~

(8.4)

(t)

dependence of the statistical state X(t) on the time /

fully equivalent to the differential law (8.2).
The mean value q
q(l) of the physical quantity represented

for the
is

by the fixed Hermitian operator

q(t)

can,

tr (X(t)

Q]

on taking into account the symmetry properties

form

of

the

trace, be written also in the

q(t)

where

=
=

tr

[X

Q(t)}

U~*(t)QU(t).

(8.5)

Consequently the situation can be described either by considering Q as fixed for all time and the statistical state X(t) as
varying with the time in accordance with the law (8.4) and
this is the fundamental stand taken by quantum mechanics
or we can take the initial state X as representing the state of
the system for all time and allow the operator Q(t) representing
the quantity Q to vary with time in accordance with the law
This latter interpretation lends itself to comparison with
(8.5).
law
classical mechanics.
(8.5) is equivalent to the differential
*

for in virtue of (8.2)

and

f = HQ - QH,
(8.6)

(8.6)

QUANTUM THEORY

82

In particular,

the quantity

constant in time,

is

i.e.

the prob-

do not change in course of time, if the

Hermitian form Q which represents it commutes with H.
In Heisenberg's co-ordinate system equation (8.5) becomes

abilities associated

with

it

q~(t)

'-*'-*#

qnn

(8-7)

The matrix Q(t) is thus expressed in terms

components pervn
The
forming simple oscillations with frequencies v m
On going over from the w th
corresponding amplitude is q mn
th
vn
to the n
stationary state the system loses an amount h(v m
of

of energy
is

if
;

this

radiated as light,

is

energy

given by

Vmn

I'm

its

frequency

>V

(8.8)

mechanics collects together all the transitions from

into a single
to all possible levels n
a fixed level
1, 2,
th
state of motion, the motion of the system in the
quantum
state, whose harmonic components have the corresponding
Classical

For any quantity A it

frequencies i> TOl v m2
therefore associates a constant amplitude a mn with the transition
transition

m-

n.

But in classical mechanics

we have

(for

=m

systems with one degree

of freedom)

v mn

instead
series

of

equation

<o(n),

On

(8.8).

n,

multiplying

the

two Fourier

A B
}

ik

we obtain

'

and

the Fourier series

ck

with coefficients

Z^rbs

(r

+s=

k).

Accordingly classical mechanics associates with the quantity

AB the amplitudes
C

Cmn

2>m, m-r

'

&m, m-s

(r

whereas quantum mechanics assigns to

+S=m
it

n),

(8.9)

the amplitudes
(8.10)

The

between these two results lies in the fact that in

both
factors
a, b have the first index m in common, whereas
(8.9)
in (8.10) the first index of b is the same as the last index of a.
"
"
This is in exact analogy with the difference between the
classical
and the correct Ritz-Rydberg combination principle. This was
the correct combination principle
Heisenberg's starting-point
difference

indicates the pertinent- fact that the rule (8.9) for the multiplication of amplitudes

must be replaced by

(8.10).

Admittedly

THE DYNAMICAL LAW

83

such multiplication is not commutative, and it collects together

amplitudes which the older model assigned to different orbits.
We denote \a mn 2 as the intensity of the quantity A in the
When multiple energy levels occur ( tl detransition m ~> n.
2
extended over all indices
generacy ") only the sum 27kwn|
n for which E n
all
indices
which
E
E'
and
m for
m
E",
in
such
a case this sum is
has an invariantive significance
If A +
taken as the intensity of A in the transition E' -> E".
is that portion of A in which 9t(/i') intersects 9l(E") the sum
\

defined above

is

the trace of

A+A +

Consider an atom with one or more electrons and let r be

Then
the vector from the nucleus to a representative electron.
=-.
el, or in case there is more than one electron the sum
q
JTVt, extended over the various electrons, is the electric
q
In classical electrodynamics the
dipole moment of the atom.
intensity of the light of frequency v emitted by the atom is calculated
from the amplitude q(i/) of the harmonic components of q with
the same frequency v in the following manner. f The rate at
which energy ilows through a surface element do at the point P,
is
whose distance from the atom at
large compared with the

wave-length,

is

given by

is the component of q perpendicular to OP and dw is

the solid angle subtended at
by do. We have further assumed
that the wave-length under consideration is large compared with
Since each photon of frequency v
the radius of the atom.
we
carries with it energy hv,
postulate that this law is to be
taken over into quantum theory as follows
the probability
that an atom in state n goes over into state ri in unit time and
emits a photon of frequency v, whose direction lies within the

where

solid angle du>

is
}

given by

We

thus arrive at a definite rule for the calculation of the intensities

The fact that we can now make
of the lines emitted by the atom.
such a prediction indicates a distinct superiority of the new

In particular, the transition n -> n' does

theory over the old.
not occur if the corresponding coefficient in the Hermitian form
f

By

we mean that

this

analysis of

q.

the terms q(v)e it>f

q(v)*-

|> '

occur in the harmonic

This constitutes the general selection rule. The

connection between the state of polarization of the emitted
of the electric moment is
light and the direction of oscillation
But a real derivation
also carried over into quantum theory.
of our intensity rule can naturally only be obtained by considering the question of interaction between the atom and the

for q is zero.

ether

see

13.

Examples: 1. The Oscillator.

The Hermitian form
-f

oo

J* #*) *(*) dx,

oo

representing the co-ordinate x of the oscillating particle has,

as we have already found [(3.11)], the coefficients
q nn
tfn.n-l

ri 4=

if

==0_

1;

l~hn
?n,n-fl

A/o
> 2wo>

with respect to Heisenberg's co-ordinate system, in which the

energy is referred to its principal axes. We thus obtain the
1
the quantum number n can only change
selection rule n -> n
then
oscillator
the
absorbing or emitting a photon of freIf
by
;

quency v

= oj

and energy hoj in accordance with (3.10). The

makes it clear why no higher harmonics are exy

selection rule

We have also found that the

which represents the linear momentum in Heisenberg's co-ordinate system, is given by (3.12)

cited in the simple oscillator.

matrix

||p nn '||,

- _\

lhma>n

__
Pn. n-l

p nn
2.

Pn, n-l

for

__

lhma)(n

4=

~\-

1)
'

result (4.7) for surface

harmonics yields

the selection rule

/->/l
quantum number

for the azimuthal

(8.13)

Electron in spherically symmetric field.

The

~>

1 is possible.

as in

4,

the

meridian angle
factor e im*

<

(8.14)

only the transition

introducing the magnetic quantum number
characteristic functions ^Jj depend on the
I

for

On

about the 2-axis only

in

the multiplicative

here

iy

r sin 9

e*-

+
,

r cos 0.

THE DYNAMICAL LAW

85

In order to obtain
qx

iqyj

the dependence of the matrices q x

iq y
on the transition m ~> m' we must evaluate the

qz

integral
2r
m<f>) e(m'<f>)

\e(a<f>) e(

d(f>,

where

unless

1,

The
0,
respectively.
The only components of

1,

m.

integral

vanishes

which do

-{q*
*<7y
->
not vanish are those corresponding to the transitions
in which the magnetic quantum number decreases by 1

m
;

for

-> m.
for q zi
This last selection rule cannot be obtained from the spectra
themselves as long as the terms corresponding to different
-

^x

*<? y ,

values of

up

->

{-

But these terms are broken

by a homogeneous magnetic
On " longithe s-axis (Zeeman effect).

coincide.
/)
(\m\
into their various components

the direction of
"
observation of the light emitted in the ^-direction we
tudinal
find instead of the one line (n, /) ~> (n', /') several left- and rightcircularly polarized components, the former of which arise from
->
1
the transitions
and the latter from m->
-\- \.
"
M
On
transverse
observation, e.g. along the y-axis, we find
~>
two transverse linearly polarized lines arising from
1,
and in addition a longitudinally (i.e. along the s-axis) polarized
-> m.
line corresponding to the transition
(Polarization as
field in

here used means the direction of oscillation of the electric dipole,

and therefore the direction of the electric field strength.)
In the term spectrum of the alkali elements, which is, however,
typical in this respect, even for the more complicated spectra
of the other elements, we distinguish between several series by
means of the letters s, />, d, /,
Each series consists of
which
in the direction of
terms
we
number
infinitely many
.

It is found convenient
from 2 on in the />-scries,
from 3 in the d-series, etc. The values of the terms us, np
n
li
formula
are then given by the
nd,
hydrogen-like

increasing frequency
to let

n run from

by the integer

on

n.

in the ^-series,

R
(n

if)*

which K =
KP} /c^,
is a correction term depending but
slightly on n, the numerical value of which but rarely exceeds
for high series (/, g,
Only terms
1/2 and is very close to
.).
lying in neighbouring series combine to produce a line, i.e. an
s-term combines only with a />-term, p only with 5 and d, d with
p and /, etc. In particular, the transitions np -> Is give rise
in

AC.,,

QUANTUM THEORY

86

to the principal series, which also appears in absorption, nd -> 2p

to the lines of the diffuse series, us -> 2p to the sharp series,
and n/-> 3d to the Bergmann series. 21

The

alkalies

chemical reactions only

the others,
electron, plays a role
It
constitute an inert closed shell.

are univalent,

one electron, the valence

together with the nucleus,
is therefore reasonable to
the alkalies are caused by
valence electron, while the
We have seen above that

i.e.

in

assume that the optical spectra of

quantum jumps involving only this
core A* remains in its normal state.
hydrogen in the normal state is re-

we
presented by a spherically symmetric wave function i/r
therefore assume, disregarding the reaction of the valence
"
"
closed
electron on the core, that this feature of the core being
We
is to be expressed by ascribing spherical symmetry to it.*
have then to deal with the problem of an electron in a spherically
In
symmetric field, which we have already discussed above.
accordance with the empirical combination principle and the
theoretical selection rule for the azimuHial quantum number /,
the s, p, d, f,
terms are to be taken as having /
0, 1, 2, 3,
1 on in the series with
n then runs from /
respectively,
azimuthal quantum number /, as in hydrogen.**
;

9.

Perturbation Theory

The problem with which perturbation theory is concerned is

Let the energy H consist of two terms
the following
f \V
the second of which, the perturbation term \V, is small compared
"
"
this we express by the
infinitesimal
numerical
with the first
constant e, of which powers higher than the first are to be
Assume that the quantum problem for the " unneglected.
"
with energy PI has already been solved, so
perturbed system
has already been brought into
that the Hermitian form
be the characternormal (diagonal) form, and let 3T, SR",

H~ H

istic

spaces of

H with

characteristic

numbers

E',

En

',

to find the solution of the equations for the

problem
"
with energy H.
turbed system
is

In order to illustrate the typical difference

and non-degenerate systems we

2-

instead of oo -dimensional

"

first

The

"
per-

between degenerate

consider the system space as

then

E,

eW.

*
Why He and not is the first closed atom is only to be understood as
the result of a profound modification of wave mechanics see Chap. IV.
**
Concerning the introduction of the "true quantum number" for
elements other than hydrogen, see Chap. IV,
10.
;

PERTURBATION THEORY
E

87

E* the unitary transformation which brings H into

form
differs from the identity only by terms of order 6.
diagonal
2
2
the
that in the pure state j
probabilities l^]
Consequently
|# 2
H has the values E lt E z will change only by amounts of the
same relative order e
they remain constant to the same approximation with which eW may be neglected in comparison
with H. But the situation is quite different for degenerate
E, for the principal axes of H
systems, for which E l = E 2
are then indeterminate and this arbitrariness is expressed in
"
"
the
of the system under the influence of a perinstability
We set up that normal co-ordinate system e/, e 2
turbation.
in which
assumes the diagonal form
the co-ordinate vectors
If

4=

'

E =E

are then also characteristic vectors of H, since

But
l
2
these vectors can obviously differ arbitrarily from the original
'
co-ordinate vectors e^ C 2 whereas the energies /ir/, hv 2 can only
.

differ

from

by a term of order

co-ordinate system

e.

On

returning to the original

we have

a i2> ^22) are two mutually per(

whose
directions
coincide with those of e/, e 2 '.
vectors
pendicular
The probabilities for the two states e^ e 2 vary periodically in
time with the small beat frequency v> 2
v^ (resonance between
states
with
the
same
states c lf C 2 ).
Quantum
energy are therefore

where d l

(a n

a 2 i),

Q2

'

in resonance with one another.

The magnitudes

of the

components

of
in the characteristic spaces $R', $R",
i.e. the probabilities
remain apfor the various numerically different values of
proximately constant under a small perturbation, but this is
,

not the case for the absolute values \x n of the individual components x n resolved along the axes of an arbitrary Hcisenberg
co-ordinate system of the unperturbed system.
In accordance with the foregoing we can formulate the
I. Determine the
change,
perturbation problem in two forms
due to the perturbation, in those states in which the energy
This formulation
of the unperturbed system is determinate.
has a sound physical interpretation if we consider the perturbaWe then find how the
tion as acting during a time interval / lt / 2
states
the
various
quantum
change under the
probabilities for
\

II.
Determine the quantum
influence of the perturbation**
of
the
levels
states and energy
perturbed system, i.e. the charWe ask in
acteristic values and characteristic spaces of H.

particular

how

perturbation.

the terms are

We

consider II

broken up and displaced under the

first.

QUANTUM THEORY

88

We

into two parts

first decompose the Hermitian form
in which
those
the
first
To
V.
portions of
belong
W$
of
intersects itself, and to
a characteristic space 81', 9ft",
V those in which two different characteristic spaces intersect.
have but finite multiplicity
If the characteristic values of
in which 9ft' intersects
that part of
the problem of bringing
with
the
deals
form
into
itself,
only
space 9ft' of a finite
diagonal
number of dimensions. If 91' is not simply a one-dimensional

W,

space, the resonance phenomena mentioned above will appear.

The co-ordinate system, consisting of characteristic vectors of
also appears as
//, is now more precisely specified, for now
let E n be the characteristic values of the
a diagonal matrix
assoH + eW^o = H so obtained. The single term value

'

ciated with 9ft' has in general been resolved into as many different
characteristic values E n of H as there are dimensions in the

sub-space

3ft'.

The remainder V

8*=
H

of order e transforms

8H

of the

\\v mn \\

the characteristic values

finitesimal unitary rotation
if

'

c mn

Em = En

if

is

such that v mn

are equal.

The

=
in-

\\Cmn\\,

8H where

~ e(HC -

CM)

On choosing this transformation

H = H -f eF goes over into H
choosing

of

C=

C*,

into

e(HC

matrix

E mi E n

in
;

CH).

such a way that 8H

eK,
this can be accomplished by

and

otherwise.
The characteristic values E n of H are therefore the
energy levels of the perturbed system of energy H if we neglect terms
2
of order e
WQ can be considered as the time mean of the perturbation
terms, averaged over the motion of the unperturbed system.
For by (8.7) the mean value of the element a mn (t) of the matrix
which represents an arbitrary physical quantity of the
A(t)
v n or not.
In statistics
system, is a mn or 0, according as v m
angular brackets are often used to denote the mean value of
a quantity
we may therefore write
.

W,=
The
question

solution
I.

But

of
it

II
is

<JV>,

naturally

=<H>.
an answer to the
employ the method of

provides

more convenient

to

variation of constants for the calculation of the effect of the

perturbation over a limited time interval the smaller the

THE PROBLEM OF SEVERAL BODIES

89

6, the longer we may take this time interval to be.

that at time /
the system is in the quantum state
we ask
and that the perturbation begins to act at this time
for the probability that the system will be found in the state
n at time t. That is, we seek that solution of the equations

constant

Assume

~;
ai

which reduces

----

0.

1,

0,

2,

1,

are

~fb n

Writing

the equations for

for e -~ 0,

(n

to

X
at time

*
W nm x m
+ nZ
m

xn

vn

*-r

fl

H' n m
i '

c '<**- *m>'

>

2
Neglecting terms of order e

-~ 0.

we can take

the initial conditions

as the

th

approximation

equation we obtain
n

On

vn

setting V Q

on substituting these values

Tk

i/,

---------------

'

Vn

the desired probability

is

__.

__ 2[1
---- cos (//)]
Jfr2
It is to be

in the

as the first approximation

---

tt

u
^i

fqn
V^ 1
)

noted that in accordance with this result the probability

2
In
to state n is determined by
from state
|H 0n

of transition

the case of resonance (v n -- v u ) the

creases at first with the square of /

transition

probability in-

|
'

'

10.

The Problem

__
~"

f^\
\h)

.III/

2/2

'

of Several Bodies.

Product Space

m m

A physical system consisting of two particles of masses

co-ordinates A: y z
#' y' s' and linear momenta J), p', has as
its Hamiltonian function
}

',

QUANTUM THEORY
V

ere

is

We

the potential energy.

assume, as in the older

ysics of central forces, that we are here dealing with an action

a distance so that the potential energy depends only on the

lultaneous positions of the two particles. This assumption

turally breaks down when, in accordance with the theory of
ativity, we take into account the finite velocity of propagan of the disturbance, which requires the introduction of a
d.
The wave function ^ of the system will depend on all
co-ordinates xyz\ x' y' z' in addition to t\ the operators
responding to these functions in the domain of such functions
are multiplication by x,
and to the linear
h
h
*'
*
A 4-U
A
the derivatives imenta correspond
r
i *bx
i
^x
3m (10.1) we then obtain the wave equation

#',,

'

<-'

-,,

;
'

must ask for the probability that the one particle is to be found
a point P and, simultaneously, the other is to be found at a
\nt P'
The probability density is accordingly to be computed
x y z.
a 6-dimensional space with co-ordinates x y z
is
wave
field
occurrences
the
not
to
deed,
represent directly
cing place in physical space, but is to determine the appear3

with definite energies and momenta

consequently nothing absurd in the fact that its medium
this abstract 6-dimensional configuration space.
In order to be independent of the special procedure by which
scalar wave mechanics puts together two systems a, 6 to
ce at definite positions or

jre is

a single system C, as suggested by this example involving

Hermitian forms representing the co-ordinates and momenta
the two systems, we must first discuss the multiplication of
ices from a purely mathematical standpoint.
With each vector J = (#,.) in a space 9t of m dimensions and
:h vector t)
in a space (3 of n dimensions there is
(y k
>ociated a vector j = j X t) with components
;

*i*

x& k

(10.3)

n-dimensional space 2
9? X <3, the product space.
e components are here numbered by means of the index
ir (ik)
The totality of vectors 5
1.
X t) do not themves constitute a linear manifold, but their linear combinations

an

the entire product space X.

in 91

and

in

With the

linear correspondences

yk

'

k k

yk

THE PROBLEM OF SEVERAL BODIES

is

A X B

associated a linear correspondence

in

91

>,*

or
*/'

2c n z h

c,,,

a,,A'*

[/

/'

(ik),

(i'k )}.

Naturally, to this multiplication corresponds the law of composition

X B)(A X 50

(A

where A,

(AA l X

55,),

and 5, 5 X are
and one in

are correspondences of 91 on itself

correspondences in @. A co-ordinate system

@ together determine a co-ordinate system in J if the coordinate system in 9t is subjected to the transformation A and
that in @ to the transformation 5, then the co-ordinate system
associated with them in J undergoes the transformation A X B.
In accordance with the equation
in 9i

--

d(x y k )
t

dx

+x
H in

yk

to the infinitesimal correspondence

the infinitesimal correspondence

(//

l,j

(l r

dy k
9t,

(10.4)

JR

and

corresponds

7)

in X, where l r 1, denote the unit matrices in SR,

All of the foregoing is applicable to arbitrary

When

in

@, respectively.
vector spaces.

are both unitary spaces, then

is

also, for

by

(10.3)

is

an invariant

arc.

if

Zx rr

S\f k y k are

yl

Accordingly, two physical systems

form a

to
is

9?

the

total

system

x @, where
arbitrary

9i is

as follows.

X B

quantity

physical

unitary

if

.4

and

and & are compounded

The system space X of C

ft

the system space of

is

in

9i

ft

and

be

of b.

represented

Let

by

on replacing all these forms A by

Hermitian form A
A X 1,, where \ 9 is the unit form in an arbitrary space @, there
exist between these latter exactly the same relations as between
the A, so that from the solution of a quantum problem in 91
there arises a solution for the corresponding problem in 91 X @,
In the
but there exists no real distinction between the two.
to astherefore
have
we
system C obtained by composition
of
a and
sociate the Hermitian form A X 1, with a quantity a
l r x B with j3 of 6, where A B are the forms associated with
the

@, respectively. The totality of quantities of the

C is obtained by starting from the quantities
system
composite
a,

j8

in 9t,

QUANTUM THEORY

92

belonging to the component systems a and 6 and multiplying

and adding them together in all possible ways. The quantities
a of ft commute with the quantities J3 of 6, for

(A X

We

!,)(!,

-A

B)

X B

X B)(A X

(l r

1,).

two sentences when we

kinematic
two
of
ally independent parts a and 6.
The two systems are dynamically independent if the energy
of the composite system is the sum of the energies //(*),
of the partial systems
refer to the content of these last

say that

C consists

-HI x

i)

The

infinitesimal

rr-

unitary correspondences

--=

-rr

//(*),

E?>

TJ-

due

H^

in

the

total

to the infinitesimal

in the

two

original

If //(*) and //<

are both in diagonal
and the characteristic numbers are given

[(10.4)].
is

also,

by

is

system spaces
form, then

correspondence

unitary

then that one which

is

system space

//< 2) ).

+ EP

or

Vl

tf>

+ 4

2}
(I

(ik)\

If we have a pure state for the total system which is represented by the vector c of absolute value 1 and components
c ik and if Q
is an arbitrary quantity in a, then the ex||<?tt'||

pectation of

in the

This has the form

pure state

C is

with

(7.2)

^H
Afe)

the Hermitian form

is

in 3R.

But we

state in

ft,

see

for a ti

from
will

this that

not

we

in general

are not dealing with a pure

have the form a { d^. Con-

maximum of homogeneity within C need

in this respect within the partial system a.
Furthermore
if the state of a and the state of i are known, the
slate of C is in general not uniquely specified, for a positive definite
Hermitian form \\a ik t k '\\ in the product space, which describes
ditions which insure a

not require a

maximum
:

>

a statistical aggregate of states

the Hermitian forms
,

i'kj

c,

is

not uniquely determined by

a ik<

ik'

COMMUTATION RULES
which

to

93

In this significant
gives rise in the spaces 9R, @.
"
subscribes
to
the
view
that
the whole
quantum theory
is greater than the sum of its
which
has
parts"
recently been
raised to the status of a philosophical creed by the Vitalists
it

sense

and the Gestalt Psychologists.

The kinematically independent parts into which a system
can be resolved need not be spatially separated, nor need they

We can, for example, resolve

a single particle, whose physical quantities can all be
expressed
in terms of x, y, z
p x p y> p z into three partial systems with

even refer to different particles.

;

fundamental quantities #, p x y, p y z, p z
For quantities
which belong to different partial systems, for example a quantity
which can be expressed in terms of #, /> a alone and one which
.

terms of y, p y alone, commute with each other

of matrix multiplication.

is

in

in the

sense

In the perturbation theory we are usually concerned with a

system which consists of two kinematirally independent parts

and which are almost dynamically independent. Disregarding

the interaction zW for the moment, let hv n and hp r be the
energy
levels of the two parts, so that h(v n + r are the
p
energy levels
)

On

of the
s

unperturbed total system.

and s'
(n, r) in place of

--=

"

+ Pr)
Vnn' = n
("I

(*>

>

Vn',

writing in equation (9.1)

in place of n, whence

(n

r'}

Pr')

Prr'

V n n'

Pr

Prr>

pr',

we

find as the probability that the total

system goes over from
the state s to the state s' during time /

--

~~ COS

" nn/

P"'*

'

Wnr
u/f

>

>

nr

'

The probability that

n after time
originally,
to r'.

11.

is

/,

the first system will be found in the state

the total system having been in the state s ~~= (nr)

obtained from (10.5) by summation with respect

Commutation Rules.

The development

of

wave mechanics

the general scheme of

specific

Hcrmitian

momenta
this

forms

of the particle.

can be formulated

Canonical Transformations
went beyond
employed certain
represent the co-ordinates and

and 8
to

We

are

now

1-3

in

in that

it

interested in seeing

how

an invariant manner, without recourse

to any special co-ordinate system in
system space.
For the Hermitian forms q, p representing a rectangular
in

QUANTUM THEORY

94

and

co-ordinate

associated

its

momentum we

postulate

the

commutation rule

pq-qp = ;L

(H.l)

the system has only one degree of freedom, these two quantities
appear as canonical variables in classical mechanics. All physical
in order
quantities of the system are then functions of p and q
to avoid complications we restrict ourselves to polynomials f in
p and q and assume, in particular, that the Hamiltonian function
has this form. What are we to understand by the derivatives
If

fp and fq
p and q

/ with

of

p and

respect to

domain

q in this

in

which

We

commutative

in multiplication ?
should
case require that differentiation with respect to q should

in

are not

any
obey the following postulates
2)
(

= fc =
= fq + g*
(/ + g)q

(3)

(/*)=/,'*+/*..

0,

(1) />.

and ( a/)o

'

/a,

where a

is

number

We

see immediately that these conditions uniquely determine

the derivative of a polynomial /, unless they happen to lead to

contradictions.
But that they do not lead to contradictions
can be seen from the fact that they are obeyed by the definition

ih'f,=fp-pf.
(1)

(11.2)

follows immediately from the commutation

the linearity

(2) of

the process

is

evident.

rule (11.1),

(3) is

and

proved by the

formula
(fg)p

- p(fg) - f(&p - pg) +

(fp

pf)g

which involves only the distributive and associative character

of matrix multiplication.
Similarly we can show that

-ih-fp =fq-qf.
The fundamental dynamical law

(11.2)

gives us the equation (8.6)

any Hermitian form /. On applying this equation to p and q

which obviously suffices to establish the corresponding result
for any polynomial / of p and q
and comparing it with the

for

formulae (11.2) applied to the particular function //, we are led

to the familiar Hamiltonian equations of classical mechanics :

COMMUTATION RULES
// is

a universal

trait

of

quantum

theory

95

retain all the relations

to

of classical physics ; but whereas the latter interpreted these relations as conditions to which the values of physical quantities were
subject in all individual cases, the former interprets them as conditions on the quantities themselves, or rather on the Hermitian

which represent them. This is the more significant

formulation which the new quantum theory has given Bohr's
correspondence principle.
The commutation rule (11.1) is of a rather remarkable
nature.
It is entirely impossible for matrices in a space of a
finite number of dimensions, and it alone precludes the possibility that in an oo -dimensional space q (or p} have only a discrete
spectrum of characteristic numbers. For on referring q to its
principal axes

matrices

the

=
left

side

q*n

|kmn||,

<?n,

commutation

the

of

?mn

(m

4= H)

rule

has

p
the

||/>mn||,

components

hence the main diagonal consists of nothing

?m)
Pmn(q n
but zeros
The question arises as to whether it can be concluded from (11.1) alone that the forms representing q and p
can always be given the form
i

-f

oo

00

*
oo

an arbitrary vector ^ with components ^ft(x) on employing

an appropriate co-ordinate system in system space. We shall
see in Chap. IV,
15, that, on introducing a certain irreducibility
for

is in fact the case.

taking into account the three space co-ordinates qa and
their associated linear momenta /?
1, 2, 3), we have in
(a
M
the
one
commutation
rule
of
the
following
(11.1)
place

condition, this

On

P*Pp

PfiP*

~
.

1*<lfi

for a11 *.

1fiP*

rules apply to the case in which we have

the
only difference being that then a runs
particles,
values, according to the number of particles,
through 6, 9,
commutation rules are the necessary and
These
3.
instead of
that
the dynamical law, which governs the
sufficient condition
in system space, leads
time rate of change of the state vector
"
"
canonical variables
to the Hamiltonian equations for the
Pa representing the co-ordinates and associated momenta of
<?<*>

The same commutation

several

the various particles composing the physical system

whatever

QUANTUM THEORY

96

the dependence of the Hamiltonian function

may

H on these quantities

be.

In classical mechanics the Hamiltonian equations are invariant

with respect to canonical transformations**
In a system of
a set of variables q at p Mt
/ degrees of freedom the transition from
f
1, 2,
describing the state to a set q^ p A (a
/) is a

canonical transformation

if

the difference

ZM* - ZPdq
a total differential.
a transformation

is

(11.5)

for example, the q a are subjected to

If,

q*

4>a(q'i

q/)

themselves, the p A must transform as the components

covariant vector'* in <y-space in order that the whole be
of a
a canonical transformation (" extended point transformation ")

among
"

Perhaps the simplest canonical transformation

the roles of q and p are interchanged

is

that in which

Pa

q'*

= p*-

The canonical transformations constitute a group [cf. Ill, 1]. For

the identity, i.e. the transition from (p, q) to (p, q), is a canonical
the inverse (p
transformation
q) -> (p, q) of a canonical
and from the
transformation (p, q) -> (p' q') is also canonical
f
-> (/>", q"}
canonical transformations (p, q) -> (/>', q') (p
q')
transformation (p q) -+ (p" q")
it follows that the resultant
f

also canonical, for

is

if

are total differentials their

sum

is also.

An

transformation is one in which

We can consider it as
p' q' differ infinitely little from p q.
an infinitesimal deformation of the 2/-dimensional (/>, ^)-space
8/.
We
which takes place in the infinitesimal time interval e
introduce the components 8/>, 8<? of the displacement vector by
infinitesimal canonical

means

of the

equations
Pa

8P*,

~~
q'

'

*<i

COMMUTATION RULES

97

Since (11.5) must be a total differential,

p^dT
must

also

in

our case

v We may

considering

with

T must

differ

(11.6)

only infinitesimally from

therefore write

as a function of

p a and

we have,

q'x

in

accordance

(11.6),

as

as

or

2
we may
legitimately neglect terms of order e
of
side
these
with
the
on
a
identify q'a
equations.
right-hand
q
call S the generating function of the infinitesimal canonical
transformation.
In accordance with the Hamiltonian equations, the state
of a system, represented by a point (/>, q) in (/?, <?)-space, goes
If we follow
over into a state (p
d<?) during time dt.
dp, q

Since

we may

We

this transition for all possible initial states (/>, q} we obtain an

infinitesimal deformation of the space whose points represent

the state of the system.

The Hamiltonian equations assert that
is
an
deformation
infinitesimal canonical transformation with
It follows from this without any
dt.
generating function
calculation that these equations have a significance which is
independent of any particular choice of canonical variables.
this

Now

the Hamiltonian equations (11.3)

the state vector j in system space undergoes the
infinitesimal unitary rotation
in

quantum theory

assert that

dt

=-

HI,

(8.1)

so the infinitesimal canonical transformation of the quantities

in the Herq is here obtained by subjecting the argument
mitian forms representing them to the infinitesimal rotation

/>,

ie

cs

We

find that the increments of the quantities

e
7

8q a

(Sq*

0.5),

8/.

pa

(Sp.

qa are in fact

QUANTUM THEORY

98

and, in virtue of the commutation relations (11.4), this

On generating a finite canonical
exactly with (11.7).
formation by the successive application of an infinity
finitesimal ones we arrive at the result that the unitary
spondences of system space on itself in quantum theory :

agrees
transof incorre-

canonical transformations of classical mechanics ;

those for which the matrix U is expressible
only
precisely,
in terms of the matrices p, 9, but we may for the present pass
over the question as to whether every matrix U can be obtained,
Since
or at least arbitrarily closely approximated, in this way.
the commutation rules (11.4) remain unchanged under rotations
of the normal co-ordinate system, they are valid for an arbitrary
This is also evident from the fact
set of canonical variables.
that they are the conditions that the dynamical law (8.1) lead
to the Hamiltonian equations

correspond

to the

more

_
~~
dt

-__

""
dt

T>q

The general procedure for the quantum mechanical treatment of a physical system suffers from the disagreeable fact
that the expression for the energy in terms of the canonical
must be taken from the classical model, and in addition the transition to quantum mechanics is even then not
unique, for the model offers no means of telling whether a
monomial such as p 2 q is to be interpreted as p 2 q, pqp, qp 2 or
a linear combination of all three [cf. IV,
The provisional
14].
character of such a procedure is clear, but the results so far obtained seem to justify the hope that the path we have entered
upon will lead to a unique formulation of the laws governing
We need then concern ourthe actual physical phenomena.
selves longer with the general mechanical scheme.

variables

12.

Motion of a Particle
Field.

Zeeman

an Electro-magnetic
and Stark Effect

in

Effect

xyz now be denoted by x l x z x 3

the
scalar
and c 21 the vector potential
<f>
of the electro-magnetic field, then in the theory of relativity
Let the spatial co-ordinates

and the time t by x

(are the

If

<,

components

mensional world.

is

SU

,)

(fa, fa, fa, fa)

of a vector in the space dual to the 4-di-

Let
*'

PARTICLE

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELD

IN

99

^30 are the components of the electric field strength @,

c(F 23 ^31, ^12) the components of the magnetic field strength Jp.
Denoting the components of the velocity of a particle by
v ij V 2> V 3> its proper time is
^10) ^2o>
,

ds

Vdt*

(d%\

+ dxp/c*

dx\

=--

With

dt

Vl -

~~
= dx

the world vector u*

v*/c*

(r=

The invariant equations

=-

UQ

1, 2, 3),

motion

of

v\

v\

vl).

associated the dual u^ with

is

components
u r =^u r

(v*

C*U Q

for a particle of

mass

and

e are

charge

=_

_=

or

= -e(F,
-$^
^^

The right-hand

side

is

+ZF
=
jfc

in fact the

.(e
These equations

arise

H=
in

which x l x 2 x^

efa

vk

(1

)
/

+ J[D$]).

Jni*c*
^

+ i-Z

(p

efa?,

arc the canonical variables.

~~
^S"

Wi~ V

remaining equations

= - ^/^ +

*l ^ -

*<

the left-hand side

is

_rf(mu,)

But

this

is

the desired equation (12.1)

_
~_

(12.2)

yield

in the

(12.1)

ponderomotive force

the Hamiltonian equations

|

1,2,3).

from the Hamiltonian function

pip 2 pz

lk

In fact,

QUANTUM THEORY

100

H is the time component p Q of the dual

The negative energy
vector whose space components are the components of linear
momentum p = (p lt p 2 /> 8 ), so the equation (12.2) can be written
,

form

in the rational

i(Po

From

*A>)

~T
=
i

(Pi

*W'

= "V.

we obtain

the simple rule

The influence of an electroa
e can be expressed by reon
particle of charge
magnetic field
the
motion
in
for a free particle.
<A*
equations of
placing p* by p A
over
to
becomes
the operator
On going
quantum theory />
h ^
to the 4-dimensional displacement
and is contragradient
T
b
this

d%^

as

Our

rule

is

seen from the equation

is

now

On

introducing afield of potential

must
^xa

be replaced by

---h
tx a

<f>#

T-<&*
h r

(12.3)7
v

in the wave equation of the particle.

Only $0 has a simple physical
it is therefore to be assumed that the laws which
significance
;

govern

\fj

remain invariant on replacing

ifj

by

tA
<?

i/r,

where A

is

any real function of position in space-time. On the other hand,

in the classical theory of the electro-magnetic field only the
field strengths,

cance,

i.e.

and not the

potentials,

have an objective

the laws are invariant on replacing

by

</> ft

<

signifi-

-,

uX^

On examining
/x is also an arbitrary function of the x a
our wave equation for these invariantive properties we find
that it is not invariant under each of them separately, but that
The field
there must exist a certain relation between A and p.

where

equations for the potentials *p and </> of the material and electromagnetic waves are invariant under the simultaneous replacement

f
by e^ -0

and

by

<f>

here A is an arbitrary function of the space-time co-ordinates.

"
"
This principle of gauge invariance is quite analogous to that

previously set up by the author, on speculative grounds, in

order to arrive at a unified theory of gravitation and electricity. 25
But I now believe that this gauge invariance does not tie to-

PARTICLE

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELD

IN

gether electricity and gravitation, but

matter in the manner described above.
principle

more thoroughly

in

IV

Chap.

rather electricity and

shall discuss this

We
;

its

interpretation will then be more apparent.

On passing to the limit c -> oo in (12.2),

its

out the factor

me

we

after separating
:

On

we

neglecting terms which are quadratic in the <f> it

addition to the kinetic energy
pt/2m, the potential

We

e<f>

+m

find, in

(12.4)

(1)91).

have already made use

5.
electric field, in
in
the
nucleus,
ing

If

we

of the first part, that due to the

have, in addition to the field originat-

a homogeneous electro-static field in the

and of strength F for which (f>
F z,
adds the perturbation term

direction of the 2-axis

it

and

significance

return to ordinary mechanics

V -

101

W - eF
the

to

energy.

homogeneous

obtained from the vector potential

z
static
c 51

field

magnetic
-

[rj,

(x,

is

y, z)

Li

this

adds to the energy the perturbation term

i.e.

(12.5)

Zeeman
of

Effect.

magnitude ||,

turbation term

If
is

the homogeneous magnetic field strength,

the direction of the 0-axis, the per-

in

is

(12.6)

On

choosing the characteristic functions ifjffl as our co-ordinate

as well as
system in the system space of the functions iff,

',

the energy of the unperturbed atom, is in diagonal form

it has the value
the state defined by nl,

in

ho

m.

(12.7)

QUANTUM THEORY

102

The components
rule for m, into
is

(nl

m) -> (wT, m'} consistent with the selection

}

which the

broken up give

line

rise to

but three
which

->
the transitions
direction of the #-axis and
all

with frequency
lines
is

is

=
j-

(E ni

En

one corresponding to

linearly polarized in

undisplaced

>i>)

one which

is

the

circularly

polarized perpendicular to the z-axis, the frequency v of which

o (m ->
is displaced by
and one which is circularly
1)
o instead
in
with
the
polarized
opposite sense,
frequency v
->
of v
is
found
This
normal
Zeeman
only
effect
(m
1).

m+

in the so-called singlet lines.

In accordance with the general perturbation

Stark Effect.
the
theory,
displacement and resolution of terms in the presence
of a homogeneous electric field is determined, to terms of first
order, by the matrix

eF-

<s>.

In consequence of the selection rule f->

<z>

1,

0,

unless

whose azimuthal quantum numbers

accidentally
energy
1
differ by
coincide.
Ignoring this exceptional case, we should
levels

all

expect to find no

st

with the field strength

order perturbation effect increasing linearly

(linear Stark effect], but only a quadratic

which is much smaller. This is in agreement with the

experimental data on alkali atoms. Hydrogen is, however,
degenerate, since for it energy levels with the same principal

effect,

quantum number n and

0,

1,

calculations for this case have been carried out

coincide.

The

by Schrodinger

and compared with experiment. 28

13.

Atom

in Interaction

with Radiation

Following Jeans, black body radiation is mathematically

Maxwell's
equivalent to a system of infinitely many oscillators.
equations for the free ether are
div

fc

div

(8

0,

curl

= 0,

curl

<

+ Ic ^
ot
-C

- 0.
ct

In order to simplify the relations, we assume that the walls of

the radiation cavity of volume V are reflecting ; then 6 is
perpendicular to the walls at the boundaries of the cavity.
Since the black body is at rest it is of no particular advantage
to carry through the calculation in a relativistically invariant

manner

we may

therefore

normalize

the

vector

potential

ATOM
fi[ in

ip

We

such a way that the scalar potential vanishes.

have 6

by

INTERACTION WITH RADIATION

IN

--

()3l

and the equations

curl 91

in the first

row are

the equations in the second row

103
then

satisfied

become

On

Let the characteristic

the boundary 91 is normal to the walls.
numbers and characteristic functions of the equations

A91

~
2

9I

0,

with the boundary condition that

by
normalized

On

in

:>0,

Ta

div

is

51

0,

there normal, be denoted

= 1,2,3,
,,,

accordance with

setting

where the
find for

coefficients q" depend on time but not on

them the equations

Introducing

-~

= p*

in

addition to

the q*

this

position,

equation

we

is

that for an oscillator with Hamiltonian function

we

readily find on applying

= - Z /", b = cZf

that the energy of the radiation field

is

in fact

given by

with this we have proved the theorem due to Jeans.

frequencies p there are approximately

For high

(13.1)

QUANTUM THEORY

104

modes

of oscillation in the frequency interval

are interested above all in the limiting case of

/>,

p -f dp.

We

21

an infinitely large
continuous
and our formula
then
becomes
the
spectrum
cavity
for the density of frequencies becomes exact.
On quantizing this mechanical system of infinitely many
oscillators 28 in accordance with the theory of the oscillator ( 3)
and the process of composition ( 10 but cf. remark on p. 109),
we find as possible quantum states s, each of which is characterized
by the fact that in it there is associated with each index a an
In this quantum state
integer n a ^ 0.
;

on choosing the additive constant in the energy in such a

way that the lowest energy value which the black body radiation
is capable of assuming is 0,
or,

In the language of photons this means that when the cavity

The
is in the state s it contains n^ photons of each kind a.

matrix element

vanishes unless

all

the equations

hold with the exception of n'a

In the first case

we

= n^,

in the

to be replaced

is

by

have, by eq. (8.12),

h n
fn = ^ * +

and

which

*)

(Emission),

(13.2)

second
1

(Absorption).

(13-2)

The

first transition s -> s' consists in a photon of kind a springing

into being, the second in the disappearance of one such photon.
It follows from the above that in a transition for which
q%9 , 4=

other q%9 must vanish.

Let an atom with fixed nucleus and electric dipole moment q
interact with the radiation field.
Differentiate the quantum
states of the atom from one another by means of the index n
and denote the corresponding energies by h v n then q
jl^nn'!!all

INTERACTION WITH RADIATION

105

atom

and

state of the total system consisting of both

radiation is characterized by the quantum numbers

The

effect of the radiation

ATOM

IN

A quantum

on the atom

is,

accordance with

in

eq. (12.4) of the preceding paragraph, given to a first

tion

approxima-

by the perturbation term

eW =

It

(q).
can be shown that the addition of such a term to the

Hamiltonian function

of

the total system will,

according to

classical theory, not only indicate an influence exerted on the

atom by the radiation field, but will also modify the equations

of

Maxwell

a
the

in

electrons in

way which
atom

indicates that the motion of the

the radiation field.
The per-

affects

turbation term will accordingly call forth emission as well as

To a sufficient approximation we may take for 91
absorption.
its value at the point occupied by the nucleus, provided we restrict
ourselves to radiation whose wave-length is large compared with
the dimensions of the atom.
We now have

From
from

this
if

it

of a single
th
oc

follows than an element

s' are such that all n

and
one

n 3 can only differ

with
the exception
n^
Then only the
1.
n'at which must equal n a
n9t

>

>

==

ft

term contributes to the sum

(13.3),

and we have

(13.4)
eH'n...'.'="(C*U-tf.'.
Bohr's frequency condition, which asserts that the emission or
absorption of a photon in state a with energy hp A is associated
with a quantum jump of the atom in which an amount
i h(v n y n = hpn of energy is lost or won, need by no means
be satisfied here. The finite cavity has its own frequencies p a
and may therefore be in no position to take up the frequencies
This is true
associated with the quantum jumps of the atom.
in principle, but as a matter of fact, as we shall see, Bohr's
>)

frequency condition is fulfilled to a very close approximation in

the overwhelming majority of all transitions ; and this is more
and more the case the larger the cavity is.
Let the atom be in the state n and the radiation in the
state ^

{n a }.

We

set

2:An.p.= V-

U(p)dp,

(13.5)

where the sum on the left is to be extended over those indices a

which />a lies between p and p + dp
hence U(p}dp is the

for

energy density of the radiation contained in the frequency

QUANTUM THEORY

106
range

In accordance with (10.5), the probability

will find itself in the state ri after time / is given

p 4~ dp.

p,

that the

atom

by
2

The contribution
is

emitted

is,

in

by
2
/*

and that

- cos (vnn + Pt

to this sum due to the cases in which a photon

accordance with equations (13.2), (13.4), given

cos (v,,,

- Pa

(>w-,g

ir

for absorption

Consider

first

,,)t

)t

h(n a

1)

,.

,,,,

IW-'*.)|,

2^

by

cos

(v nn

/>.)<

An,

,.

the case in which the term level v n

is

>

(13 6
lo.)

higher than

v n'
^ is then negative.
We now collect
those terms a in the sum (13-6 a ) for which p A lies
between p and p
Since the position of the atom is not
dp.
exactly fixed even in consequence of the variations caused by
the emission of photons we may, for small wave-lengths,
replace 91^ by its mean value 47T/F as given by the normalizing

vn

vn

^nn'

together

all

equation

JSI^F

we

and

47r,

may

assume

also

that

all
2

The square |(3tq)| of

directions are equally probable for 9l a
the scalar product of 91 with a fixed vector q has then the mean
.

value

^p

(13. 6 a )

|q|

cos (p

(p

On

then becomes

JTT |q ny,,

v}t

v}*

2p

introducing (13.5) the sum (13. 6 a ) may, to a good approximabe replaced by the integral

tion,

477

(U,|

COS (p

(p

v)l

U(p)dp
'

r)

Essentially the only elements which contribute to the value of

this integral, for a time / large in comparison with the duration l/v
of

an oscillation, are those for which p lies near to

in

powers

of

v,

the

first

term

in the

v.

On

developing

expansion contributes

ATOM

INTERACTION WITH RADIATION

IN

107

others are to be neglected.

Similarly the
is
due
to
emission
negligible, for its de(13.6 e )
2
This
vanishes
means that the
nowhere.
nominator (p
v)
the
with
transition is almost invariably associated
absorption of
to the integral

entire

all

amount

The probability
a photon whose frequency lies very close to v.
that the atom will appear in the higher state ri after lapse of
the factor
time t increases in proportion with t
;

4rr

is

UM

the probability that the transition n -> ri take place in unit time.
This formula was obtained for the case in which the state

In the reverse case

higher energy level than n.
an appreciable
contributes
to
emissions
6
due
(13. e )
v and obtain the same
vn
vn
We now put v nn

ri possessed a

only the

sum

amount.
formula with

or in place of the

The

first

is

This latter

>

this difference

V
is

sum

>

n a we now have n A

1,

we denote the second by V u(p)dp.

number of modes of vibra-

equal to (hp) times the

tion of the cavity within the frequency interval

by

sum

(13.5) the

U(p)dp, and

in place of

p,

dp

hence

(13.1)

V
The

it(

P )dp

- V

7T C

probability that the atom drop

n' in unit time is

''

state n into the lower state

from

given by

The additional term

u(v) is characteristic for spontaneous

radiation is not enclosed in a black
body, i.e. when there is no radiation density U(v), the probability that the atom drop from the state n to the lower state ri
in unit time, emitting thereby a photon whose frequency lies

emission.

in the

When

the

immediate neighbourhood

of v

vn

*v, is

This agrees with the formula obtained by integrating (8.11)

over all directions. The probability that the atom jump from
the level n into a higher level ri (v n > v n ) under these same
conditions is zero.
>

QUANTUM THEORY

108

In the energy field of the black body radiation we find not

"
stimulated emission," both of which
only absorption, but also
are proportional to the energy density U(v).
On setting
47T

(13.8)

the probability for a

unit time is

jump from

state n to a higher state n' in

and the probability

to n,

for the inverse

= vn

V n ),

(13.9)

jump, the drop from

n'

is

(13.9)

Since

||q nn '||

is

an Hermitian matrix,
(13.10)

If there are a number of atoms in the radiation field and the

whole system is in a steady state, then on the average as many
atoms must make the jump n -> n' in unit time as make the
inverse jump n' -> n.
On denoting the number of atoms in
the state n by
these
considerations are expressed in the
n

condition

= A n n N n .[U( v +
,

u(v)}

or
!L

=1

(13.11)

Nn>

A nn
A n n have entirely disprobability coefficients
appeared or rather, almost entirely, for the equation is valid
or q nn ={= 0, i.e.
only under the assumption that A nn =f=
the transition n^tn' is not to be forbidden
by the selection
The

>

But for such a system in thermal equilibrium

shown by Bollzmann, be proportional to

rules.

as

where

Nn

must,

is the
temperature and k the Boltzmann constant.
Equation (13.11) then becomes

or the Planck radiation formula

U( v )

= TT^
C

ATOM

INTERACTION WITH RADIATION

IN

109

valid for all frequencies v whose energies can be

the
absorbing and emitting atoms in accordance
exchanged by
with Bohr's frequency condition. 29
We have thus finally returned to the historical origin of the
quantum theory. We must now add three remarks concerning
this

formula

is

this treatment,

due to Dirac,

of

energy exchange between matter

and radiation.

In the first place, it is able to explain the fact

that the spectral lines are not sharp, but possess a natural breadth.
Secondly, we must inquire what causes this difference between

absorption and emission, processes which are transformed into

each other on changing the direction of time.
Indeed, the
fundamental mechanical and field laws are invariant under the
transformation /->-/! The answer is that this difference is
due to the preferential direction in time involved in the application
of the theory of probability ; we assume a fixed initial state and
calculate, with the aid of transition probabilities, the distribution over the various states at a later time, not the distribution
which would result from the equations for an earlier time. If
is made concerning this preferential direction,
should be replaced by \t\ in (13-7). And finally, the fact that
we have here treated Maxwell's equations as classical equations
of motion, and as such have subjected them to the process of
for in our general
quantization, may give rise to serious doubts
formulation Maxwell's equations are already the quantum-

no assumption
t

theoretic
in

wave equations

Chap. IV,

11,

for

that this

the photon

method

is

But we

in fact

shall

see

the correct one

to employ in order to go from one corpuscle to an indefinite

number of corpuscles. For since the number of photons must
remain indefinite -as a photon can, in contrast to an electron,
spring into being or disappear the method of composition

described

in

10

is

not applicable to them.

CHAPTER

III

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

1.

Transformation Groups

concept of a group, one of the oldest and most

profound of mathematical concepts, was obtained by
abstraction from that of a group of transformations. 1
A point-field, a domain of elements which we call points,
on which the transformations operate, underlies the transThis point-field may be either the totality of a
formations.
finite number of individually exhibited elements or an infinite
A
set, in particular a continuum such as space or time.
mapping or correspondence S of the point-field on itself is
determined by a law which associates with each point p of the
two correspondences
field a point p as image
p > p'
Sp
are
identical if for all points p the two image
Sp and Tp
If the point-field contains a finite
points Sp and Tp coincide.
of
the
number
elements
correspondence S can be defined by
for infinite
the
image point for each point p
giving explicitly

THE

sets,

however, the association

is

only possible by giving the

law of the function S.

Among such correspondences there is a particular one which
it is
associates with each point p the point p itself
p -> p
called the identity I.
Two correspondences can be applied
if the first sends the arbitrary point p into p'
successively
Sp,
the second p' into p"
Tp' then the correspondence resulting
:

from the composition of the two is defined by the association

p -> p" == T(Sp] and is denoted by TS (read from right to left !).
The resultant correspondence depends on the order of the two
factors 5 and T.
In order that composition be possible it is
essential that the correspondences are ones which map the
point-field on itself, and not on another point-field.

We shall restrict ourselves to one-to-one correspondences S :

the image points p'
Sp associated with p shall always be
and
each
distinct,
given point p' shall appear as the image of
one (and only one) of the points p. Consequently such a one-to-

110

TRANSFORMATION GROUPS

111

one correspondence S
p -> p' determines a second, the inverse
l
->
which
of
S~
5,
just cancels it
p
p'
:

S'(Sp)=p,
S~

S^

S(S'p'}=p'
SS~ - /.

or

/,

inverse of S~ is again 5 and the identity / is its own inverse.

resultant TS of two one-to-one correspondences 5, T is
for
and its inverse is (TS}' 1
itself one-to-one,
S~ l T~~ l

The
The
on

correspondences
->/>'-> p" there results
we
shall
Henceforth
consider
only those correp"
or
called
which
also
substitutions,
transformations
spondences,
In this domain we have, in accordance with
are one-to-one.
what has been said, the two fundamental operations of inversion
inverting
p' -> p.

the

-->

and composition.
Examples.

1.

Let

exhibited individually

point-field consist of n elements

bring them into a particular order by

the
;

numbering them with the integers

1,

2,

-,

n.

(1.1)

This

numbering consists in a one-to-one reciprocal relation

between the elements of the point-field and the integers or
"
A permutation conpositions
q in the series (1.1).
sists in the transition from one such arrangement to another.
"

possible
If

we wish

to operate in space

we may think

of the positions as

which the movable elements can be

laid, or, conversely, we may think of the elements as fixed and
With each permutation is
shift the movable numbers about.
associated a one-to-one correspondence p -> />' which tells
which element p' occupies, after the exchange, the position

fixed

compartments

into

Insofar as the method of numbering is

previously held by p.
considered as left to convention, the permutation is nothing
more than this one-to-one correspondence. The concept is to
be understood in this way when we are concerned with the
composition or successive application of permutations.
2. A kinematical example of a group is offered by the motions
of a space-filling substance, in particular those of a rigid body.
The positions or numbers of the preceding example are here
represented by the material points and the point-field is the
space itself. The one-to-one correspondence p -> />' connects
that material point which originthe initial with the final state
the
ally covered
spatial point p is taken to the point p by the
motion. Congruent correspondences of space on to itself will
"
"
in the geometrical
motions
also be briefly referred to as
:

sense.

The concept

of a

group

of transformations

is

now

readily

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

of transformaformulated. We understand by it any system
112

tions of a given point-field, which is closed in the sense of the

following conditions
1. It contains the identity
then its inverse S~ l does also
2. If 5 belongs to
3. The resultant TS of any two transformations S, T of
is also a transformation of @.
As examples we name the group of all n permutations of n
"
"
of 3-dimensional
motions
things, the congruent mappings or
Euclidean space, all homogeneous linear transformations in
n variables with non-vanishing determinants (affine correspondence of an n-dimensional vector space) and the group of unitary
transformations in n dimensions.
If the point p goes over into p' by means of a transformation
of the group
then p' is said to be equivalent to p (with respect
to the group
The same concept is applied when we are
).
of a point p a figure consisting of points.
instead
considering
in
these
terms, the three requirements for a group
Expressed
are nothing other than the three axioms of equality
:

1.

equivalent to

is

2.

If

p'

3.

If

is

to

is

equivalent to /?, then p is equivalent to p'

equivalent to p and p" to />', then p" is equivalent
;

/>.

2
any geometry of
According to Klein's Erlanger Program
a point-field is based on a particular transformation group &
of the field
figures which are equivalent with respect to QJ,
and which can therefore be carried into one another by a transIn Euclidean
formation of
are to be considered as the same.
;

played by the group of congruency transformations, consisting of the motions referred to above, and
in affine geometry by the group of affine transformations, etc.
The group expresses the specific isotropy or homogeneity of the
"
"
isomorphic correspondences
space it consists of all one-to-one
of the space on itself, i.e. those transformations which leave
undisturbed all objective relations between points of the space
which can be expressed geometrically. The symmetry of a
particular figure in such a space is described by a sub-group of
which carry the figure
consisting of all transformations of
over into itself. The art of ornamental tiling, which was per-

geometry

this role

is

by the Egyptians, contains implicitly considerable knowwe here find, perhaps, the
ledge of a group-theoretic nature
oldest fragment of mathematics in human culture.
But only
recently have we been able to formulate clearly the formal
principles of this art
attempts in this direction were already
made by Leonardo da Vinci, who sought to give a general and
fected

ABSTRACT GROUPS AND THEIR REALIZATION

113

systematic account of the various types of symmetry possible

in a building.
But the most wonderful symmetrical structures
are exhibited in crystals, the symmetry of which is described
by those congruency transformations of Euclidean space which
bring the atomic lattices of the crystal into coincidence with
themselves. The most important application of group theory
to natural science heretofore has been in this field.
The following considerations fit naturally into the present
Let the point-field M on which the transformations
discussion.
S of the group & operate.be mapped on the point-field N by
means of the one-to-one correspondence A p -> q
the case
in which the correspondence serves to introduce new numbering
:

or

new

co-ordinates

is

of particular importance.

Through

this

M on N

the transformation S of M becomes

correspondence
in the particular case mentioned above
a transformation T of N
T is simply a description of the transformation S in the new
It is evident that to the composition of transco-ordinates.
formations S corresponds the composition of the corresponding
transformations T of N and that a group @J of transformations S
The relation
goes over into a group ^) of transformations T.
between these two transformations is
of

T - ASA'

(1.2)

we denote the transformation S by />->/>' and if q, q[ are

the points of N associated with />, p' by A, then the transformation q -> q of N is effected by

for

if

We may

also write $)

tions apply

2.

An

= A&A~

when N and M

In particular, these considera-

are the

same

point-field.

Abstract Groups and their Realization

number of transformations of a given point-field

we are of course not
can be applied successively
But when we perform this process
restricted to merely two.
step by step it is automatically reduced to a succession of compositions of transformations taken two at a time

on

arbitrary

to itself

ABC

A[B(C

)]

This possibility of performing an extended composition in steps

involving but two transformations at a time shows that the
associative law

(AB)C

A(BC)

holds for any three transformations A, B, C.

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

114

structure of a transformation group is obtained from it

when we allow the transformations themselves
abstraction
by
to degenerate into elements of an immaterial nature, retaining
only their individuality and the rules in accordance with which
two given transformations are composed, in a given order, to
form a third. In accordance with what has been said such
composition necessarily obeys the associative law. Perhaps it
also obeys other universal laws, but since we have at present
no indication of this we attempt a formulation of the abstract
structure of the group by means of the following definitions
An abstract group is a system of elements within which a law
of composition is given such that by means of it there arises from
any two (the same or different] elements a, b of the group, taken in
The following conditions shall thereby
this order, an element ba.

The

be satisfied

The

associative law c(ba)

(cb}a ;
There shall exist an element I, the unit element, which leaves

1.

2.

an arbitrary element a unaltered on composition with

la

To each element a

3.

composition with

it

al

shall exist

the unit element

a^r 1

a.

an inverse a~ l which
I

yields

on

a~ l a

Such an abstract group

it :

I.

not to be confused with its realization by transformations, i.e. by one-to-one correspondences of

a given point-field.
A realization consists in associating with
each element a of the abstract group a transformation T(a) of the
point-field in such a way that to the composition of elements of
the

is

group corresponds composition of

tions

T(ba)
It

the associated transforma-

T(b)T(a).

(2.1)

follows from this that to the unit element

identity /

and

transformations

The

first

to

inverse elements

a,

I
corresponds the
a" 1 correspond inverse

7>-i) = r-t(a).
assertion follows from the particular case

7r(l) =

(2.2)

T(a)

by left-handed composition with the reciprocal of the

transformation T(a)
(2.2) is then contained in (2.1) as the
1
case
b
a"
The realization is said to be faithful
particular
when to distinct elements of the group correspond distinct
transformations
of (2.1)

T(a)

=4=

T(b)

when a

4=

b.

ABSTRACT GROUPS AND THEIR REALIZATION

In accordance with the

and

115

fundamental equation

(2.1) the necessary

"faithfulness" is that T(a] shall be
the unit element.
For if a, b are two
then follows from T(a)
T(b} i.e.

sufficient condition for

the identity only if a

elements of the group

T(a)T-

is

it

(b)

T(a)T(b~
l

T(ab~

l
)

=
-

If the abstract
that under these conditions ab~
b.
I, i.e. a
is obtained from a transformation group
by abstraction,
group
is a faithful realization of it.
then conversely
In the study of transformation groups we always deal with
two manifolds, the structureless point-field and the manifold of
group elements, the structure of which is expressed by the law
The original problem thus resolves itself into
of composition.
two
the examination of the various group structures possible
and the examination of the possibility of obtaining realizations
of the given abstract group by transformations of a given pointThe historical development of the subject has shown that
field.

&

&

is advantageous to effect this division into two

problems
they are of fundamentally different character and require
fundamentally different mathematical equipment for their

it

discussion.

In accordance with our

method

group, which we henceforth refer

serves merely to give the structure

of introducing the abstract

simply as the group, it

to

of the group
the nature of
elements is immaterial. This abstraction from the nature
of the elements is expressed mathematically by the concept of
If we have two groups g,
isomorphism.
g' and there is associated with each element a of g an element a' of g' in a onea ^ a', such that
to-one way
;

its

(bay

Va\

(2.3)

then the two groups are said to be simply isomorphic. Simply

isomorphic abstract groups offer no means of distinguishing one
from the other. The concept of isomorphism can, of course, be
Two isomorphic transformaapplied to transformation groups.
tion groups can be considered as faithful representations of
one and the same abstract group. A group may be isomorphic
it is then said to be automorphic.
with itself
Such an automorphism occurs when g and g' coincide, i.e. when a one-to-one
reciprocal association a ^t a! satisfying the condition (2.3) is
established between the elements of the group g.
The question arises whether or not every abstract group
If this were not the case the
possesses a faithful realization.
concept of an abstract group as developed above would be too
;

broad

there would exist, in addition to the associative law,

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

116

other purely formal laws for the composition of transformations

which are satisfied by every transformation group. Conversely,
a proof of the readability of any abstract group would tell us
that all that can be said about the formal laws for the composition of transformations is contained in our conditions (1)
We can, in fact, construct a faithful realization of any
to (3).
abstract group g by taking as the point-field the group manifold
itself and letting correspond to each element a of the group
the transformation
as
s -> s'

group manifold on to

"

"

This
left- translation
transformation
which
a
one-to-one
ta is
reciprocal
obviously
a~ l s'.
If a and b are
has as inverse the transformation s
distinct elements the corresponding transformations ta t6 are
distinct, for they allow the unit element I to correspond to the
If we perform in succession
distinct elements a, b respectively.

of the

itself.

two

left-translations
5-

_>

s'

the resulting transformation

law,
s -> s"

s'

as,
is,

in

~> s"

bs'

consequence of the associative

b(as)

(ba)s.

Consequently the left-translations constitute

in fact a faithful
the
abstract
realization
group. However, the right-transfor if we
denote the mapping
lations behave otherwise,
->
manifold
on
itself
s'
sa of the group
s
by t*(a), we find
instead of (2.1) the equation

of

3.

Sub-groups and Conjugate Classes

A sub-group g' of a given abstract group Q is a set of elements

contained in g which itself fulfils the characteristic group conthe unit element I belongs to g', with a belongs also
ditions
a" 1 and with a, b also ba. These three conditions can be reduced
l
if a, b are any two elements of g', then ba~
also
to the one
:

We

assume, of course, that the partial system

belongs to g'.
consists not merely of the element I, but the other limiting
case, in which g' coincides with g, shall be included under the

concept of a sub-group.

Examples are readily found. In the group of Euclidean

motions are contained, for example, the group of rotations
(which leaves one point, the centre, fixed) and the group of
translations.

The unitary transformations

constitute

a sub-

SUB-GROUPS AND CONJUGATE CLASSES

117

of the

complete group of all homogeneous linear transformathe even permutations a sub-group of the group of all
If we are dealing with a transformation group
permutations.
which leave a particular
all those transformations of
point p fixed (i.e. which carry p over into itself) constitute a
Instead of a point p the fixed element may be
sub-group
p.
the transformations of the subany figure composed of points
group must either leave the figure as a whole fixed (i.e. they must
carry each point of the figure over into another such) or the
more restrictive condition that they leave each point of the
We can also obtain sub-groups of by employing
figure fixed.
If ifi(p) is any
invariant functions instead of invariant figures.
function of position on the point-field with elements p we associate with the transformation 5 p ~> p' the function 0'

group
tions

&

defined by *l>'(p'}
*f*(p) and say that
If p'
the transformation S.
Sp, p"

it

is

obtained from

Tp'

',

ijj

by

the equations

show

that the composition of the transitions iff -> $' and

associated with 5 and T result in the transition if* -> ^"
i(t'
iff"
Now consider all transformations 5 of
associated with TS.

->

itself, i.e. for which $(Sp)

$(p) is
of
constitute
a
and
they
p
sub-group !Q
of
is
In
this
an
invariant
we
can
way
separate out
tft(p)
the rotations from the homogeneous linear transformations by
The subrequiring the invariance of the unit quadratic form.
in
is
a finite group Q, which
described by
groups contained

which carry
an identity

0(/>)

in

over into

exhibiting each of

its

elements and giving explicitly the result

of composition of each two, can be obtained

by inspection.
associated with each element a of the group Q a
cyclic sub-group denoted by (a)
There

is

-,a-,
the elements a

of

a~\

integral

(a) is

are

-I,

a,

a\

(3.1)

in fact a group,

n and

for

being

exponents we have

the smallest sub-group which contains

common

which arc defined inductively by the equations

a = I, a n+l = a n a.

These elements constitute

any

a"

to

all

a, i.e. its

elements

The
sub-groups
g which contain a.
or
and
can
be
distinct
either
this
(3.1)
of

elements of the set

latter must be the case if Q is a finite group
they must ~~repeat
2
a h l are
a
themselves after a cycle of h terms
I,
a,
h is called the order of the element a.
distinct but a h
I.
:

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

118

of a finite group is the number of its elements

the
order of an element a agrees with the order of
accordingly,
the cyclic sub-group (a) generated by a.
group is said to be
commutative or Abelian if composition of its elements obeys
the rule ba
ab.
Cyclic groups are therefore Abelian.
If a runs through the sub-group t) of g the associated (left-)
translations ta constitute a group of transformations which is
simply isomorphic with {), the point-field of which is the group
manifold.
say that two elements 5, s which are equivalent
with respect to this transformation group are (left-)equivalent
with respect to I) and express this situation by the notation
"
11
s == s with respect to f)
the condition for it is that s'
as
of
In this way the elements of g are
where a is an element
1).
divided into sets of elements which are equivalent to I).
If
the number of such sets is finite, it is called the Index of I) in g.
If g is a finite group the number of elements in each of these
sets is given by the order of I), for different translations t send
s into different elements
as 4= bs if a =^ b.
The order of f) is
accordingly a divisor of the order of g, and the quotient of these two

The order

We

rt

is the

index of f).

The considerations

at

the

developed

for

of

transformations,

realization

of

groups
the

end

abstract group

of

We

g.

above, which were

suggest a second
associate with the

element a the correspondence

s

of the

we

call

_> 5

group manifold on
"
the

as inverse

"

'

asa~ l

itself.

is
!
conjugation
a~ l s'a. The law of composition
rt

s=

from
r

s ->

we obtain

(3.2)

This correspondence, which

reciprocal one-to-one, and has

s"

is

obeyed, for

bs'b~ l

the product

s"

basa~ l b

(ba)s(ba)~

Two

elements s, s' of g arc said to be conjugate if they are

equivalent with respect to the group of all conjugations. Accordingly, the whole group is divided into classes, any element
of one of which is conjugate to any other element of the same
When we speak of classes within a group without a
class.
more explicit description we mean these conjugate classes.
The realization of g by the group of conjugations is in general
"
"
In particular,
rather than a faithful realization.
contracted
a
the conjugation I a coincides with the identity if a commutes
with all elements ^ of the group. The totality of all such eleit is obviously
ments a is called the central of the group
;

SUB-GROUPS AND CONJUGATE CLASSES

119

of g.
But this disadvantage of contranslation
is
over
offset by an advantage
jugation
conjugation
is an isomorphic correspondence within the group itself which
leaves the unit element invariant and which associates with
each sub-group I) of g another such, the conjugate sub-group
1
These facts, which are expressed by the equation
alja""

an Abelian sub-group

a(st)a-

(asa- )(ata~

),

were already contained implicitly in the considerations at the

is said to be a self~conjugate or invariant
end of
1.
I)
if
it
coincides with all its conjugate sub-groups.
sub-group

The importance
following

of

last

this

is

concept

best seen in

the

Theorem.
If ^ is an invariant sub -group
lence with respect to i/, then it follows from

and = denotes equiva-

'

s'

To prove

this

we note

s,l'

= sbs~

that

s't'
r

that

s't'

=
s'

as,

asbt =

st.

(3.3)

bt (a,

b in

t))

yield
(3.4)

(ac) (st).

Since ac lies in f) our assertion

belongs to t) with b.
It is readily seen that the invariantive nature of fy is
proven.
In dealnecessary as well as sufficient for the validity of (3.3).
ing with an invariant sub-group f) we need not distinguish

for c
is

between right and left equivalence with respect

the above proof was based on this fact.

to

t)

indeed,

We

may, if we like, consider equivalent elements as not

differing from one another (by application of the principle of
but by thus allowing equivalent
definition by abstraction)
;

together the group property of g is, in general,

In accordance with the above theorem it still remains,
forfeited.
however, if fy is an invariant sub-group. The group obtained
from g by identifying all elements which are equivalent with
its order is the
respect to 1) is called the factor group g / f)

elements to

fall

index of the invariant sub-group t) of g.

These concepts are of assistance in examining the way in
"
"
on setting up a realization.
which a group may be contracted
of
a
Let the transformation T(a)
given point-field on itself
correspond to the element a of the abstract group g in the realizaThen T(a)
tion under consideration.
T(a'} if and only if a'
is obtained from a by composition with an element e (i.e. a'
ea)
Such elements e obviously confor which T(e) is the identity.
stitute a sub-group I) of g, for it follows from

T(e)

/,

T(e')

that

T(ee')

T(e)T(e')

/.

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

120
I)

is,

an invariant sub-group, for

true of

in fact,

the same

is

T(aea~

l
)

T(a}T(e)T^(a)

if

is

T(e)

T(a)T~

the identity,

(a).

In any realization of an abstract group g by a group of transformations the elements of a certain invariant sub-group I) 0/g correspond
two different elements will be
to the identical transformation ;
associated with the same transformation if and only if they are

The group of transformations

equivalent with respect to f).
consequently a faithful realization of the factor group g/f).
4.

On

is

Representation of Groups by Linear

Transformations

requiring that the transformations which are to serve

as a realization of a given abstract group g be linear and homogeneous we arrive at a problem which is most fruitful from the

mathematical standpoint and which is at the same time of

we then speak of
greatest importance for quantum mechanics
a representation, instead of a realization, of the group. 3 An
;

n-dimensional representation of g, or a representation of degree n,

consists in associating with eacli element s of the group an
affine transformation U(s) of the n-dimensional vector space
in such a way that these transformations obey the
3ft
9ft n
law of composition

V(s)U(t)--= U(st).

(4.1)

We

then say that s induces the transformation U(s) in the

On choosing a definite co-ordinate
representation space 9ft.
in
each
transformation
9ft
system
U(s) is represented by a square
matrix of n rows and columns, the determinant of which does
not vanish. On replacing the original co-ordinate system by
another, obtained from it by the transformation A, the correspondence which was formerly represented by the matrix U(s)

now

represented by the matrix AU(s)A~

Consequently
the association s -> U(s) is a representation, the association
is

s-+AU(s)A~

if

this latter representation is said to be

obviously also one
to the former.
They are essentially the same,
in
the
of
the co-ordinate system in terms
choice
differing only
is

equivalent
of

which they are described.

Examples. A representation in one dimension consists in

assigning to each element s of the group a non-vanishing number
x(s) in such a way that

XW = X(*) X(0-

(4.2)

In

REPRESENTATION OF GROUPS
= 1- A most trivial 1-dimensional
particular, x(l)

121
repre-

obtained by assigning to each s the number 1

1.
This
x(s)
special case is called the identical representation.
Consider next the so-called symmetric group, the group
sentation

TT

77y

is

of all /!

The

permutations of/ things.

*-,=

association

1,

according as 5 is an .even or an odd permutation, defines a

"
"
1-dimensional representation, the
alternating
representation
of the group TT.
For the character 8, which distinguishes
between the even and the odd permutations, satisfies the

equation
8*

8,t

Let g be a
then

finite

8|.

group

cyclical

of order

the elements

s are

I,

and a^ ~
in which
then

tells

a, a*,

-,

a"" 1

Consider the 1-dimensional representation s -> x( s )

a
The condition (4.2) for a representation
x( )
us that to the elements s of this series correspond

I.

1
?

e
fc

A-i

fc
>

fc
)

>

1
e must therefore
corresponds e\ Hence
be an /i
root of unity and the law defining the representation
r
r
is a -> e
0, 1, 2,
Conversely, when e is an arbitrary
(r
).
th
A
root of unity this association defines a 1-dimensional reWe have thus obtained a complete survey
presentation of g.
of all possible 1-dimensional representations of a cyclical group.
The only example of a multi-dimensional representation
which we offer at this time is the following trivial one. If
is itself a group of linear transformations of an w-dimensional
vector space SR, then the association s -> s defines an n-dimensional
This example implies more than one might
representation of g.

and that

to a

th

We have in fact to do the following

obtain the structure of the group g by abstraction from
the group of linear transformations and then return to the
original realization by means of the correspondence s -> s
between an clement 5 of the abstract group on the one hand
and the linear transformation s on the other.
The concept of equivalence has a more general significance
than that discussed above.
It may refer to an arbitrary system
of linear correspondences U of the n-dimensional vector
space JR. We need not assume that these correspondences
possess an inverse (i.e. that they have a non-vanishing determinant), nor need we assume that they are associated with
at first sight imagine.

we

first

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

122

the elements s of a group, as is the case with representations.

On expressing the set of correspondences U in terms of a new
co-ordinate system each matrix U goes over into the matrix
is transformed into the equivalent
AUA~~ l the system
U'
Z"
of
the
/'.
A is here a fixed non-singular
system
consisting
matrix.
Consider a correspondence U of 91 on to itself. A linear
sub-space 9T of 9t is said to be invariant under U if the vectors
of 91' are transformed into vectors of 91' by U.
If 9V is invariant
then the space 91 (mod. 91') obtained by projecting 91 with
2, in particular Fig. 1).
respect to 9T is also invariant (cf. I,
9t' being invariant, U gives rise to a correspondence U' of SR'
on to itself
we say that U induces U' in 91'. Similarly for
the space obtained by projection.
We now pass from a single
of correspondences.
91' is
correspondence U to a system
if it is invariant under each corresaid to be invariant under
Describing 9i in terms of a co-ordinate
spondence U of Z
which
is
system
adapted to the invariant sub-space 91', all
matrices U of the system
reduce simultaneously to the form
illustrated in Fig. 1, p. 8.
is called Irreducible if 9t contains no sub-space, other than 9t itself and the space
consisting
We shall
only of the vector 0, which is invariant under
have occasion to reduce 9i in such a way that each constituent
separated off is irreducible under a given system 2. This
requires the construction of a series of sub-spaces

0,

lf

SI*

3tr

(4-3)

and ending with 9?, in which each member

beginning with
is contained in the preceding one and is such that 9t,
(mod. 9t _i)
is irreducible.
shall
be
9t
Naturally
actually
larger than 9t ^!,
not merely coincide with it. The implications of this reduction
are most readily seen in terms of the matrices U of the corret

spondences of the system Z on adapting the co-ordinate system

u
M
to the
composition series
(4.3), i.e. by choosing first a coordinate system in 9t t then supplementing it with additional
fundamental vectors in order to obtain a co-ordinate system
1

for $2, 9t 3
in turn.
27 is said to be completely
,

reducible if 9t can be decomposed

each
of which are invariant under
9T,
and such that neither of them consists merely of the vector 0.
This concept of complete reducibility is more exacting than that
of mere reducibility.
On describing 91 in terms of a co-ordinate
system which is adapted to this decomposition, each matrix
U of 2 assumes the form illustrated in Fig. 2, p. 9. We are
then faced with the problem of decomposing 9R (or E] into

into

two sub-spaces

9t

FORMAL PROCESSES
none of which

constituents,

decomposing
none of which

$
is

We

g^

is

-f

completely

reducible,

invariant

into

$R fc

123
i.e.

of

sub-spaces,

completely reducible.

often find that reducibility implies complete reducibility,

that in many cases we have the theorem
If 9T is an invariant sub-space of 3t, a second invariant sub-space 31" can
i.e.

be found such that

Z) into
case

SR'

when

31".

JH is

We

completely reducible (with respect to

soon see that this is actually the

shall

a unitary space and

5R is

a system of unitary

is

transformations.
It

was shown

in

Chap.
1

that

3,

I,

ducible, then the system Z

of the dual space on itself

of

the system

if

is

re-

"

<l

transposed

correspondences
is also reducible.
If
5 -> U(s)
is an ^-dimensional
representation of the group g the transposed
it is readily seen,
U*(s) do not constitute a representation
however, that on employing instead the contragredient corre:

spondences
U(s)

[l/'(5)]-

w
we do obtain
This we

5.

call

a representation s ~> U(s] of the dual vector space.

w

the

contragredient

Formal Processes.

representation

Clebsch-Gordan Series

groups offer what are perhaps the simplest

examples
theory of representations. We consider in
the
C n of all linear and homogeneous transparticular
group C
x n with non-vanishing
formations s in n variables #,, x 2j
determinants
we consider each set of values #, as a vector
in an n-dimensional vector space t *= t n
The classical theory
of invariants, first developed in England about the middle of
the last century, concerned itself in particular with the representations of C induced on the coefficients of arbitrary forms

Continuous

the

of

A quadratic form in these variables is a

#,.
combination of the n(n
l)/2 linearly independent
of a linear transformation
x
the
influence
under
k
Xi
products
in

the variables

linear

products undergo a linear transformation [s] 2

s ~> [s] 2 is obviously a representation
2
The transformation
in
of the group C.
dimensions
n(n
l)/2
[c]
s of the variables A^ sends the arbitrary quadratic form

s of the Xi these

and the correspondence

E&H:

*i *k

into a quadratic form

-

Ia tt

*,-

xk

124

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

the new variables, where the coefficients a ik are obtained

from the a ik by a certain linear transformation s 2 associated with
in

The quadratic form

s\ s 2 is obviously contragredient to [s] 2
characterized by a fixed set of n(n
l)/2 coefficients a ik may
therefore be considered as a vector in a space of this number of
dimensions, and the transformation s of the variables x i induces
.

The space thus defined by

the transformation s 2 in this space.
the totality of n-ary quadratic forms is thus the point-field for
a group of linear homogeneous transformations which constitute
a representation of the group C.
We may in the same way deal with cubic, quartic,
/ic forms. The totality of monomials of order / are contained
in the formula
,

where the/^ are non-negative integers whose sum

/

4.
471I./2I

They

4- ./fn

Jf

constitute the substratum of a representation

n(n+

-( n

])
i

*>

'u

+/-

[c]/

in

1)

dimensions.

But we can exhibit representations of C which are formally

yet simpler than these arising from the theory of forms. Let
and (y ) be two arbitrary vectors in our n-dimensional
(#
On subjecting the X*
space t and consider the products x y k
and the y { to the same transformation s of C (transition to a
new co-ordinate system) the n 2 products undergo a certain
linear transformation s X s associated with 5 and the corre2
2
spondence 5 -> 5 X s is an n -dimensional representation (c) of C.
Now a system of numbers F(i, k}, depending on two indices i k
which run through the values 1, 2,
n, is said to be a tensor
of second order if under the influence of a transformation s of
t the F(i, k) undergo the same transformation as the products
x Vk f the components of two arbitrary vectors J, t) of t. Hence
the tensors of order 2 are the substratum of the representation
2
2
of C.
contains the representation [c] 2 which is induced
(c)
(c)
in the sub-space of symmetric tensors of order 2
the tensor
t-)

with components F(i, k} being symmetric if F(ik)

F(ki).
In geometry the anti-symmetric tensors, i.e. tensors whose
components satisfy the condition F(ik)
F(ki), play a more
important role than the symmetric ones.* In particular, two
arbitrary vectors (#,), (y ) define a surface element with

components
x{ik]

x iy h

x ky

FORMAL PROCESSES

125

quantities but n(n

l)/2 are linearly independent,
for
those
which
On
i
k.
say
subjecting the components #
of the vector
and the components 3',- of the vector t) to the
same linear transformation s, the components of the surface
element defined by them undergo an n(n
l)/2-dimensional
linear transformation (s} 2
s -> {s} 2 is a representation {c} 2

these

of

<

whose substratum is the totality of anti-symmetric tensors of

order 2.
Hence the representation (c) 2 is reduced into the
2
2
representations [c] and {c} for any tensor F(ik) can obviously
,

be written
F(ik)

~[F(ik)

F(ki)]

F(ki)]

-z[F(ik}

unique manner as the sum of its symmetric and antisymmetric parts. That this reduction is correct is further borne
i.e.

in a

out by the fact that the dimensionalities satisfy

n'=
/

nln
v
^

+
'

1)'

+
,

Similarly three arbitrary vectors

sional element of

n(n
v

j,

ty,

determine a 3-dimen-

volume with components

xk

y*

yi

(5.2)

zk

These elements constitute the substratum

3

{c}

in

n(n

l)(n

of a representation

2)

1-2-3
dimensions.
Continuing in this way we can construct 4-,
this process must cease with
n-dimensional elements
w-rowed determinants, for a determinant of the form (5.2) with
more than n rows must necessarily vanish identically.
We shall see that the representations of C whose substrata
are the symmetric and anti-symmetric tensors of order / are
irreducible, and shall in fact solve the general problem of effecting the complete reductions of (c)-f, the representation induced
by C in the space of all tensors of order /, into its irreducible
constituents (Chap. V).
The tensor concept really depends on the X -multiplication
If the m variables x { undergo a trans10.
introduced in II,
n
variables y k a transformation $, then
formation A and the
Conthe mn products x t y k undergo a transformation A X B.
sidering the x i as the components of an arbitrary vector j in
an m-dimensional space 9t m and the y k as the components of
5-,

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

126
t)

in SR n the

y k may be considered as the components

an ran-dimensional vector space R m X 3J n

products

of a vector j

t)

#,

in

Hence two representations

&':*->/'(*)

<p:5->t/(s),

(5.3)

m, n-dimensions, respectively, give rise to a new wnX

dimensional representation which we denote by

of g in

'

':*->

/(*)

U'(s).

(5.4)

This presents a general method of obtaining a new representafrom two given representations
'.
tion $> X
->
s
of
s
the
linear
the
group c for
representation
Denoting
the moment by (c), the representations of c whose substrata
2
are then (c) X (c)
are the tensors of order 2, 3,
(c)
'

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

-.

We

of two
should, perhaps, have discussed the addition
their
Conbefore
X
multiplication
discussing
representations
sider the variables x f and y k as the components of a single vector
when the x< are
w) -dimensional vector space
5 in an (m
to
transformation
and
the
the
subjected
y k to the transformation B these
n variables undergo a certain trans.

m+

formation (A, B).

in

-f-

Hence we obtain from

n dimensions.

The

(5.3)

the representation

inverse of this process

reduction, as discussed above

into the components
and '.

jp

'

is

is complete
completely reducible

Another important formal method

is the following
Any
Af-dimensions of the linear group c n in
w-dimensions may be used to construct an A^-dimensional
representation of any abstract group g from an 7z-dimensional
F associates with the linear
of the same.
representation
transformation u in n-dimensional space a linear transformation
U in A7 dimensions, so if
5 -> u is an w-dimensional representation of the group g with elements s, then

representation

in

5 ->

u ->

an N-dimensional representation s -> U of g which we may

denote by F($g). To this is due the importance of the repreis

sentations of the linear group for the general theory of representations.

For example, take
to be the representation of
C whose substratum is the dual space, the
space of all tensors
of order 2, of the symmetric or anti-symmetric tensors of order 2,
we then obtain from the representation
etc.
of the abstract

group g the representation &,

&],

{$)

},

etc.

FORMAL PROCESSES

127

three most important formal processes are (1) addition,

The first two
x -multiplication, and (3) the
process.
(2)
from
or
one
two
generate a new representation
given representations, the third a new one from a given representation.

The

The

two are completely circumscribed, but the third

first
contains a general method, for
may be any representation of
the linear group c n
If
then any representation
is
a sub-group of g,
g'
s -> U(s) of g contains a representation of g'
we need only
This too may
let the element s run through the sub-group g'
be considered as a formal process (4) which generates a representation of g' from a given representation of g.
The X -multiplication occurs in yet another connection.
Given two groups g, g', we can consider the pairs (s, s'), the
first member s of which is an element of g and the second s'
an element of g', as the elements of a new group g x g', the
direct product of g and g', obeying the multiplication law

(s, s')(t,

i'}

(st,

s't'l

of g X g' is the product of the orders of g and g'.

If
~> U(s) is an n-dimensional repiesentation of g and
s' -> U'(s') an ^'-dimensional representation of g', then

The order
s

)'

(s, s')

-> U(s)

U'(s')

(5.5)

obviously a representation in nn' dimensions of the group

This
we denote it by
X
g
g'
(with a boldface X).
construction may be broken up into two steps.
First introduce
is

'

the representation
(s, s')

of g

g'

there

is

no reason

-> U(s)

why we

should not designate

it

as the representation s -> U(s] of g

we are
by the same letter
accustomed to calling the function f(x), considered as a function
of the two variables #, y, by the same letter as the function
U(s) and U'(s') are thus to be
f(x) of the single variable x.
considered as functions of the same variable pair (s, s'), and then
f
the representation
X
S x fl' ma Y be obtained by ordinary
The differentiation between
and
X -multiplication from
boldface X and ordinary X is accordingly purely pedantic.
'

'.

Unimodular Group in Two Dimensions

Examples.
Let g

variables x, y

C2

consist of

all

linear transformations s of

two

x'

ax

by,

/=

ex

dy,

(5.6)

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

128

"
be = 1 (" unimodular
whose determinant ad
formations *). A homogeneous polynomial in x, y
a linear combination of the / + 1 monomials

linear transof

order/

;xyt-\yt.

xt,xt-*y,-

is

(5.7)

Under the influence of s they undergo a linear transformation

which we denoted above by \s\f\ they constitute the substratum
of a representation [c]':s-> [s]/ in /+ 1 dimensions which we
now denote by (/. (/ is, although we have yet to prove it,
irreducible.

We

can

ourselves within

restrict

variables separately

to the sub-group c t of
transform each of the

which

transformations

"principal"

x>

= ax,

(5.8)

y'=--\y,

where a 4=
is an arbitrary constant.
q is Abelian. This
transformation multiplies the monomials of the set (5.7) by

On

r
associating the number a with the element (5.8) of c t we
obtain a 1-dimensional representation which we denote for the
here r can be any fixed integral exponent.
moment by (< r
have just seen that the irreducible representation (5/ of C 2
>

We

completely reduced on restricting ourselves to the sub-group

1 one-dimensional representations (< r
into
with r
/,
is
of
This
an
the
2,
/
/.
process (4).
example
As an example of multiplication and addition we consider
the problem of reducing the product (/ X $ g of the two repreis

/+

Cj

sentations (/,
result

is

$g

of

into

irreducible components.

its

The

contained in the formula

</x <,=
where v runs through the

(5.9)

series

=/+,/+*-

2,

\f-g\

(5.10)

without repetition, decreasing by 2 from term to term. This

equation is essentially identical with the Clebsch-Gordan series
which plays such an important role in the theory of invariants
We shall see in the succeeding chapters that
of binary forms.
it may justly be considered as the fundamental mathematical
*

in

Cn

will usually

restricted
stated.

denote the group of

all

non-singular linear transformations

however occasionally be used to denote the more

unimodular group, in which case the restriction will be explicitly

M -dimensions

it

will

FORMAL PROCESSES

129

formula for the classification of atomic spectra and for the theory
of the valence bond.

The proof

showing that

consists in

g, x

for (5.9) then follows

= <5/+ +
,

(<,_!

(5.11)

,_,),

by mathematical induction and the

that obviously

<,

<

fact

- </.

A new

co-ordinate system for the representation space of (/

obtained by replacing the basis (5.7) of homogeneous polynomials of order / by another basis.
In this sense we can say
that the polynomials of order / constitute the substratum of
the representation (/. The substratum of the representation
(/ X & g is then the totality of polynomials
is

depending on the components of two arbitrary vectors (xy),

(rj), homogeneous and of order /in the first, and homogeneous
and of order g in the second we write the total order / + g
h.
The
are thus linear combinations of the (/-j-l)(g+l)
monomials

x{ y k

v*

where

+ k = /, + K = g.
t

(5.12)

Both vectors are transformed cogrediently under the same transThe problem consists in completely reducing
s, (5.6).
the space of the polynomials
into two sub-spaces (0) and
(0)' which are the substrata of the representations (* and

formation

We

(/! X

&g-i respectively.
these two sub-spaces.
(0)
Expand

discuss

first

the

structure

of

(5.13)

The
the undetermined coefficients
a,
jS.
the
and
are
of
span
<f>i(xy
special polynomials
17)
type
the sub-space (0)
must now show that this sub-space is
invariant under the transformation (5.6) of the variables
i.e.
that
<f>i(x'y'
V) ^ s a li near combination of the
in

<^

of

powers

We

<f>i

4>t(

xy

f 7 ?)-

It

is

clear that

duces the representation

in

if

(<P)

this

for

is

the case then

in-

on identifying the two

vectors

= *,
^,-

>,

=y

(5.14)

becomes
<f>i(xy

ary)

*-'

y '.

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

130

Hence we

are certain a priori that the h

linearly independent.
In order to arrive at the desired proof

by

(5.13)

x'

and

in

Now

the same

in

# and y

and by

On

17

y'

by,

ex

we

replace #, y in

rfy,

by
the linear form

j8y' is

+ J8c)# +

(aft

+ 0% =

^ + By

hence

(a*'

ax

way

note that a*'

(oca

functions <^ are

jBy')/(af

+ ft')' = (^

(5.13)

replacing

^4,

J?

on the right-hand side of

A =

aa

B=

Pc,

aft

this

equation by

jW,

as a linear
and equating coefficients of a^~ j3 we obtain
combination of the k
The substratum of the representation (y_! X &g-\
(0)'.
!

<f>'.

<f>

consists of the polynomials

of order

in (x, y)

and

of order g

polynomials

components

of each vector

type

in (f

rj).

They

are not

in order to increase the order in

of

by

we

replace each such

The factor thus introduced in no way

The last step in the proof consists

the

W by

affects the representation.

in showing that the total

is completely reducible into these two

space of polynomials
in showing that any polynomial
i.e.
can be
sub-spaces
written in the form
;

- (a^ + a^ +

a h<f>h )

(*t,

- y)f

(5.15)

with unique constant coefficients a,.

(The development in
terms of powers of the determinant XTJ
y obtained from this
induction
is
the
Clebsch-Gordan
by
First, the dimenseries.)
sionalities are correct, for

Hence

it

suffices to

linearly independent,

show that the various terms

i.e.

in (5.15) are
that an expression of the form (5.15),

THE JORDAN-HOLDER THEOREM

n which

131

1 in (x,
a polynomial of order /
y) and of order
7 vanishes
can
vanish
y
if
only
(, 77),
identically and if
The proof is extremely simple.
ill the coefficients a t are zero.
iVe first let (rj)
(xy) as in (5.14), then the equation
is

1 in

'

>ecomes

=
=

hence a*
0.
Having established this
dentically in x and y
ve return to the two sets of variables xy
and obtain the
77
;

equation

rom which

follows

it

that

W=

an algebraic identity

in

polynomials we may always remove a factor, such as

y, which does not vanish identically.
Our formula (5.9) also holds for the group c of all linear

or
ty

;ransformations of

x,

y with non-vanishing determinant. We

v
21 in (5.9) as that representation
h

nust then interpret r

vhose substratum is the totality of homogeneous polynomials
In other words,
)f order v in x and y multiplied by (xr)
yg).
:he new S y differs from the old in that the transformation of
,

:he

(v

l)-dimensional representation space corresponding to

to be multiplied by the / tb power
u is

in the representation

)f

be.
the determinant ad
is a representation of
&
X
(/
g

C2

C2

the group consisting

pairs (5, s') whose members s and s' run independently through
On introducing the restriction that s' is
the entire group C 2
the element s obtained from s by replacing the coefficients of
3f

the linear transformation 5

their conjugate complex, (/

&g
of C 2 the substratum of which

by

becomes a representation S/, g

may be taken as the monomials
x yk
i

of
/,

is

6.

fry*

(i

+ k = /,

and order g

order /in
g

(#, y)
also irreducible.

in (x, y).

K
It

The Jordan-Holder Theorem and

g)

can be shown that

its

Analogues

Perhaps the most fundamental theorem of mathematics is

Let
that on which the concept of cardinal numbers depends.
the

of a finite set of objects distinguished by marks

'be exhibited individually in this order and associated

members

b, c

with the symbols

"

"

1,

2,

n.

The theorem then

states that

which the
independent of the order
of conis
theorem
this
The proof of
objects are exhibited.
siderable mathematical interest and offers the simplest example
the

number

is

in

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

132

type of proof employed in establishing the JordanHolder theorem. A new enumeration consists in associating
the symbol 1 with any one of the objects, the symbol 2 with
any one of the remaining objects, etc., until the entire set is
of

the

We assert
exhausted, the last object receiving the symbol ri
n.
that n'
The proof is divided into two steps. (1) If in the new enumeration the symbol 1 is associated with the same object a as in
the old, our theorem for the series from 1 to n is reduced to that
1.
This is immediately evident on
for the series from 1 to n
discarding the object a and reducing by one the symbols asin the new as well as in the
sociated with the objects &, c,
old enumeration.
(2) If, on the other hand, the symbol 1 is
then in the
associated with one of the other objects b, c,
new enumeration the object a is associated with some symbol
n'
We now introduce a
i contained in the series 2, 3,
-,
third enumeration which enables us to make the transition
between the first and the second by interchanging the symbols
The number n' is obviously
1 and i in the second enumeration.
But we have now introduced an
unaltered by this process.
equivalent enumeration in which the object a is associated with
the same symbol 1 as in the original and have reduced the
The proof of
general case to the one considered in (1) above.
the theorem then follows immediately by the method of
'.

mathematical induction.
As an auxiliary result of these fundamental considerations
we have the theorem that any permutation can be obtained by
the successive application of transpositions.

The Jordan-Holder theorem

An

group g.
with g itself

concerned with an abstract

g' of g which does not coincide
said to be maximal if there exists no invariant
is

invariant sub-group
is

sub-group
except g' and g containing g'. The factor
is
then simple, i.e. it contains no invariant sub-group
group g/g'
with the exception of itself and that consisting only of the
unit element I.
As was recognized by Galois, the so-called
composition series
of g

So

'

9,

fli,

'

82,

',

8-1, flr=

(6.1)

fundamental importance for the solution of algebraic

This series begins with g and ends with I, and each
equations.
is

of

member

maximal invariant sub-group

assume that the composition

the preceding
terminates
this is naturally the case for finite groups, as the order necessarily
The successive factor groups
decreases from term to term.

member.

is

We

9/8l, 8l/92,

'

',

0r-l/8r

of

series

8r-l

(6-2)

THE JORDAN-HOLDER THEOREM

133

The Jordan-Holder theorem asserts that the

are simple.
structure of these factor groups, except for the order in which they
is uniquely determined by g.
Consider, therefore, a second composition series

appear

So

flit

'

'

'

92>

"

same group g it is to be compared with the standard

The proof of the fact that this new series also
series
(6.1).
contains exactly r + 1 terms and that the corresponding factor
groups are, except for the order in which they occur, isomorphic
with the factor groups (6.2) is again accomplished in two steps.
(1) If the two second members g' 1} g x coincide, the theorem
for the group g, whose standard series contains r + 1 members,
is reduced to the corresponding theorem for the group g 1? whose
standard series contains but r members.
(2) If g x and g\ do not coincide we construct the intersection t) of g x and g^, i.e. the set consisting of all elements
common to the two.
is then an invariant sub-group of Q\
shall
That
as
we
and,
prove, gVf) is isomorphic with g/g x
two elements s, t of 'g are equivalent with respect to g 1} i.e. that
<4
set," is expressed by the equation
they belong to the same
If
s
/ = as where a l is in
and t are at the same time elements
gx
of the sub-group g\, then a is also in g\ and consequently it
of the

"

t)

We may therefore consider as the elements

f).
in
The
those
sets
g which contain an element of g' t
Q'ljfy
elements contained in these classes then constitute an invariant
is

an element of

of

of g containing both g t and g\, and gVfy is simply

sub-group
with
But since g^ is maximal either <p
g
isomorphic
Sfr/Qi.
or <p
The
case implies that g x is contained in g' ly
second
g'j.
and since it is maximal it must coincide with g' lf contrary to
Hence
coincides with g and our assertion is
assumption.

proved. The intersection J) of Q l and

on both, whence Q/Q\ and g^f) are also
We now proceed as follows. We
series for {), which we denote simply

g\ depends symmetrically
simply isomorphic.
construct a composition

by

the following four composition series of g

'

'

0i,

82,

9,

0i,

I),'''

9,

0'i,

*),

'

9,

0'i,

'

'

-,

and compare

'

9,

'

t),
:

'

'

0'

The comparison of the first and second series is reduced to

The second and third series agree from the member
I)

the two foregoing factor groups

0/0i,

case

(1).

on,

and

134

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

are, as

we have

seen, simply isomorphic with

9/fl'i,

on

interchanging their
third and fourth series

9'ft

The comparison between the

again reduced to the case (1). The

order.
is

proof of the theorem for composition series containing r -f- 1

members is thus reduced to the proof of the corresponding
theorem for series with but r members, and since it obviously
2 (i.e. for simple groups) the method of matheholds for r
matical induction establishes its general validity.
The close methodological agreement between the construction
involved in the proof of this theorem and that involved in the
proof of the independence of the cardinal number of a set of
the order in which the objects are enumerated is immediately

evident.
4

has given a generalization of the Jordan-Holder

is
of importance for us.
A correspondence
s -> s'
As of the group on itself is said to be automorphic if
s't'
we here
multiplication is invariant under it, i.e. if (st)'
neither assume that different elements 5 generate different
elements s' nor that for a given element 5' there exists an element
Let
be
s such that s -> s in virtue of the automorphism.
We now
a system of such automorphic correspondences of g.
admit only sub-groups of g which are invariant under 27, i.e.
sub-groups whose elements are carried over by all operations
of the system 27 into elements of the same sub-group.
We say
"
"
the
and
have
same
that two such
allowed
g.2
sub-groups g t
structure if we can set up a one-to-one simple isomorphic
correspondence between the elements of the one and the elements of the other in such a way that every operation A of
the system 27 sends corresponding elements of the two subgroups over into corresponding elements. The Jordan-Holder
its proof can be
theorem still holds under this modification
aken over unaltered.
The vectors of an n-dimensional vector space 91 constitute
of
an Abelian group whose multiplication is the addition
We must for the moment supplement addition by
vectors.
the operation of multiplication of a vector by an arbitrary
number hence the concepts and theorems applying to vector
space are not truly specializations of the concepts and theorems
of Abelian groups, but there exists a thorough-going analogy
between the two. Indicating this analogy between a group (on
the left) and vector space (on the right) by
we have, for exE. Noether

theorem which

linear sub-space, automorphism

linear
ample, sub-group
Indeed, a linear sub-space is a system 3t' of
correspondence.

THE JORDAN-HOLDER THEOREM

135

vectors such that with j and t) their sum j

and the product
ty
A by an arbitrary number A also belong to 9t', and a corre^ is linear if it sends J t) and A over into
spondence j ->

'

j'

ty'

an d

invariant,

as

Aj',

we

"
respectively.
Every
sub-group
are dealing with Abelian groups.

f>

here

is

If

9J'

is

a sub-space of 91 the space 9t (mod. SR') obtained by projecting

9? with respect to 9t' is the exact analogue of a factor group.
A composition series consists of a sequence of spaces each
member of which is a linear sub-space of the preceding one
and has one less dimension. The last member is the space 0,
consisting of the vector
alone, and the number of members in
the series is 1 greater than the dimensionality n.
The JordanHolder theorem is here valid but trivial.
On the other hand, this theorem is of considerable importance
on going over to Noether's generalization. Consider a system
of linear correspondences of the vector space 9t on itself
the
terms invariant, equivalent, reduction shall in the following refer
to this system.
Two invariant sub-spaces 9?j and 9t 2 are similar
or equivalent if a one-to-one linear correspondence J!^tj 2 can
be set up between the vectors of the one and the vectors of the
other in such a way that any operation A of the system sends
corresponding vectors over into corresponding vectors. On
4 backwards, we have
reading the series (4.3) established in
the exact analogue of the composition series
each member of
the series is followed by a maximal sub-space which is invariant
under 2. (The possibility of constructing the composition
series in increasing as well as decreasing order is due to the
fact that the addition of vectors is commutative.)
Furthermore,
we can obtain the concepts and theorems relating to a system
of correspondences as genuine special cases of those of group
theory, and not merely as analogues, by supplementing the
with all similarity transformations, i.e. by all corresystem
Aj representing multiplication
spondences of the form -> j'

by an arbitrary number A. The Jordan-Holder-Noether theorem

now states Given a second composition series
:

o, 91;,

94

-,91,

(6.3)

the corresponding projection spaces

9*;, 9t;

(mod.

9*;),

^3 (mod.

9?;),

are equivalent to the projection spaces (4.3)

!,

9* 2

(mod.

9t,), 9t 3

(mod.

91,),

136

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

The number
of the original series, taken in a suitable order.
The reader is
of members is, of course, the same in both.
advised to reconstruct the proof of this theorem by carrying
through the proof of the Jordan-Holder theorem step by step
for this case.

In particular, if the system 27 consists of the transformations

U(s) associated with the various elements s of a group in a
s -> U(s), our result yields the
representation
:

Uniqueness theorem : The irreducible representations separated

by successive reduction are completely determined by
off from
except for the order in which they occur, considering equivalent
In particular the complete reduction
representations as the same.
into irreducible components is unique, always considering
of
equivalent representations as the same.
,

7.

Unitary Representations

For the case in which the representation space 9ft is unitary

and the correspondences U(s) of 9ft on itself, associated with
the element s of the group under consideration, are also unitary,
certain of the concepts introduced above are to be modified
accordingly.

Two
s

representations

-> U(s)

s ~> U'(s)

AU(s)A

A is unitary, i.e. if it
co-ordinate system in
a sub-space of 9ft a unitary-orthog-

are to be considered as equivalent only

is
a transformation from one normal
9ft

to

another such.

If

9ft'

is

onal co-ordinate system can be set up

by additional fundamental vectors

to

if

9ft' and
supplemented
form a complete unitary-

in

orthogonal co-ordinate system for the entire space 9ft

every
Invariance and
sub-space of a unitary space is per se unitary.
reduction remain as before, but we allow only those decom:

in which 9fti, 9ft 2

9ft 2
positions of 9ft into two sub-spaces 9ft x
For a system of unitary correspondences
are perpendicular.
reducibility implies complete reducibility and we have the theorem :
then 9ft may be broken up into
If 9ft' is invariant with respect to

9ft'

9ft"

in such a

way

need merely to define

that 9ft" is also invariant

as the space defined

under

We

vectors perby
The
theorem
to
holds
for
the case in
9ft'.
pendicular
naturally
which 2 is a system of infinitesimal unitary correspondences or,
what amounts to the same, a system of Hermitian forms. The
theorem developed in the preceding section proves that these
irreducible components are uniquely determined, in the sense
of (unitary) equivalence, to within a permutation.
9ft"

all

UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS

137

Examples

The Unitary Group in Two Dimensions

The group c = C 2 of linear transformations in two dimensions
contains the sub-group U = U 2 of unitary transformations.
Hence the representation (/ of c obtained in 5 is also a repre(1)

This representation is not unitary as it stands,

but it can readily be made unitary by a slight change. The
transformation of &y corresponding to the unitary transformation s of the co-ordinates x, y is that induced by s on the monomials
sentation of

il.

*n

= *y

+ *=/)

(*

(7-1)

For purposes of symmetry we label these co-ordinates

k which runs through the values
index n
i
is
also desirable because on restricting
This
2,
/, /
/.
"
"
ourselves to the sub-group of
principal transformations
of order/.

with

the

*->e#,
xn

is

(7.1),

y-+ ~y

n
multiplied by the factor e
the vaiiables

We now

employ, instead of

'*
n

(7
2}/
v

k
i
V/^~rn
\

obtained from them by multiplication with a constant. The

representation S/ of U will then be unitary, as follows from the
equation
1

(xx

We

+ y)f

vM>&

->* i~ik

Z-^^ =

r-v n x n

is even or odd.
The even
1
with
the
reflection
the
identity
representations associate

call (if

even or odd according as /

*'

=~

and the odd associate with

x,

y'

y,

the transformation
1.
&/ is
as a representation of U, and
on letting / assume the values 0, 1, 2,
they form a complete
The proof
irreducible
representations
of u.
of
system
inequivalent
of these assertions, which we employ heuristically in the followOn writing a homogeneous
ing, will be given in Chapter V.
of
the
variables
order
x, y in the form
/in
polynomial
also irreducible

it

when considered

the coefficients a n transform under the influence of a unitary

transformation s like the components of a vector in the representation space of S/.

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

138

The complete reduction

(</

(E,)

/+ ,

(IE/.*

was accomplished by breaking up the space

"

VO
"

of the

polynomials

two invariant sub-spaces (0) and (0)'. We must

now verify that these two sub-spaces are mutually orthogonal
into

in the unitary sense.

where the x n are given by

monomials

Two

(7.2)

and the

,,

Sd

The polynomial x/g, whose

others vanish,

n* b n v

be written

are the corresponding

with coefficients a ni

such polynomials

if

all

may

general polynomial

&

are orthogonal

0.

highest coefficients a/9

to within a constant factor %t

is

while

and

is

obviously perpendicular to all polynomials (0)', for in all these

But under the unitary
latter the coefficient of xJfy vanishes.

transformation

s:x'=*x +
where aa

j3j8

1,

xf&
(a*

fiy,

y'=-px +

ay,

(7.3)

goes into

+ ]3y)/(af + jJq)^.

(7.4)

Since (0)' and the orthogonality of polynomials are both invariant under the unitary transformation 5, (7.4) is also orthogonal to (<P)' and, with the help of the definition (5.12) of (0)
are unitaryit follows from this that all polynomials of (0)
of
to
those
orthogonal
(0)'.
(7.3) is the most general unimodular unitary transformation.
This is derived in the same way as the familiar formula for the
orthogonal transformations of two variables with unit determinant in plane analytical geometry. On writing the coefficients
,

= +
ic

a,

j8

= - + iv

(7.5)

IJL

and imaginary parts we see that each such

transformation is characterized by four real parameters K A, /i, v,
the sum of whose squares is 1. The composition of two transformations s
(K, A, p,, v) is accomplished in terms of these
Hamilton's
quaternion multiplication ; this latter
parameters by
led to the vector calculus.

in terms of their real

UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS

139

Unitary Groups in n-Dimensions

(2)

The totality of tensors of order / is the .substratum of an

^-dimensional unitary representation (it)/ of the group u
un
*or on denoting the components of an arbitrary tensor by

F(i l i 2

is

sum

the

'

if)

On

invariant.

unitary

ourselves

restricting

the

to

tensors
.^-dimensional linear manifold of anti-symmetric

Lake

the

as

z'

F(t' 1 2

variables

in

which

for

if)

il

tensor

space

<

<

<

z'

we

those components

The sum

if.

(7.6)

these comp6nents only is, however, equal to the complete

sum (7.6) divided by /!; hence the representation {u}/ of U,
for

whose substratum

of

consists

all

anti-symmetric

tensors,

is

The situation is somewhat different for symmetric

The most general symmetric tensor of order / transforms like
X X
X
(/ terms), i.e. we may for the
unitary.
tensors.

present purpose set

'

'

'

F(iii*

We

write the

if)

monomial on the
v/i
x
l

as before
series

i lj

fr

z'

is

the
,

right in

W*
*2

number

'

'

'

** t *i,

Xi

(7.7)

f
the form

v^H
x
n

/% - 11 ^
I
/

of times the index r appears in the

we write the components of

In this sense

if.

a symmetrical tensor
'

F(iii*

The sum

(7.6)

becomes

'

if)

Wi,/2.

'

',

/)

in this case

for which /j
all integral fr
/n ^^ /.
/2
2
*
coefficient indicates how often the term \F(iii z
*/)i
occurs in the sum in consequence of the fact that its value is

extended over

The

unchanged

on

permuting

the

indices.

We

must

'

therefore

consider the quantities

/,

'

/,!

/n)

/!

as independent components of an arbitrary symmetric tensor

of order / in order to obtain a unitary representation [il]A

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

140

The truth

of this assertion follows

from the fact that the special

satisfies the equation

tensor (7.7)

(7 8)
'

We have already seen in I, 5 that a normal co-ordinate

system can be so chosen that a commutative system 2 of
unitary correspondences is completely reduced to a set of
The only irreducible unitary repre1 -dimensional
systems.
sentations of an Abelian group are accordingly I- dimensional.
For it follows from
U(s)U(t)

U(st)

(4.1)

and the Abelian character

of the group that the unitary matrices

with
the
s are commutative.
elements
associated
U(s)
'
are unitary representations, then
If <p
and
-f >',
'

The first fundamental problem for a given

a
complete system of inequivalent irreducible
find
group Q
unitary representations of g, for then any unitary representation of Q can be obtained by the addition of these irreducible
The second fundamental problem is to reduce
representations.
are
is

also.

to

'

the product
X
into its irreducible
first

components

to

problem),

of two irreducible representations

;

or better (after

'
,

of g

having solved the

determine how often each of the irreducible

representations occurs in this product.

illustrate these problems on

We

the example offered by

rotation groups, which are of particular importance in quantum
physics.
8.

(a)

We
ordinate

The Group of Rotations in

describe
x.

Rotation and Lorentz Groups

The

= e^

Plane

the 2-dimensional plane by a complex

rotations of the plane are then given by

#->*'
where

the

#,

co-

(8.1)

a constant with unit modulus.

(The rotations
of -the real 2-dimensional plane thus coincide with the unitary
transformations of a single complex variable.) The angle of
rotation <f> determines the rotation completely, but it is of course
only determined mod. 2?r by the rotation. The angle of rotation
the rotation
behaves additively on composition
followed by
the rotation <f>' results in the rotation <f> -f- <f>'. This rotation
is

<f>

ROTATION AND LORENTZ GROUPS

141

is accordingly a one-parameter continuous Abelian group.

obtain a 1-dimensional representation 2)< m of our rotation
b 2 by associating with the element e, (8.1), the linear
group b

group

We

correspondence

x ->

where

any

is

x'

em

fixed integer.

= e im*

(8.2)

assert that the

<

J) (m

),

running

a complete system of
through
This can be seen as
irreducible unitary representations of b 2
all

constitute

integral values,

follows.

Any
1

irreducible representation is necessarily 1-dimensional

a number %(<f>) of absolute value
<f>
:

associates with the rotation

it

such that

+f =
)

xtt)

x(f

We

then %(<(>)
assume that our representation is continuous
1.
a continuous function of (f> with period 2rr.
First, x(O)
A
and determine X(<f>) uniquely by the requirewrite x(</>)
and that X(<f>) shall be a continuous function
ments that A(0)
;

is

We
of

We

<f>.

then have

A0 + f)=A(fl +

A(f),

(8.3)

most

for the right- and left-'hand sides of this equation could at

differ by an integral multiple of 27r, but as it is written
and vary continuously with <f>'.
sides agree for <j>' satisfies the

condition A(0)

equations

A(-

and we obtain from

$ =- A($,

A(^)

any integer. On replacing

equations by <f>/h we obtain
where h

is

-.=

<f>

in

it

both
(8.3)

the further

A(^),

(8.4)

the second of these

(8.5)

It

follows immediately from (8.4), (8.5) that for every rational

number k/h

(k,

h integers)

In accordance with our assumptions A(27r) is an integral multiple

ZTT in (8.6) we obtain the equation
On setting <f>
2w7r of 2n.
fractions of 2-rr
the
m<f> for all <f> which are rational
A(<)

continuity requirement then allows us

for all real values of the argument <f>.

to

assert

its

validity

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

142

The simple equation

$)<

m X $< m ')
)

3) (m+m/ )

here valid.

is

Consider the function f(p) on the unit circle in the complex

If the point p goes over into the point p
under the
x plane.
into
function
a
the
function
which
is defined
rotation e,
/ goes
/'
by the equation
f

f(p')

The

transition /->/' is a linear correspondence in the oo-dimensional space of functions f(p) and is associated with the rotation
this obviously defines an oo-dimensional representation of
e
;

is unitary if
the rotation group b 2 which we denote by
"
"
we take as the square of the absolute value of a vector /
2
the integral of \f(p)\ with respect to the element of arc dp on
the unit circle. The fact that any function (satisfying suitable
conditions) on the unit circle can be developed in a Fourier
into its irreducible comseries means that in the reduction of
.

(m) occurs
ponents each of the 1-dimensional representations 3)
once.
More
this
is
reduction
to
be interand
once
only
precisely,
to
the
completeness relation.
preted with regard

(b)

The Group of Rotations in

3- dimensional

Space

We consider the functions / f(P) on the unit sphere as

the vectors of an oo-dimensional unitary space whose metric
is

given by

\f(P}\

dw

dw

is

the surface element of the sphere

If the point P
over which the integration is to be extended.
sP
P'
under
the
into
rotation
the function /
over
5,
goes
the
function
into
defined
over
/'
by
f(P'}
=f(P). The
goes

Y\ of degree / [cf. II, 4] obviously span a

-f
l)-dimensional sub-space flftj which is invariant under the
(21
totality of transitions /->/' induced in function space by the
here again we
b3
various elements s of the rotation group b

surface harmonics

They are consequently the

speak of this representation as
substratum of a certain representation S)j of b which is induced
.

in SRj

by

z-axis

we may,

b.

On

choosing a definite direction as that of the

II,
4, take the set

as in

YT> (m

/,

1,

-,

/)

We

then have
harmonics of degree /.
a unitary representation, and the sub-spaces 9fti corresponding
of / are mutually perpendicular
to the various values 0, 1, 2,

as a basis for the surface

ROTATION AND LORENTZ GROUPS

143

the unitary sense (orthogonality properties of surface harmonics), b contains the 2-dimensional rotation group b 2 e.g.
The structure of
as the sub-group of rotations about the 0-axis.
m) shows that on
restricting b 3 to this sub-group b 2 the
y{
(
representation ) is reduced into the 1-dimensional representa(m)
/
/.
The fact that
for which
tions $)
/,
1,
any function on the unit sphere possesses a unique expansion

in

m=

into
terms of surface harmonics means that on reducing
irreducible components each of the representations 5)j /
0,
This reveals the true signifioccurs exactly once.
1,
2,
cance of surface harmonics
they are characterized by the
fundamental symmetry properties here developed, and the

in

its

solution pf the potential equation in polar co-ordinates is merely

an accidental approach to their theory.
Rotations are orthogonal transformations of three variables
If we wish to include with the proper rotations with
x, y, z.

determinant
"

1
ones with determinant
improper
"
this can be done by introb'

also the

rotation group

augmented

ducing the reflection

i

x'

=-

x,

y'=-y,

z'

=-z

(8.7)

the identity, and it commutes

The
matrix
with all
corresponding to it in the
the
surface
harmonics of degree / is
defined
by
representation
in

the origin.

Its reiteration ii is

rotations.

the (21

l)-dimensional matrix

1)',

for the surface

harmonics

homogeneous polynomials of degree / in #, y, z.

We can thus obtain two representations 2)^, 5)j~~ of the augmented rotation group from the representation 3)j of proper
rotations
these two coincide with 3) for proper rotations,

of degree

are

but in the first the matrix associated with the reflection i is

1
We call this 1 the signature
whereas in the second it is
1.
Hence in the oo-dimensional repreof the representation.
sentation $ of the augmented group b' each 5), occurs once
but not with the opposite signature.
with signature (
1)*,

Although we are not as yet

5),

(/

0,

1,

2,

in

constitute

a position to prove
a complete system

the

it,

of

in-

the
(single-valued) representations
equivalent
a
constitute
such
rotation group b, and the $)z h
f together
rotation
for
the
b'.
group
system
augmented
Now consider the unitary function space of all functions
of

irreducible

2
f(P) in 3-dimensional space for which the integral |/| over all
in
is finite.
this
Let the representation induced
space
space
by rotations s, in which the transition from / to the transformed

function /'

sf

is

associated with

s,

be denoted by 6.

Each

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

144

function f(P) can be expanded in a series of terms of the form

Choose a complete orthfogonal system <f>i(r), <f> 2 (r),
YI.
<f>(r)
of functions <j>(r) of the radius r, in the sense of
the
domain
in
the equations
oo

The functions

= 8 mn

r.r<*r

of the form
n (r)
YI then constitute a (21
1)dimensional sub-space 9ft nZ which is invariant under rotations
and in which @ induces the representation 2)j. Different 9l nl
Each 3), then appears in
are mutually unitary-orthogonal.
(S infinitely often, its various occurrences being distinguished by
"
"
the
Consider the analysis of
radial quantum number
n.
<f>

single electron spectra given in Chap.

We

mathematical developments.

quantum number

of

is

5, in

II,

the light of these

then see that the azimuthal

purely

group-theoretic

significance,

whereas the radial quantum number n refers to the dynamical

n r]
situation, for the manner in which the orthogonal system
is to be chosen is determined by the dynamical differential
<f>

equation.

The proper rotations of 3-dimensional Euclidean space about

the origin of Cartesian co-ordinates #, y, z, i.e. the real orthogonal transformations with determinant -f- 1, are most easily
represented by a stereographic projection of the unit sphere
about the origin on to the equatorial plane z
0, the south pole
If the point
of the sphere being the centre of projection.
f
of
the
on
the
the
be
image
plane
point (#, y, z) on the
(x y' 0)
we
x
the
and
write
for the projection
formulae
iy'
sphere
are
,

But it is preferable to introduce the two homogeneous complex

in place of
co-ordinates
by means of the equation
rj
1
is
the south pole
then included.
then have
77
,

We

+ iy

iy

Accordingly each unitary transformation

cr

:===
'.

oc

-j

===

pf})

7/

*Xs

i~

^7

of the co-ordinates f rj corresponds to a rotation s of the sphere,

the points of which are represented by the rays f rj of 2-dimen,

sional unitary space.

Since, as

is

readily seen,

any point and

ROTATION AND LORENTZ GROUPS

145

tangential direction through it on the sphere can be carried

over into any other such configuration on the sphere by means
of such rotations, we obtain in this way all rotations.
Since
we are only concerned with the ratios of the coefficients a, /?,
y, 8, the arbitrary factor of proportionality may be chosen in
such a way that the determinant of the transformation is 1.
is somewhat
artificial as the
double-valued, for on multiplying the
coefficients of the unitary transformation by
1, i.e. on going
over from a to
Hence to
a, the normalization is unaffected.
each element a, (7.4), of the unimodular unitary group u corresponds a rotation s a -> s under which the co-ordinates
x -f iy, x
iy, z transform like

Nevertheless this normalization

is

correspondence

still

or

*~i?f

y~

?,

#-W,

2&j,

Jfo-?),

(8.8)

~~&~-w

(8.9)

(The symbol ~, which we occasionally employ, means that the

expression on the left transforms like the one on the right.)
We obtain in this way all rotations, each one exactly twice.
The rotations about the xr-axis are obtained from the " principal
"
transformations
>t

= -r,
= e*" = e(a>)

^>

e,

77

the angle of rotation

In fact, on setting e
In virtue of the correspondence
2at.
about the z-axis is
a -> s the rotations in 3-dimensions constitute a representation
of the group U
and, conversely, the association s -> a is a
of u.

<f>

-= b 3 of 3-dimensional rotations
representation of the group b
by U, although this representation is double-valued. In virtue
of this correspondence s -> a any representation U(a) of U yields
a representation of b 3 (*' F process,"
S v may thus be thought
5)
of as a representation of b 3 in which case we write it $j, where
;

=^ -v.
Z

The

("

even

")

2)y

with integral j are single-valued,

those with half-integral (i.e. half an odd integer) j are doubleOn restricting the group b 3 to the sub-group b 2 of
valued.
1 onerotations about the 0-axis 2),- is reduced into the 2j

To
dimensional representations 5)< m (m
1,
j).
;, j
of
the
our
that
substratum
note
show this we first
representation
)

3), consists of

the monomials (7.2)

H6

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

where

runs through the values j, j

1,
transformation induced on these variables by
about the 0-axis is accordingly

x(m) ->

The representation a ->

representations

is

il

contained

itself

u constructed above

of

5),

s of

|
grediently to

is
7777,

invariant.
'),

(77',

it

fy

Consequently (|,
hence
)

or as
2

T;

(77,

<f>

is,

among

the

in fact,

3) lt

To show this we note that if (f, 77), (', 77') be subjected

same transformation a of U, then the determinant 77'
well as

The

j.

rotation

x(m).

m<f>)

e(

77)

to the
77^',

as

transform co-

fy

(8.10)

77.

The representations

2>* with integral j are identical with those

obtained above as the representations induced on surface harmonics of order j, for each polynomial in #, y, z of degree j is,
in virtue of (8.10), equivalent to a form of order 2j in
77.
If we wish to augment li
U 2 in a manner paralleling the
,

=b

by the improper rotation i (reflection

consider it as an abstract group rather
than a group of linear transformations in two variables. Denote
the element corresponding to i by t and the elements of the
define the augmented U as the
original u by a as before.
i
of
of
elements
the
must naturally
totality
types a and la
the
laws
obey
multiplication

augmentation

of b

in the origin)

we must

We

tcr

(+ and (~
with

\.

are then those representations of u' which coincide

with

group

the unit matrix

-f-

and which asand its negative

il

The

respectively.

"

The representation
b' 3

for elements of the restricted

sociate with the element

1,

at,

is
sign
again called the signature.
associates the augmented rotation group

U'.

(c)

The Lorentz Group

Let the 3-dimensional Euclidean space be referred to homo0, 1, 2, 3) defined by

geneous projective co-ordinates x a (a

=x

i
,

Al
y ==

XQ

The equation

XQ

of the unit sphere

-*5 +

xz

*f

is

*J

=X

3
.

XQ

then

+ *S =

(8.11)

ROTATION AND LORENTZ GROUPS

and the formulae
above become

the

for

stereographic projection

147
considered

On subjecting f, 77 to an arbitrary linear transformation a the

# a undergo a corresponding real linear transformation s which
If the absolute value of
leaves the equation (8.11) invariant.
the determinant of or is 1, we can readily show that the form

-* + *f + *! + *
is itself

invariant under the corresponding

minant

of s

is

We now

(8.13)
s,

and that the

deter-

1.

consider x
x 3 as the co-ordinates of
ct, x 1} x 2
is then the equation of the light-cone, the
space-time; (8.11)
generators of which are the possible paths for a beam of light.
In the restricted thebry of relativity normal co-ordinate systems
for space-time are connected with each other by arbitrary
Lorentz transformations, i.e. by any real linear transformation
which leaves the form (8.13) invariant and which does not
Lorentz transformations coninterchange past and future.
4t
"
stitute a group, the
complete Lorentz group, and this group
This
describes the homogeneity of the 4-dirnensional world.
,

of "positive" and "negative" transformations,

transformations with determinants -f- 1 and
1, respectively.
<4
The first constitute the restricted Lorentz group," from which
the complete group is obtained by introducing in addition the

group consists
i.e.

spatial reflection
*o -> *

Under the

restricted

Xa

**

and

group right
are fundamentally different.

=
left,

1, 2, 3).

(8.14)

as well as past

and

Since the expression for

future,
x in (8.12) is positive definite, we may state the result obtained
above in the form
any linear transformation of f 17, with determinant of absolute value 1, induces a positive Lorentz transformaTransformations a which differ only by a factor
tion s in the x a
iK
1 give rise to the same s.
value
e
The correspondence
of absolute
->
is
a
s
a
naturally
representation.
The question of whether every positive Lorentz transformation
That this
s can be obtained in this way arises immediately.
is in fact the case can be seen from general continuity considerations, for the positive Lorentz transformations constitute
But it is also easily proved by
a single connected continuum.
elementary methods. Since we have seen in (b) above that the
:

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

148

rotations of space 5 are obtained from the unitary transformations a, we need only to examine the Lorentz transformation

affecting the time axis,

But

this

where a

transformation

is

is a real non-vanishing constant.

obtained from the unimodular a
:

a
case, the correspondence 5 -> a is a
2-dimensional representation of the restricted Lorentz group.
"
But a is determined by s only to within the arbitrary
gauge
we may therefore normalize it by the condition
factor" tA
that the determinant of a shall itself be unity, not merely its
a
Even so, a remains double-valued, for
absolute value.
This represatisfies the normalizing condition as well as a.
sentation s -> a contains the representation of the rotation
group considered in (b) on allowing s to run through the subgroup of spatial rotations contained in the restricted Lorentz

Returning to the general

group.

The expressions

Hermitian forms with matrices

(8.12) are
1

1
i

Hence

So
o

-1

(8.15)

denotes the one-columned matrix with elements

equations (8.12) may be written
if

**

On

replacing

flection

(8.14).

77

That

by
is

?$?.

77

(8.16)

the x a undergo the spatial reof including the negative

if
we require that the corre-

T/,

one

f,

way

Lorentz transformations. But

be linear, we must introduce in
77
sponding transformation of
a
second
addition to
j'
pair
(f 17)
(', 77') which undergoes
the transformation a' contragredient to 3.
Then
,

|)~(',
)~('>

(77,
(*?>

where d

is

77')

to within the factor d,

*?')

to within the factor d,

the determinant of

^o
the quantities

S OI

5^ =

a.

Defining

Sn

(a

1, 2, 3),

ROTATION AND LORENTZ GROUPS

149

the same transformation s as (8.16), provided the

absolute value of the determinant of a is 1.
The same is true
for any linear combination of the two, e.g. x a
Hence the
#*

undergo

quantities

x^lS^+l'S'^'

(8.17)

undergo the given positive Lorentz transformation s when

rj
are subjected to a certain transformation a and simultaneously
to the transformation a' contragredient to a.
', j]'
Furthermore,
,

undergo the transformation (8.14) on interchanging the two

j', i.e. on subjecting the four variables to the transpairs
formation
'-*
T: ->',
*?'->*?
(8-18)
they

T^V;

The expression

&'

ft

invariant in virtue of the transformation law of ', r/' defined

To obtain an expression which is also invariant under
above.
the interchange (8.18) we must add to the above the expression
obtained from it by this interchange
is

(&'
It

will

+ W) +

(I'f

(8-19)

be found advantageous to denote the column con-

sisting of the four elements (, rj

Let that linear transformation of

',

rj')

by a

single letter

jr.

these four variables which

in accordance with S* and

transforms
',
17
tf in accordance
then
becomes
with 5 be denoted simply by 5
(8-17)
,

lt

*=-?,?.
We

must now ask

to

of the four variables

(8.16')

what extent the linear transformation or

is determined by the
requirement that

induce a given (positive or negative) Lorentz transformation

It suffices for this purpose to
the Hermitian forms #.
of
transformations
the
what
induce the identity on
inquire
The only transformations of this latter kind
the variables ,r a
are those which multiply
with a common factor e * of absolute
97
value 1 and at the same time ', rj' with any factor e^' (independent of the first) of absolute value 1. But a can be more
precisely specified by the requirement that (8.19), i.e. jTj, be
it

of

also

invariant.

The two

must then coincide

the

"

tA

e
gauge factors
then
determined
a
is
substitution

arbitrary

*'

to

within a factor e'*.

Our analysis reduces the problem of the representations of
the Lorentz group to the corresponding problem for the uni-

modular

linear

group

C2

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

150

Character of a Representation

9.

The trace of a linear correspondence A, i.e. the sum of the

elements in the principal diagonal of the matrix A, is an invariant under transformations of co-ordinates which is of
The trace x(s) of the correspondence
particular importance.
U(s) associated with the element s of the group Q in a repreof g is called the group characteristic, or, in
sentation
order to avoid assigning yet another meaning to this second
word, which has already appeared in another important connection in quantum mechanics, simply the character of the
Equivalent representations have the same
representation
character ; the name is so chosen because the converse of this
theorem is true within wide limits. Since [/(I)
1, the value
of the character ^(1) for the unit element is equal to the dimen.

sionality of the representation.

It follows from the equations

U(asa~

l
)

U(a)U(s)U(a~

1
}

V(a)U(s}U~

(a}

that the matrices U(s) and U(asa~ 1 } differ only in their orientation and consequently have the same trace
:

X (asa~

Now

l
)

= x(*Y

and asa" arc any two conjugate elements

they belong to the same class of conjugates

i.e.

of the

group

Q,

in the sense of

We speak of a function f(s) on the group manifold which

3.
has the same value for all elements s belonging to the same
class as a class function ; such a function can at most allow us
to distinguish between different classes, but not between elements of the same class. The distinguishing feature of class
functions can also be expressed in the equation
f(st)=f(ts).

The

validity of this equation

U(st)

and the
trace of

U(s)U(t),

follows from

U(t)U(s)

matrix

AB

is

equal to the

BA.
f a-

unitary representation

the equation
X(s-i)

We

U(ts)

fact that the trace of the

The character x(s)

satisfies

forf= x

= fa).

U(s~

l
)

_
= U*(s),
(9.1)

shall say that the characters of irreducible representations

can be reduced
are primitive.
Any unitary representation
into its irreducible components, and the normal co-ordinate

system

in the corresponding sub-spaces

can be so chosen that

CHARACTER OF A REPRESENTATION
two irreducible constituents are equal
If in this

J)',

f),

character X of
I),

+ m'V +

m1)

(9.2)

are inequivalent irreducible representations and

numbers of times they occur in ), then the
is expressed in terms of the characters
x, x'>

are the

in,

of

they are equivalent.

sense

&
where
w'

if

151

'

'

'

by the equation

!)',

From an n-dimensional representation S:s->U(s), with

the character x(s), and an n'-dimensional
s -> C/'(s) of
character x'(s) we can construct the (nn') -dimensional representation
X )'. The elements in the principal diagonal of
X
U'(s) are obtained by multiplying all elements in the
U(s)
principal diagonal of [7(5) by those in the principal diagonal
'

the character of $$ X
)' is
consequently x($] x'( s }- Again,
a representation of the group g, )' a representation of
the group Q', then the representation fy X
of g X $' has the
character
defined by

of U'(s)

is

if

&

t(*,s')= X (s)x'(*'),

(9-4)

through the elements of g and .9' those of g'.

need not distinguish between a 1 -dimensional reprethe character satisfies the simple
sentation and its character
for example, for the characters
This
(4.2).
holds,
equation
of
the
rotation
e(m<f>), eq. (8.2),
group b 2
on
of unitary correspondtheorem
transformation
the
the
By
ences to principal axes, each element of the group U
U 2 is
an
of
form
to
a
element
the
i.e.
conjugate
principal element,

where

s runs

We

The

characteristic values

order

in

(9.5)

e,

1/e

are determined to within the

Introducing the angle CD by the

which they appear.

class of conjugate elements

^(cu), co characterizes a
equation e
with
w
mod. 2n, and furthermore
we are only concerned
of U
Since for any rea* coincides with the class o>.
the class
of U the character x(s) depends only on the class
presentation
of the element s, it suffices to calculate it for elements of the
form (9.5). It must be a periodic function of the angle a> with
even function of oj
period 277, and it must furthermore be an
its value for S/- is
C"(/ 1)
p /f 1
;

=
x/

er

e /-

e -/

= !__1__.

(9.6)

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

152

The characters

representations considered
preceding section are just as

the

of

other examples of the

in

the

readily

calculated.

Schur's

10.

Lemma

Lemma and

Let Z*be an irreducible system

Assumption.

(10.1).

Theorem

Burnside's

of linear correspondences of an m-dimensional vector space t

such a system of an n-dimensional vector
on to itself, and

space

linear correspondence

shall satisfy the equation

ZA - AQ
in the following double sense
such that
of

(10.2)

for each

of

there shall exist

and conversely

for each

UA - Ay,
V of Q there

(10.3)

shall exist a

of

Z such

that this relation is fulfilled.

in the
n and det A
or
Either A
Assertion.
and
are equivalent.
latter case
is
We first make use of the assumption that
Proof.
irreducible in connection with equation (10.2) in the first sense.
th
Considering the & column

a lki a 2ki

A
U&M

of

'

a mk

",

as a vector a^ \ equation

(10.3)

asserts that

the vector

with a^ through the correspondence

a linear combination of the vectors a *), specifically that
associated

is

l/a<*>

y=\\vhk

2>**a<*>,
h

\\.

Consequently the sub-space of r spanned by the n vectors a^^

is invariant under Z.
But because of the assumption that Z
irreducible either a^)

A =

or the

a^

span the entire

which case m of them are linearly independent
space t,
this latter is possible only if n ^ m.
That our conclusion
contains two possibilities is due to the fact that the concept
of irreducibility contains such an alternative.
The second part of the assumption can be given a simple
geometrical interpretation on going over to the transposed
2* is irreducible and for each F* of Q* there exists
matrices
a U* of Z* such that
is

0,

0,

in

V*A*
The reasoning employed

A*U*.

in the first part of the theorem allows

us to conclude
2> n.
either A*
or
We summarize the
results thus far obtained in the statement
or
Either A
:

SCHUR'S LEMMA AND BURNSIDE'S

m=

THEOREM

m=

153

the latter case the

n columns a *) of A are
the
of A does not vanish.
i.e.
determinant
linearly independent,
But then U and V are determined uniquely by the relation
and
are equivalent.
(10.3) and
In formulating these results it is desirable to consider the
case of equivalence separately
I.
are inequivalent, (10.2)
// the two irreducible systems 27

in

can only be
II.

with

//

all

satisfied by

2 is an

0.

irreducible system a correspondence

correspondences

of the system

commutes

UA - AU
//

and only

if

is

(10.4)

a multiple of the unit matrix 1.

follows from the lemma proved

above by
elementary methods and the fundamental theorem of algebra.
For by the latter there exists a number a such that
det (A
A
al satisfies (10-4) for
0, and since A'
al)
all U if A does, we conclude that since det /T --we must
have A' -- 0.
Applied to representations, our results are
fundamental Theorem (10.5).
I.
If s -> L (s], s -> l'(s) are
Assertion

II

two

inequivalent

irreducible

of a

representations

group

g,

the

equation

U(s)A
can be

A -

satisfied by no

matrix

---

Al'(s)

which

is

independent of

s,

except

0.

II.

matrix

which

is

independent of

and which

satisfies

the equation

U(s)A

AU(s)

for all s is necessarily a multiple of the unit matrix 1.

If there exists a matrix A which satisfies U(s)A

and which

AU(s)

not merely a multiple of the unit

matrix 1, the argument employed above supplies us with a
constructive process for the reduction of the representation
s -> U(s) with the aid of A.
We now consider an application of these important results,
which are fundamental for the entire theory of representations,
Let 27 be a
in order to prove a theorem due to Bnrnside.
if
two
are
i.e.
U
U'
correspondences in
multiplicative system,
is
This
also a correspondence in H.
Z then the product UU'
we need not
concept is somewhat wider than that of a group
its determinant may be 0.
require that U possess an inverse
identically in s

is

Burnside's Theorem (10.6). 6

In an irreducible multiplicative

154

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

E of linear correspondences U \\u ik of an n dimensional

system
\\
vector space on to itself the components u ik are linearly independent.
This asserts that the only matrix L which satisfies the equation

tr(UL)

lkiUi*
\,

for all matrices

of the

is

system

Contrary to the

0.

we assume

there exist non-vanishing matrices satisassertion,

this
such matrices we shall call L-matrices.
fying
equation
It is of course possible that every L-matrix whose first column
;

itself vanish.
But in any case we can find a
column index h with the following properties
there
exist non-vanishing L-matrices whose first h
1
columns
vanish and are such that if the fe tb column also vanishes then
We shall call L-matrices whose first h 1
necessarily L = 0.
columns vanish special L-matrices. They constitute a linear
we denote a basis for this family
family of m ^ n dimensions
by

vanishes must
definite

L< 2

The h ib column
Since

E is

of a-special

/.

>

L-matrix

will

be written

t.

multiplicative the equation

tr

(U'UL)

by each L-matrix, where [/, U' are arbitrary correspondences of the system 27. With L, UL is also an L-matrix
Each of the matrices
obviously it is a special L-matrix if L is.

is

satisfied

UL<

UL(*\

Ul

L (m and each of
therefore a linear combination of L (1 >,
the vectors {/I* 1 ),
Ul^ is a linear combination of the
l (m
vectors I* ),
l (m
Accordingly the vectors I (1 \
which
is
under
all
the
invariant
span a non-vanishing sub-space
and in consequence of the irreducibility
correspondences
n and the vectors l^ ),
assumed above it follows that m
1
n
Z,<
l^span the entire n-dimensional space. The basis 7J ),
of the family of special L-matrices can be chosen in such a way
I (n
are the fundamental vectors of the space
that l^ 1 ),
(1
is then the column (1, 0, 0,
Since then
l
0), etc.
>

is

>.

>

t7I(0

we must

also

Mlr

I(D+

Mnr l<)

(10.7)

u nr LW.

(10.8)

have

SCHUR'S LEMMA AND BURNSIDE'S THEOREM

We now

155

consider an arbitrary column, say the k th of L.

no interest if k
for the first k
1
/t,
(This
columns vanish.) Suppressing the second index k, we now let
ih
l n ) denote the k
column of L. Then in accordance
I
(/ lf
with (10.8), equation (10.7) holds for the present I, i.e. the k ih
instead of the /t th column of L.
Introducing for the moment the
,

<

of course of

is

matrix
(1)

7<n)

'

X")

ih
columns of
consisting of the k
(10.7) as the matrix equation

A = AU.
that A must

we may

write

II

But

follows from this

it

matrix,

=A

li

or,

returning

index

he a multiple of the unit

i.e.

5,,

8,.

=
^Q

^^

y)

the original notation by adding the column

to

fe,

Here we have, by the foregoing, X l

The equation
tr ([//>>)

_t

0,

1.

becomes
n

y
t

u kr\ k

0,

(r

(10.9)

1,

all correspondences of the system Z* carry the vector A

i.e.
A n ) over into the null-vector.
with components (A 1? A 2
*,
In consequence of the irreducibility of Z this vector must there1
fore vanish, which is in contradiction with the equation AA
If
Burnside's theorem then follows by rednctio ad absurdum.
we know that the unit matrix is contained in the system Z as
is the case for a representation, we can conclude that A
by
*

taking U in (10.9) as the unit matrix.

Reducibility requires that on employing an appropriate
co-ordinate system all matrices U of the system 27 have an
entire rectangle of vanishing elements and consequently implies
a system of homogeneous linear relations between the components
u ik of a very special kind. Burnside's theorem states that if
there exists no system of homogeneous linear relations of this
The
all.
special kind, then there exists no linear dependence at

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

156

remarkable fact is of course to be found in

E is closed with respect to multiplication.
Z
consists of an irreducible representation
If our system
which associates with the elements s of the group g the matrix
U(s), we see from Burnside's theorem that the components of
The method developed above
U(s) are linearly independent.
can readily be extended to prove the same for the components
real reason for this

the assumption that

of

two or more inequivalent irreducible representations

7

From

U(s),

follows that in particular there can

between
their characters x(s), x'( 5 )>
dependences
can
be reduced into irreducible
Any unitary representation
of
is expressed in terms of the
character
the
components
-.
U'(s),
exist no linear

this

it

"

'

Since
characters of these irreducible representations by (9.3).
coefficients
the
s
are
m,
linearly independent
x(s), x'( ]
which give the number of times the irreducible representations
This conare uniquely determined.
f)',
I),
appear in
stitutes a new indirect proof of the following result, which has
already been proved in 6 in a more general and more elementary
can be reduced,
way The irreducible representations into which
as well as the number of times they occur, are uniquely determined
no distinction being made between equivalent representations.
by

',

Two

and 2 are obviously equivalent

unitary representations
if every irreducible representation which is contained in the one
Hence
is contained in the other the same number of times.
of
cannot be the
if
2 are inequivalent the character
t and
same as the character of 2 because of the linear independence
a unitary representation is uniquely
of the primitive characters
determined by its character alone, and its character may be used
We here go no
as a unique name for the representation itself.
further into these extensions of Burnside's theorem, which are
due to Frobenius and /. Schur, as we shall obtain the same results
by a more profound method in the next section under assumptions which are more restrictive but which are sufficient for
our purposes.
We mention only one consequence.
)' being representais an irreducible
tions of the groups g, g', respectively, then |) X
no homocan
exist
of
there
X
Indeed,
g'.
representation
g
c
with
coefficients
constant
ik IK between
geneous linear relation
the components u ik (s)u lK (s ) of U(s) X U'(s') except the trivial
For on applying Burnside's theorem for the
one c
0.

'

irreducible system

we have

ZC
t,

and on applying

it

'

ik

,<

u (5')

fa'

we must have

0,

again for

c ik}

LK

0.

ORTHOGONALITY OF GROUP CHARACTERS

157

Orthogonality Properties of Group Characters

11.

// the

abstract

group

is

then

finite,

any representation

s -> U(s) is equivalent to a unitary one.

To show this take
JQ
definite
Hermitian
the
unit form, subject
form, e.g.
any positive
:

it to all transformations U(s) of

and sum over s, We thus
obtain a positive definite Hermitian form
which is invariant
under each of the transformations U(s). Now choose the cobecomes the unit form
ordinate system in such a way that
then /(s), expressed in terms of these co-ordinates, is unitary.
This same method of summation over the elements of the group
gives rise to the fundamental orthogonality relations.
Let
):$-> U(s), $' s -> U'(s) be two inequivalent irreducible representations of the finite group g, the former being
g-dimensional and the latter g'-dimensional. We write

U(s)=\\u

tlc

(s)

U'(s)

\,

/'->(*)

For a unitary representation

\\uUj\\,

==||u'K (5)||.
)'

*M =
A

"'(*)

an arbitrary matrix with g rows and

obviously the sum
If

is

U(t)AU'-*(t)

g'

columns then

B,

(11.1)

taken over

all

elements

of g,

invariant in the sense that

is

U(s)BU'~

(s)

B.

(11.2)

In fact, the left-hand side of (11.2) becomes, in virtue of the

fact that s -> U(s) is a representation of g,

where r

-=

5/,

of the group.

being fixed and / running through all elements

therefore obtain equation (11.2) or

We

U(s)B = BU'(s).
In accordance with the fundamental theorem
from this that B = 0, i.e.

Z Z "a-('KX(0 t

(10.5)

it

follows

0.

k.K

Writing s in place of t and remembering that the a k>< are arbitrary

2
2
numbers, we obtain the g g' equations

or, in

dealing with unitary representations,

'*==

o.

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

158

Taking the single irreducible representation

stead of the two inequivalent representations
the same argument that the square matrix
,

U(s)AU-

(s)

5 -> U(s) inwe find by

)',

B,

found from an arbitrary square matrix A, must satisfy the

U(s)B
This requires, however, that

BU(s).

be a multiple of the unit matrix

i.e.

Z Z Uik(s}a

k<

U M (S)

S lt

1,

k.K.

the

number a depends on

the matrix A, the dependence being

Taking as A that matrix

of course linear

and homogeneous.

which has as

only non-vanishing element a kK

its

the equation

Zu ik (s)u(s) =

1,

we obtain

*.*&.

(11.4)

Now
On
we

is
||ttwc(s)||

taking t
find that

where h

is

the matrix reciprocal to

and summing over

in (11.4)

the order of the group

Expressing the sum

JT

==

1,

2,

g.

terms of the mean value

90?

=7

our results

may

be written

in the

27>
$

form

otherwise
for

any irreducible unitary representation

W5)(5)} =
for

s -> U(s)

and
(11.6)

any two inequivalent irreducible unitary representations

s -> U(s), s -> U'(s).

Tlie components of one or more inequivalent
irreducible unitary representations constitute a unitary -orthogonal
set of functions on the group manifold.
It follows from these fundamental orthogonality relations
that the components u ik (s) u'^s),
are linearly independent.
Since the number of linearly independent functions of an argument s which assumes but h values cannot be greater than h
)

we must have
g

+ g' +
2

^ h.

ORTHOGONALITY OF GROUP CHARACTERS

159

On

the left-hand side of this equation occur the squares of the

degrees of any inequivalent irreducible representation of Q.
We obtain the orthogonality properties of the characters
t
in (11.5), (11.6) and summing over
K
i,
by writing k
these indices

Any
and

primitive character satisfies the equation

f an y wo

the characters x( s )> x'( s )

representations satisfy
{X'(*)X(*)}

inequivalent irreducible

0.

(11.7')

The primitive characters of inequivalent representations constitute

a normal orthogonal set of functions. They are consequently

and from this follow all the consequences

In particular, a representation
discussed in the previous section.
of Q can be unambiguously described by its character, no dislinearly independent,

tinction being made between equivalent representations.

The
number of times m the irreducible x occurs in the representation
X is, following (9.3), given by

m=

&{X(s)x(s)},

(11.8)

and we have
This last equation offers a simple criterion for the irreducibility
of a given representation in terms of its character x
it is neces2
and
that
the
mean
value
is in
which
of x\
sufficient
sary
X

be unity.
any
Since the characters are class functions

case integral

we

are in dealing

with them concerned with an argument which runs through

different classes of g
the
there can therefore be no more
than K linearly independent class functions. Hence a finite
group can have no more inequivalent irreducible representations

than classes.

Whereas the general concept of a representation seemed at

to open up limitless possibilities, we now see that all
representations are constructed from primitive ones and that

first

the number of possible primitive representations is confined

within narrow limits. The further content of the general theory
of representations can be stated in the theorem that the sets of
functions, the orthogonality of which we have shown above, are
The primitive characters concomplete orthogonal systems.
stitute a complete orthogonal system in the domain of class
functions,

i.e.

representations.

there

exist

exactly

The components

of a

inequivalent irreducible

complete system of

160

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

inequivalent irreducible representations constitute a complete

orthogonal system for the totality of functions defined on the
group manifold, or
z
2
h
-,
g'
g

where the sum on the right is extended over such a complete

system and g, #','' are the dimensionalities of the individual
irreducible representations.
12.

Extension to Closed Continuous Groups

The theory developed in the preceding sections cannot be

extended to arbitrary groups, but it is applicable mutatis
mutandis to a group whose elements constitute a continuous
closed manifold of a finite number of dimensions.
Just as the
a
a
on
of
surface
constitutes
immediate neighbourhood
point
a plane, so the immediate neighbourhood of a point /> on an
r-dimensional continuous manifold constitutes an r-dimensional
linear manifold and the line elements from p Q to neighbouring
We
points p define an r-dimensional linear vector space.
assume that the infinitesimal elements of our group g (i.e. those
elements in the neighbourhood of the unit element I), or rather
the infinitesimal vectors leading to them from I, constitute
"
"
such an r-dimensional vector space, the
tangential space
The concept of an infinitesimal rotation will be
to Q at I.
familiar to the reader from the kinematics of rigid bodies, as
well as the fact that these infinitesimal rotations in 3-dimenin n-dimensional space constitute a 3-dimensional linear family
The
sional space an [n(n
l)/2]-dimensional family.
multiplication of two infinitesimal elements of the group is then expressed
by the addition of the corresponding vectorial line elements in
the tangential space.
A parallelepiped which will serve as a volume element in
the neighbourhood of I is defined by r linearly independent
line elements, and its volume is given as usual by the absolute
value of the determinant of the components of these r vectors.
This volume element is, of course, not entirely independent of
the choice of a co-ordinate system in the tangential space, but
the transformation to a new co-ordinate system only multiplies
the volumes of all such elemental volumes in the neighbourhood
These volumes are thereof I by a constant numerical factor.
of
a unit of measure
fore determined to within the choice
more
;

than this we can hardly require.

On extending the theory developed in the preceding section
to continuous groups integration replaces su nmation, and it is
therefore necessary to be able to measure volumes on the entire

EXTENSION TO CLOSED CONTINUOUS GROUPS

161

group manifold of g. With the aid of the foregoing volume

elements in the neighbourhood of I can be measured and compared immediately with each other, and the same is true for
the volume elements at any other point of the group manifold.
The only difficulty lies in carrying the unit of volume from the
to any other point a.
Examination of the argument
point
11 reveals that the measurement of volume must have the
of
the volume of an arbitrary
following invariantive properties
element must be unaltered by a left-translation of the group
manifold which transforms the general element t into r ==- at.
I

But this requirement just suffices to specify the process uniquely.

Consider the volume element at a which arises from an elemental
volume at I by the left-translation which throws I into a per
definitioyiem the volumes of these two elements shall be the same.
On carrying the volume element from a to b by means of the
l
==
translation t'
(ba~ }t the equation t
b(a~ t] shows that with
this definition of volume the volumes of the elements so obtained
;

at a

and

We

b are equal.

further assume that our continuous group manifold

is

in the sense, for example, that the surface of a sphere

a closed manifold in contrast with a Euclidean plane, which

closed
is

This guarantees that we shall be able to integrate

open.
continuous functions of position on the group manifold over the
entire manifold.
We now choose the unit of volume in such a
way that the volume of the entire manifold g is 1 the integrals
arc then mean values.
We naturally require that the components
of U(s) in a representation s -> U(s) are continuous functions
of the element s of g.
The laws (11.5), (11.6), (11.7), (11.7')
1 1
are then valid
and all consequences obtained 'from them in
the
continuous
irreducible
group g and their
for
representations of
is

characters

The theory would be extraordinarily restricted if the measure

volume, which we have introduced in such a way that it is

of
invariant under

left- translations,

were not automatically invariant

sa and (2) inversion :

(1) right-handed translations : $->$'
s -> s'
s~ l
The first of these properties will be established
by showing that the volume of a volume element at I is unchanged
on
it to a by a left-translation and returning it to I by a

under

taking

Obviously each infinitesimal element 8s

the group then undergoes the linear transformation A
right-translation.

of

8s -> 8's
i.e.

the conjugation

I*

8s

associated with

'*,

the

element

a.

Such

linear transformations in the r-dimensional vector-space of the

162

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

group constitute a representation

~>
the
abstract
A of
a
group 9. Since Q is closed, each A must be
"
absolute-unimodular" i.e. the determinant of A must have the
and this in turn allows us to conclude that
absolute value 1
the definition of transportation of volumes by either left- or
To prove this
right-translations leads to the same result.
2
8
a
Since the
consider the element a and its powers a
3
2
on Q
group manifold g is closed, the infinite set a, a a
possesses a point of condensation b, i.e. an infinite set of exponents n can be found such that as n runs through this set
a n converges to b. To the elements a n and b correspond the
n
conjugations A and B, respectively, and in virtue of the conn
tinuity assumed above det (A ) converges to det (B) as n runs
Now since det (B) is a finite nonthrough the chosen set.
if the absolute value of the deterand
number,
since,
vanishing
minant of A differed from 1, det (A n ) would tend toward or oo,
we may conclude the truth of the above assertion. This also
enables us to prove the truth of (2), invariance under inversion.
For inversion sends the element 8s at I into
8s, and this
transformation is absolute-unimodular.
Now send one of two
inverse volume elements at I to a by a left-translation and
the other to ar 1 by a right-translation
we thus obtain volume
elements at a and a~ l which go into each other by the inversion
s->s'~s~ l Since both left- and right-translations conserve
volumes, these two volume elements have the same volume.
infinitesimal elements of the

Examples of

the Orthogonality Properties

We have already found the primitive characters for the

0,
group of rotations b 2 of a circle into itself : e(nuf>), m
1,

2,

where

(f>

is

the angle of rotation.

in fact, a unitary-orthogonal set of functions

They

constitute,

(m

m')'

there existed further irreducible representations their charwould necessarily be orthogonal to all of these
but this
is impossible, for the functions e(m<f>), where
takes on all
integral values, already constitute a complete orthogonal
If

acters

We

have, however, already shown by a more direct

which did not involve Parseval's equation, that
the system of primitive characters e(m(f>) was complete.
It is
therefore natural to consider Parseval's equation as the simplest
case of the general group-theoretic completeness theorem mentioned in
11.

system.

method

8),

EXTENSION TO CLOSED CONTINUOUS GROUPS

The character

of the representation

=U
e" =

unitary unimodular group u

e

e(u))

2 is

(y of the

given by

2t sin

(9.6).

2- dimensional

Writing

AAako

o>,

163

da,

we have
-

This leads us to suspect that da is the volume of that portion

group manifold occupied by those elements a of the group
whose angles of rotation lie between a> and a> -f- dw. [The
total volume of the group manifold is then

of the

1-]

u
is correct, (12.1) are the orthogonality relations
predicted
the general theory, and the equation

this

If

by

_.

defines the density of the various classes of the group.

last

of

chapter we

shall actually carry

verify these results.

volume and

In the

through the determination

If there were yet another irreducible representation, with

A x would be an odd periodic function
character x, then
of w with period 2?r which would be orthogonal to all the functions
A Xfj i- c to the functions
f

sin w,

sin 2co,

sin 3co,

But these latter are already a complete orthogonal set

the domain of odd periodic functions, and consequently

for
the

constitute a complete system of irreducible

direct proof, which is inderepresentations of the group U.
pendent of Parseval's equation, is also to be found in Chap. V,

(5y

(/=

16

0,

1,

indeed,

2,

it

there carried through for u n in an arbitrary

is

number n of dimensions.
The Clebsch-Gordan series
XfXff

= Xf*a +

Xf*ff-2+

'

X\f-9\

12 2 )
-

If we know on general
readily verified.
grounds that the character of a representation specifies it uniquely,
this equation can be used as a proof of the reducibility of/ X
a

for the characters Xf

into irreducible

'

components with characters as on the right.

much more readily handled than the

Since the characters are

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

164

representations themselves this principle offers a very powerful

method for obtaining assertions concerning representations.
Let / 5: g and multiply equation (12.2), which is to be verified,

by A:

The product
(f
is

6/+

of
1

~</ 41 )

the difference of two

with

sums

Xo
;

=&+

the one

&~ 2

'

'

'

is

the exponent decreasing by 2 from term to term, and the other

obtained from this one by replacing all exponents by their
Hence the product is in fact
negative.

is

v=f+g,f+g-2,

;f-g.

The representations

constitute a
0, 1, 2,
)
(/", (/" (/
of
irreducible
set
inequivalent
representations of the
complete
To
this
we
Uo.
establish
first note that in an
augmented group
irreducible representation of u' the matrix associated with the
element i must be a multiple of the unit matrix, for it commutes

with the irreducible system of matrices constituting the represo this matrix can only be
sentation.
Furthermore, u
I,
Since the matrix associated with c is a multiple
1.
1 or
of the unit matrix, and since the extension of U to u involves
the addition of a single element i, the representation must remain
Hence
irreducible on restricting the group il' to the sub-group U.
every irreducible representation of 112 is obtained by supplement-

ing the irreducible representations of

t->
'

If

>

or

it 2

t->

by the

association

1.

run independently through complete systems of

representations of the two (finite or

inequivalent
closed continuous) groups g, g', respectively, then the
X
constitute a complete system of inequivalent irreducible repTo prove this we
resentations for the direct product g X g'.
note that since the primitive characters %(s) of g constitute a
complete orthogonal system for class functions of the element s
which runs through g and the primitive characters x'GO f fl'
do the same for g', the totality of the products x( s ) x( s ') con "
stitute a complete orthogonal system for the class functions of
the element (5, 5') which runs through the group g X g'.
The representations (/, introduced in 5 constitute a comirreducible

'

'

plete system of irreducible representations of

C2

when

/,

g run

THE ALGEBRA OF A GROUP

independently through the numbers 0, 1, 2,
only mention this fact without going further into

The Algebra

13.

of a

165
;

we here

it.

Group

We

return for the present to finite groups.

In order to be
express the completeness theorem we associate with
each function x(s) on the group manifold of the finite group g
4<
its
Fourier coefficient matrix/' the group matrix.
able

to

X=

Zx(s)U(s),

(13.1)

where

,)

s -> U(s)

a representation of

is

The

g.

trace of

X,

the Fourier coefficient of x(s) with respect to the character

It is here desirable to consider the function x(s) as
x(s) of $3.
a single quantity x in the group domain ; each element s of the
is

a dimension in

is

group

"

44

and the number

group space

the ^-component of the quantity x.

We
quantities themselves symbolically in the form

is

Zx(s)

may

s.

x(s)

express the

(13.3)

associated with the quantity x in the repre"

44
and
in
x Addition of group quantifies
in
the
usual
a
are
introduced
them
number
multiplication of
by
way \x-\-y has the components x(s]
y(s] and ax the com-

The matrix
sentation

is

->

ponents

Group quantities consequently behave

x(s).

vectors in an /^-dimensional space, where h

group.

The following

group quantities

definition of multiplication of two arbitrary

x and y

xy

like

the order of the

is

is

suggested by (13.3)

x(t)y(t')tt'
t,

s(s)

where

This

last equation, in

which the sum

is

to be

extended over

all

z
product
denote this product by xy and its
this is not to be confused with x(s) y(s),
components by xy(s)
Addition
the ordinary product of the two numbers x(s), y(s).
addition
and
and multiplication of group quantities parallel

pairs of elements /, /' whose

of the quantities x and y.

We

is s,

defines the product

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

166

multiplication of the group matrices associated with

Indeed, the product of
(13.1).

X=

Y=

Zx(s)U(s),

Zy(s)U(s)

is

them by

given by

= XY =

x(t)y(t')U(tt')

Zz(s)U(s),

t>t'

where

z(s) is

defined

by (13.4)
which the group quantities may be subaddition, (2) multiplication with a number, and (3)

The operations
jected

(1)

to

multiplication with one another, satisfy the usual laws of

ordinary algebra with two important exceptions
multiplication
is not commutative and division is not in general possible, i.e. the
:

ax

and b may have no unique

But there does exist a
la = ai = a for
quantity 1 having the properties of unity
its components all vanish with the exception
every quantity a
of the one associated with s = I, which is 1.
A domain of
9
quantities as described above is called an algebra, and the
"
are the elements of the algebra ; care must
group quantities
equation

for given

=f=

solution or even no solution at

all.

44

be taken not to confuse these with the elements of

(cf.

V,

The

5).

association

satisfies the conditions

1.

2.

the

group

the representation

in

1 -> 1, to the element 1 corresponds the unit matrix 1

->
x ->
and a is a number, then

X y

if

$$

x+y-+X+Y,
A

x ->

xy-*XY.

<xx->aX,

group is the same as a realization or

of the algebra of the group by matrices such
that these conditions are satisfied.
Actually all we have done
here is this
we have gone over from the matrices U(s) associated with the individual elements of the group to the linear
manifold of matrices for which they constitute a basis.
What characterizes an element a of the algebra whose comhave in general
ponents a(s) define a class function ?

"

representation

representation

of the

"

We

ax(s)

a(st)x(r

xa(s)

),

and a

2a(ts)x(r

l
),

class function satisfies the equation

a(st)

a(ts).

Hence such an a is characterized by the fact that it commutes

ax
xa. Employing a
with all elements x 'of the algebra
term carried over from group theory to algebra we may say
those elements whose components depend only on the class of
:

THE ALGEBRA OF A GROUP

167

conjugate group elements to which the argument s belongs constitute

the central of the algebra.
are interested only in unitary representations s -> U(s).
For such a representation the Hermitian conjugate of (13.1) is

We

X=

Zx(s)0(s)

Zx(s)U(s-i)

Zx(s-i)U(s).

Hence on defining the conjugated

of the element

x by x(s}~x(s"

),

Hermitian conjugate matrices are associated with conjugate

this characterizes unitary
elements in a unitary representation
to be real if it coinAn
element
will
be
said
representations.
cides with its conjugate.
We have seen that the character
;

x(s)
*(*)

of

= xM.

unitary

satisfies

representation

this

condition

be a ^-dimensional irreducible unitary representation

a given g-dimensional matrix, the element
Q.
H^tfcll being
c of the algebra defined by

Let

of

such that c -> C in

this is readily verified with the aid of
the orthogonality relations.
Hence in the correspondence x ->
runs through all g-dimensional matrices. We denote the

is

quantity with

components

J>

n tk (s)

by e lk

The

set

of all

elements of the form

coefficients c tk are arbitrary, is naturally closed with

to
the operations of addition and multiplication by a
respect
number. But the product of two elements in H is again an

where the

element

in

of the algebra

indeed, if c is in H and x is an arbitrary element

both ex and xc are also in H. We express this

situation in a terminology paralleling that of the theory of groups

H is an invariant sub-algebra of the algebra of all group quantities.
To prove these assertions we first note that the definition (13.1),
together with the condition that s -> U(s) be a representation
:

yields the equation

or,

on replacing U(s~ l ) by

XU(s)

U(s),

U(sr

)x(t).

(13.5)

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

168

Multiplying on the

we

left

by C

and constructing the trace

\\c ik \\

find

f
n

whence y

tr

[(CX) U(s)}

c(sr

}x(t]

cx(s),

ex

is

in

ex

= yv
i,

c-

(136)

CX.

(13.7)

and the matrix

\\y ik \\

same way we can show that

In the

does also.

call

the

component of

component

ex

if

c belongs to H then xc

If

we

it is

is

x in H. In accordance with (13.6), (13.7) this

the product of x with

AT8.

is

a real element belonging to the central of the

a

group algebra F, with components ^

satisfies

it

i.e.

of

the equation

66 =

x(s)

it

is

"

idempotent"

In particular, the product

6.

two elements

= 2X*

ifc,

Zbi k e ik

of H with coefficient matrices A, B, is the quantity ab in H

"
with the coefficient matrix AB. 6 is the 1, the
modulus" or
44
x when
XB
principal unit" of the sub-algebra H since X
AT is in H.
The algebra H is identical with the algebra of all

g-dimensional matrices (" simple matric algebra

e ik satisfy the equations

e ir e rk

The

e ik

e ir e ak

central of the sub-algebra

of its

modulus

An

for r 4=

The

").

"

units

5.

"

(13.8)

consists only of the multiples

e.

irreducible representation

which

'
:

s -> U'(s)

=
||

u( K (s)

of
||

not equivalent to
dimensionality g'
yields another
invariant sub-algebra H' consisting of all elements of the form
is

I,

THE ALGEBRA OF A GROUP

The

of

components

are

e[ K

follows

It

j-u[ K (s}.

169

from

the

orthogonality relations existing between inequivalent representations that c' ~>

in the representation
If c is in H,
.

then,

then

by

X=

applying (13.6) for

yields

(13.7)

y=

cc

c',

the

=y

also, but since

two sub-algebras are

independent in the sense that the product

with an element in the other is always 0.
satisfy

,*;.

of

is

an element

Hence the

"

0.

in

one

units

"

(13.9)

The modulus

f - 2X,
of H' satisfies es'

8'e

in

addition to

e'e'

e'.

a class function, a belongs to the central of F and

if
B -> A in the g-dimensional irreducible representation
then the matrix A commutes with all matrices X. Hence A
If a(s)

is

is

a multiple of the unit matrix

- 1.

By

(13.2)

we

find

that the trace a of

is

In this way the entire theory of representations can be

translated into the language of modern algebra.
This leads to
a greater freedom of operation and is preferable for the expression
of the completeness theorem.
The orthogonality relations

between u lk (s)

u'M (s),

'

tr

(XX)

Bessel's inequality

lead to

.....

<

Zx(s)x(s),

(13.10)

sum on the left is the matrix (13.1) associated

and
the
x(s)
^-dimensional irreducible representation
the sum is taken over any set of inequivalent irreducible representations
This inequality is obtained by expressing
the fact that the mean value of z(s) z(s) is non-negative (cf. I, 7),
where z is that element obtained from x on subtracting from x

where
with

in the
in

,S;>

),.

its

components
*

in H,

- (x

tk

e ik

(xe

+)

Since the characters constitute an orthogonal system

have the Bessel inequality

&+

<h-Zx(s)(s)
S

* Cf. also

Appendix

2 at

the end of the book.

we

also

(13.11)

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

170

where

is defined by
The completeness theorem asserts
(13.2).
that in both cases the equality sign holds when the sum is extended

over a complete system of inequivalent irreducible representations

where in (13.10) x(s) is any function on the group manifold and
in (13.11) any class function.
The second relation is a special
,

case of the

first,

since for class functions

X = - 1.
o

the abstract group

is a finite continuous group which
is closed in the sense of
12, instead of a finite group as above,
the sums must be replaced by integrals
the measure of volume
on the group manifold is introduced as in
12.
then have
If

We

in place of (13.1), (13.4):

X=
xy(s)

The modulus

1 of the algebra must have as components the

values of a function l(s) which vanishes everywhere on the
and must there be
I
group manifold except at the point s

so large that

we can

fl(s)ds=

construct

1.

Such a function does not

functions

approximating

exist,

but

conditions

these

arbitrarily close.

The completeness relations assert that any element x of

the algebra of a finite group Q is the sum of its components in
the totality of sub-algebras associated with a complete system
of inequivalent irreducible representations.
The group algebra
F is thus reduced to a set of independent simple matric algebras.
It suffices

to prove this

= +

'

theorem for

.=

(e n

e f ,)

*
,

(13.12)

on multiplying this by x it follows for all elements x. These

assertions cannot be carried over to continuous groups in the
form here stated; we must hold to the formulation (13.10)
instead of ^) containing an arbitrary function x(s).
(with
We go into the proof of these results in Chap. V, where all
the results of this section will be derived anew and discussed in
detail from another more profound point of view.

for

14.

Invariants and Covariants

We

first discuss briefly the classical concept of an invariant.

C 2 of homogeneous linear
Consider, for example, the group c
transformations of two variables f, 77 with unit determinant.

Let

a?

Zbfr

erf

INVARIANTS AND COVARIANTS

171

be an arbitrary quadratic form in the two variables. The

"
"
ac
discriminant
b 2 is an invariant, for the discriminants
of two forms which are such that either goes into the other on
some element of c have the same value.
transforming
77 by
We may have, instead of one arbitrary quadratic form, one or
more arbitrary forms /,
of given orders, n, v,
An
,

<f>,

invariant is a rational integral function / of the coefficients of

these forms which is homogeneous in the coefficients of each of
the forms /, <f>,
and which has the same value on replacing
these coefficients by the coefficients of the forms /', <',
into
which /, <,
are transformed by an arbitrary transformation
o of C affecting the variables
77.
The coefficients # a lf
a n of an arbitrary form of order
n in the variables
a certain linear transformation
77 undergo
on subjecting the variables to a transformation a of c, and the
correspondence between a and this transformation constitutes
a representation of the group C.
The same is true for the totality
,

of

monomials
1

aXi
of

order

in

<

'

(r c

r,

rn

r)

these coefficients.
A homogeneous polynomial
a,- is a linear combination of these monomials.

/ of order r in the

We thus see that

in the coefficients
a linear combination of
quantities which constitute the substratum of a definite rethis representation is known as soon as we
presentation of c
have given the orders n, v
of the forms /, <,
in the
and the degrees r, />,
of the invariant / in the
variables
77
arbitrary coefficients of/, <,
Discarding the all too special
"
"
formal algebraic assumptions involved in the
classical
concept of an invariant, and which the theory of invariants has
from the beginning attempted to outgrow by generalizations in
various directions, we may express the concept in modern

of the arbitrary

if

is

forms

of given degrees

r, p,

is

it

/,</>,

group-theoretic language as follows

Lei Jp s ~> U(s) be a given representation of an abstract group
in
an n-dimensional representation space 9R with variables x i
Q
a linear jarm in the x i is said to be an invariant in the representation
space 9R of ^ if it is unchanged under all the transformations U(s).
If / lf 7 2
are invariants in the representation space of ^),
of them with
a8 /2
then any linear combination oc^
:

constant coefficients a x a 2
,

also

is

an invariant.

The most

naturally that concerning the

important problem arising here
of linearly independent invariants in the given
number
If y l} y 2
y constitute such a comrepresentation space.
if we choose as
plete set of linearly independent invariants, and
is

>

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

these m quantities and n
co-ordinates in
m further
172

9ft

linear

forms y mTl
y n such that the two sets together constitute
a complete system of linearly independent linear forms in 9t,
the transformation U(s) is, in terms of the variables y,
,

y\

4-

yn

If we are dealing with a unitary representation the y's can be so

is
chosen that they define a normal co-ordinate system
then reduced into m times the 1-dimensional identical representation y'
y and an (n
m)-dimensional representation.
;

of finding the number of linearly independent

invariants in the representation space 9ft reduces to finding how
often the identical representation with the character 1 is contained in the given
But by formula (11.8) the solution of

Hence the problem

this

problem

is

given by

(H.I)

},

or

the

mean

value of the character x of ,), which is always a

integer, gives the number of linearly independent

non-negative
invariants in the representation space of'.
The formula (14.1) answers the principal question arising
in the linear invariant theory, and we now proceed to an extremely brief discussion of the algebraic invariant theory. Let
t> e
representations of the same abstract group Q in
consider rational
the spaces with variables x ly y ky
which are homogeneous in the
integral functions /(#,-, y k
)
"

>

'

>

We

variables x it
jecting
to the

homogeneous

in the variables

same arbitrary group element

,,/

y ky

etc.

to those linear transformations

x, y,

remains unchanged, then

5 in
it

is

If

on sub-

corresponding

the representations
said to be a rational

,'']

of representations.
integral invariant of the system [,
of the function / in the variables x it y k
If the orders p, q,
,

are given, the problem reduces to the one discussed above

for the monomials in these variables which are homogeneous
conof order p in the x i9 homogeneous of order q in the y ky
;

stitute the

way from

substratum of a representation obtained

,,

But

if

in a certain

we consider simultaneously

in-

variants of all possible orders belonging to the system [, ),**]

we are confronted with new problems. The most important of
these, which is answered in the affirmative by the so-called

INVARIANTS AND COVARIANTS

173

the theory of invariants is

Do there
of invariants such that all others can be

fundamental theorem of
exist a finite

number

This
expressed rationally and integrally in terms of them ?
involves the question of algebraic, rather than linear, dependence

We

between the invariants.

only mention this higher branch

of the theory of invariants, and do not go into

bears no direct relation to quantum mechanics. 10

further, as

it

it

to invariants or scalars, covariant linear

as vectors and tensors, play an important
such
quantities,
in
Let
role
g be the group of all linear transformations
physics.
the
normal
between
co-ordinate systems in space or in spacetime, e.g. the 3-dimensional group of Euclidean rotations or
the group of Lorentz transformations, and let Jp 5 - 17(5) be
an n-dimensional representation of g. A covariant quantity of
a n relative
kind Jp /5 ayi entity having n components a,, a 2

addition

In

'

'

*,

any given co-ordinate system for the variables of the transformation group g and which is such that on going over to a new coordinate system by means of the transformation s of g tlie new
components a are obtained from the old by the corresponding
to

If $$ is irreducible such a
transformation U(s] of ).
quantity
is said to be primitive or simple.
Physical quantities are generally
Thus, for example, the entity whose components are
simple.
the electro-magnetic field strengths in the 4-dimensional world
"
"
is described as an
rather
anti-symmetric tensor of order 2
"
44
tensor of order 2
we shall see in Chap. V,
than merely as a
The reduction of
4, that it is therefore a simple quantity.
a representation into its irreducible constituents implies the
reduction of the corresponding kind of quantities into simple
It would appear that the only simple quantities
quantities.
with which we deal are tensors which are characterized by
We
certain symmetry conditions in addition to their order.
shall prove this theorem for the complete linear group C and for
it asserts that all
its unitary sub-group ll in Chap. V
representations of c (or ll) can be obtained by reduction from the
2
3
and that the irreducible constituents
(c)
powers c, (c)
;

of

(c)-f

arc obtained

We

by imposing certain symmetry

must accordingly generalize the problem

conditions.
of the linear

theory of invariants in the following manner. Consider two

a -> 5 of the abstract
unitary representations f) a -> s
be n,
a
their
dimensionalities
let
with
elements
group g
covariant
all
to
determine
We
wish
and let f) be irreducible.
Calling the
quantities of kind t) in the representation space of r
which
x
variables in this representation space
undergo the
a quantity
such
transformation S under the influence of a,
/ has n components I lt 7 2
,/, which are linearly independent
)

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

174

xt
When the x i undergo the transthe
n
linear
forms
/
formation 5
go over into new ones which
7
from
the
are obtained
a (in which the variables K i have been
transformed in accordance with S) by means of the transformaIf there exist two or more covariant quantities
tion s of t).
linear forms in the variables

/,

(/i,

/'

(/'

O,

of the kind 1) in the representation space of

then any linear
a'/' -)with constant coefficients a is
combination a/
We ask for the number m
again a quantity of the same kind.
The answer is
this
kind.
of linearly independent quantities of
,

that
f)

is

is equal to the number of times the irreducible representation

Hence if #, X are the characters of f),
contained in
.

we have

m=

(H.2)

{X(*)jfr)}.

we choose

In order to prove this statement

the co-ordinate
in
x
of
in
such
a way that
the
system t
representation space
the matrices of Jp are reduced into their irreducible constituent

sub-matrices, the

representations

t)

= !)" =

I)'

(m)
f)

t)

The remaining constituents I) (m+1 \

being separated out first.
are inequivalent to t).
Denote the variables in the correinvariant
sponding
sub-spaces by

The matrix S
s'

=.s,

diagonal.

is

5 (m)

completely
s

5 (mfl)
,

reduced

into

arranged

sub-matrices

the

the

along

principal

Let

be a covariant quantity of the kind I). We can write this in the

Ax in terms of the column % of the A^ variables x
form y
the column y of the n variables y a and the matrix A
||0t||The requirement that / be a quantity of kind I) means that
when x is replaced by x
Sx, y goes over into y
sy, or

sy

ASx,

sAx

ASx,

sA

AS.

(14.3)

to the reduction of #-space into irreducible

the
matrix A of the correspondence of %-space on
sub-spaces,
is reduced
into matrices A',
A^ m)
A (m 1}
y-space
tb
of
the
first
n
the
of
set
n rows,
rows,
consisting

Corresponding

SA'

of

A.

A'S,

Equation
'

',

(14.3)

then becomes

THEORY OF CONTINUOUS GROUPS

LIE'S
It

175

follows from the fundamental theorem (10.5) on representaare all multiples of the n-dimensional
that the remaining A (m+l \
are all zero.

tions that A',

unit matrix and

But

AM

just our assertion that y

linear combination of the
quantities
this

is

r (m)

15,

y 2l

y n)

is

,T

of the kind

(y lt

r(m) # (m)
2

[X l

.
,

r (m)\
X
n

f).

Remarks on

Lie's Theory of Continuous

of Transformations

Groups

In
12 we made use of the concept of infinitesimal elements
a
of
group in order to establish a method of measuring volume
on a continuous group manifold. We here discuss this concept
in detail for the 3-dimensional group b of rotations in Euclidean
11
This group serves to describe the mobility of a body
space.
in Euclidean space, one point
of which is fixed in space.
Each
of
the
can
be
considered
as
body
possible position
arising from
an
of
initial
A material
b.
operation
any given
position by
or
substance distributed throughout the space
any portion of
if the
it moves as a rigid body about
position of each of its
elements at a given moment is associated with its initial position
by means of a correspondence belonging to b. This is the
description of the motion of such a rigid body which compares
the position in any moment directly with the initial position,
ignoring the intermediate states which it has assumed in going
from the one into the other. But it seems more natural to
consider it in terms of a continuous motion in which the position
of the body undergoes an infinitesimal rotation from moment
to moment, so that the motion as a whole is the integration
On employing an
of a series of infinitesimal operations of b.
of infinitesimals
use
the
t
in
to
variable
order
avoid
auxiliary
and thinking of this parameter as time, the velocity field
z of an infinitesimal rotation is defined
dx
x, dy
y, dz

by

[cf.

I,

dx

6]

bz

cy,

dy

ex

az,

dz

ay

bx,

(15.1)

where the constants a, &, c are independent of position (x y, 2).

These velocity fields, which obviously constitute a 3-dimensional
t

linear manifold, are the infinitesimal elements of b

they are
"
"
which define the linear space tangent to the group
the
vectors
;

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

176

manifold

at

the point which represents

the unit

The continuous motion of a rigid body about

by the fact that at each moment its velocity

is

element

I.

characterized

field

belongs to

We may take as a l3asis

D D y D obtained by choosing

the 3-parametcr linear family (15.1).

of this family the three elements
XJ

We

1,

0, c

these

call

l<

S. Lie

s-axes."

0, b

1,

0, b

0, c

I.

the infinitesimal rotations about the #-, y- and

was the first to undertake a systematic study

construction of transformation groups from their inIn fact, once they are known all the
elements.
substitutions of the continuous group can be generated by
integration, i.e. by successive application of such infinitesimal
elements at least, all those which belong to the same connected
"
"
as the identity.
the proper orthogonal
sheet
(Example
transformations can be obtained from the infinitesimal ones,
but not the improper transformations with determinant
1).
In general, consider a continuous r-parameter transformation
and let the group manifold be described in terms of
group
the parameters s 1 S 2
s r in the neighbourhood of the unit
A portion of the group manifold
which
vanish.
at
point,
they
is thereby mapped in a one-to-one continuous manner on a
neighbourhood of the origin in the r-dimensional number space
of the parameters s.
Let the u-dimensional point-field of the
xn
transformations be described in terms of co-ordinates ;q, % 2
in the neighbourhood of the point under consideration, and let
the correspondence #->#':
of

the

finitesimal

be associated with the element

s r) of the abstract
s2
',
transformation
The
by
group.
group
>
x
%
dx
obtained
transformation
infinitesimal
-fby assigning
the infinitesimal increments ds to the parameters s in the neighis
bourhood of s
given by

in

its

'

(s lt

'

the

realization

the parentheses indicate that the differential quotients are to

0.
sr
be computed for s
0,
postulate a material
is
which
substance which fills the point-field and
capable of
which
the positions
executing those and only those motions in
of its elements at an arbitrary moment t' are obtained from their

We

Again its motion

positions at time t by a transformation of
can be more simply described as the result of successive deforma.

THEORY OF CONTINUOUS GROUPS

LIE'S

177

tions

corresponding to infinitesimal operations (15.2) of our

the velocity field must at any time have the form
group
;

where

a r are constants independent of position. This

or,,
r-dimensional linear family constitutes the infinitesimal group of
It is to be observed that the
motions of our substance.
application
of these infinitesimal processes to our transformation
group
presupposes that the functions </>, are differentiate with respect
In the theory of abstract groups the
to s at the point s
0.
is
the
itself and we take as a realization
manifold
point-field
group
In
the
neighbourhood of the unit element
(left-)translation.
s

0,

we

have, as law of composition,

The introduction

of a measure of volume in
12 presupposes
that the functions ifj are, for sufficiently small /, differentiable
with respect to the 5 at the point s
0, and that for sufficiently

small ^ they are differentiable with respect to t at /

0.
The composition of infinitesimal elements of the group is
expressed by addition of the parameters a introduced by (15.3).
It might therefore appear as if the infinitesimal elements of an
r-pararneter continuous group need satisfy no condition other
than that they constitute a linear family. However, that is
*'
M
there are further
to
not the case
iniegr ability conditions
be satisfied. The example of a sphere which rolls without
slipping on a horizontal table shows that the possible positions
of a body whose infinitesimal motions have but three degrees
of freedom can nevertheless constitute a 5-dimensional manifold.
The integrability conditions we are seeking, which involve
second order derivatives, guarantee that this situation does not
We obtain these conditions on expressing the fact that
arise.
the commutator sts~~ l r l of two infinitesimal elements s, t of the
group also is an element of the group. This commutator con;

verges to

as

approaches the unit element

be, and similarly as

the two infinitesimal

->

for arbitrary

s.

linear correspondences

dx
is

Ax,

d'x

the infinitesimal correspondence

that the equation

we note

A(s)B(/)

r(s,

I,

whatever

may

The commutator

and

of

Ex

AB

BA

to

show

this

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

178
leads,

on writing

,.

urn

r(s,

t)
'

to the equation

\as at/ gt =

C= AB - BA.

Our main purpose

in

mentioning these matters

is

to prepare

the ground for an understanding from general principles of the

commutation rules satisfied by the three infinitesimal rotations

D Dy D
x>

They

are, as is readily

shown,

DyD x =i
D DX

D X Dy

D -

We
in

(15.4)

(15.5)

"}

Dy.

could, of course, take the unimodular unitary group U 2

as fundamental, instead of the group b 3 of

two dimensions

We denote the two variables which undergo the

rotations.
In
as in
8.
transformations a of the unitary group by
77
consequence of the correspondence a -> s, which was established
there by means of a stereographic projection, the 3-dimensional
We can
rotation group now appears as a representation of U 2
take as a basis for the 3-parameter linear manifold of infinitesimal
operators of U 2 the three particular operators
,

l_

(15.6)

\f-

2t

here, in

agreement with
l

s=||
*

'

(8.15),
I

s=
*

-1

,'

are the infinitesimal transformations of U 2 corresponding

to the three infinitesimal transformations
z of b 3 in
x
y

They

D D D
,

THEORY OF CONTINUOUS GROUPS

LIE'S

virtue of the correspondence a -> 5

is readily seen from
(8.10) or

that this

179

in fact the case

is

--

Given any representation

>

a ->

of

C7(<r)

U2

infinitesimal

its

operators with matrices

satisfy the

the

to

corresponding

infinitesimal

same equations

M M
The matrices M A/ M
x

-~

operators

(15.5) as the Z),,

yi

iiM Zj

--=

A/yA/j,

D D

(15.6)
z

U2

in

(15.7)

For reasons

are of course Hermitian.

the following chapter we call these the

appear
components of moment of momentum (or angular momentum] 9)i
of the representation )p, and

which

will

in

9H 2

A/ 2

A/;

A/;

A/;

If
the square of the magnitude of the moment of momentum.
with
two
momenta
are
3Jt'
)'
9JJ,
angular
representations
Jp,
then, in accordance with the general formula II, (10.4), which
governs the composition of infinitesimal operators by X -multi)' has as moment of momentum
plication, the representation <p X

(3R

1)

We

(1

fflO-

next calculate the

moment

irreducible representation (/ ~- X,-

found more convenient

to

employ
f

momentum

of

(j

H2

of

//2)

in place of

^-S xt

9)t,-

of

the

It

will

be

-T--^V
y
2 2

the

transformations
1

]
'

15 8 )
-

In general
r

d(

r)

and on substituting
\

r gr

~l

5
rj

d^

rj

"1
drj,

in this the variables

ii

~~i

*
'

'

'

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

180

of the representation space of $>,, we find that the three infinitesimal transformations of U 2 defined by (15.6), (15.8) induce in this

space the transformations

2 (5,

iSy )

dx(m)

Vr(s

~
j

i5)

o (5 X
^

rf^(w)

\A(r

V(j

x(m

S7

1)

1)

m)(j

~~~

Xdfl)

Wl

-f-

1)

#(w

m+

1)

*(m

1),

1)

V(j -m)(j
/

"

CLTC\'YYl]

x(m

1)

1),

%\'YYL\

Hence
(m,
(m,

mw+

M (m,
f

All other

=
1)
m) =
1)

(j

V(j

3^

-m+
m)(j + m~+~Ti, \

w)(y

1),

(15.9)

m.

components (m, m') vanish.

unit matrix in

j
2

a multiple of the

is

M =
1

for

+
-

j(]

1),

follows from

it

+ iM

(M x

)(M x

- iM = Ml + M*- i(M M - M M
= M\ + Ml + M
y)

x)

that

M -

+ iM

(Af x

- iM - M + Ml

)(M x

v)

and from this and (15.9) that

Af 2 (m, m)
m m 2 j(j 1).
(j
m)(j
If on reducing an arbitrary representation
the irreducible
2
representation $),- is found to occur exactly g y times, then
has j(j +1) as a [(2j
l)g,]-fold characteristic number and
z has the characteristic number m with multiplicity

w+1)

2fc,

From

(;=

|m|, |m|

1,

we

again see that the multiplicity g y with which $),

is uniquely determined
the reduction of
by
These infinitesimal operations can be used to give a relatively
elementary constructive proof of the fact that the 3), are the only
this

occurs in

irreducible representation of U 2
16.

Representation by Rotations of

quantum theory the

In

space

12
.

but

this

is

Ray Space

representations take place in system

to be considered as a ray rather than a vector

REPRESENTATION

IN

RAY SPACE

181

space, for a pure state is represented by a ray rather than a

Two unitary transformations
and ef/ which differ
vector.
a
numerical
of
factor
s
absolute
magnitude 1 are cononly by

sequently to be considered as the same, t/~eC7, for they

"
In a
determine the same rotation of the ray field.
ray representation" which associates with each element 5 of the abstract
group Q a unitary rotation U(s) of the rays of n-dimensional
representation space, the gauge factor e(s) may be taken
if
g is a continuous
arbitrarily for each unitary matrix U(s)
group we choose it, however, in such a way that U(s) depends
continuously on s. The condition for a representation is now
;

only

U(s)U(t)~U(st),

U(s)U(t)

where
and

8(s,

t)

8(s,t)U( S t),

(16.2)

a numerical factor, of modulus 1, depending on

by change of gauge U(s) is replaced by &(s)U(s),
replaced by

8(s,

t)

/.

If

is

(16.1)

is

e(st)t-

s )s-i(t)?>(s,

t).

In the equation

components x(s) of an
and
the group matrix X
group
which represents it, the x(s) arc also dependent on the gauge
and are sent into z(s)x(s) on the change of gauge defined by
L
In order that the multiplication law for two
U(s) ^e(s}U(s).
the

defining

element

connection between

the

of the algebra of the

elements x,y shall, as we require, parallel the multiplication of

the matrices which represent them we must define
xy(s)
in

Z8(t,t') X ((}y(t')

H' = s

The condition

terms of the chosen gauge.

l

x(s~

(16.3)

x(s)

x is only appropriate if the gauge is so chosen

The algebra of
that U(s" 1 ) is the matrix reciprocal to U(s).
the group is to be adapted in this way to the ray representation
"
vector repreunder consideration, whereas in dealing with
"
it is uniquely determined by the law of composition
sentations
of the group alone. 13
for a real element

Examples.

1-dimensional representations are now entirely

But under
uninteresting, for any 1-dimensional matrix ~1.
I.

The

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

182

certain circumstances Abelian groups

may

possess multi-dimen-

unitary ray representations, whereas any irreducible

unitary vector representation of an Abelian group is necessarily

sional

of degree

We

group

1.

investigate the simplest example, a finite cyclical

of order h, consisting of the elements

first

(a)

a2

a,

I,

ah

~l

(a

I).

Let the element a correspond to the unitary matrix A in the

then A h
al is necessarily a multiple of
ray representation
Since a is of modulus 1 we may change the
the unit matrix.

then A h = 1
gauge in such a way that A goes into Aj'Vcf.
k
k ->
is
a
A
a
vector
and the correspondence
representation of
the cyclical group.
Hence by introducing an appropriate
change of gauge the ray representation can be made into a
vector representation, 8(5, t) being then 1.
II. The simplest example of an Abelian group which gives
;

rise to multi-dimensional irreducible ray representations must

consequently be non-cyclic. Consider the group consisting of
the four elements I, #, b, c with the multiplication table

a*
cb

be

33 is

ray representation

7(1)

ca

a,

b*

V(a)

c*

U(b)

1,

ab

b,

ba

(16.4)
c.

given by

=
ac

=--

U(c)

-1
(16.5)

The normalization

is

here chosen in such a

U 2 (a] and similarly

for

1,

U(a)U(a~

l
)

way

that

The algebra defined by (16.3) for this

non-commutative in spite of the Abelian
i,

c.

representation is
it is the algebra of
nature of the group
complex quaternions.
On denoting the elements of this algebra by
;

x
the

units

"
1,

a, b,

K\

Xa

+ p.b +

vc,

c have the same multiplication table as

the corresponding matrices

xy occupies
the intersection of the
row x with the column y.)

(The product

REPRESENTATION
The

"

RAY SPACE

IN

183

"

quantities are those for which all components

Since in the calculus of quaternions 1, fa,
/c, A, /LI,
are
taken
as
the
ic
fundamental units, they are those whose
f6,
real

v are real.

is real and
whose vectorial components
are
purely imaginary.
A/I, /x/f, v\i
III. The group II
U 2 of unitary transformations a in two
dimensions with determinant 1. Consider a representation
a -> f/(a) by rotations in n-dirnensional ray space. On

component K

scalar

changing

the gauge in such a

way

that U(a) goes into

U(a)

VdrtU(a),

(16.6)

the determinant of the new U(a) is 1.

The only possible
th
consists
in
the
fact
that
the
n
root
culty
e(a)
is

multiple-valued.

It

i/drtTufi)

"
is

diffi-

(16.7)

"
locally

single-valued,

i.e.

if

we

have chosen a definite one S of the n values for the point

a = or we can uniquely determine the root e(o-) in a sufficiently
small neighbourhood of cr in such a way that it depends cona
Hence we can
tinuously on a and goes over into e for a
CT
continue the determination of the root for a
O in a unique
manner along a path in the group manifold, starting in a
The only question is whether e(a) returns to its original value
when we allow a to describe a closed path. This is to be answered
,

hi the affirmative, since the group manifold ofn is simply connected

in the sense that any closed curve can be drawn together into

a point

by a continuous deformation.

equation (7.5) the elements of the

to-one continuous

which are subject

For

in

group are

manner on the quadruple

accordance with

mapped

in a one-

(K\IJLV} of real

numbers

to the condition

Hence the group manifold has the same

topological properties
These conas a 3-dimensional sphere in 4-dimensional space.
th
root (16.7) is broken up into
siderations thus show that the n
n single-valued continuous functions over the entire group

manifold.

The method

fundamental importance

here employed, which is of

whole of mathematics, is perhaps

of proof
in the

known

to the reader in the proof of Cauchy's integral

follows from the fact that (he integral of an analytic
function is locally single-valued, that it is single-valued in the
connected.
large if the region in which we are operating is simply
that
showed
considerations
The result of our topologiral

best

theorem

it

the formula (16.6) defines n single-valued continuous functions

One of them is such that in it U(l) is the unit matrix;
U(cr).

GROUPS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

184

we henceforth denote

it

alone by U(a).

On

writing the equation

U(a)U(r) =8(a, r)U(ar)

for

r=

find 8(s,
(16.8)

I,

I)

fact that U(\)

1, we
the determinant of both sides of

and taking into account the

1.

we obtain

On forming

(16.8)

the equation
1

[S(a, T)].

th

consequently an n root of unity which depends conI

tinuously on r for fixed a and which reduces to 1 for r
hence it is identically equal to 1, and (16-8) becomes

8(or, T)

is

U(a)U(r)

U(ar).

Consequently the only ray representations of U 2 are also vector

representations, and our considerations show that this theorem is
valid for any continuous group whose elements constitute a simply
On going over to the 3-dimcnsional rotation
connected manifold.
b
group 3 by stereographic projection, all 2),-, even those with
half-integral y, are single-valued when considered as ray representations.
Any single-valued continuous ray representation of
b 3 is reducible into irreducible constituents, and the only irreducible ray representations are the 3) ; (j
0, 1/2, 1, 3/2,
)
obtained earlier in the chapter. But b 3 is not simply connected
we must resort to a two-sheeted covering surface, similar to
a Riemannian surface but without cuts or branch points, which
is simply connected.
This accounts for the fact that there
exist irreducible ray representations of b 3 which may be singleor double-valued vector representations, but there cannot exist

multiple-valued representations of higher degree.

I have been able to prove the same theorem for the n-dimensional rotation group (n ^ 3). 14
This means that there exist
two closed continuous motions (i.e. motions which lead back
to the initial state) of a rigid body, which is free to rotate about
a fixed point 0, such that any other closed motion can be conOne of these may be
tinuously deformed into one of the two.
taken as rest, and the other is such that it cannot be continuously

deformed into

rest.

CHAPTER

IV

APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF GROUPS

TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
The Rotation Group

A.

1.

The Representation Induced

in

System Space by

the Rotation Group

accordance with III,
8, we can interpret the theory of
a single electron in a spherically symmetric electrostatic field,
as developed in II,
A rotation
5, in the following manner.
of physical space, i.e. an orthogonal transformation from the
Cartesian co-ordinates xyz into xy'z\ induces a unitary transformation U(s) ^ ~> if/' defined by

IN

t'( X 'y'z')
in the

the

system-space

wave functions

9ft

t(xyz)

(1.1)

of the electron, the vectors of which are

describing the state of the electron.

ifj(xyz)

The correspondence

-> U(s] is a definite representation S, of

This
infinitely many dimensions, of the rotation group b 3
representation ( can be reduced into its irreducible constituents
(
2)j, and it is found that each S) with integral / occurs an infinite
s

number

The

of times.

total

system-space 9ft is correspondingly

9ft(n/)
decomposed into mutually orthogonal sub-spaces 9t(n/)
has 21 -|~ 1 dimensions and the rotation group induces the
If we introduce in addition the imrepresentation 3) in it.
proper rotations (bg) 2) always appears in 6 with the signature
The oo-dimensional sub-spaces
${(nl) associated with
(
l)
;

the various values of / are uniquely determined, but their further

In
decomposition into the summands 9ft(n/) is quite arbitrary.
the
that
a
in
such
can
be
done
this
way
energy of
particular,
the states composing 9ft(n/) has a definite value E(nl).
We now calculate the operators induced in system-space
by the infinitesimal rotations of physical space. Denoting the
increase

if*'

(xyz)

^(xyz)

by

d<//,

equation

185

(l.l)

becomes

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

186

/or the infinitesimal rotation 5 which sends

Xj y, z

Taking
[III,

into x

=x+

= y + dy,

y'

(15.4)]

dz.

D x Dy D

in

z'

as s the three infinitesimal rotations

operators in

turn

and writing the corresponding infinitesimal unitary

the form
<ty

we

dx,

=
\(L

X,

Ly LM,
,

find

AS

accordingly the moment of momentum [cf. II, (4.9)].

going over from one electron to two, the vectors of system
the functions ^(x^y^
are
space
xjy 2z 2 ) of the Cartesian coordinates of both electrons.
The unitary transformation
U if/ -> 0' induced in system-space by the rotation s is now
defined by the equation
is

On

x'$\z\ and x'^y'^ are obtained from x y l z l and

by the same orthogonal transformation s. This situation can
be described as follows
The state space 9t 2 of the system con2
sisting of two electrons is 9R X 9t and the representation G

where

induced in it is @ X (.
This representation

is, as we see, determined by the kinematical constitution of the system alone, and is in no way
influenced by the dynamical relationships
the rule for X multiplication for the induced representation on composition
of partial systems presupposes only kinematical, not dynamical,
independence of the partial systems.
We can, without further trouble, formulate the situation
discussed above in terms of the general scheme of quantum
mechanics in a manner which is independent of the particular
assumptions of Schrcdinger* s scalar wave theory. This is all
the more important since it has all along seemed doubtful
whether the matter waves could be described in terms of a
We set up an analogy between the actual
single state function /r.
of
of the system in time and the virtual
state
the
displacement
;

change

produced

by

transition from time

an

arbitrary

rotation

of

space.

The

time /' changes the (arbitrary) state

/
at
time
/ into a state
J
j' at time /', obtained from J by a unitary
transformation U corresponding to a displacement of the time
axis which sends t over into /'.
The displacements along the
time axis constitute a one-parameter continuous group which is
to

REPRESENTATION

SYSTEM SPACE
187
transformations U associated
IN

isomorphic with the group of

with them in system-space.
The former group is generated
from the infinitesimal displacement t -> t
dt, and it therefore

suffices to give the infinitesimal unitary operator

dt

We

associated with it in system-space.

the energy.
operator

called the

Hermitian

On

subjecting the physical system (or the spatial co-ordinate

in terms of which it is described) to a virtual rotation s,
the state J goes over into another state
'.
Since nothing
intrinsic to the system is changed thereby and since the state
space 5R is linear and unitary, the transition U(s) J -> j'
associated with s must also be linear and unitary.
As in the
case of the group of actual displacements in time, this group
of virtual rotations in space must induce a certain representation
this latter is more properly to be
31 in the system space 3t
considered as a ray, rather than a vector, space.
But if we go
over from tne rotation group to the unimodular unitary group
U 2 (or U 2 ) by stereographic projection (III,
8) and take this
latter as fundamental, it is, in accordance with III,
16, not
vector
to
and
between
necessary
representations.
distinguish
ray
The group of proper rotations can be generated from its infinitesimal operations, and we may take as a basis for these the

system

infinitesimal
It

know

D D

the A'-, y-, and s-axis.

z about
y
the infinitesimal unitary transformations

rotations L) x

then suffices to

which they induce in system space. We call the real physical

quantities of the system which are represented by the Hermitian
moment
z the xxt
y- ^-components of the
operators
y
In order to express them in terms of the
of momentum 9)f.
usual units they must, as was also the case with the energy,
be multiplied by the quantum of action h. The moment of
momentum plays the same role with respect to the virtual rotations

M M M
,

of space as the energy with respect

to

the actual

displacements in

time.

One argument for the appropriateness

ment of momentum is that in the case of
it

of our definition of

mo-

the Schrodinger theory

As a further
mechanics.
of
classical
leads to the usual formulae
moment of
the
that
theorem
the general
we

justification

momentum

prove

so defined

is

constant

in time.

We

saw

in II,

8,

that the necessary and sufficient condition that the physical

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

188

quantity represented by the Hermitian operator A be constant

time was that A commute with the Hermitian operator
In exactly
induced by the infinitesimal displacement of time.
can
show that the commutativity of A with
the same way we
z constitutes the necessary and sufficient condition
x
My,
that the quantity represented by A remains unaltered under the
virtual proper rotations of space, i.e. that A is a scalar with
Now the energy is a scalar, hence
respect to these rotations.

in

HM - M H =
X

-.

0,

M^

M M

z
But, on the other hand, these equations assert that
y
are constant in time.
The infinitesimal rotations generate only the group of proper
in order to obtain the complete orthogonal group we
rotations
must supplement them with the reflection i in the origin, or
extend the group 11 2 to the group u^ by the addition of the element i (III, 8). L will induce a unitary operator / in system
space which commutes with all U(s} in particular with the
,

moment

of

momentum

2Ji

M M
}

(M x

z ),

and which

satisfies

this shows that / is Hermitian, as well

the equation //
1
A quantity A which is unchanged by reflection
as unitary.
must commute with /
hence, in particular, the energy
must commute with /. The physical quantity represented by /,
which we call the signature, is constant in time, as it commutes
;

with H.

It has, in

common

with

all

quantities arising in group

infinitesimal operators,

theory which are not associated with

no analogue in classical mechanics.

We

reduce the total system-space into invariant sub-spaces

with respect to the group of displacements in time
such an
invariant sub-space is carried over into itself by the generating
;

infinitesimal

operation d%

~H%.

Since

we

are

here dealing

with a one-parameter Abelian group, or with a single operator //,

this reduction can be carried to the point in which all the constituent sub-spaces are 1-dimensional.
The states contained in
one of these invariant sub-spaces we call quantum states.
We now proceed in exactly the same manner to reduce the
representation 31 induced in system space by the group of rota-

We make

use of the
number of
the
;
only
times they appear in
depends on the particular representation
9i.
(Of course, we have not as yet shown that the 3) ; really
constitute a complete system of irreducible representations of
b 3 and it may seem risky to apply the process of reduction to
the oo-dimensional representation 9?.
This procedure can,
tions into its irreducible constituents 2)
known to us a priori
7

fact that these are

<

REPRESENTATION

IN

SYSTEM SPACE

however, be justified on the basis of the fact that

But in the final formulation of quantum
group.
be necessary to base our conclusions on
not
will
considerations, as the reduction into 3), will be

b3

189
a closed

is

mechanics it
such general
obtained by
thus decom-

elementary means.) The entire system-space 3} is

such that 3} ; is of dimensionposed into sub-spaces %, 9?;
1
and
the
representation induced in it by the group
ality 2j
',,

is $/.
On adapting the co-ordinate system in system-space
to this decomposition the variables fall into classes

U2

(w

x(m)

;'-

y,

1,

-;')

,-;');;

(w'-y, /-I,

X'(m')

under the influence of an arbitrary transformation a of U 2

the co-ordinates of system-space
applied to the variables
rj
transform in accordance with the law
,

x(m)

~ --=
V

With the reduction

angular

momentum

+k=

(i

of JK or 9i
9)i

2j,

i-k =

2m).

in

is

associated the reduction of the

the sub-space

SK,

the components

are given by III, (15.9), from which it follows that the

2
of the moment of momentum has there the fixed
square

of

9Ji

value j(j
1).
(It is evident from general considerations
2
that
must be a multiple of the unit matrix in 5R for it is
a scalar and must therefore commute with all the operators of
If the state of the system is
the irreducible representation 2),-.)
of its
in
a
vector
9R>, the s-component
lying
represented by
moment of momentum is capable of assuming the values m
j,

1,
j\ the 2-component naturally only apparently
j
a
preferred status, due to the fact that the co-ordinates
occupies
in 5i, were chosen in a manner which differentiated the s-axes
,

A/ 2 can a priori assume only discrete

rotation
values m, j(j
1) is essentially due to the fact that the
is open,
in
time
of
since
the
is closed
displacements
group
group
the analogous result for the energy need not in general hold.
In this connection we wish to emphasize again that the operator

from the others.

That

2,

H depends on

the dynamical relationships existing in the system,

whereas the representation 91 induced by the group of rotations
the kinematical situation (number of
is determined only by
elementary particles, etc.). The signature / also assumes a
For lack
1 in each sub-space $R ;
definite one of its values
in
the
sublie
which
of a better name we call the states
.

which is invariant under the group

"simple" states of inner quantum number

space

9ft,,

of

rotations,

j.

We

must

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

190

j may here assume half-integral as well

as integral values, in contrast with the Schrodinger theory.

be prepared to find that

On

two kinematically independent systems, with

system-spaces 9ft, 9ft' in which the rotation group induces the
representations 9i, 9i', the total system has as system-space
is induced.
In
in which the representation 31 X
9ft X 9ft',
uniting

moment

particular, the

momentum of the
x 1) + (1 x 2R')

of

(2R

where

9Ji

systems.

total

system

is

9JT are the angular momenta of the two partial

the moment of momentum behaves

and

The theorem that

additively with respect to composition is contingent only on the

assumption that the parts are kinematically independent,

whereas the corresponding theorem for energy applies only if

they are dynamically independent, i.e. in the absence of interThis difference is based on the fact
action between the parts.
that whereas the energy represents that actual change of state
in the course of time, the moment of momentum represents
the virtual change associated with a fictitious rotation.
We
reduce 9ft, 9ft' into the invariant irreducible sub-spaces 9ft/, 9ft}'
respectively, i.e into the simple states of the two partial systems
having inner quantum numbers, ;, /. The Clebsch-Gordan

equation

(III,

X 3V

then

tells

us

5)

SW +

n'-i

+ 3Wi

(1-3)

// the two parts are in the simple states with inner

j, j' then the whole has each of the simple states

quantum numbers

with inner quantum number

=j+

j',

+ y-i,

|y-y|

(I-*)

To include the signature

each exactly once.
we must add
// the parts have as signatures the values 8, 8'
the whole has the value 8 8'.
1), the signature of
(8
Compare the results which we have obtained with the
In both the moment
corresponding results in classical mechanics.
of momentum is constant in time and the moment of momentum
of the whole is equal to the sum of the moments of momentum
of the two parts.
Denoting the magnitude of the moment of
associated with

it }

momentum

in classical

theory by

j,

we

have, in agreement with

a-*),

two vectors

magnitudes j j' is a vector

whose magnitude / lies within these limits. Quantum mechanics
deviates from classical mechanics in the following three respects :
for the resultant of

of

SIMPLE STATES AND TERM ANALYSIS

191

In quantum mechanics the square of the moment of momentum

2
is j(j
1), in classical mechanics it is j
Here
can
2.
assume only the discrete values 0, J, 1, ;J,
j
-,
there it may have any non-negative value ;
1

3. Here the J obtained on

compounding two partial systems
can assume only those values between j
j'
j -j- j' which differ
an
them
there
it can assume
by
integer,
from
any value between these
-

limits.

Already before the

rise

of the

new quantum mechanics

semi-empirical description of the regularities observed in spectra

had been given with the aid of a vector model consisting of the

moments of momentum of the individual electrons

atom as a whole
the observations, assisted by the
had
quantum mechanics,
already led to these three modi-

vectorial

and

(Tf

older

the

fications of classical theory. 1

The reader

will perhaps have wondered why we consider

virtual
rotations of space and not the translations,
the
only
be
also
taken into account in order to arrive at a
which must
complete description of the homogeneity of space. The reason

for this

is

we

that in studying atoms or ions

treat only the

electrons as particles, taking the nucleus as a fixed centre of

That this is at least approximately
force situated in the origin.
is due to the fact that the mass of the nucleus is many
times the mass of the electrons. Space is thereby transformed
such a procedure
from a homogeneous into a centred space
or
atoms
allows
us
to
consider
ions, which have
only
naturally
Diatomic molecules are accordingly described
a single nucleus.
with the aid of the 1-parametcr group of rotations about the
axis joining the two nuclei, and not by the full 3-parameter

correct

to this we must add reflection in

of rotations of space
the plane which bisects the axis perpendicularly in case the two
2
If we are dealing with three
nuclei are physically equivalent.
the
fixed
nuclei
or more
symmetry either disappears entirely or
3
finite
is reduced to at most a
group of rotations.

group

2.

Simple States and Term Analysis.

Examples

there belongs
To each characteristic value E' of the energy
a definite sub-space 9T of 91, the sub-space of quantum states
it consists of all states j which are transwith energy level E'
and is accordingly the
formed into E'*l by the operator
the characteristic
with
associated
characteristic space 9t(')
considerations
the
is
a
the
of
Since
PL
value E'
scalar,
energy
total
the
to
space 9i can also
applied in the preceding paragraph
;

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

192

be applied to 9ft'
9ft' is invariant under the
operators induced
in system-space by the rotation group and is consequently the
carrier of a certain representation of this group, which can be
If the energy levels
reduced into its irreducible constituents.
finite
are of at most
multiplicity we are faced with the problem
:

of reducing only representations of finite degree.

Accordingly
"
4I
associated with
9ft is decomposed into the
9ft,
simple spaces

the rotation group in such a way that not only the square of
the angular momentum and the signature have definite values
in 9ftj, but also the energy has a sharply defined value
This
",.

we
energy level E t is necessarily (2;
l)-fold degenerate
speak of an accidental degeneracy when the energy levels of

different simple sub-spaces

9ft^

are equal.

/,

M M

and

z,

that this is possible

simultaneously in diagonal form
is due to the fact that these four operators all commute among
In this way the reduction into simple states can be
themselves.
term
in
employed
analysis : each energy level Ej possesses an
inner quantum number ; which gives the term the natural
are

all

multiplicity 2;

1.

On

subjecting the atom to a perturbing field which destroys

natural spherical symmetry this (2;
l)-fold term is broken
1
into
the
terms.
Let
up
2j
perturbation, i.e. its Hamiltonian
if Ej
function W, possess axial symmetry about the 2-axis
in
with
then
accordance
the
no
accidental
possesses
degeneracy,
of
the
levels
are
given to
theory
perturbations
perturbed energy
a first approximation by the portion of the Hermitian operator

its

W in which

9ftj

intersects itself

x(m) ->

W(m,

m'} x(m'}

(m'

;, ;

1,

- ;).

The

rotation about the 0-axis with meridian angle <f> transforms

mfy x(m], and in virtue of the symmetry assumed
x(m] into e(
this correspondence of 9ft,- on itself must also be represented
for

by
e(-

m<f>)

x(m)

- ZW(m,

m'}

e(~

m'<f>)

x(m'),

or

W(m,

m'} e[(m

m')</>]

W(m, m}.

But this means that all elements W(m, m') except those
main diagonal vanish, whence

E + W(m,
j

are

thus

m)

(2.1)

The quantum number m,

perturbed terms.
1,
capable of assuming the values j, j
j,
serves to label these components.
Perhaps the most

the

which

in the

2;

is

SIMPLE STATES AND TERM ANALYSIS

193

important axially symmetric perturbation is that due to a

homogeneous magnetic field in the direction of the s-axis
because of this m is called the magnetic
(Zeeman effect]
number.
The inner quantum number j of a term
quantum
can be determined spectroscopically by counting the number of
terms appearing in the Zeeman effect.
Sommerjeld first concluded, from the spectroscopic data, that j as well as m must be
allowed to assume half-integral values.
If we consider the
Zeeman effect to be described by the analogue of the classical
formula II, (12.5) then
;

(2.2)

and

is

rigorously in diagonal form

W(m, m)
Our

horn.

(2.3)

analysis shows that the breaking up of energy levels due

to an axially symmetric perturbation parallels the reduction of

an irreducible representation of the rotation group b 3 when this

by
group b 2 of rotations about the s-axis
the 2/ ~f 1 one-dimensional representations
into
reduced
Xy
which we have previously denoted by 2) (m)

is

restricted to the

this

is

x(m) ->
If

m<f>)

e(

two kinematically independent

x(m).

which are

parts,

in

the

simple states 9t y 91^, are compounded together, the state of

the composite system is in the (2j
l)-dimensional
l)(2j'
== gfy x
If the parts have the energies
3t
jT
product space
9RJ,.
no
Ej, E'., then the whole has the energy E f
E',., assuming
,

interaction between the parts.

Introducing a weak interaction
between the two partial systems and assuming that there is no
accidental degeneracy, i.e. assuming that all the remaining

energy levels of the unperturbed system are different from /},,/,

to a first approximation, to consider the section
it suffices,
in which 9fy,/ intersects itself;
<//> of the energy operator
We can
it is an Hermitian correspondence of 9?,r on itself.
to
the
total
apply the considerations, which were applied above
be
deto
${> is
system-space 91 X $', to each of these $>

into

composed

sub-spaces

characteristic values of

numerically distinct
The rotation group induces a

belonging

<//>.

to

each of these sub-spaces, and this

representation
can be further decomposed into its irreducible constituents.
The result is that 91, X 9^< is, in accordance with the Clebschin

certain

Gordan
j

-fy

series,
i
f

reduced into the simple spaces

a way that
j'|, in such
-,
|;

3l/,

in

=j+

j',

each of them

THEORY

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP

194

Different Ej can only

the energy <H> has a definite value Ej.
"
"
value.
numerical
the
same
have
Consequently
accidentally
the term E }j is broken up by the perturbation into terms Ej
in exactly the same way as the representation X> X X^ is
But this is
reduced into the irreducible representations Xj.
of
perturbation
only correct to the approximation characteristic
As we have seen above, an inner quantum number
theory.
in the approximation
/ can be rigorously ascribed to a term E
with which we have been dealing here there is associated with
it in addition the inner quantum numbers ;, ;' of the parts, in
the energy level
the last analysis of the electrons themselves
E arises from a definite term Ej } of the unperturbed system by
Such an association is rigorously
interaction of the two parts.
"
the rules based on it lead only
but
for
states,"
simple
possible
4
to
an
and
analysis of the terms.
indirectly
approximately
>

>

Examples
If

we take the Schrodinger

scalar

wave theory

to

be valid

for a single electron, then a simple quantum state of the electron

in the field of the nucleus is characterized by the principal

number / (we
quantum number n "and the azimuthal
quantum
"
"
azimuthal
instead of
here use the word
inner ").
Such
and
we
is
no
a term is (27
there
assume
l)-fold degenerate,
The moment of momentum
further accidental degeneration.
is
taken over from classical
represented by the operator
the square of its absolute magnitude is /(/
theory
1) and
If /electrons come
the signature has the value (
1)
together
to form an atom we obtain a term, neglecting interaction between
the electrons,

(!/,)

(n 2 / 2 )

+!)

(,/,)

(2.4)

The quantum numbers

The interaction causes

of multiplicity (2/ x
(21 f
1).
n and / refer to the individual electrons.

a separation which parallels the complete reduction, obtained

with the aid of the Clebsch-Gordan series, of

X,
into

its

X X, X

irreducible constituents

number L
numbers

X X,,

Each such term

XL
is

with total azimuthal quantum

associated with the

'

(tti'i,

n*l*>

(2.5)

',

n f ls

L).

quantum
(2.6)

3 certain XL appear more than once in (2.5), and we may

/
therefore have several (2L -f l)-fold terms associated with the
If

*>

same

set

(2i6)

these

must then be distinguished from each

SIMPLE STATES AND TERM ANALYSIS

other by some further index.
of

momentum

is

L(L

1)

The square

195

of the total moment

l
+ '+
i
+*/.

and the signature

l)

In spectroscopy it is usual to characterize the values /

0, 1, 2, 3,
and the values
by the small Latin letters s, p, d, /,
4,
L -- 0, 1, 2, 3,
by the corresponding capitals S, P D, F,
cannot expect the scalar wave theory to be correct,
.

We

but must be prepared to describe the state of the wave field

with several, say a, components
terms of a quantity

in

//

'

W'l* ^2,

',

^a),

by a covariant quantity

i.e.

Each component
the components
xyz

of a definite

kind

a function of the spatial co-ordinates

will depend on the choice of the Cartesian
co-ordinate system in such a way that on going over to a new
co-ordinate system by the rotation s the components will undergo
among themselves that transformation A(s) which corresponds
to s in the representation 9(.
Again, consider b 3 replaced by U 2
is

fundamental group. The general component a (xyz) of

"
has two indices, the index a running from 1 to a
vector
and the index (xyz) running through all the points of space.
Let $l be the vector space of functions *l*(xyz) and 9J a the
the state space of a single electron
a-dimensional vector space
the
influence of the rotation s which
Under
is then 9R
X 5R/.
the
state
into
sends xyz
x'y'z'
goes over into the state i/f'
defined by the equation
as the

the

*l*

4t

i/r

rt

<//

ti(x'y'*')

Za, h(xyz},
ft

\\

a aft

\\

A(s]

ft

the
$1

r-rr

induced

representation
${

consists of

The moment

two parts

in

system-space

momentum

of

3ft

is

of

accordingly
the electron

an-

(<g

i)

(i

s),

(2.7)

"

tl

9R a
the first of which refers to the a-dimensional
spin space
"
"
or
L
X
translation space
9t
the second to the
x ),
(1
simply
,

L,,
*'

is

the operator
~(yv

a components in

z}

i\ ^z
iy/
it
the same way

leaving
8 the index a unaltered.

vS,

which acts on each

affects only the
is

index

of

the

(xyz},

the unitarv transformation

corresponding to the infinitesimal rotation about the .r-axis in

the representation 91; (5, X 1), or simply S x consequently
affects only the index a and leaves (xyz) unchanged.
Only
we call it the orbital
the part
appears in classical mechanics
moment of momentum, and the remaining part @ the spin
moment of momentum, or simply the spin. Its appearance
is not
is unavoidable so long as the wave quantity
simply a
,

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

196

Each

scalar or a set of scalars.

ately the

commutation

of the

two parts satisfies separbut in general only the

rules III, (15.7),

momentum satisfies the law of conservation. If

the quantity if/ is of a simple kind, i.e. if 91 is an irreducible
1 and the spin
then a
2s
is
,,
representation
equal to
the moment of momentum 9JI, associated with the representation
total angular

$..

Schrodinger theory has proved itself at least

approximately correct, one should assume that to a first approximation each of the components a satisfies the Schrodinger
So long as we consider this approximascalar wave equation.
the
a
tion,
components have only the effect of multiplying the
But in reality the correct
multiplicity of each energy level by a.
"
differential equations must contain a term, the
spin perturbation" which introduces a coupling between the various
components t/r,. The electron can thus be considered in
Since

the

{fj

as a composite system, consisting of the electron

translation with system-space 3t, and the electron spin
the spin perturbation is the weak interwith system-space 9ta
Because of this the method of
action between these two.
can
here
be
Let 3{
$,.
applied.
composition
Decompose the
translation space 3^ into the (2/
l)-dimensional sub-spaces
the corresponding energy term E(nl) with azimuthal
9ft(n/)
quantum number I has, on neglecting the spin perturbation, the
multiplicity a(2l
1) and its characteristic space is the space

abstracto

same dimensionality. On taking the first

order spin perturbation into account this term is separated
into the terms E with inner quantum number; and 'multiplicity
(2j -f- 1) in a manner paralleling the decomposition of the repreinto its irreducible constituents
sentation
, X 5)

3ta

$i(nl)

the

of

3).

X $,

$,,

-s+

/,

+ /

1,

\l

(2.8)

with the aid of the Clebsch-Gordan series. Care must be taken

to differentiate sharply between the azimuthal and inner quantum
numbers / and j. The latter is capable of assuming the values
whenever / ^ s the number of different terms in
given in (2.8)
"
"
is 2s
L 2 is approximately equal to
1.
such a
multiplet
2
the constant /(/
1), S is approximately equal to the constant
2
is rigorously constant and exactly
and
s(s -f 1),
equal to
can
thus
of
the
We
azimuthal
speak
1).
j(j
quantum number
of an actual energy term only to within the approximation
;

It is well to set forth

characteristic of perturbation theory.
these considerations beforehand and to approach the spectro-

scopic data, as

we

shall in

4,

with them well in mind.

SELECTION AND INTENSITY RULES

197

Selection and Intensity Rules

3.

We return to the consideration of our system as a whole,

without resolving it into its individual electrons, and again
denote the total inner quantum number by j. Let A be any
physical quantity of the system, and let it be represented by
we write that portion of this form in
the Hermitian form A
which 9ft, intersects 9ftJ, in the form
;

where the indices w,

m-

;,

// the quantity
operators U(s)

1,

run through the values

-j

-,

is

into

in

the
(2j

;',

j'

these

1,

-f

A commutes

system-space

follows from the fundamental

of

a scalar, the operator

induced

On decomposition

m'

(3.2)

with the

by the rotations

s.

irreducible sub-spaces 3^, 3^v it

theorem III, (10.5), of the theory

representations that the section (3.1) of A corresponding to

transition W -> 3^, 25 zero if j' -%= j and a multiple of the
}

-f-

iff

\}- dimensional unit form

j.

An

analogous situation exists for the group b 2 of rotations

about the -axis. With respect to it the total system space
m) in
decomposes into 1-dimensional invariant sub-spaces 9^
induces the representations
which the rotation with angle
.> (__ m< ) x(m}.
If we only assume that the physical
<j)<fn)
#( m
quantity A possesses axial symmetry about the s-axis it follows
<f>

that the coefficient

a(mm]

quantum numbers

is

necessarily zero when the magnetic

of the initial and final states are

and m'

different.

We now

consider a vectorial quantity q with the three

components q xi q y q z instead of the scalar quantity A. This
is of
particular importance because such a quantity, i.e. the
electric dipole moment q of the atom, determines the interaction
between the atom and radiation to that approximation in
which the linear dimensions of the atom may be neglected in
comparison with the wave-length of the emitted light. If the
of the energy level E } is destroyed by an external
,

degeneracy
axially symmetric perturbation,

e.g. a homogeneous magnetic

the direction of the s-axis, then the spectral line caused
the transition 91, -> 9^/ from the term E f to E], is broken

field in

by
up

into

the

lines

associated

with

all

possible

transitions

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

198

calculating the part of the Hermitian

form representing the electric dipole moment in which the subspace SR, intersects 9fty/
($,,

m) ->

w')-

(91}',

On
:

Z<\(mm')x(m)x'(m'),

(3.3)

the ratios of the squares |q(ww')| of the absolute values of

coefficients determine the relative intensities of these (2j
1)(2;'
Since q z is axially symmetric about the s-axis q z (mm')
lines.
=
we thus have the selection rule
unless

its

+ 1)
=

qz

m -> m

(3.4)

s-component of the electric moment. On performing

the rotation with angle <b about the -axis x(m), q x -\~ iq y q x
iq y
Since
are multiplied by e(m<f>), e(<f>}, e(~(f>) respectively.
m')(f>] we obtain
x(m)x'(m') is therefore multiplied by e[(m
the selection rules
for the

qx

iq y

m -> m

and y-components

for the x-

->

qx

1,

of

q.
1,

iq y

m -> m +

Only

the transitions

m,

m+1

(3. 4')

(3.5)

magnetic quantum number are allowed ; the first and the

two waves which are circularly polarized in the ocyin
directions, and the remaining transition m -> m
opposite
plane
a
is linearly polarized in the z-direction.
wave
which
generates
If the equation (2.3) holds for Zeeman effect, the wave number
of the component m -> m' is displaced by an amount o(m
m')
0/

//*

last generate

from

its

unperturbed value.

Thus

in

tl

normal Zeeman

"

effect

instead of (2; + 1)(2/' + 1) components only three,

whose polarization is as described above and whose wave numbers
That the resolution of
are displaced by the amounts 0, i o.
the two terms E^ E'j>, is almost entirely hidden is due to the
fact that the factor of proportionality ho in (2.3) has the same
value for both terms.
Fortunately most of the cases actually
"
anomalous Zeeman effect" in which the resoluobserved show

we obtain

tion of the terms can be seen clearly

in order to explain it
the expression (2.2) for the perturbation due
to the magnetic field.
But the above selection rule for the
magnetic quantum number, which has been obtained from
fundamental principles of group theory, is valid in all cases.
The selection rule for the inner quantum number j is obtained
in an analogous manner.
The three components q xi qy q z of q
suffer the transformation s among themselves when the x(m),
x'(m') are subjected to the transformations corresponding to
s in the representations $),, 3),/ respectively.
Or, if we wish to
;

we must change

SELECTION AND INTENSITY RULES

199

terms of U 2 instead of b 3 s is that transformation

which is associated with the element a of U 2 in the representation
This is, of course, merely an expression of the fact that
$!.
q
is a vector.
Now, in accordance with the terminology intro-

express

duced

in

it

how
are.

14, (3.3) is a vectorial

in III,

quantity in the representaare interested in determining

many linearly independent quantities of this kind there
Their number is given by the number of times 2) 1 is
of

tion space

X $V, and we

35 y

contained in $), X 5V or
But in accordance with
once

X 5V

3),

(1.3)

as an irreducible constituent.

Xi occurs

X, x

in

$V

exactly

if

;'

and otherwise not

-^ G\
j

r.

j'

at

We

0.

or

or

and we must further exclude the case

all,

thus obtain the selection rule

;->;-!,

;,

(3.6)

->
Since there exists
does not occur.
with the proviso that
but one linearly independent vectorial quantity in the representation space of 2); X 5V in the cases in which the selection
rule is satisfied, the components of q(m, m'} are determined by
purely group-theoretic considerations to within a constant factor
of proportionality.
In order to calculate the vectorial

we

Let f

proceed as follows.

1
/
quantity (3.3) for/
two
be
arbitrary points
', 77'
77
transform cogrediently under u.
;

sphere which
is
then the fundamental
l'
7~7/
forms which are obtained from

on

unit

the

(&'

and the three

invariant,

+ fnV

(3.7)

by multiplication with

transform in the same

ponents

monomials
'

Y*'

of

way

as the (x

ij*

of

of degree k

iy}-,

They
respectively.
2
2; and
degree fe

vector,

2;'.

(x

f'y)-,

in

^-comin

linear

are

Introducing

(2;

=r+5=

2,

2m

=r-

2;'

r'

the

the monomials

?'

2i'

*.

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

200

as co-ordinates in the representation spaces of 5)/, 2)j/

that the three forms above are of the type (3.3) with/

we

find

=j

For example, we

obtain for the (x

'r

iy) -component

si

V(r

S3)

= - Z V(j + m)(j + m m
m -> m
m ~m

In agreement with the selection rule

only those terms for which
iy)- and ^-components in the
(x

1.

1
1.

si

l}x(m)x'(m

1).

there occur here

the

Calculating

same w ay, we
r

find for the

transition

+mV(j - m )(j - m m)(j

(q,

m+

iqy )(m,

1)

q t (m, m)

=
=

1),

I),

In order to calculate the components for the transition j

we must replace the factors (3.8) by

which

also transform like the

ponents of a vector.

Finally,
--

(x

iy)-,

(x

iy)-

for the transition j

(3.9)

= j'

and 0-com==

we

/2

Since the angular mof 'ij'.

(3.8)
mentum 9K is a vector, the formulae for the transition j -> j
must naturally agree with those already obtained for 9JI [III

must replace

by

7/

and since q is Hcrmitian the formulae for the transition

must agree with those obtained by taking the
-|_ 1
Hermitian conjugate of the components for the transition
(15.9)],

j _^ j

= V(j + m)(j m + 1),

= V(j - m)(j + m +1),
1)
=
m.
m}
q
= +
->
m})= V(j - m + 1)Q' m + 2),
- - V(j + m + 1)(; + m + 2),
iq y }(m, m +
= V(; + m + 1)0' w + 1).
? (m, m)

m m
+
- iq,)(, m +
(q,
(q*

i<lv}(

>

1}

(3.9)

z (in,

i.

--

1)

(3.9)

SELECTION AND INTENSITY RULES

201

In each of these three sets of formulae the right-hand sides are

determinate only to within a common factor of proportionality
which is independent of w, but which can be completely deter-

mined only by integrating the wave equation of the dynamic

model of the atom, and not by the theory of groups alone.
The coefficients which do not occur explicitly in the above
The squares of the absolute values of these
formulae are all null.
coefficients yield the (rational !) intensity ratios of the components
into which a line is split by the perturbation.
Already before the rise of the new quantum mechanics the

intensity formulae (3.9) for the components of a line emitted

under the influence of a magnetic field were obtained from the

observational data under the guidance of the correspondence

5
In the new quantum mechanics they are, as we
principle.
have seen, a consequence of the most general principles, and we
would find ourselves in serious difficulties if they were incorrect.
Nevertheless it is to be remembered that they can be invalid
(1) if the spherical symmetry of the system is destroyed by
external perturbing fields, or (2) if for short wave-lengths the
interaction between matter and radiation is no longer determined
primarily by the electric dipole moment.
Since the dipole moment is a proper vector, as the components
over into
q z on reflection i in the
q ri
qy
<7-n <7y, Qz g<>
on them by u.j has as
induced
the
1&
l
origin,
representation
If the signatures of JR
1.
${]> arc 8, 8', then under
signature
the influence of the reflection i (3.3) is multiplied by the factor
The coefficients q(ww') must accordingly all vanish unless
88'.
,

88'

the selectio)i rule for the signature is

- -

8.

the individual electrons are governed by the scalar wave

theory the total azimuthal quantum number L of the atom
while the sum of the azican jump only to L
1, L or L -f 1,
If

muthal quantum numbers of the individual electrons l \- / 2 -f

+ //
In the case
can change only by an odd integer (Laporte's rule}.

/=

1
are
only the transitions / > /
this result has already been obtained
consistent with these rules
in II,
5. from the theory of spherical harmonics.
The formulae (3.9) allow us to solve a problem which we shall
from the
here, for the sake of future application, introduce

of a single electron,

1,
;

A partial system in the simple state 9ft,

second in the simple state 5^- to form
with
a
compounded
In 9ft,r
a single system.
9t, X 5Rj,,, U 2 induces the representaof molet the corresponding moment
tion 3)
X; x $V
co-ordinate
mentum be 9JJ. On adapting the normal
system
physical standpoint.

is

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

202

in JR^/ to the

complete reduction of 5) into its irreducible conis broken up into square sub-matrices 30ft/ of
length 2J -f- 1, arranged along the principal diagonal, corresponding to the decomposition of 9^ into sub-spaces 9ft/. But
the same is not true of the moment of momentum 9)J X 1 of
the first partial system, and we wish to determine the portion
of this matrix in which 9ft/ intersects itself.
That is, in physical
language, we wish to determine the temporal mean value \9JJ,

stituents 5)j, 9K

<

moment

of the

momentum

of the first

system in the state

two parts and
We assume that the interaction between the two
parts resolves the energy level E )} into distinct levels Ej on
applying the theory of perturbations. Since D} is a vector we
know, from the same considerations as we applied to the electric
defined by the
the whole.

of

quantum numbers

/, j'

of the

<

dipole moment above, that the portion of it corresponding to

the transition / -> / must be a multiple of 9J}j
:

x 1\,

<3R,

K,-2R,.

(3.10)

In order to evaluate the proportionality factor K we construct

the scalar product of the matrices ( Slft 3 X 1) and SIR
since
;

m ==
x

1)

9K,<)

9tt

(2R;

or

23R(3R,

(1

2R,,)

commute and we have

these two matrices

(1

(2R,

1)

= j(j +

1)

I)

22H(g, x

- ]'(]' +

\)

1)

3R a

(3.11)

was
in the original co-ordinate system (9)i X I)
new
in
the
same
the
times
the
it
remains
unit
matrix,
j(j
1)
co-ordinates.
And, on the other hand, 9Jt(9J?y X 1) is equal
as
to *,//(/
1) times the unit matrix in the sub-space 9ft/,
since

for

follows from (3.10).

i)

4.

Hence from

- j(j +

i)

(3.11)

- ;"0" +

i)

J(J

),

The Spinning

Electron, Multiplet Structure and

Anomalous Zeeman Effect

We

have hitherto ignored the fact that the

alkali spectra, characterized by the two quantum
Each of these terms
are in reality not simple.
actually consists of
ception of the s terms /
By 2 the (n, I) term should be resolved into 21 +

terms of the

numbers

n,

/,

with the ex*

a fine doublet.
1

components

THE SPINNING ELECTRON

203

in a magnetic field
instead we find that one of the doublet
terms breaks up into 21 components and the other into 2/-+ 2.
We should accordingly ascribe to them the inner quantum
;

numbers
to

-f

respectively.

Our general considerations immediately give us a hint

how this discrepancy is to be explained. The quantity

as
/r

describing the wave field is not a scalar, but is instead a tovariant

This
quantity of the kind 3) i having two components (0,, i// 2 ).
is the theory of doublet
as
W.
Pauli.*
phenomena
developed by
<

It

seems indeed easy to arrive at

this

conclusion

after

the

but historically this

preparation
foundation
was
systematic
developed only after PaulVs disIt
is
immaterial
whether we associate the matrix
covery.
quite
1 with the element i in the representation
-f 1 or the matrix
of the preceding paragraphs,

S)| of

u.>.

Taking the

first

of these alternatives,

has the value (1)' in the quantum state

rule remains rigorously correct on taking

the signature

hence Laporte's
(nlj)
the spin into account.
We have as further rigorous selection rules those concerning
the total inner and the total magnetic quantum numbers.
In
the representation 3)^ the transformation a itself corresponds
to the element a of U 2 and by III, (15.6), the spin moment of
;

momentum

is

-@, where

the vector already defined with

<5 is

components

-i

1
1

We

attempt to find the specific effect

on
the
wave equation. This was done
spin perturbation
shall not as yet

of the

origin-

by picturing the electron as a small material sphere, the

the additional moment
rotation of which gave rise to the spin
of momentum required by spectroscopic observations was first
1
Since
introduced in this way by Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck.

ally

Sz

1 it appears as if
is
capable of assuming only the values
the spin axis can only be quantized along the positive or negative
s-axis
we need not go into the false conclusions this assertion
can lead to on interpreting it literally. The spin perturbation
must appear in going over from classical to relativistic mechanics.
The terms of the hydrogen atom, calculated in accordance with
the scalar non-relativistic wave mechanics, depend only on the
introprincipal quantum number n, but the theory of relativity
the
to
duces a correction which causes the terms corresponding
so-called
the
form
various values of / to split apart and
fine
;

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

204

We should therefore expect the same scheme of

terms in hydrogen as in the alkalies, but observation shows
that the doublet separation of an / term into two terms with

structure.

is J ust

different

such that tw

=j

terms with the same

coincide.

exactly

/,

but with

Hence the spin

per-

turbation in hydrogen agrees quantitatively with the

separation
caused by the relativity correction.

The

alkali

show anomalous Zeeman

doublets

effect.

Other

elements, such as alkaline earth metals, have (in addition to

triplets) a system of singlet terms, and singlet terms

always

show normal Zeeman

effect in a

magnetic

therefore
effect are closely

field.

It

seems probable that the anomalies in Zeeman

connected with the spin. The magnetic separation of an alkali
term is quite independent of the principal quantum number n
all the terms of a series behave in the same
way. A term (/, j)
;

1 equi-distant
up into 2;
components, characterized by
the magnetic quantum number m, but their
separation is hog
t4
instead of ho, where g is a rational function of / and
Lande
j (the
The energy value of the component
is therefore
g-f actor ").
displaced by an amount

splits

hog

from
g,

its

which

-m

(m

unperturbed value.
due to Lande, is

;,

1,

-,

- j)

The empirical formula

(4.1)

for the factor

is

This formula holds for weak magnetic fields, in which the separation is of a smaller order of magnitude than the doublet
separation.
If

0,

- we have

in particular

2.

This latter fact gives a hint toward the solution of the

puzzle
the total moment of momentum consisted
only of the spin
(fi
0), its magnetic effect would be twice as great as if it consisted of fi alone.
We therefore assume that the magnetic effect
:

If

of the spin

mentum

fi

is twice

as great as that of the orbital angular mo-

the perturbation

is therefore to be

taken as

due

to

an external magnetic

field

THE SPINNING ELECTRON

The spin

offers

an explanation of why

Gerlach experiment is separated

electron of the univalent silver
in

an s-orbit

(/

0)

hence

-.

the

Although

of

momentum

in

and

T
J

the

beam

in the Stern-

two parts.
The valence
in the normal state,
is,

can assume only the

the

of

component

Li

moment

atom

values

into

205

mechanical

the direction of the magnetic field

can have only the values

the experiment shows that the

-,

value of the magnetic moment of the atom is a whole Bohr

but we now sec that since
magneton, and not the half of one
the mechanical moment of momentum consists only of spin
it should give rise to twice the expected magnetic moment.
The connection between magnetic moment and mechanical
moment of momentum is even more apparent in the magnetomechanical effect : the demagnetization of a vertically suspended
bar of weak iron must result in giving to it an angular momentum.
;

The

ratio

moment

between the change

momentum was

of

in the

magnetic moment and the

^

expected to be ^

but the cxperi-

which was performed only on fcrro-magnetic bodies,

The anomalous magnetic behaviour
yielded twice this value.
of the spin also accounts for this result, if we assume that the
mechanical moment of momentum in ferro-magnetic substances
8
is due entirely to the electron spin.
Does this hypothesis also explain the general Lande formula
This is answered by the formula (3.12) obtained toward
(4.2) ?
ment,

the end of

that

it

3, in

which

/ must

;, j',

be taken as

-.

/,

; in

order

apply to the composition of electron spin and electron

We find that in the state (//') the temporal mean

translation.

value of the spin

is

equal to

9Ji

multiplied by the factor

'

2/(;

-f-

for

1)

or
1

Hence by

(4.3)

ll

(4.4)

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

206

So long as the magnetic separation

spin perturbation the
determined primarily
(4.2), in

equation

is

small compared with the

Zeeman separation of the term (Ij)

by <W>
(4.4) then leads, in fact,
;

is

to

agreement with the empirical data.

If the atom consists of several, say /, electrons, the situation

then arising can be understood with the aid of the general rule
If the electrons are in quantum states with
of composition.
inner quantum numbers j r and energy levels E(j r ), (r
1,
2,
,/), then on neglecting the interaction between the electrons
the total system has a (2j 1 +!)
(2j f -\- l)-fold energy level
If this level coincides with none of the
f
E(j
).
(;\)
other levels it is resolved by a small perturbation into terms
with total inner quantum numbers / in a manner corresponding

'

'

to that in

'

which the product

'

'

'

ty=ZJ

(4.5)

^j (Clebsch-Gordan
lead to an
coupling
series).
the
mutual
interactions
between
the
adequate description
electrons must be small compared with the spin perturbation.
The situation usually met is, however, the opposite of that
the normal term order corresponds to
contemplated above
the Russell-Saunders or (si) coupling.
Neglecting for the moment
the interaction between the electrons as well as the spin per-

is

reduced into

its

Obviously

irreducible constituents

in order that this

(jj)

turbation,

we

are led to a 2/(2/,

(21 f

])

l)-fold

energy

whose characteristic space the rotation group

level (2.4) in

in-

duces the representation

{

Due

to

(S> fl

$,,

(4.6)

$,,).

the interaction between the electron translations the

a
(4.5)
now the

second factor is reduced in a manner analogous to

single term with azimuthal quantum number L has
We next reduce
1).
multiplicity 2^(2L

i=27.,
and
a

finally, as

<S) L

the last step,

we

=Zj, (J^L +

s,

(4.7)

carry out the reduction

+ s-l,

-,

\L-s\),

(4.8)

associated with the coupling between the spin and the orbital

moment

momentum.

The terms which result from this

form
last reduction
Each multiplct is
together a multiplet.
therefore associated with a definite azimuthal quantum number
L and a spin quantum number s ; the individual members of
the multiplet are distinguished by the inner quantum number J.
We call 25+1 the multiplicity, although the number of terms
of

THE SPINNING ELECTRON

207

in the multiplet is only actually equal to this when L

s, as
s.
The 2/-dimensional
by (4.8) their number is less if L

<

representation

The reduction

even or odd according as /

is

into

(4.7)

irreducible

when /

yields only integral values for s

when /

odd

is

constituents
is

even or odd.
accordingly

even and only

half-

The term multiplicities alternate

even
between
and
odd
as
we run through the atomic fable
regularly
in the order of increasing atomic number (H even, He odd, Li
integral values

even,

Be odd,

"

etc

is

alternation law ").

For/=

we

have, for

example,

It is empirically found that the bivalent alkaline earth metals

have in fact a singlet and a triplet system of terms.
But in the
0, are simple
triplet system the 5 terms, for which L
only
terms have the actual multiplicity 3.
the Pj D,
Instead of considering all the electrons at once as in (4.6)
we can build up the atom by successively adding one electron
On adding a next electron, say the / th to an
after another.
atom or an ion A*, a multiplet of A* characterized by azirnuthal quantum number L and spin s breaks up into all those
multiplets contained in the representation (3) s X 2) t ) X (2) L X S) ),
/ is the
azimuthal quantum number of the electron
where //
added. Since
;

2),

Xz,

X
x

3>i

$,

+X

ti

_i,

L*

$/-*,

this results in multiplets (s*

s*-s.+

/.*-/.

J,

/,

+ /

1,

\L

/|,

L*), one for each of the pairs

/,

/--1,

L -/|

-,

(4.9)

4I

The alternation law is again contained in

branching rule ").
It is to be noted, however,
the first of the above equations.
that the Pauli exclusion principle for equivalent orbits, which
will be discussed in part C of this chapter, materially restricts
9
the array of multiplets allowed by this rule.
Again applying (3.12) to the composition of spin and orbital
1
moment of momentum, we find that the 27
components
weak
a
in
is
a
into which a ] term of
magnetic
split
multiplet (s, L)
(

field are displaced

from

hog-m

the

(m

unperturbed positions by

where the separation factor g

= +
i
i

J(J

/,

is

/-

1,

amounts

the

-7)

(4.10)

given by

+^-

27(7+1)

'

a
(

in
}

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

208

exactly the formula which was derived empirically by

Landt ; we here see the importance of the fact that the square
of the absolute value of the moment of momentum 9JI (or
or @)
L
from
the
or
is calculated
s] by /(/ -f 1),
quantum number J (or
2
etc., as in the older quantum mechanics.
etc., instead of /
When the magnetic field increases to such an extent that the
magnetic separation becomes comparable w'th the separation
between the terms of the multiplet we must handle both the
perturbation to which the multiplet separation is due and the
In order to express the small-,
magnetic perturbation together.
ness of the term in the Hamiltonian function to which this
former perturbation is due, we introduce a factor p which will
appear in the same way as the factor o in the magnetic term
the case of a weak magnetic field may then be expressed by
saying that o is small in comparison with p. We can consider
o and p as variables which increase gradually from
to their
actual values and follow the dependence of the separation on
We therefore write the perturbation term in the
their ratio.
Hamiltonian function in the form

This

is

pW +

oW".

Since the decomposition (4.8) need not for present purposes

be expressed in terms of its ultimate constituents, the individual
electrons, we may here denote the azimuthal and inner quantum
numbers by / and j. Let the representation spaces of $), 2)
be tj, 3?i with co-ordinates (w, ), x(wii) respectively. Denote
the moments of momentum 3K ,, 9J? of these two representations
S respectively if the magnetic field has as its direction
by
the 2- axis, then
t

W" The co-ordinate system

<f>

2s z ).

(4.12)

again to be so chosen that the rotations

reduced form
to such a rotation
the
transformation
corresponds

the range of the

m =

h(L 2

is

about the 2-axis appear

of angle

s, 5

The variables

in

quantum numbers

1,

of t,

91 1

m =
l

and
/

/,

then behave

is

1,

like the

given by

(2s +

/.

(4.13)

1)(2/ -f 1)

products

K)-*(m<)
and are multiplied, under the influence
the 2-axis, by e(
mfy, where

m +
s

nil.

(4.14)

of a rotation

<f>

about

THE SPINNING ELECTRON

We now

209

reduce
into its irreducible constituents 3D,.
, X 3)
Let the co-ordinates of the (2; + l)-dimensional irreducible subspace of i a X 9l|, in which the representation 3), takes place,
be denoted by
t

x(j\

(m=y,;

m)

1,

-/).

is the magnetic quantum number, i.e. under the influence of

the rotation <f> about the z-axis x(j m) is multiplied by e(
w<).
The co-ordinate transformation which leads to the complete
its constituents X, is
reduction of
, X 3)i into
obviously of
such a kind that x(j
m) is a linear combination of those of the
nt has the value m.
variables (4.14) for which m*
If the unperturbed system possesses no accidental
degeneration the separation is determined by that part of the matrix
intersects itself.
(4.12) in which the sub-space t, X 9ij of
must therefore solve a secular equation G of degree
but the problem is materially simplified by
1)
l)(2J
(2s
the fact that the perturbation term possesses rotational symmetry
about the s-axis, as the only non-vanishing elements of the
-> m.
The one secular equation
matrix
are those for which
1 secular equations
G is consequently broken up into 2(/
s)
G m corresponding to the possible values
;

We

of

The degree

m.

partitions of

G m is given by the number of possible

two summands m 8 -f m which run through

of

into

/=

In the case of a single electron,

the ranges (4.13).
1, we
have only equations of the first and second degrees, and the
calculation can therefore be carried through completely for this
case. 10

The

roots of the secular equation G m are the displacements

terms due to the perturbation. Since the trace
an invariant, the sum of the term displacements
of the magnetic
are associated with a definite value

of the energy
of a matrix is

which

the secular equation G m ) is equal

principal diagonal of this portion

quantum number (the roots of

to the sum of the terms in the
of W, i.e. to
27
(m f
It is

mi

We

lf

).

homogeneous linear function of p and o (" sum

obtain the part due to the magnetic field by putting

0; by (4.12) this
14

W(m m m m
t

= m)

therefore a

ride ").

is

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

210

On

the other hand, the formulae (4.10), (4.11) determine the

term displacements in the case in which o is small in comparison
In consequence of the sum rule these two results must
with p.
I and s being fixed once and for all, we denote the Land6
agree.
g- factor (4.11) by g(j], and we then have

27(w,

The sum on the

left is

=m

2w,)

extended over

g(j).

right over
are consistent with the conditions

|m|, |nt|

1,

- +
/

s, I

w w +w,

partitions of

all

and that on the

for given m,

values of j which

all

+s-

1,

be determined from this equation.

g(j) can
we then have
both sums reduce to a single term
in fact

s\.

|/

For

/+s

l+2s=(l +

m= +

For
two

for j

or

2/

mi

s).

there arc two possibilities for (m aj

1 or
I
s
s
1,
j

m =

m =

and

t)

= +s
/

Consequently we must have

1.

= m =s
/,

s)-g(l

-3=

4*

way we

(/

-M -

l){g(l

s)

+ g(l + s -

1)}.

obtain recursion formulae for the successive

s
The reader can
1),
s),
g(l
g(l
result
of
that
the
the
first
few
steps agrees with
readily verify
In this

calculation

of

(4.11).
It is to

be noted that in following the terms from a weak

to a strong magnetic field they cannot cross each other, considered as functions of the monotonic increasing parameter
4t

singular elements" of a unitary group, i.e. those

elements for which two or more characteristic values coincide,
constitute a manifold of three, and not simply one, fewer
dimensions. 11

o:p; the

B.
5.

The Lorentz Group

Relativistically Invariant Equations of

Motion of

an Electron

We

have as yet obtained no specific expression for the spin

that for the magnetic effect due to an external
perturbation
field was set up with the aid of the experimental facts.
It is
clear that we can arrive at a satisfactory theory of the electron
only when we are able to express its fundamental laws of motion
in a form which is invariant under Lorentz transformations, as
;

The solution of
required by the restricted theory of relativity.
12
We saw in III, 8, how the
this problem is due to Dirac.
2-dimensional representation 5)j of the rotation group, which,

RELATIVIST 1C EQUATIONS OF ELECTRON

211

following Pauli, characterizes the covariant quantity ^

(p l} i^ 2 )
describing the wave field, can be extended to the group of
^, i/r 2 play the same role as
positive Lorentz transformations.
introduced in connection with 5)^.
the variables
TJ
Following de Broglie we took as the wave equation of a
,

particle of

mass

in field-free

space

But this equation is not in agreement with the general scheme

quantum mechanics, which requires that only first order
derivatives with respect to the time appear.
The formulation
of

invariant differential equation satisfying

as
Dirac discovered, made possible by the
requirement
transition from the scalar wave function ifj to one with two

of

relativistically

this

is,

components. We seek to derive these dynamical equations

from a Hamiltonian principle.
Let
V.
o

yv

constitute

Y.
v

ft

*
}

Y
^

Y
^2

A/

*
3

<?

a normal

space-time.

co-ordinate system in our 4-dimensional

the quantity aj is of the same kind as i/r, the

If

quantities ijjS^w behave, in accordance with III, (8.16), like the

four components of a 4-vector
the S* are the matrices defined
;

Hence

in III, (8.15).

in particular

0-0

d*/*

we are here
of an infinitesimal vector
of
which
is
with
a
linear
independent
dealing
correspondence
the co-ordinate system employed and which sends the vector
doc over into ds.
Its trace
are the

components dsa

is

consequently a scalar and

M = - f2# S

its

integral (multiplied

^--dx

(dx

by

dx Q dx, dx 2 dxj

extended over any finite portion of the world,

is
independent of the co-ordinate system.*

5 2)
-

0'V*

is

* The letter
used for the material part of the action
with the moment of momentum.

1/i)

(5.3)

a quantity which

is

not to be confused

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

212

M may not be
M the integral

real, it is practically real in

Although

that

is

5a

since the

and

a complete divergence.

of

For

are Hermitian matrices,

M M
M

the sense

is

in fact the integral of

an action we are not interested in

itself, but
8M
caused
infinitesimal
by
arbitrary
only
variations <ty of $
(0,, ^ 2 ) which vanish outside of a given
finite portion of the world (the integral is then extended over
the entire world or, what amounts to the same, over this finite
The circumstances mentioned above guarantee that
portion).
8M is real on writing it in the form
In using
in

as

its

variations

we

We

on comparison with

find

thus arrive at the

first

(5.3)

order differential operator

V From

the invariance of (5.2)

that

it

(5.4)

follows that this operator trans-

forms
in^
a quantity \l*'
2)
($[, i/4) which trans(^T!,
under
forms contragrediently to $
the influence of
(^ $ 2)
an arbitrary positive Lorentz transformation. If we wish to
\ft

i/r

guarantee that

is real,

we may

replace the original definition

by
Af

*)"

8, we found it necessary to introduce quantities

which transform contragrediently to $ lt $ 2 n order to
be able to extend the restricted Lorentz group to the complete

In

III,

0i) 02

group.

kind

And

just as

^', in the

applied to i/r generates a quantity of the

"
"
conjugate
operator

same way the

V = ^r s'

RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS OF ELECTRON

transforms 0' into a quantity of the kind
verified, the operator

4-

4i>*i

Consequently equation

(5.1) for 0j,

]V0

+w

0.

V'V

is,

as

is

213
readily

can be written in the form

0'-0,

(5.6)

-rV'f

+w

on introducing an auxiliary pair of components 0'. From now

on we denote the column of the four components 1? 2 0(, 02
by ^ and employ 5 as the symbol for the transformations of
;

these four components as in the latter part of Chapter III

with this understanding the differential equations (5.6) arise
from an action integral which is composed additively of the
;

quantity Af,

(5.3),

and the invariant

[cf.

w 0T0

M'

Ill, (8.19)]

dx.

and M' are also invariant with respect to interchange of

right and left, and under the spatial reflection i in the origin.
In accordance with the general scheme of quantum mechanics
the differential equations for
should, as already remarked,
the
contain only the first derivative of
with respect to time
then
additional requirement that it be relativistically invariant
leads to the conclusion that it can also contain only first de;

We have
rivatives with respect to the spatial co-ordinates.
here been able to satisfy these requirements without altering
the actual content of de Broglie's equation (for the components
the equations thus obtained are to be taken as the
0i> 02)
equations for a free particle. This formal transition to first
I

order equations will become physically significant only when

we pass to the derivation of the equations of motion in an electromagnetic field with the aid of the principle of gauge invariance
is the scalar and
12.
developed in II,
According to it, if
0i 02, 03 the vector potential,

we must

replace

!<>,ld,,
+
by

/K 7 \
(5 7)
'

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

214

be found convenient in the following to introduce the

quantities fa obtained by multiplying the potentials <f>* by the
It will

factor j~.
he

Then

in

M= Ifo- Vj-dx
the operator

is

defined

(5.8)

by

Because of this gauge invariance the quantities M,

unchanged on replacing simultaneously

by

and

e*V

by

/,

fa

M'

are

(5.10)

dXtx,

is an arbitrary function of position in space-time.

Now
take A to be an infinitesimal function which vanishes outside
a certain finite portion of the world
then
and 8M' must
vanish
for
the
variations
automatically

where A

8M

The complete expression

8(Af

M') ==

for the variation automatically tells us that under the

that the laws of matter (5.6) are satisfied, i.e. that w

assumption
0,

M')

Hence we have

i.e.

as a consequence of the laws of matter

the continuity equation

0.

(512)

*<x

glance at the explicit expression for

5"

= fe,0;

M shows that
(5.13)

these are the quantities which formed the starting-point for

the theory of the transformations of /r as developed in III,
8,

RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS OF ELECTRON

215

and we already know that they form the components of a

4-vector which is independent of the particular space-time
co-ordinates employed.
The time component

l
2
the probability density and hence cZ
s 3 ) is what
5
c(s
may be called the probability current : in order to obtain the
number of particles which will on the average pass through
a surface element do in time unit, multiply the total number of
particles present into the product of the area do and the normal
component of the vector c%. On integrating the equation (5.12)
over a volume V we find that the increase in the mean number
of particles in V per unit time is equal to the mean number of

is

particles entering
through the surface in unit time. In
contrast to the provisional scalar theory, the Dirac theory leads in

a most natural way

expressions for the probability density, as

well as the probability current, which depend on $ alone.

On

to

integrating
js

dx l dx 2 dx3

over the whole of space we find that the integral is independent

of time
and, in accordance with the statistical interpretation
of ^, is to be so normalized that its value is 1.
Consequently,
in the dynamical law

H/h is a Hermitian operator, as should be. We

shall from now on take h as the unit of action, with corresponding
The result of this is
units for linear and angular momentum.
the energy

that the quantity h disappears completely from the laws of

quantum mechanics.

-H
C

With the usual abbreviation, p*

-.
(

= To + 1 S
=
f

(p r

+f + m
r)

T.

OX f

(5.

5)

influence of the electro-magnetic field on the matter is

the matter gener(5.9), but, on the other hand,
with Maxwell's
in
accordance
field
the electro-magnetic

The

taken care of by
ates

In order to express this explicitly

equations.
-f M' the Maxwellian action

we must add

to

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

216

of the electro-magnetic field,

ff
are the field strengths

gauge

(5.10).

is

where the

= B&_

which are unaffected by the change

of

obtained from

by multiplication with ^(r-J

-r^

(5.17)

is

the action in

Heaviside units, which are best adapted to the electro-magnetic

Since we have taken h as the unit of action, the
total action of our system, consisting of matter plus field, is

field theory.

W = M + M' +

-F

For reasons which will be apparent later the real number a/4?r
called the fine structure constant.
Whereas the variation
of the
in the Hamiltonian integral \W dx yields the equations

is

if*

of matter, variation of
magnetic field with

fa

the equations of the

leads to

e-sf*

electro-

appearing as the 4-vector of charge and current density. The

only constants occurring in the field equations are the two
combinations

m =

cm

T'

a==

/K onx

(5 20)
'

fundamental atomic constants

the first is a reciprocal
a
the
and
number.
second
length
pure
Schrodinger. in his fundamental papers cm wave mechanics,
thought he could explain the quantum behaviour of matter
"
and radiation " classically
by setting up a closed system of
In particular,
field equations such as we have obtained above.
"
"
he held that the charge of the electron was actually
smeared
over the whole of space with the density
e 5.
But there can
be no doubt at the present time that the field equations are not
of

to be interpreted in this classical manner

they must rather
be interpreted in accordance with the statistical view-point
developed in Chapter II. The expression (5.14) for the density
then guarantees the atomistic structure of electricity. To show
;

RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS OF ELECTRON

this

by

we

first

remark that the charge

Hermitian form

in a

volume

is

217

represented

e times the

(V)

"

form with respect to the " vector "

its characteristic values are 1,
and the corresponding
characteristic functions are those quantities
which vanish

But
ifi

this

is

kt

an

idempotent

i/r

outside or inside K, respectively.

The charge contained in V
is accordingly capable of assuming
e and 0,
only the values
i.e. according to whether the electron is found in V or not.
In
order to guarantee the atomicity of electricity the electric
e times the probability density.
charge density must equal
But if we base our theory on the de Broglie wave equation,
modified by introducing the electro-magnetic potentials in
accordance with the rule (5.7), we find as the expression for the

charge density one involving the temporal derivative

in
ot

nothing to do with the probnot even an idempotent form. According

is the most conclusive argument for the stand
that the differential equations for the motion of an electron in
an electro-magnetic field must contain only first order derivatives
with respect to the time. 13 Since it is not possible to obtain
such an equation with a scalar wave function which satisfies at
the same time the requirement of relativistic invariance, the
spin appears as a phenomenon necessitated by the theory of
addition to

r/r

ability density
to Dirac this

this expression has

and

is

relativity.

The theorem of the conservation of electricity (5.12) follows,

we have seen, from the equations of matter, but it is at the
same time a consequence of the electro-magnetic equations.
The fact that (5.12) is a consequence of both sets of field laws
means that these sets are not independent, i.e. that there exists
an identity between them. The true ground for this identity
as

to be found in the gauge invariance, for it is equivalent to

vanishes identically when </r and / are
the assertion that
We have
of
the form (5.11).
to
variations
subjected
is

8W

f {(80

80)

the
are the equations of matter and L* =
where aj =
Maxwellian equations. On substituting the variations from
the integral by parts,
(5.11) and integrating the last term in

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

218

Because

gauge the number of indethan the number of unknown

of the arbitrariness of the

pendent equations must be one

and /.
functions

less

1(1

6.

Energy and Momentum. Remarks on the

Interchange of Past and Future

Energy and Momentum.

/.

The complete

div

Where

and

field

<

equations are explicitly

+ p = 0,

curl

3.

are the electric and magnetic field strengths

p is the charge density

are given by
current

and the components

i//r,

Sl

1C*
{f)

'

of the

s lt

( C.

'

'.

Oi*(J,

O\

("-^)

In addition to the differential law

^L

div

0,

(6.4)

expressing /ta conservation of electricity, we have a vector conA completely

servation law governing energy and momentum.
for
the
tensor
satisfactory expression
representing density and
flux of energy and momentum is only to be obtained along the
Here we
lines employed in the general theory of relativity.
the
for
the
of
result
c
and modensity
energy
/Q
give only
mentum f/J, Jjj, /J), and in doing so we separate the material
from the electro-magnetic part. We have for the part referring
to

matter
1

(6.5)

We
(p

have here introduced,

1, 2, 3) which acts on

in
all

addition to Sp the operator S'f

whereas
four components of $
,

ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

the former subjects

Sp

[1 1 1,

^ lt

and

(8.15)j

to the 2-dimensional transformation

Sp

to

0;,

the latter exercises the

same 2-dimensional transformation Sp on both

pairs of

com-

Correspondingly

ponents.

and momentum due to the electro-magnetic

the
familiar
Maxwellian expressions
given by

The density
field is

of energy

<?

We

219

2 // 3

a(

- E3 H

..

2 ),

find the conservation laws

3

TV/A

r|f
= 0#

0;

tt

-\f

U#
a0 g-

...
f

(6.7)

as consequences of the field equations.

is

Furthermore, the tensor

not identically, but in consequence of the field

symmetric

equations
<&

in this sense

On combining

we have

0(p=l,2,3);

P,

t'
t

(p,q=l,2,3).

(6.8)

we

obtain the divergence con-

p(*.g-*.g)
ox a
~o

(6>9)

these with (6.7)

ditions

(*.g

*,fi)

(6-10)

These results can all be verified directly, but their deeper

significance can be understood only by going over to the general
theory of relativity as mentioned above.
Just as the theorem
of
of the conservation
electricity follows from the gauge inof
the equations, the theorems for the conservation
variance
of energy and momentum follow from the circumstance that
the action integral, formulated as in the general theory of
relativity, is invariant under arbitrary (infinitesimal) transformaIn this general rclativistic formulation we
tions of co-ordinates.
need further to erect a normal set of co-ordinate axes at each

of space-time, consisting of four mutually perpendicular

directions at P (" orthogonal ennuple "), in order to fix the

point

metric at

terms of

its

and

to be able to describe the

all

wave quantity $

in

components
permissible orthogonal ennuples
are obtainable from each other by local Lorentz transformaBut the rotations of these local
invariant.
tions which leave

at

220

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

ennuples can be performed in the various points P quite independently the quantities at various points are not bound to
each other as in the special theory of relativity. The symmetry
of the energy-momentum tensor can be traced back to the
One can in fact
invariance with respect to such rotations.
take it as a general rule that every invariance property of the
kind met in general relativity, involving an arbitrary function,
In particular,
gives rise to a differential conservation theorem.
is
to
invariance
be
from
this
understood
standpoint.
gauge
only
It follows from the transformation laws for $ that its four components </rp relative to the local ennuple are determined only to
within a common factor e ix of proportionality, the exponent A
of

which depends

arbitrarily

on position

in

space-time

in

consequence
necessary, in order to obtain a unique
covariant differential for i/r, to set up a linear form JLYa^<* which
of this

it

is

a,

in the manner
coupled with the gauge factor contained in
14
the
of
invariance.
principle
gauge
required by
We obtain the integral conservation laws from the differential
ones by integration. We set up the integral
is

over a section XQ
independent of #

ifj

momentum.
tegration by parts,

the linear

space-time and find that it is

is the energy and (J lt J 2
cJ
J3 )
The material part is, on a simple in-

const,

These are Hermitian forms

of

=H

in the

us to associate the operators

r

"

vector

"
</r.

They again

lead

with the components

-, -^, ^\bXi d#2 d#3/
(/i) 7t, /a) of linear momentum, i.e. to the assumptions with
which we, following de Broglie and Schrddinger, began. For the
-.

energy we obtain (on dividing by

without the additive term / as

tions of matter are therefore

c)

the operator

in (5.15)

the differential equa-

ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

Moreover,

we must not

221

forget that to the part due to matter

to the electro-magnetic field.

we must yet add that due

The quantities

(6.11)

which are by

moment

also constant, are the

find from (6.5)
of momentum.

to matter

(6.9)

We

of the
that the part due

components

is

In agreement with our earlier assumptions we here obtain the

operator which is composed of the sum of the ^-component
~[x<>~
Z

spin

-- #

3
^

<>#3

dff 2 /

moment

of

of the orbital

momentum

-^S[.

moment

of

momentum and

the

The vector

~<B'

l(S\,S' ,S' ]
2

actually the spin, for in accordance with the law of transformation of both i/r pairs (fa, 2 ), (j//t ifj'2 ] of components suffer
the same transformation or as in the Pauli theory of the spin
under the influence of the transformation cr (spatial rotation)
is

of

11 2 .

On

integrating equations
we obtain

(6.10)

over

the

section

spatial

const,

which we may consider

integral

may

be written

the co-ordinates of the

"

The

as the law of inertia of energy.

= --- f

centre of energy

where f t

lf

M
;

are

the equations are

then
l

We

~
c*' dt*

Momentum is
thus obtain the familiar mechanical law
is
to
be taken as
where
the
velocity
equal to mass times velocity,
2
the energy
times
the
mass
as
and
of
that of the centre
1/c
energy
to divide
not
is
advisable
it
Nevertheless
content of the field.
the
as
of
in defining the centre
energy density
energy,
by
t
is here no longer positive-definite, and we cannot be certain
that the energy content // will turn out to be positive.
:

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

222

Our theory

a classical field theory, the quantum features

the statistical interpretation.
With this
entering only
the
are
concerned
with
field laws
a single electron.
interpretation
At the present stage of our development we can deal only with
the additional quantities due to the electro-magnetic field by
assuming a given external field affecting the motion of the
is

in

we must
without the particle reacting on the field
surrender our Maxwellian equations. The true laws
governing the interaction between electrons and quanta will
13, on subjecting the
only be obtained, in analogy with II,
of quantization, just
the
of
field
to
equations
process
system
as was done by Heisenberg for any system of classical mechanical

particle,

then

differential equations.
The fact that we are led

back to our original assumptions

the
concerning
operators representing position and momentum
is due to the particular expressions we have chosen for the
indeed,
action, from which the field equations were obtained
These original postulates
it depends entirely on the part M.
of quantum theory are accordingly of less interest from the
;

But,
standpoint of general principles than we at first believed.
on the other hand, this connection seems to indicate that
cannot be replaced in its role as representing the action due
to matter.
is also responsible for the fact that the charge

and probability

densities agree, which is unconditionally rea

guarantee of the atomistic structure of electric
quired
These connections with the most fundamental physical
charge.
observations thus require that the action be composed additively
of
and further terms which are invariant not only under
ix
and
change of gauge (5.10) as is M, but also on replacing $ by e
as

/*

by /

~ox a

where A and

//,

are two independent arbitrary

functions in space-time.
and the Maxwellian action F are
in fact of this kind.
Further relativistic invariant scalars
indeed it is not
satisfying these conditions are readily found
difficult to set up the most, general action possible with the
f

But we have yet to be convinced

quantities at our disposal.
the three quantities M, M'
that
observation
by physical
}

here employed do not

//. Electric

suffice.

and Magnetic Spin Perturbations.

In order to be able to compare Dirac's theory with the facts,

eliminate $[,
in the same way as we did in the absence
of the electro-magnetic field.
obtain the equation

we

We

ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

with the new definition

Sa

in

two variables

(5.9)

of

and

ojOQ

V'V contains terms

<

The

substitutions

letters

but operating

V'.

satisfied the equations

and consequently those denoted by the same

on all four variables obey
ooOi

223

Oj

o 2 ^>3

^3^2

of the following four types

iS\*

2>

We

collect

44

together terms of types (1) and (2) to form the

"
in which the components of ^ are not coupled

regular term
with each other

"

coupper indices, i.e. from

[The transition from lower to
"
f>
lt
contravariant
variant
to
components, is performed in
accordance with the equations /
1, 2, 3).]
fp (p
/ ft

The

irregular term consists of the electric part

and the magnetic part

These become, on multiplying by the factor h and expressing

in the usual
the electric and magnetic field strengths @ and
units,

We

have already

(II,

homogeneous magnetic

field

12) calculated the regular

and found

it

to be - (jpS).
c

term for a

On adding

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

224

the regular and irregular terms

squares j\ of the potentials,

This contains the

fact,

we

obtain,

which was already derived

spectroscopic data, that to the spin L

moment
moment

on neglecting the

',

in

from

twice as great a magnetic

to the same amount of orbital

we have now obtained a convincing
The laws governing
this procedure.

be ascribed as

is

to

of

momentum

theoretical foundation for

the interaction of a general inhomogeneous magnetic

field

with

orbital and spin momenta emphasize still more emphatically

and '. The irregular electric
the essential difference between
for
the
calculated
central-symmetric field originating in
term,
the nucleus, is the spin perturbation.
The description of the electron given earlier, according to

which

it

was a composite structure composed

of

two kine-

matically independent parts the electron translation, with an

oo -dimensional system-space, and the electron spin, with a
in view of the Dirac theory,
2-dirnensional system space
is,
no longer quite appropriate. But the classification of spectra

given there is none the less valid here, for it depends only on
the fact that to the group of rotations of physical space corresponds the representation $)j X ( in the total system-space.
From the field equations (6.1) as they are to be understood
for the present, i.e. as the laws of motion of an electron in an
external electro-magnetic field, dispersion phenomena can be
they tell us how the motion of the
(approximately) calculated
electron in the normal or other quantum states is affected by
From the perturbed </r we then deterthe incident light wave.
mine the scattered light with the aid of Maxwell's equations
to this class of phenomena belong in particular the Compton
and Smekal- Raman effects. 1 *
Spontaneous emission can be
handled similarly if we take the considerations of II,
13, as
The polarization and
justifying the following procedure
intensity of light emitted by the quantum jump n -> n' of the
atom is to be calculated by integrating Maxwell's equations,
;

where the expressions ijn/j,

are to be understood as
characteristic function of

^^
^

w)

for charge
(n

^
the atom

'

)
,

0<

and current density

>@^

in the

th

^
quantum

n/

),

being
state.

the

ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

225

Interchange of Past and Future.

///.

The

action

change of right

is

so constructed that

and

left ;

*-> -*;!

*->*,
01

02 "> 02

01,

/,->-/,;/<

/.-/.,
->

it is invariant under interthe corresponding substitution is

1
'

-i

(6.12)

01 -> 01,

',

2|3)
02 -* 02- J

Does a corresponding result hold for the interchange of past

and future ?
The foundations of the theory lead to the hope
that

will

it

be able to take account of the essential difference

in Nature.
But
M'
under
M,

between the two time directions, so obvious

Dirac has remarked that M,
go over into

the influence of the substitution

*,->-*., /.->-/, (a
/'
01~> 01> 02T>0 2
01">
/

0,
/'

01,

1,

2,
/'

3);

02-^~

/'

^
f

(o.loj

02-J

Hence when, in dealing with the motion of an electron in an

external electro-magnetic field, we obtain a solution i/f which
contains the time in the factor e~~ ivt this substitution will lead
us to a new s )lution which contains the time in the factor e lvt
or,
more precisely, a solution of the problem obtained by changing
But this can be done by retaining the same external
/.
/ into
,

e.
We denote such
with potentials </> and replacing e by
a particle, whose mass is the same as that of the electron but
"
4(
it
whose charge is e instead of
e, as a
positive electron
is not observed in Nature
It follows from what has been said
above that the energy levels of such a particle are
hv, where

field

hv are those of the negative electron.

Disregarding this differThe electron
ence in sign, the two particles behave the same.
will possess, in addition to its positive energy levels, negative ones
as well, the latter arising from the positive energy levels of the
Obviously somepositive electron on changing signs as above.
we should be able to get rid of these negative
thing is wrong here
energy levels of the electron. But that seems impossible, for
under the influence of the radiation field transitions should occur
between the positive and negative terms. That we have twice
as many terms as we should is obviously related to the fact
;

that our quantity </r has/imr instead of two components (satisfying

The solution of this diforder differential equations).
of interpreting our
direction
the
in
lie
to
seem
would
ficulty
four differential equations as including the proton in addition

first

to the electron.

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

226

substitution (6.13) transforms the terms M, AT of the

M' but leaves the Maxwellian term F
action into
unaltered.
Our field equations as a whole, i.e. when we also
take into account the reaction of the particle on the radiation

The

are consequently not invariant under this substitution.

However, there does exist a substitution which reverses the
direction of time and which at the same time leaves all terms in

field,

We mentioned in III, 8 that the exwith two components takes on

from
a
formed
pression (5.13)
=
= 1, 2, 3) on going over from
8
8
the sign S
1,
P
l(p
if
w
is
a quantity which transforms in
Hence
to
$i.
0i> 02
$ 2l
the action invariant.

the

i/r

same way

as

$ then

Sa aj
on applying

this to o>

-> S a

w Sa

= J^~ d#/j we find

ox
ft

that

ft

0.

Hence

if

we make

in addition the substitution

*o ~>

*o,

*p -> ^P

(/>

==

1
,

2, 3)

then

and consequently M, formula (5.5), remains invariant. In the

presence of an electro-magnetic field its components must
change signs in accordance with
/o-^/o,

We

/->-/

have thus found that M,

under the substitution

(p=l,2,

M' and F

all

3).

remain invariant

(6.H)

This shows that the past and the future enter into our field
theory in precisely the same manner in spite of the fact that
the sign in the exponent of the time factor e~ ivt of a solution of
the quantum problem is unchanged by the substitution (6.14).
We must of course suspend judgment as to whether the laws
governing interaction between photons and electrons allow us

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELD

227

we

to distinguish between these two directions in time until

have carried through the quantization ( 12).

Electron in Spherically Symmetric Field

7.

We

now proceed to the discussion of the behaviour of an

electron in a spherically symmetric electrostatic field in Dirac's
theory.

Dirac's Conservation Theorem.

/.

From
rules

the definitions follow immediately the commutation

SVT

We

need

=-

TS P> SP T
-

and the commutation

- Pi

LI Pi

for the

I-i

components

TSP

(p

1, 2, 3).

further the results

Ojo^

and S

(L l5

^2

I,

~~~

~~~~

^^i

rules
0,

(J>)

of linear

Pi LI

p2

U+p

L3

and angular momenta p

L 2 L 3 ).

=
(p ly

0,

p^ p 3

=f =f =

In a spherically symmetric electrostatic field f1

Q
2
3
is a function only of the distance r from the centre.
and /

With the

aid of the formulae given above

commutes with 0,

(')

7',

it

is

easily

shown that

and consequently with each term

in

the expression

-H
for the energy //.

moment
us from

general

commutes with

9ft

fi

considerations.

(7.1)

'

We

was already known

further find

or

|>)

('^('fi)

^ -

(@'fi)

(p)

its

that

2(@'J>)

Hence

to

and T, but that

(@'fi)(@

with

(p) + w o r

Indeed, this conservation law for the total

momentum

of

-f

0.

anti-commutes with (S'p) and therefore also

commutation properties with respect to the three
1

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

228
terms of

(7.1) are therefore

same

the

as those of T.

Hence on

setting

+ = kT,
1

(7.2)

a scalar which commutes with the energy

(where by scalar
invariant under the group of rotations of space).
Consequently we can decompose the system-space of the electron
into irreducible sub-spaces ${ k associated with the rotation
group, in such a way that the quantity k, which we call the
auxiliary quantum number, as well as the energy //,
Now
possesses a definite value in each of the sub-spaces.

is

we mean

(<3'S)

= {L\ + + 4 {S;S3(L L - L L
= S - (S'A ++)=>_ (')
2

Z)

4-

and consequently
_~
1)2
A
J

"^

'

"^y

9"*^

'

vvv

4'

This agrees with

when we put
\k\-\,

\k\=j

(7.4)

\.

Accordingly, the auxiliary quantum number k is a non-vanishing

The conservation theorem (7.2) goes beyond (7.3) in
integer.
For a given half-integral j
giving us in addition the sign of k.

the two values k

= +

are both possible;

5)
^/

correspond to the two possibilities

notation.

The

single

=j

-6

quantum number k

II. The Differential

Characteristic Values.

Equation

for

the

they must

of our previous

replaces the two

/,

j-.

Determination of the

Since the field is spherically symmetric, it suffices to carry

-- r.
At
0, z
0, y
through the calculation for the point x
this point

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELD

and the Dirac conservation law

229

becomes

(7.2)

*;-*,]
(7.5)

together with the equations obtained from these by interchanging

the two pairs lf ^ 2 and 0( 02 of components.
The differential
for
the
characteristic
vector
which contains
equation (6.1)
i/r,
the time only in the factor e~ ivi has as its four components the
f

two

S2
(7.6)

and two others

of

analogous structure

E=

we have

E-$=

-,

here written

7.

The

derivatives with respect to # and y which appear in (7.6)

the resulting equations
can be eliminated with the aid of (7.5)
;

are

-. + 7

"-';>
where

/=^i(0,

0, r),

ff

0;(0, 0,

r).

The remaining two equations

are obtained by writing (i//2, <A 2

At an arbitrary point P = P(x, y, z) the
first and third components of
satisfy the equations (7.7) in
a rotated co-ordinate* system whose positive s-axis passes through
We shall find it convenient to introduce r/and rg as variables
P.
in place of / and g, as
)

in place of (fa, fa).

iff

r
If we wish to avoid
we may write

dr

dr;

\r

the explicit appearance of

rf

'= v

iw,

rg

iw

in the equations,

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

230

and obtain,

the fundamental equations

finally,

dw

T7
v
U

dr

k
u

o,

0.

'

(7.8)

Uw +

-T-

+m w

Harmonics with Spin.

///. Spherical

Let /(r), g(r) be a solution of equations

rotated co-ordinate system
01

=/

P,

where the factors

=g

01

'

02 == /

T,

(7.7)

</T 2

then in the

=g

r are constants independent

p,

T
of

r.

On

returning to the original co-ordinate

system each of the pairs

the
transformation
a associated with
0i, 02
0i, 02 undergoes
the rotation s.
Consequently
;

= /Pi + g'
02 =
0i

02

(7.9)

which f and g depend only on r, and the factors />, r only on

introduced by
direction, i.e. on the spherical co-ordinates 0,

in

(f>

setting

iy

-\-

the coefficients in

(7.9)

r sin

must further
cos

Pl (\

T a (l

e**,

cos

6}

0)

cos ^

satisfy the conditions

P2 sin
r 2 sin

0*-*
0e~

= 0,
= 0.

(7.10)

On

substituting the expression for 2 in polar co-ordinates

into the Dirac conservation law, we are led, with
[II, (4.10)]
the aid of (7.9) and (7.10), to the differential equations
sin

0^ +

sin

0-^

a* T i

- cos

(7.11)

We

have thereby accomplished the transformation of the Dirac

wave equation into polar co-ordinates. (7.9) corresponds to the
substitution ^r=/(r)y, of the scalar theory; in place of the
single factor /depending only on the distance r we have here the
pair /, g and in place of the surface harmonic YI depending
only on the direction we h#ve the matrix
Pi

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELD

231

The equations
"

(7.11), together with the conditions (7.10), define

"
surface harmonics with spin of order k
they are quite
independent of the potential 0. The characteristic values E of
the equations (7.7) or (7.8) are the energy levels associated with

the

quantum number k.
As in the theory

of the ordinary spherical harmonics, we

here again seek out those spherical harmonics with spin which
contain the meridian angle only in the multiplicative factor e im *
:

Pl

e im* (sin 0)~ m

P,

TI

e im* (sin 0)~ m

Substituting these expressions in (7.11) and taking

the independent variable, we find

(1

mp +

=-.-

z)

Q.

(7.12)

cos 8 as

kQ

(I /*>

+ 2 )^

(1

:--

mQ -

AP.

We

denote the solutions P, Q of these equations which lead

non-singular functions />, r on the sphere more precisely
P in \ 0iw) It: suffices to consider the case k > 0, for ( P,
is a solution of the equations obtained by changing k into
(

= -

p^l(z)

Q^\(z)

Pj^fc),

to

by
Q)

Q ?\z).

(7.14)

Furthermore,

dz
for the derivatives of

P (w g (m)
),

in place of m.
is a solution which satisfies all

(7.13) with

dz
satisfy the differential equations

Form

k,

P~

1,

continuity requirements on the

sphere, since the multiplicative factor

(sin 0)'

Vm

m
iy)"

(x

Consequently we find
negative m.
solutions of (7.13), the degrees of which are 0, 1,
k -f 1,
k,
corresponding to the values
1 is
k
The solution for
is

finite

P(z)

for

m=
- -i(l +
z)

m=

(1

polynomial
1
2k

z)\

Q(z)

(1

z)*-*(l

1.

*)*.

We

thus finally obtain the following explicit expressions for the

spherical harmonics with spin :

(7.15)

232

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

where p

ordinary
also of

spherical

importance

Z)

much

very

the
are

like

The following equations

(__ 1)P
8.

behave

m. They
harmonics.

Q<f)( z )

Qff(-

z]

==.

(_

\]P

P^(z)

(7.16)

Fine Structure

Selection Rules.

Selection Rules.

/.

defined by (7.9), (7.12) *fi lt like p x and r lt

In a solution
contains (f> only in the factor e im * and </r 2 like p 2 an d T 2> only in
the factor e^ m h 1)0
correspondingly for ^{, ^2- Hence
,

The 2-component
m)

(k,

is

of

accordingly

quantum number

the

the

moment

m+
m

is

of

momentum

the state

in

This change in the meaning of

=.

to be carefully noted

m+

~ runs
2i

through the values

jy

ft

__

2'

2'

__^

\y

/j

/j

__

^
>

should.
In order to obtain the selection rules for the possible transitions (fe, m) -> (fe', w') and to obtain the corresponding intensities
as

it

we must

calculate the matrix which represents the energy of

interaction between the atom and radiation in terms of the
co-ordinate system determined by the characteristic functions

defining the quantum states n of the atom.

as in II,
13, we see from (5.15) that this matrix is
(n)

^f

The vector
tensities

e c

here plays the

are

essentially
the three components of

The

role as q there.

determined by the elements

which are

S 9 (nn')
is

same

Proceeding

The

in-

(nn').

selection rules are merely consequences of the fact that

first obtain the old result for
and j from

a vector.

We

FINE STRUCTURE

SELECTION RULES.
considerations

proper rotations of space. The

quantum number k may go

the

involving

233

rule for ; asserts that the auxiliary

over into

(*-t).
To

the reflection

k,

(k

(8.1)

l).

corresponds the interchange

In polar co-ordinates
pairs (ifi lt i/r 2 ), (i/r{, ^2).
consists in the transition from (0, </>) to (IT
0, TT

+im

two

of the

this
</>);

reflection
z

cos 6

* takes

z and the factor e

on the
thereby transformed into
m
In accordance with (7.15) and the expressions
sign (
l)
for p ly r l
p 2 T 2 this results in an interchange of p lt r l with

is

>

possible change of sign, as represented by the substitution

\fc-l

(-i) p+rn
and the same

for p 2

r2

By

quantum number k

auxiliary

TM-x, -y.

(7.9)

we

therefore have for

with

--s)

(-l)*-V(*,y,s).

-1
this
the signature 8
SKj. thus has
1)*
(
On replacing
result was derived under the assumption k r> 0.
k and applying (7.14) we find in place of (7.16)
k by

The sub-space

P l(z).
/x-)(_ Z = (- \y^Q ?\(z}, Q \(~ s) = (- l)
The signature corresponding to auxiliary quantum number
p+l

(m

(k

>

0) is

accordingly

when

is

negative

On

l)

setting

-,

^
L]),

2t

(8.2)

&

when

is

included under 8

both

possibilities are
also write 8 == sgn k

positive

1
(

I)*""

->

I)

or

we could

The only

coefficients occurring
corresponding to transitions in

a proper vector are those

which the signature is reversed.
k is thus narrowed down to
in

1,

Our

fe,

selection

rule

1.

(8.1)

for

(8.3)

The following table gives the value of the auxiliary quantum

number k associated with each possible combination of / and j
:

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

234

Transition

II.

the limit c -> oo

to

In order to return from relativistic to ordinary mechanics

Before applying this to
pass to the limit c~>oo.

we must

equations

(7.8)

we must

U.

replace

t/,

by

-\

Uv

7-

\dr

on eliminating

w we

we then

k\
}W,
r!

"|

L/ d

cv

.,2m

f
have, on neglecting -^ in comparison with -j,

k\

-*U-r>

obtain

k\

or

" Vfv
(

2m\dr

'

"

Uv

0.

On

l)
introducing / by (8.2) we have in both cases k(k
l(l+l).
in the limit terms with the same /, and therefore those
with auxiliary quantum numbers k and
k
1, coincide with
that one associated with azimuthal quantum number / in the

Hence

scalar theory of Chapter II.

The doublet found in alkali spectra
and in general the multiplet structure of spectral lines is

accordingly explained as a relativistic phenomenon.

III.

In a

H, He^,

Coulomb

-.

field

with nuclear charge Ze we have

-0=^.
employing Heaviside
theory.

In

the

units,

which are better adapted

calculations

following

we

shall

to a field

denote

the

*f

-r- of the fine-structure constant

multiple
r
4-77

and we
(7.8)

we

set

where

j3

is

simply by a

itself,

In order to integrate equations

c
v
the
substitution
perform

shall
first

4?r

= e~P

F,

a positive constant.

== e~P f

Our equations

are then

(8.4)

SELECTION RULES.
Our method

235

if we choose the constant

p
that
the
determinant of the linear combinations
way
and G on the right vanishes

in

such a

of

We

FINE STRUCTURE

will lead to a solution

now

seek a power series solution

where the exponent

through the values

begins with an

jz

/x

we obtain

these in (8.4)

/x

1,

/x

value

initial
2,

/z

On

and runs

substituting

the recursion formulae

is determined by the fact that the

The initial exponent
/x
determinant of the coefficients of # M & M on the left must vanish
for this value of the index
//,

/**

Because

of the

k2

manner

a2
in

0-

which

A
j8

V/z 2

right-hand sides of
for all

\C

which

is

in (8.5) there

between the

-, 8

-}-

'

c'

satisfied identically in a M

_i,

&M-I-

/z

[(/^ ~f~

(8.6)

a2

was determined

exists a linear relation, with coefficients

Hence

^)^M

~~~

a ^M]

"f" j^[

a ^M "h

^)^M!

([*

r=r

or
/if

i*

i*

o.

(8.7)

The power
if

series will break off

on replacing

with the term with exponent

of
a^..^ b^^ by a M b u the right-hand side
The condition for this is that
to vanish.

made

=
it

will

be satisfied in virtue of

coefficients in these

?)[G

'

(8.7)

if

0;

*>

(8.8)

the determinant of the

two equations vanishes

?> +

(8.6)

\i

is

"]-^-

*>

-G + ?)]-

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

236
or

by

(8.5)

ft,,

pp,

-Au,
~

-p
Cp

OK.

Since the exponent ^ with which the series break off must be
of the form p,Q
^, where n is a positive integer, we obtain the

fine structure

formula

(8.9)

The

solution

</r

e ~pr

of

acteristic values v
.

r Mo

our differential equations, for the char-

cE defined by
.

(8.9), is of

(polynomial of degree n

the form
in r)

the condition that the spatial integral of |</r| 2 con0, oo.

verge in the neighbourhood of the singular points r
These E consequently constitute the discrete term spectrum of an
ion with nuclear charge Ze and having but one electron outside
the nucleus.
If we neglect the small constant a in comparison
This fine structure formula
with k, E depends only on n
\k\.
further tells us that the two terms with auxiliary quantum
numbers k and
k, or the two terms with the same j and for

and

satisfies

which

=j

^,

exactly coincide.

That

this

is

in fact

found

2i

to be the case has already

been mentioned

in

4.

Equation

It was first derived on the

(8.9) has had a remarkable history.
basis of the older quantum theory by Sommerfeld and, at about
the same time, verified by the experiments of Paschen ; it was
perhaps the greatest triumph of that theory, next to Bohr's
explanation of the Balmer series and his calculation of the
Rydberg number from universal atomic constants. The new
quantum theory at first destroyed this beautiful agreement,
as in its scalar form it led to (8.9) with the half-integral quantum
number j in place of the integral \k\. So mmerf eld's original
formula was only completely re-established with the advent
The quantum number k,
of the Dirac theory here discussed.
which was used in the older quantum mechanics in place of /
and which may assume the value 0, has also re-appeared and
But on the other hand, the number
is now supplied with a sign.
is
now greater than in
structure
fine
in
the
of components
transitions k-*k
to
the
in
addition
Sommerfeld's theory, as
1,
this
addition is also in
1 we may now also have k ->/?;
k
agreement with experiment.

SELECTION RULES.

FINE STRUCTURE

237

Our conclusion that (8.8) was to be satisfied in virtue of

equation (8.7) for the unknowns a^ b^ assuming that the determinant of the two equations vanished, fails when both coefficients
of equation (8.6) are zero
v

VQ

__

__

\L

= Vk

It
/x

2
follows from this that then //,
a 2 or n
0, and that
or k
k
0.
There actually exist no terms n
0,
0,
For the coefficients M fe M of the beginning
1,
2,
,

<

+ <
=

term in the corresponding solution, which is at the same time

the end term, would by (8.6), (8.8) necessarily satisfy the equations

^+^.0^0
C

or

/LI

T~&

=v

v
'

48

<

v 16
impossible because of the condition |y|
In accordance with the foregoing we may describe the normal
1 (/
n
state of the hydrogen atom ;
0, k
0), as follows.
We take the quantum number m, which may assume either of
Let a
0-532 A. be the radius of
the values 0,
1, to be 0.
7*29 10~ 3 the fine-structure conthe first Bohr orbit and a
stant.
1/4, */r 2
0/, 02' a re obtained by multiplying the radial

and

this

is

function
\

A(r)

=-7. r xl--l
r

/I

Ift

/wl

with the factors

(1

(1

+ Vl ~
+ \/l

a2)
a

2
)

za cos

za cos

9,

za sin

01,

0,

za sin

01, 02-

We
is

find from these expressions that the probability density

distributed spherical-symmetrically in accordance with the

law
P

The normalization

is

is

2
.

unity

it is
;

way

that the

actually

in a certain sense the probability

e represents the distribution of charge

have already seen that

density multiplied by

[AW]

here not chosen in such a

integral of p over all space

We

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

238

atom. Considering the probability current as determining the convection of this continuous charge distribution p,
we find that it represents a circulation about the 2-axis with
the

in

velocity <x.c sin

(occ is the velocity of the electron in the first
Bohr orbit on the older theory). On giving the axis of rotation
all possible directions $ runs through the 2-parameter family
of characteristic solutions

for

which n

0,

1
;

we may

take as a basis for this family of solutions the above (m

0)
and that for which
1,
representing a circulation in
the opposite direction.

m=

C.

9.

THE PERMUTATION GROUP

Resonance between Equivalent Individuals

The Hermitian forms

Q, which represent in system-space all

of a given system, constitute a
quantities
physical
possible
within
which
addition
and multiplication is defined.
totality
If
were reducible we could choose our co-ordinate system in
system-space in such a way that all Q would be simultaneously
completely reduced these individual parts into which the whole
would be divisible would then each constitute solutions of the

quantum problem which were merely

accidentally joined to-

form the given solution. In accordance with the

gether
"
"
nihil frustra
Nature
fundamental Aristotelian postulate of
to

could hardly be expected to indulge in such a superfluous luxury.

Hence we propose the thesis that S is an irreducible system. On
introducing as fundamental quantities the canonical variables
as in II,
11, this assumption contains the requirement that it be
impossible to choose co-ordinates in system-space in such a way
that the 2f matrices

-,
pi,
',/>/ are simultaneously
q^
qf
This
is
to
be
reduced.
added to the Heisenberg
postulate
completely
commutation rules as an essential supplement.
;

In accordance with Burnside's theorem

we

[III,

10],

which

carry over without scruple from spaces with a finite number

of dimensions to those with infinitely many, the irreducibility
postulate allows us to assert that there can exist no linear
between the components of
homogeneous relation tr(AQ)
is
for
all
in the domain of the (2's
which
satisfied
Since
Q.
Q
is
as
not only
multiplication possible
presupposed in Burnside's
theorem but also addition, we arrive at the conclusion that all
Hermitian matrices in system-space are contained in E.
It is
perhaps desirable to express our requirement directly in the
form
any Hermitian form represents a physical quantity of
7 there is associated with
the system.
In accordance with II,

EQUIVALENT INDIVIDUALS

239

each statistical ensemble a positive definite Hermitian form A

in such a way that tr(AQ) is the expectation of the quantity
Burnside's theorem asserts that the equation
represented by Q.
tr

(AQ)

tr

(A'Q)

A=

A', or it is impossible to
only
distinguish between the two statistical aggregates represented by
In particular
A'.
the positive definite Hermitian forms only if A
it follows from this that the states represented by two rays in
system space are physically different if the two rays are distinct
this was to be expected, or even required, from the outset.
These consequences show the naturalness and cogency of the
irreducibility postulate, from which it can conversely be deduced.
The states of physical entities I which are fully equivalent, as,
for example, the electrons in an atom, are to be represented by
or rays in the same system-space 9ft.
If two
vectors J
(#,-)
such individuals unite to form a single physical system P the
2
vectors of the corresponding system-space 9ft X 9ft
9ft
are,
in accordance with the general rule of X -multiplication, the
2
tensors (x ik ) of order two.
But, by III,
5, 9ft is reducible into

can be

satisfied for

all

if

two independent sub-spaces {9ft 2 } and [9t 2 ], the space of antisymmetric and the space of symmetric tensors of 2nd order.
2
Physical quantities Q of I have only an objective physical
significance if they depend symmetrically on the two individuals.
This requirement

expressed in terms of the elements of the

is

Hermitian form

Q
the

by

On

symmetry

^iM'*' ****'*

condition

reducing (x ik) into

its

parts,
Xik

anti-symmetric and
x{ik}

x(ik)

its

symmetric
(9.2)

into two Hermitian forms in

For
on substituting (9.2) into Q
x(ik) respectively.
x{ik]
we obtain four terms those in which {9ft 2 }, [9ft 2 intersect them2
2
or conversely.
selves, and the two in which {9ft } intersects [9ft
These last two then vanish, for if we interchange the dummy
indices i with k, i' with k' in

is

reduced, in virtue of

(9.1),

and

[Q}=Zqik>i k .x{ik} X (i'k')

.

and then replace

?.*v. *{**}

*(*'*')

by

?, t .i'r.

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

240

we

or [Q]
The totality of Hermitian
0.
Q which represent the quantities of
depending symit
metrically on the two individuals is therefore not irreducible
find [Q]

[0],

forms

can be reduced in accordance with the decomposition

$2
of the space

{W}

[JR2]

(9.3)

2
9ft

In particular, every possible interaction between the two

individuals depends symmetrically on them, even when other
physical elements, such as a radiation field, are also involved.
Hence if 7 2 is at any time in a state contained in one of the
2
2
sub-spaces {9t } or [3t it is for all time impossible to get it out
]

of this sub-space by any influence whatsoever.

Again, we expect
Nature to make use of but one of these sub-spaces, but the

irreducibility postulate offers us

has decided on.

no clue as to which one she

Take as co-ordinates in the system space 91 of the individual

/ the principal axes e { of the energy associated with the characteristic numbers
t
Disregarding the interaction between
the two individuals for the moment, the system 7 2 has as energy
levels Ef
e ifc
each
k with characteristic vectors e t X C

+E

characteristic

fc

number

of the type

E +E
l

appears twice, and

the corresponding characteristic space is spanned by the vectors

On introducing the interaction as a small perand e 21
turbation the two states e 12 and e 21 are in resonance with each
other.
Denoting the components of the total Hamiltonian
function by H(ik, i'k'}, the transformation of the sub-matrix

C 12

H(\
H(2

2,

1,

1 2)

2)

H(\
H(2

2,

1)

1,

1)

to principal axes, as required by perturbation theory, can in

the present case be performed in a manner which is universally
valid
we need only to replace the fundamental vectors e 12 2 i by
;

(9.4)

Denoting H(\

H(l

2,

1)

2,

//(2

12)
1,

2 1) by hv and the numbers

1,
which
must be real in virtue of the
2),
= H(2 1, 1 2) of Hermitian symmetry, by

H(2

condition H(l 2, 2 1)
Aa, the resonance equations become

.-

+("* 12 +**,)

0,

EQUIVALENT INDIVIDUALS
om

which

~
(*t.

follows that

it

=_

*ai)

241

t>

g)(yit

^
-

'aking as initial conditions # 12

_ *21
v
#12

/~~
^

/v

|2

^e see from this

>rth

(*-" <*V

how

-v

#12

>

^21

e 21

for

^~
*

<v

the two states e 12

with the beat period

xn

1,

12

0,

21

we

(*+<*)<
i

find
^Q
y
l

P\\

'3J

alternate back and

whereas the components

(9.5)

long the axes (9.4) have always the same constant absolute
lagnitudes.
The only characteristic numbers associated with the system
Dace {9l 2 } are those of the type
2 each of which appears
l
2
the
has
but
Kactly once,
sub-space [9ft ]
simple characteristic

E +

>

of the type 2E l in addition to these.

Hence if Nature
ecides in favour of {9ft 2 } both individuals can never be simassumItaneously in the same quantum state with energy

umbers

ig this

level for the individual

is

system
non-degenerate.
occurs only once in {9ft 2 } and only once in [9ft 2]
leans
the possibility that one of the identical twins Mike
nd Ike is in the quantum state E l and the other in the quantum
:ate E 2 does not include two differentiate cases which are
it is impossible for
ermuted on permuting Mike and Ike
his
ther of these individuals to retain
identity so that one of
T1
tl
I'm Mike
and the other
lem will always be able to say
M
I'm Ike.
Even in principle one cannot demand an alibi
F
In this way the Leibnizian principle of coinan electron
dentia indiscernibilium holds in quantum mechanics. 17
On passing from 2 to / equivalent individuals / it is not so
isy to reduce the representation (c)^ of the complete linear or of
le unitary group in system-space 9ft into its irreducible conwe shall go into this matter in the last chapter.
.ituents
evertheless we know from III,
5, that the anti-symmetric
id the symmetric tensors of order / with components
hat

energy

-f-

E2

x{k l k n

k f}

k f ),

x(k l k^

yield such an irreducible

physical quantity Q of the total system

jspectively,

each

representation.

which depends
be represented by an

fmmetrically on all / individuals will

[ermitian operator Q, the coefficients q(k l k^

kf

k{k z

/)

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

242

k f and k[k'2
which are unchanged on subjecting k^k^
kf
is
It
evident
same
that
such
to
the
permutation.
simultaneously
kf]
an operator always sends an anti-symmetric tensor x{k l k^
into an anti-symmetric tensor x

of

Hence the sub-space {ffl} of anti-symmetric tensors is reduced

out of the system-space ffl of /', determined in accordance with
the general rule of X -multiplication, in such a way that if //
it remains there forever,
is ever in the system space
regard{ffl}
less

of

of

all

what

influences

out of

9t/.

The

may

act

The sub-space |W]

it.
can similarly be separated

upon

x(k] of order J
l
energy level

symmetric tensors

E +

+E

which

is

/1-fold degenerate in ffi, appears in {9t/} as a simple level.

Only
characteristic numbers of this type appear in {3i/j, but the
characteristic numbers of [W] are all numbers which can be

obtained by summation of / distinct or non-distinct energies E.

If the system space is ?t-dimensional, {31^} is only possible
if / fg n.
If E is an n-fold energy level of the individual I then
the quantum states with energy E constitute an n-dimensional
If it should happen that only {9^} is realized
sub-space 9R().
in Nature, then in view of the foregoing it would be impossible
to have more than n individuals of the system V in the quantum
state E.
The reduction of ffl to {W} or [W] involves relationships
which frustrate any attempt at description in terms of our
old intuitive pictures with their orbits and billiard-ball electrons.
But the difficulty enters already with the general composition
rule, according to which the manifold of possible pure states
of a system composed of two parts is much greater than the
manifold of combinations in which each of the partial systems
is itself in a pure state.
10.

The

Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Structure

of the Periodic Table

One

of the most fundamental facts of Nature, the ordering of

chemical elements in the periodic table can be understood
only with the help of these considerations. We go from one
atom to the following, which we denote by A, in two steps
the first is preparatory and consists in increasing the charge
on the nucleus by 1, and the second anjd final step consists in
adding an electron to the ion A+ so obtained. To obtain the
normal state of A this additional electron must be bound as
tightly as possible, i.e. the energy of the total system A must be

the

THE PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

243

we disregard the mutual perturbations of the

electrons for a moment, although they may be very considerable,
we might expect to find every electron in an unexcited atom in
the lowest energy level, i.e. with principal quantum number n = 1.
But instead we find the following The 1 electron of H and the
2 electrons of He are in the Is orbit, i.e. they are in the quantum
But the next 2 electrons, which are added
0.
state n = 1, /
a

minimum.

If

in going over to Li, Be, are in a 2s orbit, and the additional 6, the
addition of each of which gives rise to one of the elements from

Then

follow Na, Mg, each with a

the elements from Al to A, the
These facts
additional electrons entering the 3/> orbit, etc.
are readily seen on writing the wave number of the lowest
2
in II, He, Li the "effective
S term in the form
A'/n *
has
the
number"
values
1*00. 0*74, 1*59.
That
n+
quantum
to Ne, enter the 2p orbit.
electron in the 3s state,

new

n+ sinks on going from

to lie

is

understandable in view of

"

"

effect of the original electron on the new one.

screening
should expect that if the next electron also went into the

the

We

the corresponding value of n+ would be something

like 0'59, but we find instead a number which is greater than
The same occurs on going from Be to B or from
this by unity.
orbit

the normal states of these atoms are formed by the

to Al
valence electrons entering 2p or 3/> orbits because the 2s or 3s
"
orbits are already
occupied," and if the valence electron is
raised to an s state by excitation, it can only be raised to one
3 or n ^ 4.*
for which n
Obviously the essential features

Mg

of the regularities expressed in the periodic table depend on this

mysterious numerus dausus for the various states with principal

quantum numbers n
quence
layers
(n

=
=

1,

and on the

2,

1,

fact that in conse-

of this the electrons in the atom are added

"
Stated more precisely, in
or
shells."
2,

there

is

room

for

on in definite
an ns orbit
but 2 electrons, in an up orbit

in general the situation is described

but 6
2, 3,
(n
)
:
be at most 2(2/
rule
there
can
Stoner's
by
1) electrons in a
state with quantum numbers n, I.
On taking into account the duplicity caused by the spin we
sec that this number is exactly the dimensionality of the subspace 9t(w/) in the system space of a single electron.
Neglecting
the spin perturbation, which is indeed much smaller than the

for

The physical significance of the " true principal quantum number "
contained in these considerations we think of the term in the Hamiltonian
function which represents the energy of interaction between the various
electrons as multiplied by a numerical factor A and let A decrease steadily
from i to o this virtual adiabatic process sends each electron into a definite
"
orbit with a principal quantum number n, the
true quantum
hydrogenic
"
number of the electron.
*

is

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

244

mutual perturbations
with

of the electrons, the energy level associ-

This
l)-fold degenerate.
sub-space is 2(21
degeneracy can be removed by the introduction of the spin
the energy level is
perturbation and a weak magnetic field
then broken up into 2(21
1) simple components distinguished
by the quantum numbers
ated

this

2'

^-J>1

'

'

>

1-

>

Stoner's rule led Pauli to postulate the exclusion of equivalent

it is impossible for two electrons in an atom to be simulThis shows
taneously in the same quantum state (n, /, j, m).

orbits

obviously not the system space of the physical system

which / electrons revolve about a fixed nucleus, but that
Nature has decided in favour
the reduction to {W} takes place
that

3t/ is

If in

of the reduction to the space of anti- symmetric tensors, at least in

In view of the considerations advanced in
the case of electrons.

the previous paragraph this principle leads conversely to Stoner's

rule. 18
If the formation of one atom from the preceding one were
an entirely regular process the occupation of the various states
would take place in accordance with the following table, the
lower row of which indicates the number of electrons captured,
on going from atom to atom, by the orbit immediately above
:

Is;

2s,

2;

2p;
6;

3s,

3/>,

3d;

+ 6+10;

4s,

4/>

+6+

4/;

4d,

10

14

if we could increase the

charge on
the nuclei by some large fixed amount, for the mutual perturbations of the electrons could thus be made arbitrarily small in
comparison with the Coulomb attraction of the nucleus. But
even a rough calculation shows that these perturbations are
actually too considerable not to lead to displacements in the
above table, i.e. to changes in the order ?ii Which the various
For example, after the 3p shell is filled, which
shells arc filled.
is accomplished with A, the next 2 electrons go into 4s states
to form K, Ca, and only then do we find electrons entering the
For details consult the books
3d orbits to form Sc, Ti,

This would indeed be the case

by Hund, Pauling and Goudsmit or Ruark and Urey mentioned

in the Introduction.

not the purpose of this book to report on the extensive

empirical data of spectroscopy, nor to show how the two main
principles required to lead beyond the general scheme of quantum
It is

THE PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

245

mechanics to the interpretation

of spectra were wrested from

here refer to the introduction of the inner
quantum number; in addition to the azimuthal /, or the spinning
to {3}'}
electron, on the one hand, and to the reduction of
the
Pauli
means
of
exclusion
on
the
other.
principle
by
his
to
the
American
Millikan begins
report
Philosophical Society

material

this

"

"

Recent Developments in Spectroscopy

(Proc. Am. Phil.
"
Never in the history
Soc. 66, p. 211 (1927)], with the words
of science has a subject sprung so suddenly from a state of complete obscurity and unintelligibility to a condition of full illumination and predictability as has the field of spectroscopy
on

"

The theory of groups offers the appropriate mathematical tool for the description of the order
thus won.
The lines of the optical spectrum are caused by quantum
jumps of the electrons which are most loosely bound. In the
the one involved is accordingly in the
alkalies Li, Na, K,
We also understand why their cores
state 25, 3s, 4>9,
f
are spherically symmetric, and therefore
Na +
Li
why their spectra may be approximately calculated in terms
of the motion of an electron in a spherically symmetric field
That an electron
the real reason behind this is the following.
has the quantum numbers w, / means that its state is in a
The sub -space
of A
2(21 -f 1) dimensions.
sub-space 9R
A
with
as
obtained
X
X
X
8Ri
factors,
by the anti9ftJ
{9ti
and
the rotation
is
reduction
of
\-dimensional
3R,
symmetric
since

the year

1913.

K\

group induces in it the 1-dimensional identical representation

i.e. a shell consisting of A electrons in the stale n, I acts spherical-

presence does not increase the manifold of

"
of those elements with which
closedness
a shell is completed
the rare gases, which precede the alkalies,
are elements of this kind.
But we should also expect Cu, Ag, Au
to have alkali-like spectra, as they contain but a single electron
in the s state, while all the others are bound more tightly in

symmetrically
terms.

its

Hence the

"

"

"

configuration with an external field which is spheriThe valence of the elements must obviously
cally symmetric.
find its explanation in these terms
indeed, it gave the clues
which originally led to the discovery of the periodic table.
But only in recent times have we been able to call on the assistance of spectra, interpreted and arranged with the aid of atomic
theory by Bohr and others, and they have verified the principal
and
features of the table, while modifying, supplementing
a

closed

improving its details.

The consequences of the Pauli principle for the term analysis
of atomic spectra will be discussed in detail in Chapter V,

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

246

We

here mention briefly the results for

15.
particularly in
2.
the case of 2-electron spectra
as
the
be
alkalies
treated as if they were but
may
Just
in
with
the alkaline earth metals we
1-electron atoms,
dealing
need only take into account the two most loosely bound electrons

/=

which occupy an s orbit outside a spherically symmetric closed

As before, we obtain one singlet and one triplet term
shell.

nT

(nl,

whose

total

L)

azimuthal quantum number

/,

/+/',/

/'-

....

1,

assuming that the two quantum states

assumes the values

|

/_/'
|

(nl}

(n'l

of the individual

that now such

a term appears only once, whereas before it appeared twice,
corresponding to a permutation of the electrons. The situation
The only singlet
is, however, more complicated if (nl)
('/').
terms

The only

electrons are distinct.

difference

is

(nl;

nl-

L}

which actually occur are those with even L

21 and the
0, 2,
--=
are
odd
L
terms
those
with
21
This
1.
1, 3,
only triplet
rule is thoroughly in accord with the empirical data.
The best-known lines of the spectra are those arising from
transitions in which only one electron is not in the normal state
and is jumping between higher energy levels. Hence if one
of the two electrons (not saying which !) is in the normal state
,

ri

no,

we have

=
L=

/'

(n
/

1,

2,

3,

4,

for

He, Be, Mg, Ca,

and the two quantum numbers

(n,

/)

suffice to

=
=

determine the singlets or triplets. The lowest S term (L

0)
of the singlet system has the principal quantum number n
?z
it begins with
but there is no such term in the triplet system
n
We find that the lowest S term in such a triplet
n
1.
,

system (which is, as we know, simple), e.g. in the spectrum of

Mg, actually does lie in the neighbourhood of the second lowest
S term of the singlet system instead of the lowest.
11.

The Problem

of Several Bodies and the Quantization of the Wave Equation

In this paragraph we depart from our usual terminology

and denote the number of individuals by n instead of /. We
first consider more fully the reduction of $R W to [9ft n ], for we shall
find that although

photons.

Let

H=

it

does not apply to electrons, it does to

be the Hamiltonian function of an

\\H a p\\

THE PROBLEM OF SEVERAL BODIES

The

individual.
$R

behave

variables ^(n^ w 2

like the

of the unitary space

247

monomials

K+

(n.i)

n),

n which are formed from the components x a of an

we denote this monomial (11.1), without
arbitrary vector in 9ft
We shall have occasion
the denominator, by <^(n lt n 2y
).
to use the differentiation formula

of degree

d(x? %

)--=

(i

*i

Wl

~ l

'

**'

'

In the absence of interaction

'

-'

dxj

-f

2 A'?'

dx 2

*S<

'

'

between the individuals we obtain

from

dt

the equation
1

:,

-f

In the

sum on

the right

'

1,

<f>(n l

',

'

1,

'

')

to

be interpreted as <f>(n ll n 2
for )3
*)
term with j3 == 2, etc. We can also write this equation
'

similarly for the

On

introducing the binomial coefficients in

(11.1) we obtain as the equations of motion
lf

n2

)_

accordance with

These equations are of the form

1

^=

0,

H. p r, aft

(11.4)

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

248

where the matrices

are defined

rj a p

by
~ii

n\=

H*. n*

= n*

,,,~\

(II- 3 ')

*i

otherwise

and

for a 4=

j5

n i>

'

"*>

ni

'

'

"2,

')

l"Vn a (w*

+1)

/i
(

-/\

n with the exalternative holds when all n'

n'
n
1,
Hp -\- I and the second in
ception of n*
H is, as it should be, an Hermitian matrix.
all other cases.
is in diagonal form the fundamental vectors forming our
If
co-ordinate system are the quantum states of the various inwhere the

first

2
ls then the probability that there
dividuals
*)i
|0(n lf n 2
are simultaneously n v individuals in the first quantum state,
n 2 in the second, etc. On reduction from 9R n to [9i n it becomes
and we
impossible to identify the individuals as Mike, Ike,
therefore may not ask for the probability that Mike is in the
th
th
If we have in addition to // a
<x
state, Ike is in the /1
the
individuals
eW
(and symmetric with
affecting
perturbation
'

respect to these individuals), then equation (11.3) governs the

2
in time.
-)|
change of the probabilities \^(n^ n 2
The Hamiltonian function H reminds us of the one which we
13 by quantizing Maxwell's equations
obtained in Chapter II,
,

Maxwell's equations are

there the individuals were photons.
the
as
to be considered
quantum-theoretical wave equations of
If
we replace the photon by an individual
an individual photon.

whose

state (# a ) varies in accordance with equation (11.2) we

new way of treating the problem of several bodies,
"
"

are led to a

method of second quantization in contrast

"
of composition*' or
X multiplication " deIn this we consider (11.2) as the
10.
veloped in Chapter II,
classical equations of motion of a physical system whose canonical
which we
to the

call

the

"method

variables are the real and imaginary parts q

p^ of xa and as
such subject them to the process of quantization. 19 We here
tie on to the development given in Chapter II,
11.
Introduce
(KJ

the complex quantities

into the Hamiltonian function

place of qa

pa

as independent variables in

the Hamiltonian equations are then

dx. _
dt

dxa

_ SH
~
*

'j>x'

~dl

*>

THE PROBLEM OF SEVERAL BODIES

249

In order that (11.2) may be considered as the classical equations

of motion of a system with infinitely many degrees of freedom,

accordance with our programme, they must be of the form

the Hamiltonian function
But this is in fact the case
(11.6).
is then
in

H=
In quantizing x a x are to be replaced by Hermitian conjugate
matrices x* x which satisfy the following commutation rules
,

Xa Xp
v

Xp
.

x a =- 0,

x a xp

v^ v

v-,

The Hamiltonian function

Xp xx = 0,
= /J)[
fl(

,X

'

("-7)

'

then becomes the matrix

= ZH a fiXXfi\

(11.8)

<*>ft

if

in

is

diagonal form then

We are here dealing with an infinite set of oscillators, the individual members of which are distinguished by the index a
the energy of the a th is given in terms of the complex co-ordinates
x a x a by E a xa xa
;

The quantum theory

II,

of a single oscillator as developed in

3 gives us as the irreducible solution of

XX

XX

1,

x, x are two Hermitian conjugate matrices normalized

such a way that the energy xx is in diagonal form, the matrices

where
in

x(n, n -f 1)

= Vn +

1,

x(n,

1)

= Vn

xx(n, n)

n,

other components vanishing

the quantum number n assumes
the values 0, 1, 2,
From this we obtain the solution of

all

(11.7)

by composition

'i,

i,

')

n 4-1

except
otherwise

[0

matrix

r^

n'

except n,
otherwise.

riot

if all

The products x^x^

n*

1,

1,

are of course in diagonal form; x A x is the

introduced above, and (11.8) coincides with (11.4)
ft

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

250

method of second quantization leads to the same result as the

"
"
method of composition supplemented by the
symmetric reduction
the

0/9ft

n to

n
[9ft

But now the number

].

ni

n2

is not prescribed
however H is reduced into
sub-matrices in accordance with the various values of n, for

of individuals

all

components
=(= ftj -|- n 2

H^^

n\n t

The

vanish.

for

total

which n[

number

of

n'2

photons

not conserved, and to this extent Maxwell's equations do not

fit completely into the quantum-theoretical picture
unless we
"
"
as a particular quantum
wish to consider
non-existence
state of the photon.
The method of composition remains applicable in the presence
of interaction between the individuals, provided it is an instantaneous action at a distance determined by the simultaneous
values of the canonical variables of the various individuals.
But it breaks down when, as in the theory of relativity, account
is taken of the finite velocity of
propagation, which led to the
introduction of continuous fields in the classical theories.
The
must
difficulty arises from the fact that the wave function
contain the one time t as argument in addition to the spatial
co-ordinates of each particle, whereas the theory of relativity
requires that the proper time of each particle appear as argument in ^ as well as the spatial co-ordinates. The method of
second quantization shows its superiority in dealing with such
is

iff

problems.

As we have seen, the method of second quantization in

accordance with Heisenberg's commutation rules is equivalent
to a reduction of the system space 9ft n to [9ft n j.
Since we have
13 that this leads to the correct laws of radiation
that the behaviour of photons
to
this
in the case of electrons the
reduction.
But
corresponds
reduction is to the space {9ft n }, and we must now investigate

seen in

II,

phenomena, we must conclude

20
The vectors
quantization this corresponds.
of the unitary space {9ft } are the anti-symmetric tensors with

what kind

to

of

71

components
'

*{<*i,

'

<*2,

',

<*n}

\x^ x

-,

xan

(11.9)

space 9ft, where the one row in the determinant stands for
n rows formed in the same manner from n vectors j = j (1)

in the

the

j<

),

j(")

independent

of

9ft.

We

components

can

by

obtain the totality of linearly

restricting the indices by the

condition

at

<

a.2

<

< an

(11.10)

THE PROBLEM OF SEVERAL BODIES

We now

251

denote (11.9) by if*(n l} n 2

where n a
1 or
),
to
whether
a
in
the
of
set
indices a x a 2
according
appears
a n or not
these quantum numbers n a may thus only assume
one of two values. On replacing a A
a in (11.9) by an index
a, (11.9) vanishes if j3 is equal to one of the remaining
j3
if j8 is different from a 2
indices a 2
an
a n it becomes
,

*{2

the sign
the set a 2

'

'

an}

'

0(n lf

na

1,

where
the
being (
l)
a n lying between a and j8
r is

ft

number

1,

),

of indices in

where the sum

is extended over all indices A between a and

/?.
obtain
again
equations of the form (11.4)
(H-5) is then
valid as it stands but (11.5') is to be replaced by

We

'

W"i,

'

"2,

'

"1,

H2

'

or

0,
r

where the first alternative applies to the case in which all n

n
=
=
=
=
n
n
the
1, n\
0,
1,
except A
sign being again
n^
determined in accordance with the above rule. On writing
a matrix ||a(wH')|| in the form
;

ft

a(0 0)

a(0

1)

0(1 0)

a(l

1)

and introducing the abbreviations

1

xl'x

00 xlx

where the matrix that is written explicitly in the first equatior

th
th
is in the a
and j8 u
place and those in the second in the a
We must now attempt to write these
places respectively.
matrices in the form x^ x$ this can in fact be accomplished by
;

taking

1'

\'

1'

'

(ii.n;

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

252

the small explicit matrices being in the octh place, x^ XA are

Hermitian conjugates, and H can now be written in terms of
them in the desired form (11.8). Instead of the commutation
rules (11.7)

xa x

fi

we now have

+ Xpx* =

(11.1)

is

x xp
ai

+x

ft

x a =z0,x a xp

+x

ft

x a =z& &ft

(11.12)

by a pair

the irreducible solution of these equations

of

Hermitian conjugate matrices x^ x^ which are so normalized

that xa xa is a diagonal matrix.
In order to show that the equations (11.4) for the vector
in system-space yield the Hamiltonian equations (11.6) for the

forms

x*

= 2X("

n')

and

0(n) 0(n')

x ay

n,n'

we must prove

that the formula

u
H x*

x a ij
H

^"
-

vX a

employed in II, 11, holds here as well. We find that it does

not hold for an arbitrary polynomial H in x, Jf a but that it
does for even polynomials in general and so in particular for
For we have, for example,
the Hermitian form (11.8).
,

whence

x i XA x p

x xp x
'

'

8 la Xp, Xj^H
ft

On

introducing real quantities,

Hermitian forms,

i.e.

pa q a
,

by
'

and denoting the

*

Pi, Pa, Ps,

'

set pj,
'

P<i>

P;

qz
we obtain

l,

p2

<7 2

straight through

by

the relations

PP/>+P,*P

(a

/3)

The p a

(11.13)

are not only Hermitian but unitary as well, as can be

Here again we
seen from the first of these equations or directly.
meet the matrices
t

which occurred

in

connection with the spinning electron.

THE MAXWELL-DIRAC FIELD EQUATIONS

We have thus discovered the correct way to quantize
field

equations

Here again we

waves

and matter waves.

spinning electron, that
not to be restricted by the assumption

defining

quantum kinematics

The

the

electron

find, as in the case of the

is

of Heisenberg's specialized

12.

253

commutation

rules.

Quantization of the Maxwell-Dirac Field

21
Equations

laws arise from a Hamiltonian principle which is

to
the Hamiltonian principle of classical mechanics.
analogous
This latter is expressed in terms of a Lagrangian function L
field

which depends on the positional co-ordinates q and their derivatives q with respect to time, and asserts that the first
{

variation of

\L(q
vanishes

ments

when

(12.1)

q<)dt

t,

the q i are assigned arbitrary infinitesimal incre-

which vanish outside a certain finite time interval.

This principal yields, on integration by parts, the differential
8*7,

equations

+/, =

with

,.

=-

the expression

|.,..=

(,2,2)

Defining

and noting that

SL

we obtain

for the differential of

Expressing

H as a function of the q

pi associated

and by

(12.2) these are just the

quantum theory

berg's

and the generalized momenta

Hamiltonian canonical equations

=
~~
dt

In

with them, we have

commutation

~"

3/>/

dt

__

^q-

the q i} p t are operators satisfying Heisenrules.

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

254

This reasoning can be carried over without difficulty to the

On replacing
case of a continuum, as appears in field theories.
for the moment the 3-dimensional space by the 1-dimensional
interval
^ x f 1 described by the co-ordinate x and assuming,
for the sake of simplicity, that only one state function q
q(x, t)
is involved, the integral (12.1) is then to be replaced by

Naturally

L may depend on

the spatial derivative

or even

higher derivatives, in addition to q. The continuous variable

x takes the place of the index i and the Lagrangian function, in
i

the sense of (12.1),

is

now

the integral

j L(q,

q)dx with respect to

We

L itself.
first replace the
discrete set of equidistant points defined by

the spatial variable instead of

continuum by a
-

A#

(i

ft

0, 1,

1).

The

differential quotients

with

respect to x are naturally to be replaced by difference quotients

1 'n, and the integrals become sums.
with the difference A#
In accordance with the outline above we must now set

calculated at the point x

For the continuum we have

i/n.

analogously to set
,

and

is

to be defined

9)

by
i

H=L+ \qpdx.
o

The commutation

rules

which are

mechanics cause some trouble.

discrete set of points in place of
q(*)

where
1

or

PW - PW

satisfied

by q, p in quantum
As long as we employ the
the continuum they are

q(x)

x, x' run independently through the set i/n and & xx

according as x' coincides with x or not. For fixed x'

>

is

THE MAXWELL-DIRAC FIELD EQUATIONS

js a function of

x which vanishes

other than x and

is

for all values of the

there so large that the sum 28(x

255

argument

x'}

A#

In dealing with the continuum we therefore

has the value 1.
introduce with Dirac a function 8(x
x
which vanishes at
all points x
x' and is so large at the point x' that its integral
has the value 1 (cf. I,
Of course there exists no such
7).
"
"
function, but it can be
arbitrarily closely approximated
by
a function which vanishes everywhere except in a very small
interval about x' and assumes very large values within this
interval.
Only in this sense can we perform the passage to
1

the limit
in

A#

and write the commutation

rules symbolically

the form
q(x) p(x')

good illustration

p(x') q(x}

the

of

8(x

(12.3)

x').

mathematical interpretation

of

this pathological function 8(#

x'} arises in the theory of orthogonal sets of functions <,(#), for with its aid the completeness

condition

This

may

be formulated

literally correct as

is

long as x only runs through a discrete

mathematical formulation for

points, but the rigorous

the case of a continuum is given

set

of

lim
n ~+

ff

$i( x ] <?(#')

o o

by

'

h( x ) v(%'} dx dx'

\u(x] v(x]

dx

any two continuous functions in the interval

Hence from the more rigorous standpoint (12.3) must
be replaced by the equation
where
(0,

u(x), v(x] are

1).

11

^u(x]{q(x] p(x'}
00

p(x'} q(x}}v(x'}

dx dx'

dx
i^u(x) v(x)

furthermore, it
containing two arbitrary functions u(x), v(x]
is to be noted that the p, q in the brackets are first to be replaced
th
w
partial sum of
e.g. by the w
by approximations p (n \ <?(
and the
their expansion in terms of orthogonal functions
->
not
oo
limit
is to take place after
n
to
the
before,
passage
the integration.
This interpretation offers a sound mathematical
method of dealing with the relation (12.3). It is to be emphasized
that (12.3) refers to two points of space x, x' at the same moment
the arguments
const.
in a section of the world in which t
t, i.e.
of q and p are to be written more precisely as (x, t), (x', t) re;

',

spectively.

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

256

On

applying this general scheme to the action

W =- M + M' + - F,

(5.18)

oc

from which the

field

equations for the electron and for the electro-

are obtained, we find ourselves faced with a

magnetic
difficulty arising from the fact that the Lagrangian function
does not contain the time derivative of the scalar potential /
field

momentum

associated with / then vanishes

cannot
and
identically
possibly satisfy a commutation relation
avoid this difficulty for the moment by
such as (12.3).

for the generalized

We

utilizing the principle of gauge invariance to remove / from the

expression of the Lagrangian function by setting it equal to
this device has already been employed in II,
The set of
13.
functions
the
is
state
then
describing
independent
;

(/

where we have written

**

fc,

* 4 ),

(A,

/ A),

i/r 3
^ 4 in place of $1, (/r2 The
associated with these quantities are then found to be

^rp

momenta

i$p with
with /. The commutation rules which are to be
quantizing the field equations are accordingly
:

Ep

and

applied in

[,,a

P')

= l,2,3,4],

(12.4')

[p,?=l,2,3], (12.4")

and P' are any two points of the same spatial section
We have here taken account of the fact that the
quantities $ describing matter are not to satisfy Heisenberg's
commutation rules, but are instead to satisfy those obtained
by replacing the minus sign which occurs in them by a plus
These rules must be supplemented by the assertion that
sign.

where
t

the

const.

ifj p

satisfy in addition the equations

^(P)^(P')

WW) =

0-

(12.5)

that the /P at any two points P. P' are

and the same for $p
same
for the E v
and
and finally that the
the
commutative
the
on
one
and
the electromagnetic
hand
material quantities
$
the
other
are
E
on
P
kinematically independent,
quantities /p
and that every quantity of the first kind at a point P commutes
with every quantity of the second kind at any point P' (in the
same section t = const, of the world).
As in II,
13, we again consider the whole system enclosed
in an insulated and perfectly reflecting cavity which is at rest.
;

i/r,

THE MAXWELL-DIRAC FIELD EQUATIONS

Jn order to describe the electro-magnetic potentials
use of a complete orthogonal set of solutions f of

Af
in the cavity,

which

(12.6)

satisfy the conditions

div

0,

normal

the walls.
The construction of such a system
obtained from the Gauss divergence theorem
at

=
J([f,

(curl

curl g

curl g] n -f

we make

v*\

257

div

div

do

g)

div

fl

(n denoting

is

readily

^dV

normal component)

div g, f and g being two arbitrary

f
determine the scalar functions
A
which satisfy the equation A<
and vanish on the
walls, and from them construct the vector fields f A
grad A
these vectors f A automatically satisfy the conditions above,
are of course mutually orthogonal and can be normalized in
accordance with the equation
for the vector

vector

fields.

curl g]

[f,

We

22

first

<

<f>

<

f (f

We

\^dv

s AA

.[=

determine a complete normal orthogonal system f, of

solutions of (12.6) which are normal to the walls but which
everywhere, not only at the
satisfy the condition div f v
The f A are then orthogonal to these \ v and they conwalls.
also

stitute together a complete orthogonal

in the cavity.

in the section

position in

We may

const.

system for vector

fields

consequently write

space and have

The

fA,

f,

are vectorial

as values ordinary

functions of

numbers, whereas

/>,
q are scalar quantum mechanical matrices which are
independent of position and which satisfy the commutation

the

rules

commute among themselves and all p among themselves,

and any p commutes with any q whose index is not the same.

all

[These

rules

(12.7) for the

are
4<

perhaps most

readily obtained by solving

"
p, q in terms of integrals

Fourier coefficients

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

258

of scalar products of f, ($ with

The energy
tion rules (12.4).]

of the electro-magnetic field

and applying the commuta-

fa, f,

becomes

We

already know the solution of the commutation rules which

reduces this expression for the energy to diagonal form. The
individual components of the vector on which the />, q operate
correare distinguished by means of the quantum numbers
v
variables
of
continuous
the
values
the
the
and
y,
q^
sponding to

= v 5"> Q*
N in accordance

On setting q v
corresponding to the A.
which
affects
only the index
operator
the equations

other

all

components,

corresponding

to

/oc

"

transitions

an
with

ls

->

neither

The electro-magnetic energy

vanish.
v assumes the integral
as the number of
and
can
be
considered
values 0, 1, 2,
associated
with the
photons of the kind v. The momentum p^
continuous variable q^ is, following Schrodinger, represented by
in

which Ni

the

is

operator

1,

is

then in

d^A

diagonal form and, on neglecting the (infinite !) null-point

q^) with
energy, multiplies the vector component (N v
;

ZvN.+ lZti
&

(12.8)

We

thus see how it happens that the electro-static part, which

described by the continuous variable q^ is separated off from
the part due to the radiation, described by the discrete
v
giving the number of photons of kind v.
The
appear in the part of the energy due to matter only
in combinations of the form $ ty ff
Consequently it will be found
in
advantageous
dealing with electrons to apply the method
of composition followed by anti-symmetric reduction
we have
shown in the preceding section that this procedure is equivalent
to quantizing in accordance with the rules (12.4').
Since the
electro-magnetic quantities commute with the P $p they may
is

ft

THE MAXWELL-DIRAC FIELD EQUATIONS

259

The quantized
here be considered as ordinary numbers.
"
"
with
refer
then
to
vector
a
components
J
equations

wave

n arc the positions of the n electrons and

are
their
",
spin variables, each of which runs through
Pn
Pi,
write z Pl
as a column
the four values 1, 2, 3, 4.
Pn

where
*

We

4n

terms
this z
consisting of
to a permutation affecting the

53

( r)

the spin vector

anti-symmetric with respect

is

and p r

52 S3

@ =
(r)

alike.

r)

(Si

operating only on the

th
index p r jT (r is similarly the operation on the r th index p r
r
and grad (r) is the gradient
which interchanges ^ t
4
2 with <A 3
of
to
P
The
the Hermitian energy operator
with respect
r
part
J in the equation
\

is

(Sj,

t/r

<//

which depends only on matter

-

grad

(r)

V*Q

'

is

U^V)

+ Z grad
-

<f> A

(P r

+ Wol ^
1

and

to this

must be added the electro-magnetic part

we have throughout taken

Since

we have

lost the

(12.9)

(12.8).

the scalar potential

equation
cliv

+p=

(12.10)

from the variation of /

This equation contains no
derivatives with respect to time, and consequently represents
a condition on the state of the field at a moment I
const.

arising

we must
value of

naturally take

& from

(12.7)

it

into account.

On

substituting the

we obtain
27<7A A<^A

+p=

and on multiplying with

<

and integrating over the space under

consideration

From

quantum mechanics the left-hand side

an operator D^ and the meaning of the
that only those vectors j which satisfy the

the standpoint of

of this

equation
equation D^

is
is

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

260

equation D*

electrical part q^

are to be allowed.
and a material part

The operator D^ which

The

Djj

equations

is

DH

to be applied to

then

also consists of

j is

accordingly

that

assert

an

all

components
n

z(P

we may

vanish except those for which q K

qx) of J

therefore write the non-vanishing

Z<t>i(P r }

r-l

components

as

But then
grad<'>

grad^> ^

+ ^ grad ^(P

r)

^^A

yl

is

exactly

now

the combination

which appears

in

Sq\

(12.9).

is

given by

Z=

r, *

Efa(Pr}
1

UP.)

- I G(P P
=
T

g)

r, *

where

the ordinary Green's function for the cavity.

quently obtain the quantum equation

is

for 0, in

We

conse-

which the operator

(r)
,

grad<'>)

+ m T" +
r

>,

In Dirac's theory
-.(5,

grad)

+mr
o

?
=

2r,

fr

(P r ))

G(P r

P.)

&}.

(12.

THE MAXWELL-DIRAC FIELD EQUATIONS

261

the energy operator for a single free particle,

a G(P, P') is
the classical potential due to the electro-static repulsion beThe next term
tween two electrons situated at P and P'
v
the
sum
of
of
the energies
the photons in the various
represents
frequency states v, and finally the last term represents the
interaction between photons and electrons by emission and
The meaning of each of the terms from which
absorption.
the energy operator (12.11) is constructed is thus apparent.
The quantum theory had previously dealt with fields, such as
that which binds the electron in hydrogen to the nucleus, in
a manner entirely different from that with which it treated the
field of the emitted radiation
the first was calculated classically
and purely electro-statically as an action at a distance described
by the Coulomb potential, whereas the second was broken up
into discrete photons with the aid of Bohr's frequency condition.
We have now obtained a theoretical justification for this procedure which led to good agreement with experiment.
Our expression shares with classical electro-dynamics the
disadvantage that it contains the term G(P r P r ) representing
the infinitely large reaction of the r th electron with itself, for
as we allow P' to approach P, G(P, P'} becomes infinite like the

is

PP

reciprocal of the distance

G(P, P) by the finite
(P, P)

p -

f
.

We

should therefore replace

where

rip,
V

'

]
'

GIF, P')
^

'

477

=,

-PP"

for this amounts to dropping an infinitely large additive constant from JQ.
P(P P} represents the effect on an electron at
P of the field obtained by reflecting the field of P in the walls
of the cavity.
(12.11) shows explicitly how the various terms
of JQ depend on the value of the fine-structure constant a
on
in
of
the
a
we
are
solution
faced
and
developing
powers
again
again with infinitely large terms of the same kind as G(P T P r ).
The operator J$ contains singularities which, at the present
stage, frustrate all attempts to carry through the theory.
may indeed conclude with P. Jordan that the problem of the
y

We

of the electron is solved, but that that of its conhas as yet eluded us.
Our equations further suffer
from the fundamental disadvantage of the Dirac theory that
the individual spin variables p r assume 4 instead of 2 different

existence
stitntion

values. 23

nothing to prevent us from quantizing

manner analogous to that applied to
We should then develop our quantities
electro-magnetic waves.

There

is,

of course,

the matter waves in a

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

262

describing the material field in a series of characteristic

functions 1/1
ifi^l (with four components) of the Dirac equation

(@, grad)

+ m Tt + pfj =

(12.12)

which constitute, on imposing appropriate boundary conditions,

The general component z of
a complete orthogonal system.
the vector
on which the energy
cj$ operates, will then depend
on the quantum number n M which corresponds to the characteristic values
and
and which may assume only the values
1, and in addition on the numbers N v of photons of the various
But then the
frequencies v and on the continuous variables q x
operators D^ which commute among themselves and with J
are not in diagonal form, and the elimination of q^ cannot be
accomplished as in the above method.
Instead of introducing a cavity as in the above we may
,

JJL

employ a " rectangular parallclepipedon with

"

the
boundary
condition
that all functions are to be periodic functions whose
periods are the lengths of the sides of the parallelepipedon.
We can then introduce running instead of standing waves as
this gives
characteristic functions for the electro-magnetic field
rise to a better agreement with the physical picture in which
The
a photon corresponds to a homogeneous plane wave.
if we
in
then
form
are
also
and
the
momenta
diagonal
energy
;

the interaction between matter and light.

Equation
causes some difficulty, as its right-hand side
then
(12.10)
must be replaced by the constant mean value of the charge
throughout the entire space in order that a periodic solution
On taking account of protons in the theory this
be possible.
will automatically correct itself, as the total charge will then

neglect

beO.

The dynamical law

allows only those quantum jumps of the

one
and another n^> jumps
n^ falls from 1 to
particles in which
to 1.
at the same time from
Consequently the total number
of particles

n^ and

therefore the charge, remains fixed

hence

that portion of the dynamical laws in which the total number

a given finite n is separated off from the remaining portion
and intercombinations between the two do not arise. Dirac
has proposed to interpret the presence or the absence of a proton

is

in the state of positive energy p, as the absence or the presence,

respectively, of an electron in the corresponding negative energy

our laws will then include protons as well as electrons. 21

0, 1 were at first introRemembering that the numbers n M
duced merely as an arbitrary index indicating the rows of a

state

p,

THE MAXWELL^DIRAC FIELD EQUATIONS

263

nothing to prevent us from replacing the numbers

1
M_ M for negative
n_ M keeping n+
p by n~
n^ for
The
theorem
of
the
conservation
of
is
then
positive /it.
charge
matrix, there

is

IX But we thereby

n~

const,

(/i

>

0).

alter the content,

as well as the notation, of

interested in that part of the dynamical
equations in which only a finite number of n^ with positive /LI
and only a finite number of n^ with negative
are different from

the theory

we

now

are

are different from 1

The quantum jump of an electron
between positive and negative energy levels, which was so un!

\L

the Dirac theory as formulated in the previous

as a process in which an electron and a

desirable in

now appears

section,

proton are simultaneously destroyed and as the inverse process.

of such an occurrence, for which our terrestrial
offer
no justification, has long been entertained in
experiments
it
as
seems
otherwise extremely difficult to explain
atrophysics,
the source of the energy emitted by stars.

The assumption

However

attractive this idea

may seem

at

first, it is

certainly

hold without introducing other profound modiimpossible

fications to square our theory with the observed facts.
Indeed,
according to it the mass of a proton should be the same as the
mass of an electron
furthermore, no matter how the action
is chosen
(so long as it is invariant under interchange of right
and left), this hypothesis leads to the essential equivalence of
even
positive and negative electricity under all circumstances
on taking the interaction between matter and radiation rigorously into account.
Having now quantized the field equations, we must return
to the question of how the constituents M, M', F of the action
behave under the substitutions (6.12), (6.13), (6.H). The first
to

two substitutions, which we may call (a) and (&), have exactly
the same effect as before.
But the third substitution (r),
which sends the components of
over into the components
of $ or their negative, now affects
and M' differently, for
and
arc no longer commutative with respect to multiplica/r

t/r

iff

From this
are, in fact, almost anti-commutative.
F
in
found that
behave
under
M',
exactly the same
(c)
way as they do under (b) i.e. they are multiplied by the signs
Hence past and future play essentially
-jrespectively.
different roles in the quantized field equations ; we find no substitution which leaves these equations unchanged while reversing
the direction of time.
It seems to me that we have thereby
tion

they

it is

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

264

reached an extraordinarily important

can now obtain the substitution

/.->-/.

(a

0,1,

goal

of

physics.

We

2, 3)

this substitution neither affects

(a), (b) and (c)
the co-ordinates nor disturbs the quantized wave equations.
In view of Dirac's theory of the proton this means that positive
and negative electricity have essentially the same properties
in the sense that the laws governing them are invariant under
a certain substitution which interchanges the quantum numbers
of the electrons with those of the protons.
The dissimilarity
of the two kinds of electricity thus seems to hide a secret of
Nature which lies yet deeper than the dissimilarity of past and

on combining

future.

13.

The Energy and Momentum Laws

Physics.

of
Relativistic Invariance

Quantum

In quantizing the wave equations the spatial and temporal

treated so differently that the relativistic invariance of the resulting laws might seem to be open to serious

variables were

But a thorough investigation due to Heisenberg and

doubt.
Pauli reassures us on this point. 25 We carry through these
considerations on our action principle but in such a way that
the general validity of the argument may be readily seen.
At
the same time this offers an opportunity to discuss the meaning
of the quantization more thoroughly than we have done hitherto.
The Energy and Momentum Laws of Quantum Physics.

/.

\Ve begin with the 4

-f-

3 operators

i/r p

/,

Ep

which

are functions in 3-dimensional space satisfying the commutation

rules (12.4) and the supplementary rules there set forth.
There
exists one, and in the sense of equivalence only one, irreducible

solution of these conditions.

density
space

defined by

(6.5),

From
(6.6)

it

we obtain

and integrate

it

the energy
over all of

(13.1)

We

next construct the " commutator

LAWS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

265

with J
Consider the result of this
the
for
/p E v it should be possible
particular operators
i/r p
these
commutators using (12.4) and the supplementto evaluate
ary rules alone ;. if one of the quantities involved appears as a
derivative with respect to a spatial co-ordinate it should be

of

an arbitrary operator

transformed by integrating (13.1) by parts or by deducing

rules for it from (12.4) in terms of appropriately

commutation
defined

derivates

the

of

function.

If

is

that

process

involving only differentiations with respect to the spatial variables, but which coincide with the derivative with respect to
time in virtue of the Maxwell-Dirac field equations, we find
O/ p

~~

"

v*

OC Lf

^| 'Y

8F
01
'

We now

It follows from these

0.
drop the normalization fQ
80
for
that
coincides
invariant
equations
any gauge
operator
with its time derivative as defined in terms of its spatial derivatives by means of the field laws.
We may therefore replace
the Maxwell-Dirac field equations by the quantum mechanical

dynamical law

represents the probability state of the physical system (pure

at the time x
it is a vector of that
!)
vector-space in which
our operations take place. The fundamental concepts here
involved are contained in the general programme of quantum
mechanics as set forth in II,
The " density of electricity
7.
"
at the point P
is, for example, represented by the operator

state

P
in

$1*1*1

which

the

is

independent

distribution

for

of time.

The changes

this

probability
physical quantity in
course of time are due to the changes in the state 3 and not to
the rule for the calculation of this probability
changes in p itself
;

distribution from p
referred to above.

and

3 is given in the general programme

The same remarks apply to any gauge
invariant quantity 0.
However, it is more desirable to con"

sider

the

4t

density of electricity
(without specifying either
time or position) as a fixed physical quantity represented by a
definite operator p, and to ascribe the variations in its probability distribution in time and space to changes in the probability state 3 considered as a function of the spatial co-ordinates

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

266

x 2 #3 *w addition to the time X Q

find four equations

%ij

i|r
in place of the

one

= 7i5

(13.3) in

(a

We

0,

should then expect to

1,2,

3)

(13.4)

which the operators

are those representing energy and momentum.

Only now that
we have formulated the general scheme of quantum physics
in a manner which is symmetric with respect to the spatial
and temporal co-ordinates, as required by the theory of relativity,
can we consider it as complete.
In order to determine the

mean value

of a quantity such as the electric density p

assign to the spatial co-ordinates

p depends, any definite values

we must

x lt x 2 # 3 on which the operator

The spatial com# (e.g. 0).
us that the replacement of (xfy
dxp ) amounts to the same thing
,

ponents of equation (13.4) tell

by a neighbouring point (x
as subjecting the normal co-ordinate system in system space,
to which the vectors 5 are referred, to the infinitesimal rotation

We
to the

must not
complete

forget that the equation (13.3) is not equivalent

set of field equations, for we have omitted the

one
a(P) = div

+p=

which does not involve differentiation with respect to time. We

must therefore restrict ourselves to vectors 3 which satisfy all
the equations
cr(P)8

0.

(13.5)

These equations define a linear sub-space 9ft a of the original

system-space 5R. The operators o-(P), a(P') associated with any
two points P, P' of space are commutative
:

a(P) a(P')
It is

of

o(P'} a(P)

0.

prime importance that a(P) commute with J Qy

that this

is

i.e.

that

the case follows from the fact that the equation

is a consequence of the remaining field equations in

o#
the classical field theory, and consequently independently of
-

LAWS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

267

equations we may conclude that the gauge invariant

0.
This commutativity
operator a satisfies the equation Scr
of cr(P) and ^ guarantees that the infinitesimal rotation iJ^dx Q
of system-space during the time interval dx Q does not carry the
vector 5 lying in the sub-space 9^ out of 9ft a
Continuing our programme, we now set

our

field

"

and investigate the

of

8l
8

commutator

with

an operator

we

whenever confusion might

with

We

"

denote this commutator by

shall

arise

between

find the equations

it

and the commutator

(13.6)

From

this

it

we have 80

follows that for

= ^0

on taking

any gauge invariant quantity

the equation

into

account.

v%i

Hence the way

in which gauge invariant quantities

the spatial co-ordinates can in fact be described as we
the operators representing them are constant, but
3 representing the probability state varies in space in
with the equations (13.4) for a
1, 2, 3.

depend on
predicted
the vector
:

accordance

That the four equations (13.4) are consistent also follows

from these considerations.
In the first place we have
Sja

or

a(P)

In the classical
this follows from (13.6).
space 9t
theory the differential conservation theorem

in the entire
field

a(P)y i

a/?
_

^
[

*XH

/a/}i
j

\^x

^
I

a/?L

*x 2

^
I

Mj\
1 \

ZxJ

Since t is a gauge
a consequence of the field equations.
it
the
follows
that
after
invariant,
quantization the operators
the
relation
satisfy
is

V;
*
i

/a,

In contrast with (6.2) we

as an abbreviation for curl

now employ
f.

the letter

without the factor

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

268

in the space 3L defined

const, we obtain

by

Integrating over the space

(13.5).

o or

y Q y,

-y

o.

[The equation which takes the place of (13.7) for

space 9t is

(is.7)

the entire

Furthermore

=
OX 2
in 3}^,

and on integrating

this

S/33

over space we find

?? -

or

Jt =

0.

We

thus see that the operators J a are commutative in 9^, and

consequently equations (13.4) possess one and only one solution
j when the initial value of 5 (i.e. at the origin of the space-time
co-ordinate system) is a given vector in 3^,.
//.

Relativistic Invariance.

On

transforming from the normal co-ordinate system X M in

space-time to another x'M by means of a Lorentz transformation
3

A:

x'a

= ZO^XP
ft-.O

the solution of the equations

-.^
**x a
is,

as

means
by A.

= 78

(13.4')

we

shall show, obtained from the solution of (13.4) by

of a unitary transformation
induced in system-space
That is, there exists a unitary transformation
such

that

is

satisfied in virtue of (13.4)

or

p'U.

(13.8)

LAWS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

269

We

could also say that (13.4') have the same solution 5 as (13.4)
but that the normal co-ordinate system employed in system-

space has undergone the unitary rotation [/, for the vector f/J
has the same components with respect to the new co-ordinate
system as 5 had with respect to the old. We are only able to
give the transformation U explicitly for infinitesimal A
:

IM = i +
The equations

i|&/il

which are

(13.8)

U=

-.&M.

to be verified are then

ft

particular, the operators in system-space which correspond

infinitesimal rotations in physical space are, as we have
that
long known, those representing moment of momentum

In

to

SM

corresponding to the infinitesimal rotation

Sx

8*!

0,

about the X-axis

is

the

^-component

=
The

#3

8# 2

0,

of

Dx

8#3

moment

=#
of

(13.9)

momentum

(13.10)

f(

which actually reprethe world into a new space and a new

infinitesimal Lorentz transformations

sent a re-partitioning of
time are dealt with in exactly the same manner
to consider as typical of such transformations
8#o

The

'

8M

#1,

8#!

8* 2

8*3

0,

associated with this transformation

it

will suffice

0.

is

the second term, which vanishes for #

0, can be omitted,
for we have already shown that y i commutes with all y#.
This
term does not fit into the present scheme, in which all the
Our problem is thus
operators are functions of x^ x 2 x 3 alone.
reduced to showing that in 9^
,

(M n ,J.]
(M 10 ya
,

= 0,
0,
= - ? -?

_
-?4 fora
t0r a -

?
,

0,

'

i
A

'

o
Z 3
6

(13.11)
-

>

(13.12)

Furthermore, the invariance of equations (13.5) which define

the sub-space St^, will be proved by showing that the equations

[M 18 ,a]=0
hold in the entire space

91.

[M 10 ,a]=0

(13.13)

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

270

we make

In order to prove (13.11)

Mx $-xs
t

dy

use of the identities

r

2| 31.

"bxa

Introducing the Kronecker

8,- t ,

the integrand

and since

In consequence of a

be written

are gauge invariants

/,

may

the operations
-

o#a

may

be replaced by 8 a /

*3

[J at

J],

whence
(8. 2

J3

8 a3 7.)

+ 8 J(*

'i)^!

or

S*M 23

[^,

JV/ 23 ]

In the classical field theor

8.3

- 8, ^

^a

holds identically in 3^.

space we obtain

1, 2, 3J.

whence on quantizing

i^^^^ =i

^^ a

Integrating over the whole of physical

80^23
equations (13.11),

a consequence of the field equations,

8o(*4

[a

the conservation law

=
is

Jz

[7o,

Mn =
]

i.e.

[M^J\ = ^J*-^J*

[a

0,

1,

2, 3],

are thus completely verified.

The relations (13.12) are obtained in an analogous

from

r
and from the equation

[for

=1,2,

3]

manner

LAWS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

271

jvhich parallels the conservation theorem

I- -5

dF

of the classical field theory.

We

should expect the operator functions expressed by the

fp,
depending on the spatial co-ordinates, to be inp
variant if we associate with an infinitesimal rotation of the
spatial co-ordinate system an appropriate linear transformation
of the components
among themselves and of the vector
p
E
and
at the same time subject the normal
/,
p
components
co-ordinate system in system space 9^ to the corresponding
In formulae
We expect the process
unitary transformation.

t/f

Ep

i/r

to yield the equations

S'i/r

-3'

where we have written

But we

find

$f
71

We

first

by

Xi2

direct calculation that

2 -\I

x3

&f
72

3>

x2

1?

8f
73

x3

1)

observe that these equations yield

8(7

independently
condition a

of

the

we

[Mjj,

Or]

a
0.
On introducing the
from these equations that gauge in-

condition

find

exhibit the expected behaviour.

The
quantities
second of the equations (13.13) can be obtained by an analogous
computation.

variant

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

272

D.

QUANTUM KINEMATICS
as an Abelian Group of
Rotations

Quantum Kinematics

14.

If we consider the operators ip, iq as infinitesimal unitary

rotations of the ray field in system space, then Heisenberg's
commutation rules [II, (11.4)] assert that these rotations are
commutative
consequently they generate a 2/-parameter
;

Abelian group, where / is the number of degrees of freedom.

Let us therefore investigate the properties of Abelian groups
of unitary rotations in the ray field of n-dimensional space
On introducing a gauge as in III, 16, to each such " rotation "
there corresponds a transformation of vector space with matrix
A and between any two matrices A, B there exists an equation
!

of the

form

AB =

zBA.

(14.1)

This equation is possible only if 6 is an n ih root of unity, for on

n
1.
evaluating the determinant of both sides we obtain e
From (14.1) we obtain by mathematical induction

for k,

2,

1,

3,

applying the second to

the general rule

On combining

Ak

and

A kB l

Taking k

in (14.2)

we

B
e

kl

these two equations by

instead of A and B we find

B Ak
l

are led to the equation

(14.3)

A H B = BA n

the Abelian rotation group is irreducible Schur's fundamental

lemma allows us to conclude that since A n commutes with all
elements B of the group it must be a multiple of the unit matrix

if

The order of any element of an irreducible Abelian

group in n dimensions is consequently a factor of n.
/-parameter continuous rotation group is generated by

1.

rotation

An

an /-dimensional linear family g of infinitesimal unitary correspondences

cr
af C f
2 C2
j Cl
(14.4)

in
Ci,
(T!,

terms of a basis formed by any / independent elements

C2
C f of the family. The numerical parameters
*,
a dr
(7
2
a/ may assume all real values.
Setting a,
,

QUANTUM KINEMATICS
and reiterating the
"
"

that at

time

273

we

infinitesimal transformation (14.4),

r the resulting transformation

where we have replaced a,r by

group, which is now expressed

find

is

[7 runs through the entire

terms of the parameters a.
If the group of unitary transformations of the vector
space is
Abelian the C v must satisfy the conditions

C^C

From

a,.

in

CC
V

0.

(14.6)

it
then follows that all the elements
are
group
mutually commutative, for if
as in the domain of ordinary numbers,

this

AB

The parameters a

orf)U(cr't

oy)

U(a l

cr[

where the

c^ v

pi

O y C'

L- y

1l

^ A
|/

have,

a/

If, however, only the rotations of the ray space are

ive, we find in place of (14.6) conditions of the form
L'

of the

we

added on composition

in (14.5) are

'

U(a lt

(14.5)

BA

oy).

commutat-

constitute an anti-symmetric system of real numbers.

of the infinitesimal transformations with

The commutator
matrices

A =

alCl

'

rlCl

BA = iZc^T,-

1.

'

a f C ft

'

'

'

is

AB

We

shall refer to the

as the

On
k

writing 1
/

anti-symmetric form

commutator form
-\

= m ->

A
-,

-|

it

B
--

we

oo,

elements U(a l9 a 2

find
,

or/)

invariant under change of basis.

is

in (14.3) in place of

B and

allowing

commutator of any two

and
U(a)
U(r) of the group is

that

A,

U(a)U(r)U- (a)U-

the

(r)

e[h(a, r)}

1.

(14.7)

U(a) can only

a multiple of the unit matrix,
From this we conclude that
i.e. if all its parameters a vanish.
the commutator form is non-degenerate, i.e. that it cannot
If

the rotation group

all U(r) if

commute with

is

it

irreducible a fixed
is

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

274

values a unless all

as
the
condition c ik 4= 0.
the
same
o- t
this amounts
is even, in
of
number
variables
the
if
exists
Such a form
/
only
the
choice
of
basis
which case it can, by appropriate
(i.e. by
transforming the variables a, and r cogrediently under an
appropriate transformation), be reduced to the canonical form
in which the matrix \\c ik is decomposed into 2-rowed sub-matrices
in r t for a fixed set of

vanish identically
.

t ,

to

\\

-1
It is then desirable to
arranged along the principal diagonal.*
"
"
so
canonical basis
write 2/ in place of / and to denote the
obtained by

iP9 ,iQ 9

(v=l,

-,/)

2,

The factor i has

and the corresponding parameters by crv rv
been introduced in order to express the results in terms of
The basic elements then satisfy
Hermitian operators PVJ Q v
the commutation rules
.

for

[i

4=

PS, - P,PM for all n,

v.

U(a)

- &0M -

a.0,

o,

The elements

= e^Pt +

a2 P2

a,Pf

{e(x}

= e>*\

then constitute an /-parameter Abelian group of unitary (vector)

correspondences, as do also the
V(r)

C(T&I

+r

Q2

But the commutator of elements

two sets, respectively, is
U(<,)V(T)U-i(a)V-*(r)

T,0,).

U(a), V(r) belonging to these

e (a iri

'

'

o,r f)

1.

We have now carried our development to a point where we

can profitably return to the considerations of II,
In
11.
the case of a system with one degree of freedom in classical
mechanics any physical quantity associated with the system
expressed mathematically as a function /(/>, q) of the canonical
In making the transition to quantum mechanics
variables p, q.
we had previously restricted ourselves to polynomials in />, q.
But the Fourier representation
is

-fOO

(P, 1}

=
\

\e(P

?)

f (a,

-00
*

See Appendix

3.

T)

da dr

(14.8)

QUANTUM KINEMATICS
of a function

is

applicable to a

much

275

larger class of functions

integral need not be interpreted literally, the essential

point being that it represents a linear combination of the simple
this

functions

e(ap

On

rq).

considering ip iq as infinitesimal
ray space which are commutative
y

in

unitary correspondences
in accordance with the relation

i(pq

qp)

1,

(14.9)

If we
rq} runs through the group generated by them.
e(ap
now consider (<j, r) as the components of an element in the
resulting group algebra, then (14.8) is its group matrix in the
representation obtained by associating with (a, r) the unitary
transformation e(ap
This group matrix is Hermit ian if
rq).
the element is real, i.e. if

!(a, T)

f (-

cr,

r).

quantity / is consequently carried over from classical to

quantum mechanics in accordance with the rule replace p and
:

q in the Fourier development (14.8) of f by the Hermitian operators

In particular, the
representing them in quantum mechanics.
derivatives of f are represented by

+ 00

e(ap

rq)

or(o-, T)

dadr,

QO

+ 00

On

letting U(r) in (14.7) again in infinitesimal

the aid of the commutation rules (14.9), that

We

e(op
rq}
e(ap + rq)
q e(op -\- rq)
e(ap
rq)
therefore have in general

/>

as required in order that the

~~
dt

<y

=
^

we

find,

with

e(ap ^- rq),

^(orp

1-4).

Hamiltonian equations
~~

"'

dt

be equivalent to the quantum-theoretical equations of motion

for the vectors of system space
We have thus found a very natural interpretation of quantum
kinematics as described by the commutation rules.
The kinematical structure of a physical system is expressed
an
irreducible
by
Abelian group of unitary ray rotations in system
The real
space.
elements of the algebra of this group are the
physical quantities of
the system ; the representation
of the abstract group by rotations
of system space associates with each such quantity a definite
Hermitian form which " represents " //.
If the
group is continuous this procedure automatically leads to Heisenbergs

276

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

in particular, we have seen how the pairs of

formulation
canonical variables then result from the requirement of irreducibility, whence the number of parameters in such an irreducible Abelian group must be even. 26
the canonical co-ordinates, say q, is a cyclical
If one of
co-ordinate with period 27r, then all quantities of the physical
system are represented by periodic functions with period 2-rr.
Consequently the only values assumed by the parameter r
associated with q in (14.8) are multiples of 2-jr and the integral
is to be replaced by a sum.
In such a case we are no longer
with
a
continuous
dealing
group, but with a mixed (continuous;

discrete) group.

Our general

principle

allows for the

possibility

that

the

Abelian rotation group is entirely discontinuous, or that it

may even be a finite group. Thus we have discussed in III,
16, a group of order 4 and an irreducible ray representation
That such groups actually occur in
$8 of it in 2 dimensions.
Nature is shown by the fact that the group we have just mentioned characterizes the kinematics of the electron spin disIt can be readily shown that S3 is the only
cussed in
4.
irreducible representation of this group, and that it is in fact
the only irreducible 2-dimensional group of unitary rotations in
ray space. These results emphasize the remarkable nature of

The quantization

this simplest case.

of the problem of several

11 also falls within our general scheme.

electrons discussed in

In dealing with it we are interested in that Abelian group whose

such
basic elements p A (a
1, 2.
2/) are all of order 2
a group consists of the totality of the 4-f different elements

P*

Pt

The gauge can be

so

'

'

P%

K-

or

0).

chosen that the corresponding unitary

dimensions

M in the irreducible ray representation in 2J

matrices p
satisfy the equations

Pi

The kinematics of
=1
simplest case /

1,

PeP

= - PPp

(a

the spinning electron

is

j8).

(14.10)

described by the

of this representation.
Because of these results I feel certain that the general scheme
But the
of quantum kinematics formulated above is correct.

groups offers many possibilities which we have

not as yet been able to realize in Nature
perhaps these holes
will be filled by applications to nuclear physics.
However, it
seems more probable that the scheme of quantum kinematics
will share the fate of the general scheme of quantum mechanics
to be submerged in the concrete physical laws of the only existing
field of discrete

physical structure, the actual world.

DERIVATION OF THE WAVE EQUATION

15.

Derivation of the

Wave

277

Equation from the

Commutation Rules

We now show by actual construction that there exists but

one irreducible ray representation (excluding the identity) of
a 2-parameter continuous Abelian group
namely, that one
which leads to the wave equation.
We obtain our 2-parameter continuous group as the limiting
our proof is rigorous
case of a finite group with 2 basic elements
the
of
insofar
as
this
validity
only
limiting process is admitted.
B
two
commutative
be
rotations of an n-dimensional
Let A,
On introducing the gauge we have an equation
ifnitary space.
between their matrices
:

AB =

eBA,

(14.1)

an n th root of unity. The

in which, as
already, e
of
the two matrices A B shall be irreducible.
system consisting
Let their commutator, the number e, be a primitive m th root of
m
m is
unity, i.e. e is the lowest power of e which is equal to 1
then a factor of n. The orders of the rotations A, B are also
n
factors of n: A n
1, so the gauge may be chosen in
1, B
n
n
such a way that A
Let B be reduced to diagonal
1.
1, B
form by an appropriate choice of our normal co-ordinate system
the elements b i in the main diagonal are then all n th roots of
unity.
Equation (14.1) then yields the following conditions on
the elements of A
||a tA

we know

is

.||

^ *<* = ***

15J

We

divide the indices i and the corresponding variables #,

into classes in accordance with the rule that i and k belong to

th
the same class if the quotient bi/b k is an
root of unity, i.e.
a power of e.
That this process really results in such a division
into classes is shown by the fact that if b lb k and b k /bi are powers
of e, then b^/bi is also.
if i and k
By (15.1) a lk
belong to
different classes
hence the matrix A is reduced in accordance
with the division of the indices into classes. But in view of
the assumption that the system A, B was irreducible there can
therefore exist but one such class.
Having established this result, we now proceed to a finer
division into classes
i and k shall now be considered as belonging
to the same class if fr t
We arbitrarily choose as the first
bk
of these classes that one for which fr t
b and let the second
2
6 fr,
consist of those for which &
efe, the third with b
~l
th
m
the
this exhausts the set, for the (m -}- l) 8t
with fr t
b
e
t

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

278

= B mb

Let the variables be

then
follows from equaarranged and numbered
A are empty,
matrix
of
the
all
sub-matrices
tion (15.1) that
(f, k)
column
their
index
and
row
i
index
i.e. a ik
0, unless their
then
has
the
A
matrix
The
k belong to successive classes.
in
nonthe
form indicated in Fig. 3, in which all elements
The
shaded portions are zero (and we have taken m
4).
(l
shaded portions are occupied by the sub-matrices A \ A *\
A^ m \ Since A is unitary the sum of the squares of the
the
absolute values of the elements of a row or column is 1
class

bi

coincides with the

first.

in this order.

It

FIG.

3.

also hold for the rows and columns of

each of the sub-matrices. The sum of the absolute values of
must then be equal, on the
the squares of all elements in
one hand, to the number of rows and, on the other, to the number

same must therefore

AW

AM

the rectangle
is consequently a square, and
in
the second class is equal to the number
the number of indices
in the first class, say d.
By the same argument we see that
classes is d, and hence
the number of individuals in each of the

of

columns

each of
md. The figure is to be corrected accordingly
the shaded matrices is now unitary.
On subjecting the variables

DERIVATION OF THE WAVE EQUATION

279

first class to the unitary transformation with matrix

sub-matrix
the
is reduced to the ^-dimensional unit
AM*
This
normal
form
is undisturbed by a
matrix.
unitary transformation affecting the variables of the first set and the variables
we can therefore reduce the second
of the second set alike
sub-matrix to a multiple of the ^-dimensional unit matrix, and
8t
The normal form so obtained is
so on through the (m
l)
unchanged on subjecting the variables of each class to the same

the

.of

AM
;

^-dimensional unitary transformation

we may therefore choose
as this last transformation one which reduces
to diagonal
But the matrix A is then decomposed into ^-sub-matrices,
form.
as can be seen by renumbering the variables, taking first the
first members in each set, then the second, etc.
The irreducithen
be
tells
us
that
but
one member
there
can
bility assumption
in each set
d
m. Our matrices are now in the normal
1, n
;

AW

form

=
pi ^ r

elements not explicitly indicated are zero.

all

in

are

n successive integers and

is

The exponents

a primitive n th root of

We

n
\ yields a
number
1.
unity.
Finally, the equation A
the variables from r on and take indices which are congruent
the two correspondences are then
mod. n as equal
;

A
On

reiteration

we

xk

find

(15.2)

transition to continuous groups is now accomplished by

Let the basis iP, iQ of the conpassing to the limit n -> oo.
tinuous 2-paramctcr Abelian rotation group be normalized in

The

accordance with (14.9). We identify the matrix A of the above

considerations with the infinitesimal e(P) and B with e(rjQ)
and 77 are real infinitesimal constants. Then e(aP)
where
is
now
B* when in the limit sg -> <r, trj -> r.
A\ e(rQ]
the
and e*'
physical quantity
e(kr).
e(rQ) represents

k
the values which it may assume are given by e' * where
In other words,
r is real and k runs through all integral values.
the quantity q may assume the values k
q may assume all
k is to be concourse
real numbers from
oo to -f oo.
(Of

T(i

sidered mod. ft and k

mod.nf, but

??

is

a multiple

of

"277/17

APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY

280

We

therefore
and may consequently be infinite in the limit.)
write q in place of k, where q is understood to be a variable
which runs through the possible values of the physical quantity q,

is an arbitrary function,
in place of x k
and
\f/(q)
</'(#)
whose values are complex numbers, which satisfies the normalizing
.

condition

On

passing to the limit in the second equation of (15.2) we

is represented by the linear operator

find that the quantity e ir<i

Similarly

we

find

from the

first
-->

is

the operator representing e

equation of (15.2) that

$(q

io

*.

infinitesimal unitary transformations

q:*Kq)

= q'+(q),

a)

On returning from
we find
tyfo)

\&

finite

to

(15.3)

We

have thus finally justified the assumption from which we

started in Chapter II.
The extension of these results to systems with several degrees
of freedom causes no trouble.
The kinematics of a system which
is expressed by a continuous Abelian group of rotations is consequently determined uniquely by the number f of degrees of freedom.
The postulate of irreducibility allows us to conclude that the
particular operators (15.3) of the Schrodinger theory are a
27

necessary consequence of Heisenberg's commutation rules.

P. Jordan and E. Wigner 2 * have given a very elegant grouptheoretic proof that there exists but one irreducible matrix
solution of equations (14.10), i.e. that one of degree 2^ there

mentioned and given

in greater detail at the

end of

11.

CHAPTER V

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP AND THE

ALGEBRA OF SYMMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
A.
1.

GENERAL THEORY

The Group Induced

in Tensor Space and the

Algebra of Symmetric Transformations

rj ^HE

principal problem we propose to solve in this chapter

group- tlieoretic classification of line spectra of an atom
consisting of an arbitrary number, say f, of electrons,
f
taking into account the reduction of the space 31 to |3K}, as required by the Pauli exclusion principle, and the spinning electron.
For this it is necessary to consider in detail the representations
of the symmetric group, i.e. the group 777 of all /! permutations of
/ things. These are most intimately related to the representations of the group U of all unitary transformations or the group
C of
all homogeneous linear transformations of a space 9t n
This connection has already been touched upon in Chapter III,
5
the substratum of a representation of C or U consists of the
linear manifold of all tensors of order / in 5K n which satisfy
certain symmetry conditions, and the symmetry properties of
a tensor are expressed by linear relations between it and the
tensors obtained from it by the/! permutations.
A tensor F of order/in the n-dimensional vector space 3t JR n
lt
is defined
coby its nf components or, as we prefer to say,
"
1
efficients
i
i
each
the
i
from
to
of
indices
runs
n.
f)
F(i l 2

is ike

Tensors can be added and multiplied by arbitrary numbers

"
hence the totality of such tensors F constitute a linear
vector
"
of
nf
F
can
be
dimensions.
space
Further,
subjected to
an arbitrary permutation s of its / indices, which can be thought
of as a permutation of the / numbers 1, 2,
/ attached to
;

the indices

in the general

component above

mutation

i-*r, 2-*

2',

281

-,/->/'

if
;

is

the per-

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

282

sF

then the tensor

obtained by applying

s to

by

is,

definition,

that tensor whose coefficients are

sF(i 1 i 2
It

'

t.

(1.1)

any two permutations

t(sF)

'

F(iVtV

follows from this definition that for

and

6'

if

linear correspondence
'

F'(ii

if)

= 2Xh

'

'

F ->

(ts)F.

F'

'

kjFfa

k,

i,\

(1.2)

*,)

(*)

is

said to be

symmetric

if

the coefficient

unaltered on subjecting the sub-indices 1, 2,

/of both the
The proi and & to the same arbitrary permutation s.
cesses of addition, multiplication by a number and permutation,
in the sense defined above, applied to tensors are invariant
and conversely, any
under symmetric linear transformations
transformation of tensor space under which these processes
are invariant is linear and symmetric.
The totality of symmetric
is

indices

if A and B are elecorrespondences constitutes an algebra Z

ments of H then A
AB
and
cA
an
5,
(c
arbitrary number)
are also.
The problem with which we shall concern ourselves
is the reduction of 3t/ into linear sub-spaces ty which are invariant with respect to Z i.e. with respect to all symmetric linear
Wherever in the following we employ the
transformations.
terms invariant, irreducible, etc., in referring to the tensor space
9R/, they are to be interpreted with respect to the algebra Z
We give a brief resume of our terminology. We are dealing
with a vector space JR and a system Z of linear correspondences
:

~*
of 3t

on

itself

"

we may
"

- AI

j'

often prefer to use the term

"

linear
"

in
linear correspondence (operator)
instead of
projection
order to bring out the fact that the correspondence need not
be one-to-one. A (linear) sub-space ty of 91 is invariant if an
sends every vector
arbitrary projection A of the system
if it contains
is
into
a
vector
of
irreducible
of
over
J
ty
^5
^
conno invariant sub-space other than itself and the space

We

always understand by
invariant sub-space
a complete reduction ^
^? 2
ty a complete reduction into two linearly independent invariant
A
sub-spaces ^ 1 ^ 2 even when this is not explicitly stated.
of the invariant sub-space ty on the
linear projection j -+

sisting only of the vector 0.

=--=

'

^+

shall

of the

THE GROUP INDUCED

IN

TENSOR SPACE

283

invariant sub-space *$' is similar if two vectors

and t) of ty
which are related by a correspondence A of the system t)
A J,
and t)' of *$' which are
are always projected into two vectors
A j'. ^ and ^' are similar or
related by the same A
t)'
equivalent: *$'
^J if a one-to-one linear and similar correIn particular,
spondence can be set up between ty and *$'.
these concepts are to be applied to the case in which the vector
of 11? dimensions and
is
space is the tensor space ffl
9ft{

'

the totality of symmetric transformations.

In quantum theory the state of a system consisting of /
equivalent individuals (electrons) with a system-space 31 is
The energy necessarily
described by a tensor of order / in 9ft.
of
in
on
the
each
individuals
/
depends
exactly the same way
hence the Hermitian operator which represents the energy is
The fundamental dynamical
necessarily symmetric in our sense.
law therefore allows us to conclude that an invariant sub-space
*P of 9ft/ has the property that if the tensor describing the state
of the system is at any time in ^ no influence whatever can drive
it out.
A complete reduction of 9ft/ into invariant sub-spaces
ty implies a corresponding reduction of the operator representing
the energy
hence the term spectrum is reduced into classes
terms
of
belonging to the various *$, such that the members of
one class can under no conditions combine with the members
of another.
Naturally this division into non-combining classes
is to be carried as far as
But this problem is exactly
possible.
the one proposed above
the only difference being that we are
here only concerned with the totality Z (h} of symmetric Hermitian
;

However, this restriction is quite

any symmetric operator can be written in the form
where
operators.

irrelevant,

for

iA 2

'

2z

are both Hermitian.

On going over to a new co-ordinate system in the fundamental

vector space 9ft by means of a non-singular transformation
*;

the coefficients of a tensor

(**)**

(i.3)

are transformed in accordance with

(?)

(1-4)

The transformation
transformation

(1,4)

(1.3)

in

vector space induces the symmetric

These induced transtensor space.

in

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

284

"

formations, which we shall call

special symmetric transformations," constitute a group 27 which is isomorphic with the complete linear group

Cn

this representation of c

was previously

denoted by (c)A The group Z* is contained in the algebra 27.

Hence a sub-space ty of ffl which is invariant under the algebra
Z is a fortiori invariant under the group HQ That the converse
.

Nevertheless
not so self-evident.
for all questions involving only linearity 27 can be replaced by
the more extended 27, for 2 is what we might call an enveloping
by this we mean that any symmetric
algebra for the group 27
transformations can be expressed as a linear combination of
1
To
appropriately chosen special symmetric transformations.
of this result

also valid

is

is

show

we prove

this

homogeneous
if

c(ii
;*)

the theorem

k f ) x(i l

fej

is satisfied identically

all

by

it

is satisfied

k f)

fei

(1.5)

symmetric transformations

all special

by

i/

''/;

\\*(h

if

linear relation

'

'

*i

'

*/)!!,
i.e.

symmetric transformations,

if

the equation

Zc(i v

*,;

x(i f k f )

fe,)*(*i*i)

(1.6)

;*)
is

satisfied

the determinant

(#(*&)

n 2 variables

of the

for all values

x(ik)

which

for

4= 0.

(1.6) is

Denoting the pair (ik) of indices by j and calling the

values of j simply 1, 2,
m, the left-hand side of
a homogeneous polynomial of order / in the m variables

x(ik)

Xj

Proof.

n2

=m
=

f!

+ /2 +

where A

'

'

+/m ==/and

'

'

2l

Jl'J2'

times that coefficient

/! times, j

in

which the indices

*

y(/i> /2>

'

*>

c(j^j 2

y/)

On

2/2 times, etc.

1,

whose

indices, contain j

denoting that variable

2,

occur/!,

/2

/m) the left-hand side of equation (1.5)

The determinant

of the

in the variables

xf

known theorem
in the variables

^(ife) is

Our

x(]\]<i

y
1

J/)

/m times by

becomes

a certain polynomial D(x l x 9

A; m
)
is thus reduced to the well-

"assertion

of algebra

xl x2

_ Jm

let

<f>(x),

D(x) be two polynomials

of which does not vanish

x m the second
,

THE GROUP INDUCED

IN

TENSOR SPACE

algebraically, i.e. its coefficients do not all vanish.

for all values of the variables for which the

If

zero

285

<j>(x)

is

value of

0, then <f>(x) vanishes algebraically.

D(x)
This theorem is proved for a single variable % as follows.
If <f>(x) does not vanish algebraically it has a definite
degree
let q be the degree of D(x).
There are then at most
p S>
q values of the variable % for which <f>(x) or D(x) vanish
p
for any one of the remaining infinitude of possible values of
x neither <f>(x) nor D(x) can vanish, contrary to assumption.
;

The theorem

readily extended to polynomials in any number

of variables by mathematical induction.
The principal point
is that the analytical vanishing of a polynomial for all values of
the independent variables implies that it vanishes algebraically.
In

is

quantum theory

the vector space

9R is

unitary

the transi-

from one normal co-ordinate system to another such is

accomplished by an arbitrary unitary transformation (1.3).
tion

The transformations thus induced

M)

constitute a

sub-group J^
of Z which is isomorphic to the unitary group u n i.e. the
I assert that a subrepresentation (u)f of the unitary group.
of
which
is invariant and irreducible with
9V
space *J$
respect
to E remains irreducible not only under the group 27 but under
,

more restricted group 2^M) as well. To prove this we must

show that the identity (1.5) holds even when we assume only
the

that (1.6) is true for those values of the variables x(ik] with
unitary matrix.
One of the most natural proofs of the above theorem conof order / depends on
cerning the formal vanishing of a form
"
"
we
the process of
assign
arbitrary infinitesimal
polarization
the identical
increments dx } to the values of the variables x t
to
us
that
allows
conclude
the
then
of
differential
vanishing
<f>
<f>

OXj

This procedure
vanishes for arbitrary values of Xj and dxj.
also leads us to the desired conclusion in the case under conthe matrix obtained by transposing
sideration.
Denoting by

rows and columns

we have

in

tr

(QdX)

where X,

matrices.

In order that this

-f-

dX

are

two arbitrary

dX

neighbouring
be the case we must have

iX 8X

unitary

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

286

8X is an arbitrary Hermitian
dX is obtained by following up

-\-

infinitesimal rotation

tr

implies the vanishing of

the fact that a linear form

in the variables

y ik

8X.

matrix

(0X SX) 0X. This is

Sx(ik) vanishes identically

and
of

all

V2

are

0X =

Hermitian.

On

X' 1 we
by
J

find

rotation

"

with the

seen immediately from

values satisfying the condition y ki

can be written in the form
matrix Y
\\y k\\

for

"

the
the rotation
But the equation

where

y lk

it

if

vanishes

indeed,

any

iY 2 where Y

multiplying the right-hand side

0:

all

derivatives

vanish in the same sense as

itself, i.e. for arbitrary x(ik) whose
these
derivatives are forms of order
is
matrix
But
unitary.
1
the truth of our assertion above is thus proved by
/
</>

mathematical induction.

is
the representation
Every invariant sub-space ^5 of
space of representations of the groups c and U which are conHence the above results
tained in (c)f and (u)-f respectively.
prove that if *f$ is irreducible these representations are also.

2.

One

of

Symmetry Classes

methods

the most natural

manifolds of tensors

F consists

of

Tensors

of

obtaining invariant

subjecting F to

in

linear

symmetry

conditions of the form

-sF
This suggests introducing the

0.

(2.1)

symmetry operator

a(s]

s.

(2.2)

Such operators can be added and multiplied with arbitrary

numbers, and two operators a, b can be applied successively
with the same result as the symmetry operator c = ba defined by
'

In other words,
algebra p of the

The elements
linear space

we

are here led in a

symmetric group

(2.3)

(t').

TT

most natural way

rr f of all

to the

permutations

s.

of this algebra, which constitute an /{-dimensional

r,
appear as operators which can be applied to

SYMMETRY CLASSES OF TENSORS

287

We

tensors of order /.
may call the numbers a(s) appearing
In particular, a is
(2.2) the components of the element a.
an Hermitian operator in the tensor space 31' if it is a real
in

element, i.e. if it coincides with

defined by the equation
a(s)

Hermitian conjugate a

its

= (O.

(2-4)

Hence these

real symmetry operators represent physical quanthe physical system consisting of /equivalent individuals,
whose total system space is ffl
quantities of this kind are
tities of

unknown

of the usual spatial

'

and cannot be pictured

in classical physics

terms

in

and temporal models. 2

(2.1) or

a(s)x(s)

a linear condition which is imposed on the element x

F
defined by x(s)
sF. A symmetry class is defined by one
or more equations qf this kind
we are thus led to the definition
Each linear sub-space $ of t determines a symmetry class ty

is

F belongs to ty when the corresponding symmetry

It will be found convenient to
quantity or element F is in p.
denote the process by which ^ is generated from {) by a symbol

of tensors.

we

write ^
$p.
If the reader finds

difficult

it

to operate

with elements

whose components sF are tensors rather than numbers he may

replace the tensor by the totality of its coefficients F(i l i 2
v)
and F by the elements
'

= F(i

Li2

if }

associated with each definite set of indices

defined by the equation

(i^i 2

if

this

is

x(s)

The requirement that

i f }.

sF(i l i^

belong to

})

means that F(i l i 2

if )

belongs to $ for all the nf possible combinations of the indices i.

is invariant with
That the symmetry class ty
respect to
$J)

symmetric transformations (1.2) is due to the fact that (1.2)

implies the corresponding equation for the elements F, F'.
F (i l i 2
i/) is a linear combination of the elements F(k l k 2
&/)
associated with the various combinations (k^k 2
&/) of indices k.
If F belongs to \> then a
F does also, where a is any element
whatever of the algebra. To show this we note that the
all

^-component

of

H(i v

,,)

Fft

v)

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

288
is

given by
r

where the k ly
i f by the perk f are obtained from i ly
is
mutation r. Hence
a
linear
i
combination
of those
*,
f
(i^
are
a
whose
k
obtained
indices
F(k l
by
permutation of
kf)
,

the indices

i.

question now is whether every invariant

can
be
sub-space ^
generated from a p by the process $, and
or
to
whether
what extent this generating ty is uniquely
further,
determined by *. The answer is perhaps best expressed with
the aid of the inverse process
which generates a J) from the
given *$. The following geometrical analogy may be useful
in enabling the reader to understand the situation with which
we are dealing. Let the points x of a plane with a fixed centre
correspond to the elements of the algebra p and the line segments
F going out from the origin correspond to the tensors. On

The

principal

tj

contracting the entire plane, leaving the centre invariant, in

the fixed ratio r
r
1) the point x goes into the point
(0
rx and the segment F into the segment rF
this contraction
of segments shall be the analogue of the symmetrical trans"
"
formations of tensors.
invariant
*$ will now denote an
set of segments, i.e. a set such that if it contains the segment F
it also contains all the contracted segments rF.
Just as we
i f ) with the tensor F
associated the symmetry elements F(i l
we now associate with the segment F the continuum of points
Let p be
F(r) of F
F(r) is the end point of the segment rF.
will
set
F
then
be
in
included
the set
of
the
any
segment
points
in
if
if
all
its
are
and
p.
ty
points F(r)
Obviously the
only
fy
in
obtained
this way are
which
can
be
sets
ty
only segment
those which are invariant, and all such invariant sets can be
"
"
of the point set J) is essential
core
so obtained.
)p
Only the
consists
to this construction
only of those points x such
p
r
that rx belongs to p for all r (in the interval
p
1).
That
is invariant in the sense that with x all rx belong to p
only the core p is essential means that our construction generates
the same segment set ty from two point sets p, p' if these latter
hence we can restrict ourselves ab initio
have the same core
It is extrato the consideration of invariant point sets J)
,p
which
generates a given
ordinarily easy to find the point set $
we include in p those and only those points
segment set *$
lying on the segments of *$, and this p is automatically invariant.
If the reader will think through this geometrical illustration,
which we have formulated here in such a pedantic manner, he

SYMMETRY CLASSES OF TENSORS

289

have no trouble in understanding the analogous situation

A linear sub-space J) of r
for tensors and symmetry elements.
is to be called invariant if all elements ax are in
where x is
an arbitrary element of \) and a is any element whatever.*
Hence such a p is invariant under the totality of correspondences
of the form

will

(a)

-> x'

= ax

(2.5)

On associating this correspondence (a) of r on itself with the

element a we obviously obtain a representation of the algebra p
is
it
called the regular
(and therefore of the group 7r f
here
twice
once as the reprerepresentation, (r appears
}

sentation space and again as the algebra p represented in this

the first will be expressed by the German letter r, the
space
second by the Greek p. We are here doing the same thing as
in III,
2, where we obtained a realization of the group g by
as
associating with the element a of g the correspondence s -> s'
This regular representation
of the group manifold on itself.)
supplies us with material from which we can construct all
and herce in particular the inequivalent irreducible repreWhen we use the terms invariant,
sentations of the algebra p.
irreducible, etc., in r they will always refer to the algebra of all
;

correspondences (a) of r on itself, which is simply isomorphic

with the algebra p of all symmetry elements a. p being an
invariant sub-space of r, we shall always refer to the representation induced in
by the regular representation simply as the
it associates with each element a
regular representation in p
The equation x'
the correspondence (2.5) of J) on itself.
ax
of
in
terms
is,
components,
;

x be an arbitrary element of J) the requirement that p be

invariant allows us to conclude that the element x' defined by
Let

= x(rs]

is also in p, where r is any fixed permutation.

we say that x belongs
be an arbitrary sub-space of r
to the core p of p if and only if all quantities of the form ax
this
is invariant.
We thus have the theorem
belong to p

x'(s)

Let

J)

'

that two linear sub-spaces p,

generate the same symmetry
if they have the same core.
of
tensors
class ty
$J)'
$p
may therefore restrict ourselves ab initio to the consideration of
invariant sub-spaces p.

"

We

"

"

invariant sub-space
is not the same as an
invariant subThis
"
as defined in Chap. Ill,
to conform with our previous nomen13
algebra
"
clature it should be called a
left-invariant sub-algebra."
;

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

290

possible that certain relations (2.1) will be satisfied by

Let r denote the smallest sub-space of r which
all tensors.
*
contains the elements F(t' 1 z 2
if) associated with all tensors
i f ).
Then p generates
and all values of the indices (ifa
It is

it is therefore
as the intersection of J) with r
the same ty
ftp
natural to restrict ourselves further to the consideration of
These remarks are not applicable
invariant sub-spaces p of r
if the dimensionality n ^/, for certainly the/! coefficients
;

F(l,2

.,/)

*(!',

,/')

2',

But the situation

of the arbitrary tensor F are independent.
let
8
1 according
for example,
is different in case n<f:
f
then
as s is an even or an odd permutation

an anti-symmetric tensor and must therefore vanish in case

the dimensionality n is less than the order /.
We can at most hope that conversely p is uniquely determined
by *P if we restrict ourselves to invariant sub-spaces p which are

is

contained in

we attempt

In order to prove that this

is

indeed the case

which leads from

to find the inverse process

ty

following the programme outlined by the geometrical

In case n
/ this is readily done
analogy considered above.
F is any tensor in ty we let the element
if
as follows
x F(l 2,
consists of all the
/) in r correspond to it
J)
elements x so obtained. But in order to obtain a method which
we must alter the procedure.
is also applicable to the case n
to

We

understand by $

</

the smallest linear

t}^$

the totality of elements F(z' 1

manifold containing

associated with all possible

and
all
combinations
tensors
i f ).
ofty
of indices (i^*
possible
If the tensors
a
for
constitute
basis
consists
of
all
elements
a
ty, $
z*

2,

if)

of the

form
'

ii

That such a p
if

= F(i

li2

F(k l k 2

equal to

is

'

'

'

'

if)

(*i

'

'

(2.6)

if)

invariant has already been shown above, for

if) the element x' defined by x'(s)
x(rs) is
k
where
k
k
are
from
obtained
t 2
&/)
f

^e fixed permutation r.
denote the t introduced above by ty$Rf
it coincides with the entire space r when n^f.
Let the symbol -S
"
"
is contained in
denote
the following results then follow
*

i\i*

"

if

by

We now

immediately from the definitions

t and ty
If
$p, then \\ty> -g p.
SR/ and p
then
conversely
tj^JJ,
:

=
=

If

p
is

ty -g

a linear sub-space of
any linear sub-space of
is

jjty.

We

can at most

INVARIANT SUB-SPACES

IN

GROUP SPACE

291

if in the first
expect that the symbol -3 can be replaced by
of
r and in the second if
theorem p is an invariant sub-space
of ffi.
That these converse theorems
*P is an invariant sub-space
4.
are in fact true under these limitations will be proved in

Invariant Sub-spaces in Group Space

3.

We

are in need of a fundamental theorem concerning the

algebra of a group as a preparation for carrying through the
we here prove this theorem for
investigation proposed above
;

a general finite group.

However, we do not alter the notation,
so here TT denotes any finite group of order h.
Theorem (3.1). //p is an invariant sub-space of l there exists
an element e of the group algebra having the following two properties :
(1) every element of the form xe belongs to p, (2) every
x
x.
element
of $ satisfies the equation xe
that
e
In particular (1) implies
le itself belongs to p,
e e is idempotent* It is a ^generatand hence by (2) ee
ing unit" of p in the sense that p consists of all elements of the
form xe.
e h be a co-ordinate system in the
Proof. Let e 1? e 2
vector space t which is adapted to the ^-dimensional sub-space
eg
p in such a way that p is the linear set defined by e 1} e 2
The parallel projection which transforms

xle l

x h e h into x'

x^e^

+xe
g

has the two properties (1) it projects every x into an x' lying in
In the original co-ordinate
p, and (2) within p it is the identity.
defined
the
elements
s of the algebra this
by
system
simple
projection

is

given by

x'(s)

where the matrix

d(s,

and the

d(s,

t)

is

t)

necessarily of the form

- e^e^t) +

e^s) are defined

^(s)e k (s)

'

e g (s)e g (t)

by

8,,

if x is in p then the
x
by r (s)
x(rs) is also in p.
Consequently
the projection with the matrix d(rs rt) has the same two properties (1) and (2), where r is any fixed permutation (i.e. element

The

element

fact that p

xr

defined

is

invariant implies that

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

292

of the group

Hence the

whatever.

TT)

assertions also hold for

the correspondence with the matrix

fa t}=\Zd(rs,
n

(3.2)

rt)

obtained by summing over

matrix satisfies the equation

e(rs, rt)

whence
^(r

e(s,

t)

The

^).

elements r of the group.

all

e(s,

This

t),

depends only on the combination

t~ s

e(s,

t)

linear projection
*'(*)

Ze(s,

t)

x(t)

therefore be written briefly x'

validity of the theorem.

may

xe,

which proves the

Let the invariant sub-space J) be completely reduced into two

and let e be the generating
invariant sub-spaces
J)
J) 2
in
element
can
be written as the sum of
unit of
Any

=^+

its

in \) l and J) 2
hence in particular e
follows that for an arbitrary element x of

components

From

this

it

x
But

since

components

for

^2-

is in J) 2
x l and X 2
and
These
two
components
)p l
^2
the element e l are obviously e l and 0, whence

xe 1

are the (unique)

= xe = xe + xe%.
in pj and x = xe

el

is

of

elel

ej,

in

c^e 2

e 2e 2

similarly

e 2e x

Hence

0,

ea

e 2 are the generating idempotent units of $ lt p 2 re "

" in the sense of
(t
the
independent
they are
spectively
e!,

equations

ee =
On

ee

0.

completely reducing p into any number of components

generating unit e of J) is decomposed into

the components of which satisfy the analogous equations

The

existence of the generating unit offers a means of obtaining a new and simpler proof of the fact that reducibility
implies complete reducibility
:

INVARIANT SUB-SPACES
Theorem

(3.3).

be reduced into ^ l

GROUP SPACE

IN

and J^

//,
2

J^ are invariant
in suc ^ a wa y that

J) 2

-S

293

then $ can

is also invariant.

We decompose
Proof. Let e l be the generating unit of p x
every element of J) in accordance with the equation
.

x= xe + (x
component x = xe lies in
l

The

first

X2

xej).
jp l9

(3.4)

and the second

XCi

runs through a certain linear sub-space J) 2 of -p when x runs

through all elements of p. This sub-space J) 2 is also invariant,
for

ax 2
as

ax

is

in p

if

ax

(ax}e l

The elements x l} x 2

is.

of ^ 1} p 2 respectively

satisfy the equations

0.

From

this it follows that the sum of an element y l of \) 1 and an

element x 2 of 2 cannot vanish unless both^ and x 2 also vanish
hence 1 and p 2 are independent. To provj this we merely note
x2
that on multiplying y l
0.
by e x we find y l e l =-.
the
of
reduction
element
of
Equation (3.4) represents
any
J)
;

)j)

into

its

components

in

)f l

and

;p 2

element e generates an invariant sub-space

form xe.
If e lf e 2 are two
$
elements
e
e
0,
2e l
independent idempotent
(e 1 2
0) then the
which
are
sub-spaces pj, ^) 2
they generate
independent, and the
element
e
e
e
An
x
2
idempotent
generates
^!
^) 2
e
is
element
said
to
be
if
it
can
primitive
idempotent
only be
sum
of
two
as
the
elements
e
l
idempotent
3 ^
expressed
one of the summands is
the
other
In
order
that
(and
e).
pe
be irreducible it is necessary and sufficient that e be primitive.
Obviously any idempotent element e, in particular the
modulus 1 of the algebra, can be reduced into the sum of
independent primitive idempotent elements. For if we have
a reduction into independent non-vanishing idempotent elements

Any idempotent

consisting of elements of the

el

e2

em

and if, for example, e v is not primitive, it can be further reduced to the sum of two independent non-vanishing idempotent
in this way we obtain a complete reduction
elements e/ -f- a/'
;

of e into

m+

independent terms, for we have, for example,

e'l e 2

e(e L e2

similarly e^e(

0.

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

294

This process must certainly cease after at most h steps. Our

analysis allows us to assert that we thus obtain a complete
reduction of e into independent irreducible sub-spaces.
We have seen that the theorem concerning the complete
reducibility is a consequence of the existence of a generating
unit.
But the converse is also true If p appears as a summand
in a complete reduction r
of our given algebra t, then
J)'
it possesses a generating unit.
We need only to specialize the
)j)

= +

considerations developed above by applying them to the modulus

1 of r
1 can be completely reduced into the two components
e
e' lying in p and
and the generating units of p and J)'
',
are e and e' respectively.
The mathematician will find it worthy of note that all these
considerations are still applicable when the algebra is defined
over any field whatever.
Instead of dealing with the continuum
of real or complex numbers, as in analysis, we may in abstract
algebra operate in an arbitrary field, i.e. a domain of elements,
called numbers, in which the two fundamental operations of
addition and multiplication and their inverses, subtraction and
division, are defined in accordance with the formal laws of
ordinary arithmetic. Our development depended only on these
rules of operation
with a slight restriction. There are fields in
which a definite integer, say h, times any number of the field
we may say that h annihilates. Such " modular "
yields zero
fields must be excluded, for we wish to retain the possibility
of finding a number such that its product with h is any given
number. When our reasoning involves no more restrictive
assumptions concerning the number field, we are operating in
a relatively elementary theoretical domain.
However, such
"
"
theorems as the
fundamental theorem
III, (10.5), and that
of Burnside-Frobenius-Schur, which depend on the fundamental
;

theorem

of algebra, belong to a deeper layer.

"
"

hold only in

algebraically closed

any algebraic equation (with

"
Finally such concepts as

number

These theorems
fields, in which

coefficients in the field)

u

Hermitian,"

unitary,"

is

soluble.

etc.,

involve

conjugate complex and

have no place in general abstract fields. Our earlier proof of
the theorem of complete reducibility was obtained with the
the transition from a

number

to

its

aid of such tools foreign to the general concept of a field.

Theorem (3.5). A similarity projection x -> x' of the invariant
sub-space ty on the invariant sub-space p' is necessarily expressed
xb. (In particular, when p
by an equation of the form x'
and J)' are equivalent this theorem is applicable to the one-to-one

similarity correspondence p fj p'.)

Let the given similarity
Proof.

correspondence send the

INVARIANT SUB-SPACES IN GROUP SPACE

295

In virtue of the similarity

generating unit e of p over into b.
xb where x is any element in p
goes over into x'
but for such an element xe
x.
Additional remark. The projection sends e into eb
hence
On the other hand, if e' is the generating element of
eb
6.
then since b is in
we have />e'
b
J)',

=
=

xe then

=
= ebe

'

We

express this result,

b has
a

= eb = be'

b is of the form exe', by saying

Our considerations show that such

can always be expressed

projection

that

i.e.

the character (e, e').

element

terms of a unique

in

of character (e, e').

If we are operating in the field of complex numbers, with which the

investigations of analysis (e.g. the theory of functions) deal and in
which we are exclusively interested in quantum theory, we may supplement the theorem (3.1) concerning the existence of a generating unit e
in an invariant sub-space p by the following
The generating unit may be so chosen that it is real ; it is then deter:

mined uniquely by \\
To prove this we choose as the basis e lt e lt
then
orthogonal system of vectors

.,

e g of

a unitary-

&

(s)'k(s)

(*',*.

1,2,

....

f).

In constructing
e
choose ?,i

d(s,

t),

which we now denote by

e(s

t)

we may

therefore

e(s,t)

=
i

=l

ei (s)e t (t).

(3.6)

assert that the equation

e(rs, rt)

== e(s,

(3.7)

t)

automatically satisfied it is no longer necessary to take its mean

value as in (3.2). The element e defined by e(t~ s)
e(s, t) is then the
real generating unit of p.

is

In order to establish the validity of (3.7) it is only necessary to

note that e(s, t) is independent of the particular unitary basis e lt e tt
e g chosen
for on going over to a new unitary basis e'v e 2
.,
.,
ine by a unitary transformation U the bilinear form (3.6) remains
.

variant.

in

which

Now
r is

in particular the

equation

a fixed element of the group, defines a transition to a new

unitary basis.

To prove

that this real generating unit e of v is unique, assume there

then all elements x of p satisfy the equations

exists a second, e'

xe

On

applying the

first

equation for

have
e'e

e',

xe'

x,

e'

ee'

x.

and the second

e.

for

we

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

296

since e and e' are both real, the first of these results yields, on
going over to the Hermitian conjugates,

But

ee'

e',

and from this and the previous result we conclude that e' = e.
Under these conditions the content of theorem (3.3) can be extended
and its proof simplified. If e, c l are the real generating units of p, p x
e lt and on going over to the
respectively, then since e is in p ee
Hermitian conjugates we find ee! = c^ Hence the idempotent element
= y^ -f p 2
e, introduced by e = e l + e 2 is real and independent of e^
is thus completely reduced into Vi and an invariant sub-space p a which
is unitary-orthogonal to pj and which has as its real generating unit e,.
;

4.

Invariant Sub-spaces in Tensor Space

We

now return to the investigation of tensors of order /,

Let TT again be
the totality of which constitutes the space W.
the group of all permutations of / things and r (
p) the correLet
a
be
a
symmetry quantity,
sponding group space (algebra).
the
i.e. an element of the algebra />, with components a(s)
element a is then defined by

d(s)

The

relation

F'

which

= a(s-i)
=

aF,

asserts that the tensor F'

operator a,

is

(4.1)

obtained from

is

by the

equivalent to the equation

F'

= F

between the corresponding elements

For
sF'

= ^(r

and

of the algebra p.

stF

1
)

is

in fact

obtained from

= 2X0

F'

'

tF

d(r

l
)

tF

by operating on

it with the permutation 5.

In the following considerations, which are concerned with
symmetry classes of tensors, p (with or without index) always

denotes an invariant sub-space of t, e the generating unit of

and ty the corresponding $p. We may then say that e is
\)
the generating idempotent operator of the symmetry class ^ in
the following sense
:

(1)
(2)

lies in ^5,
being any tensor whatever
if -F is in
the operator
^J it is reproduced
;

eF

F.
obtain ^constructive definition of the symmetry
as the totality of all tensors of the form eF.
This definition

In this
class ty

eF

by

way we

INVARIANT SUB-SPACES IN TENSOR SPACE

297

js considerably simpler than the original one in terms of p, for

it depends on a single element e instead of a manifold
p.
If,
for example,

we

are dealing with the class ty of

all

completely

symmetric tensors

is

such an operator

the corresponding operator for the class

is the alternating sum

of all anti-symmetric tensors

..

Theorem
<P

$!

We

//

(4.2).

M' P = Pi +

-3

|>'

w* have $'

Pi,

-3

$,

$2

respectively.

need to prove only the latter part of this theorem,

complete reduction. The generating unit
h
f
e
as
as
t?!
2
P
components e lt e 2 in p l5 p 2 the generating
units of p!, ;p 2 respectively.
The formula
i.e.

for the case of

-eF+

eF

e2 F

corresponding complete reduction of

^
independent invariant sub-spaces
$2
the

defines

Theorem

The
theorem

7/h

(4.3).

*A*;i

{) 2

^!

correspondence x l

similarity
(3.5), of the

ty

into

the

~$

2.

->

x2

AT 2

of

)>!

on p 2

is,

by

an d

its

form
^

AT 2

==
'

ATj

*,

^^

A^j

Hence
define a one-to-one similar correspondence of ^5 X on

inverse.

Theorem

7/p

(4.4).

/A^n

-g

=!]$.

The only

non-trivial part of this first converse theorem which

remains to be proved is that p -g Ij5p. All tensors of the form
e^i a are in s$, where ( a ) is a basis for the entire tensor
a

F =

space

9l/

hence

elements of the form

all

y = 2X(h
,

are in

^.

On

^(h

if)

v)

introducing

Ec(ii

'

'

'

if)

'

fi(^

'

'

if)

<v, i

we have

y=

see that

xe belongs

xe.

On
to

recalling the

if

definition of t

lies in r

But

tfRf

we

in virtue of the

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

298

assumption that \)
arbitrary element of

of

J)

contained in

is

this is automatically satisfied if x is an

but then xe
x.
Hence every element

[j$.

In order to formulate the converse of these theorems let

^5 (with or without index) now denote an arbitrary invariant
sub-space of 91^ and p the corresponding tj^S.

Theorem

= pj

-}-

(4.5).

The

respectively.

2j

Theorem
Theorem

// $'

//

(4.6).

$-

(4.7).

theorem

last

-g

or

<$

~ $' /A^n p ~

^+$

*A*/t

a,

-3

J)'

J>,

p'.

ft).

most important

far the

by

is

of all

it
;

asserts that every *B is a symmetry class of tensors.

It is desirable
to prove it first, i.e. to prove that
Let e again denote
-g *$.

$p

the generating unit of ))

$p then consists of all tensors of the
form F'
eF. Since the element e belongs to J) it is necessarily
of the form
;

e(s)

= e(s~i) =

Zea (k,
.

k,)

where the tensors E^ constitute a basis

sE^k,

(4.8)

k,),

for the space ^5.

Now

the trivial equation

4X1,

if )

-JsFfa

shows, on replacing sc by
EC(II

'

'

'

'

if]

c,

it

if]

F(i l

if)

that

if)

sF(i 1

- Zc(i,

- 2>~Mh

'

'

'

'

if)

F(i l

Hence we may replace

e(s)

(4.8)

by

Zse.fa

*/)

^(Ai

'

A,)

,*

and the

coefficients of F' are then given

'

F'(ii

if)

'

&.(ii

'

by
k t )Ea (ki

k,)

a,*

where

Because of the summation over all elements s of the group TT

hence
this transformation with coefficients C M is symmetric
;

the assumption that the sub-space ty is invariant allows us to

conclude that F' lies in ^5 if the E a do. But this establishes

our theorem.

The theorem can

on the theorems of

be proved directly,
in the following way.

also
3,

without calling

That

is

in

INVARIANT SUB-SPACES
means that F(i
Form

(2.6)
'

i2

if)

is

in

TENSOR SPACE

IN

p and

is

299

consequently of the

= Sb a

'

F(ii

if]

'

it

(ii

k f)

k,

E^k,

k,).

a,Jt

The E# constitute a basis of ty. Writing down the ^-component

of this equation and replacing the indices i^,
i1
if by i l
we find the equation
,

for the
s""

Since this holds for every permutation

over the elements of the group and obtain
of F.

components

we may sum

if)

F(i l

where the

Zca(ii

'

'

'

if

*i

'

'

kf)

*(&!

k f ),

coefficients

kf)

=Zsb*(i

if

Hence

since the E* belong to the invariant

obtained
from them by a symmetric
sub-space ty
F
also
to
transformation,
belongs
^J.
The only part of theorem (4.5) which is not self-evident is
the assertion that p lT p 2 are independent.
By theorem (4.7) we

are symmetric.

and

is

have the relations

-3 ft>i

flp'

for

the

^Pi)

^2

is

&,

fr*

-3

^P 2

But since
(invariant) intersection p* of p, and ^ 2
are independent it follows that $p*, and therefore p*,
.

empty.

Theorem

(4.5)

shows the

associated with an irreducible p

Hence it follows, in particular, that the

manifold of symmetric and the manifold of anti- symmetric tensors
are irreducible and invariant, not only with respect to the algebra
of symmetric transformations, but also with respect to the
transformations induced in tensor space by the affine or unitary
is

also

irreducible.

groups of transformations in the vector space 9t. Applying

this to the 2-dimensional vector space, we see that the representations K/ of c
C 2 or ll constructed in III,
5, are irreducible.
In order to prove (4.6) we must first examine the nature of

We call the component a(l) of

detail.
Hence the trace
the algebra the trace of a.
of the product ab, which we call the scalar product tr(a6)
n<f)

in

an element a

of

of

(for

a and b

some

is

tr(mb)

a(s)b(s-*).

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

300

The

trace

of

then

is

tr(al)

tr(Ia)

= tr(a).

The

scalar

obviously symmetric in a and 6, and the symmetric

is the only
bilinear form tr(ab) is non-degenerate, i.e. a
is satisfied
element for which the equation tr(ax)
identically

product

is

in x.
t is a left- as well as right-invariant
non- degenerate within t i.e. the only
whose scalar product with every element x of t

Auxiliary theorem

(4.9).
tr(a6) is

r.

sub-algebra of
element a of t
vanishes is a =-=

The

0.

For
part of this theorem is almost self-evident.
x'
element
i
the
defined
x(sr) is
l
f)
by x'(s)
where
F'
i
rF.
(i l
f)
Let / be the generating unit of t a an element of r and
Then since t is right-invariant ax
an arbitrary element.

is

also in r c

= F(i

if
f

first

whence

ax

Now xi is in
element xi of

ax

tr(a-v)

/',

tr(a

xi).

hence if the scalar product of a with every

without restriction on
vanishes then tr(ax)
as
asserted.
It therefore follows that a
x.
0,
Proof of theorem (4.6). Let E a be a basis for ^5, and let the
r

a into the basis E'*

similarity correspondence of ty on *p' send
a given system of coefficients and
for *P'.
Let c ai (i l
if) be

write

Sc a (i

if)

(*!

i,)

(4.10)

a, t

The

desired similarity correspondence between p and p' is naturally

be defined by c -> c'
However, this is only possible provided
i f ) which define the same
two systems of coefficients c ,(i l
c'
or
a
the
same
c also define
system of coefficients which
c'
to vanish.
vanish
also
cause
must
causes c to
to

We

first

remark that

if

a tensor

satisfies the

equation

then also
G'

By

sF

=-.

0.

(4.10)
1

c(5-

2;s<r ,(fe 1
<

a,k

whence

= Sc'ts- 1

*,).(*!

k f ),

INVARIANT SUB-SPACES

IN

TENSOR SPACE

301

where
'

'

ki

'

*.(*i

kf)

= ZsFfa

if]

k f ).

'

scafa

a symmetric transtormation.
Hence the given
--> *', which sends E^ into
transformation
similarity
ty
/, sends
G into G' This proves our assertion that the vanishing of
G implies the vanishing of G'.
If c
we then have

These

c a define

sFfr

c'(s-i)

if ]

tr[c'

F(/ 1

,',)]

for all tensors

and

all

combinations of indices

for all elements

tr(c'x)

theorem

(4.9) c'

of r

il

or

Hence by the auxiliary

0.

T/t result of our investigations is that there exists a one-to-one

correspondence between the invariant sub-spaces p of r and the
This correspondence is as close
invariant sub-spaces ty of JR/.

as possible

irreducibility,

equivalence and

complete reduction,

In
inequivalence on the one hand imply the same on the oilier.
we
the
further
emphasize
consequence
particular,
Theorem (4.11).
Every invariant sub-space ty of 9J/, in
itself, can be completely reduced into irreducible
particular
:

invariant sub-spaces.
I
hope that our elementary methods have

made

this corre-

spondence quite apparent.

we can completely reduce the

sum e + e 2 +
+ ^m of n *
The
formula
elements.
dependent primitive idempotent
It

is

modulus

evident a priori that

1 of the algebra p into a

F-

e,F

+ eF +

e mF

then gives the complete reduction of 9f into independent invariant sub-spaces ^ 1 ^p 2

^ mj each of which is generated
one
of
the
by
idempotent operators e. (^ consists of all tensors
of the form e^F.}
From this point of view we might consider
as the only non-trivial result of our investigation the assertion
that the ^ generated by a primitive e is irreducible (with respect
,

to the algebra
of all symmetric transformations).
Physically
this means that the class of terms corresponding to such a

cannot be further divided into parts which cannot -under any

If in spite of this there
conditions interact with each other.
does exist such a decomposition it is accidental i.e. attributable
to the special

dynamical situation

in the case in question.

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

302

Fields and Algebras

5.

We here interrupt our development in order to present an

axiomatic treatment of the two fundamental concepts field and
algebra ; our investigation has revealed the importance of these
concepts for quantum theory. The physicist who is not particularly interested in such a treatment may well omit these
sections.

A field is a domain of elements, called numbers, within

which the two operations of addition and multiplication are
defined and which associate with any two numbers a, )3 of the
Addition
field certain unique numbers a -f j3, ajS respectively.
associative
laws
and
commutative
the
obeys

+ = +

(a

a,

j3

ft

/?)

+y=

(j8

y)

From this follows the

inverse, subtraction.
o
unique number
(zero) with the property

and has a unique

existence of
o
o
a

+ = + ot=a

Further, associated with each

o.
negative, such that a
(
a)
require that multiplication obey the associative law

number a is

We

for all

number

a.

(aj3)y

and the

a, its

a(j9y)

distributive laws
(a

+ /3)y =

(ay)

(0y),

(/3

From

with respect to addition.

the

y)

(a/5)

distributive

(ay)

law follow

the relations

ao

oa

o.

in case it is we speak
Multiplication need not be commutative
of a commutative field.
Further, division by any number
other than o shall be possible and shall lead to a unique quotient,
;

i.e.

each of the equations

have
,

T]

for given a 4=

respectively.

fti

^a

^ n d given j3 one and only one solution

this it follows that the product ajS of
o

if

one of the two factors is o. As a

number e, " one " or " unity/'

further consequence, there exists a

with the property that
as

then

in

We

ft

From

two numbers can only be

for all a.

explicitly

particular z

ea

assume that not

o.

all numbers equal o

Every number a 4= o possesses a

1
1
unique reciprocal a" with the property aa"

--

a -1 a

e.

FIELDS AND ALGEBRAS

We

must introduce

numbers

in addition to the

the ordinary numerical symbols 1, 2, 3,

pretation as multipliers is given by the equations

la

a,

2a

(n

in general

In particular

we can

and we

l)a

2e,

(2a)

(na)

We

-,

Their inter-

a,

a.

ne,

(5.1)

then have two

may differ from

possibilities.

(1)

then they are

can conclude with the aid of the equation
wjS

and the division axiom that

one and only one number

jS

all

All the

different,

ne

for a given

of our field

construct the series

le,

of multiples of 6.
numbers of this set

3a

a,

303

a
- which
.

number a

there exists

satisfies

the equation

we can then introduce ordinary rational numbers as

multipliers.
(2) The second possibility is that one of the multiples

nj3

let the least multiple of this kind be

equal to e itself
the
the series (5.1) repeat in cycles of
numbers
of
/>e.
a
must
be
prime number, for if p were the product
length p. p
of two integers m, n smaller than p we would then have

in (5.1)

is

Then

ps

me

we,

but by assumption neither we nor ne are o, for pe is the lowest

multiple of this kind, and this is contrary to the division axiom.
In this case we are dealing with a finite field of modulus p.*
In order not to lose ourselves in too broad generalities we
now take as our number domain a commutative field and define
a linear associative algebra of finite order over this field.
By number we mean the elements of the field, and denote its zero o
and its unit e by and 1 by element we mean an element of the
We denote the former by small Greek and the latter by
algebra.
small Latin letters. An algebra is characterized by three fundamental operations
addition of two elements, a-\-b; multiplication of
an element by a number ya
multiplication of two elements, ab.
The first and second of these operations obey the familiar axioms
of vector calculus (I,
1), which we set forth here again for the
sake of completeness.
Addition is commutative and associative and has a unique
;

304

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

then follows that there exists a nullMultiplication by a number obeys the laws

inverse, subtraction.

element

o.

It

=
(a + flc
la

The order h

a,

*(pc)

(a.)

(a)3)r,

a(6

(fie),

c)

(0)

(our).

introduced by the dimensionality axiom

every
1 elements of the algebra are linearly dependent, the coh
efficients in the equations expressing the dependence being
numbers of the field, but there exist h linearly independent
4t
A set of h such elements e ll e 2
e h called
basal
elements.
units,'" form a basis for the algebra in the sense that any element
a can be expressed in one and only one way in the form*
is

a^!

-f a 2

and can be replaced by the

components.
Multiplication
distributive laws
(a

for

b}c

elements

of

set

(ac)

'

a2

(<x. lt

'

*he h
,

OC A

of

h numerical

among themselves obeys

(be),

c(a

b)

(ca)

the

(cb)

both factors and the associative laws

ya

y(db],

(ab}c

ya

= y(ba),

a(bc)

We

neither assume that multiplication is commutative nor

But we do assume
that it possesses a unique inverse, division.
"
modulus
the
that the algebra possesses a
one,"
(or principal
-- ea
a for all
unit), i.e. an element e with the property ae
elements a. We shall usually not hesitate to denote the zero
and 1.
and one of the elements of the algebra by
If we assume the possibility of division the algebra reduces
to a (in general non- commutative) field or division algebra of
finite order h over the given field.

6.

Representations of Algebras

For the sake of the printer and in order to give the text a
more peaceful appearance we no longer emphasize the elements
of our algebra by expressing them in boldface type.
This
"
in
to
of
the
elements
the
of
particular
applies
symalgebra p
"
which we may often denote by this latter
metry quantities
expression in case of possible confusion with the elements of
the underlying group.
We still employ this means of distinguishthe
between
tensor
F and fhc symmetry element or when
ing

we wish

to consider

an element as an operator acting on a tensor.

REPRESENTATIONS OF ALGEBRAS

305

We start with an algebra p of finite order h. the elements of

which constitute an /^-dimensional vector space r, and associate
with the element a of p the correspondence
(a)

#-#' =

ax

on itself. We consider the algebra (p) of transformations

is
which
simply isomorphic with the algebra p, as funda(a),
mental for the vector space r, i.e. the term reducible, invariance,

of r

etc.,

as

applied to sub-spaces of

of transformations

group

(a).

We

are with respect

assume that t can

pletely reduced into irreducible sub-spaces p x

2 -f-

to

the

comeach of

be

these sub-spaces then contains an idcmpotent generating unit

have already seen that this assumption is true
e \} e &
for the algebra associated with any finite group
at least under
the restriction that the field over which the algebra is defined
'

'

We

does not have as modulus a .prime number which is a factor of

the order h of the group.
We discussed the representations of a group or of the corresponding algebra in Chapter III. We found that the irreducible
representations are subject to certain important conditions

which, surprisingly enough, limit their number and which,

"
completeness theorem/*
together with the as yet unproved
lead to the reduction of the given algebra into independent
That we were unable to
simple matric algebras (III,
13).
prove the completeness theorem with the methods there employed was to be expected, for we assumed that the representa-

we had no
tions were given and examined their properties
general process for the construction of representations of the
But we are now in possession of the materials
given algebra.
the reduction of t into irreducible
for such a construction
the
reduces
regular representation into as many
sub-spaces p t
irreducible
inequivalent
representations of our algebra as there
We shall now carry
are inequivalent invariant sub-spaces p
out this construction process to the point of obtaining the re;

duction of our algebra into independent simple matric algebras

it will be desirable to derive the previous results again from this
A further difference between this investigation
standpoint.
;

Chapter III consists in the fact that we here refrain

from placing restrictive assumptions on the
commutative field over which the algebra is defined
only at
the end of the investigation do we discuss the advantages attributable to the fact that the continuum of complex numbers,
the only field in which we are interested for the physical appli-

and that

of

as long as possible

cations,

is

algebraically closed.

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

306

Theorem

Every representation of

(6.1).

the algebra

com-

is

Each of these
pletely reducible into irreducible representations.
irreducible constituents is equivalent to the representation induced
in some p, by the regular representation.
(Hence the complete reducibility of the given algebra implies
the complete reducibility of its representations.
Further, every
irreducible representation is contained in the regular representation, which therefore constitutes an appropriate starting
point for obtaining all representations by the method of reduction).

Let jp be an w-dimensional representation, and let e l7 e 2

be n fundamental vectors constituting a co-ordinate system
If the element a of the
the representation space 9ft of
,

en

in

to

algebra corresponds
interpret the equation

the linear correspondence

in

we

where

If e is a given fixed vector and x

j', j are vectors in 9ft.
runs through all elements of one of the irreducible invariant
of r then, as we shall show immediately,
sub-spaces J)
xe runs through a certain sub-space p(e) of 9ft which is invariant
with respect to
Indeed, the transformation A associated
with an arbitrary element a sends xt over into (ax)e, and if
x is in p, ax is also. J)(e) is either
or is similar to p in the sense
that different x generate different images #e, for those x of p
for which x
constitute an invariant sub-space
of p, and
in virtue of the assumption that p was irreducible p' must
or p itself.
the representation
either be
Hence if p(e) 4
induced in p(e) by
is equivalent to the regular representation

=^

'

in p.

These considerations are

be supplemented by the following

remark.
If ty is any invariant sub-space of 9ft then Jj(e) is either
independent of ^ or is contained entirely in ^S, for those elements
x of J) for which x lies in ^5 constitute an invariant sub-space
of p,

which

Now

is therefore necessarily either

construct successively

Each sub-space

sum

to

in this list

is

of the previous ones or

or p

itself.

either entirely contained in the

is

independent of

this

sum

on

retaining only those sub-spaces for which this latter possibility

is realized we obtain a reduction of 9ft into certain invariant

REPRESENTATIONS OF ALGEBRAS

307

sub-spaces pi(e ). To prove this theorem we need only to note

that the sum of the sub-spaces contained in the first row contains at least the vector e lt that on adding to them the sum of
those contained in the second row we obtain at least the vector
fc

e 2 in addition, etc.

The theorem
symmetric group

just proved
TT,

of
for the algebra
of tensors of order /.

into

is

in particular applicable to the

to establish the analogue

and we now wish

symmetric transformations

in the space 31^

that
can be reduced
already
which are irreducible with respect to

We

know

sub-spaces ^J
(provided the number
t

is defined does not have

field over which
modulus a prime ^/). Every transformation A of 2 is at
the same time a transformation A of ^ on itself and the correspondence A -> Ai is naturally a representation of 27, the
<l
by the algebra 27." We wish to
representation induced in
are completely reducible
show that the representations of
into irreducible constituents, and that each of these constituents
is equivalent to the representation induced in some ^J
by the
does
not
this
follow
27.
immediately from
Naturally
algebra
in order to establish the connection between
theorem (6.1)
the two we must show that the complete reducibility of ffl into
irreducible invariant sub-spaces ^ implies the same for the
algebra 27. We apply the notation and conventions given at

as

the beginning of this section to the algebra

correspondence
S -> S'
AS

(A)

is

the

"

"

2 on itself, A -> (A) the regular reprevector space

sentation of 27; the algebra of transformations (A} which is
simply isornorphic with 27, is taken as fundamental in the vector
space 2, i.e. the transformation group of 2 consists of the
transformations (A}.
Theorem (6.2). Let 2 be an algebra of transformations in a
vector space 9ft, and let 9ft be completely reducible with respect to
of the

system 2 of transformations into irreducible invariant subThen 2 is itself completely reducible into irreducible
spaces *$
invariant sub-spaces 77,-, and the representation induced by the
regular representation in Tlj coincides with (more precisely^ is
equivalent to] the representation induced in one of the irreducible
this

by the algebra 2 itself.

This theorem holds without any restrictions on the field
over which 2 is defined. Let /7 be an irreducible invariant
sub-space of 2 (consisting not merely of the transformation 0),
and let R 4=
be a transformation of IJ. There then exists
tyi

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

308

Let d be decomposed into

a vector a in 91 such that Ra 4= 0.
at least one of
its components a,- in the various sub-spaces
these components, say a t
e, must be carried over into a vector
St run
Re 4= by R. We now hold e fixed and let S in
of
these
then
transformations
3
constitute
an
all
77;
through
"
"
The
invariant sub-space 77(e) of ty
typical reasoning
$t
already applied in the proof of the previous theorem then allows
us to conclude that

(1)

/7(e)

or

either

is

*f$,

as ty

is

irreducible

in this case

for the vector AC 4=

belongs to /I(c).
the only transformation in 77 which sends C
constitute an
over into 0, for those 5 of 77 for which Se
Hence
invariant sub-space of the irreducible sub-space U.
Se sets up a one-to-one correspondence between 77 and ty.
g
it is

50

necessarily

(2)

*$,

is

This correspondence is similar, for S'

AS implies that
'
'
the
S'e
A%. We
the vectors
Se,
equation
satisfy
the reprehave thus proved the second part of our theorem
sentation induced in 77 by the regular representation coincides
with the representation induced in ^J by the algebra itself
briefly, 77 is similar to some *$,.
Since Se runs through the entire sub-space ^5 when S runs
in 77 such that Ee
then
e
through 77 there exists an
2
Since the transformations
and E of 77 both
E*t
e.
E is idemassociate the same image with e they are identical

Hence

can be completely reduced into two inde77

Z" in accordance with the formula
pendent sub-spaces

potent.

+
5

= SE +

(S

- SE).

Theorem (3.3).] Successive application

to the complete reduction of
leads
into
this procedure
constituents 77,.
the proof of

[Cf.

of
its

Having proved Theorem (6.2), we obtain from Theorem

under the same assumptions, the further theorem
Theorem (6.3). Every representation of 2 is completely
:

(6.1),

reducible into

irreducible

presentation of
induced in some

Theorem

representations.
Every irreducible re->
coincides with the representation
i

^S<

by

the algebra

itself.

the further (rather uninteresting) fact

that not only is every 77, similar to some 5$,-, but also conversely
every ^< is similar to some 77,.
As has already been indicated, all of these results are applicable to the algebra of symmetric transformations in tensor space
W. But we have shown in 1 that this algebra can be replaced
(6.1) yields

REDUCTION OF AN ALGEBRA
induced
linear transformations

by the group

in

(c)f

k
< = *Z*(ik)x
=

tensor space

[det (a(ik)]

309

by the group

* 0]

C of

(1.3)

of n-dimcnsional vector space, i.e. by the representation

shall say, that a representation of C is of order /
C.

(c)-f

We

components
(1.3)

if

of

the

matrix A, which corresponds to the element

of the

of the group,

are rational integral functions of the a(ik)

asserts

Our theorem then

Theorem (6.4). Every /th

of order/.

order representation of

is

com-

pletely reducible into irreducible representations, and every irreducible representation of order f of t is containedin the representation (c)A

This theorem

is still

u.

its

valid on restricting the affine group C to

"
"
im(Naturally the concept
unitary

unitary sub-group
we are then no longer dealing with an arbitrary
but are operating in the field of all complex numbers.)

plies that

7.

field,

Constructive Reduction of an Algebra into Simple

Matric Algebras

We
at the

again assume that the algebra p of order h, which may

same time be considered as a vector space t of h dimensions,

completely reducible into irreducible invariant sub-spaces ,.

are obtained by
units e+ of these irreducible
the corresponding reduction of the modulus
we can then
of
sum
x
as
the
of
its
element
an
r
arbitrary
express
components
in the various p

is

The generating

2><

fainp,),

= 2>.

(7.1)

If q is a sub-space of r we denote by qa the totality of elements

of the form %a where x runs through all elements of q
e, with
;

or without index, is an idempotent element, usually primitive

the repreie the invariant sub-space generated by e
p
I)
sentation of p induced in J) by the regular representation.
could consider in addition to the reduction (7.1) of t
;

We

sub-spaces the analogous reduction

right-invariant sub-spaces by means of the equation
into

left-invariant

into

But the most complete separation into mutually independent

components is obtained by carrying out both of these processes
simultaneously

Ze,xe k
t,

- Zx
t,

ik .

(7.2)

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

310

The elements

of the form ei%e k are those of character (e i} e^),

Let p tfc be the sub-space consisting of all elements
or briefly (ik).
The various ty ik are independent and the
of this character.
the original leftentire t is reduced into the sum of the $ ik
invariant ))*
The important properties of ty ik are given
tyi k
;

by the following

Auxiliary Theorem

I.

(7.3).

//

p,

{)'

irreducible sub-spaces with generating units

character (e, e') are
0.

The elements of character

II.

algebra which

is

projections of $ on

are
e,

two inequivalent
e', all elements of

constitute a field or division

the system of similar
with
simply isomorphic
(e

e}

itself.

Let a be any element of character

transformation
I.

Proof.

[a]

*->#'

(e

The

e'}.

xa

(7.4)
f

'

carries every element x of p over into an element x of

defines a similar projection.
Conversely, we know that

and

any

similar projection of \) on p' is defined by an equation of this

form, and that the generating element a of character (e, e'} is
If
and {)' are irreuniquely determined by the projection.
"
"
us
to
the two usual
leads
ducible our
typical reasoning
either the projection associates with every element
alternatives
or it defines a one-to-one correspondence
x of p the image x'
a tells us that the first alternative
of $ on tf
The equation ea
if
and
the
second implies that p and J)'
a
is possible only
0,
:

'.

are equivalent.
II.

The above remarks

character

(e

e}

and

are applicable to an element a of

the similarity projection of p on itself which

If p is irreducible every such projection, except

generates.
the one defined by a
0, is one-to-one and consequently has
an inverse. But the existence of an inverse is identical with

it

The isomorphism asserted in the

apparent on reversing our usual procedure, and
reading the resultant of two or more correspondences from
left to right, for the resultant of the correspondences

the possibility of division.

theorem

is

x'
is

given by

x"

We now
follows

xa

x"

= x'a'

x(aa'}.

proceed with the help of

into classes
Arrange the

with generating units

,-

this auxiliary theorem as

of equivalent sub-spaces

REDUCTION OF AN ALGEBRA
and add together the generating units

We

then have

where r', t",

into which t
Part

is

of

r'

e'*e"

Hence the product a'a"

r"

r',

-.
(7.5)
(7.6)

denote the inequivalent sub-spaces re', re",

reduced.
the auxiliary theorem above then tells us that,

for example,

sub-spaces

each of these classes

in

+ "+
+ r" +

e'

311

is

a'

0.

two elements belonging

always 0, and the reduction

of

a"

ae'

as"

to different

leads to the multiplication rule

ab

fl'6'

a"b"

From this it follows that t' is both right- and left-invariant and
a fortiori constitutes an algebra p (" invariant sub-algebra ")
;

The given algebra is then the direct sum

the modulus of p
where the precise meaning of
-,
of the simple algebras p p",
direct sum is defined by the following
Let p', p",
be algebras (defined over the same field), and
consider as the elements of a new algebra p, the direct sum of

e'

is

'.

',

p',

p",

all sets

a
consisting of
of p",
.

a",

(a',

an arbitrary element

of

a'

The fundamental operations

(', a",
(a',

a",

..) =

(*',

b",

AK

a",

-)(b',

b",

(*'

an arbitrary a"
p are defined by

p',

in
b',

a"

Aa",
(a'V, a"b",

(Aa';

b",

),

),
)

where A is any number.

Note that the central of the algebra p obtained by direct

summation
algebras

We

is

the direct

sum

of the centrals of the individual

p', p",
investigate in detail one of these simple sub-algebras,
.

'

its modulus
which we now denote simply by p
the
On
1.
denoted
be
now
primes, the deomitting
by
may
of
1
into
equivalent primitive idcmpotcnt elements
composition

say

p',

e i is

expressed by

<?

+ e.

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

312

of p is reduced in accordance with the formula

Peirce
reduction)
(double

Every element a

<,*

=!

t,*

The component c ik of the

of characters (ik).
is easily seen to be expressed in terms of the
ab
product
components a ikt b 1k of a and b by the equation
into

components

We

have thus already obtained the connection between our conand the matrix calculus.
The invariant sub-spaces jp ly 2
r generated by the
',
Let J) be any of these classes,
e r are all equivalent.
e lt e%,
p!, and let JTt be any fixed one-to-one similarity corree.g. J)
spondence of p,- on p. In accordance with (7.4) any element

siderations

a
of character

on

ty k

(e i9

e k]

a ik

= e ae
t

generates a similarity projection

can be written in the form

[a]

of

<

this projection

[a]

r.a/V 1

(7.7)

is a similarity projection of J) on itself.

But by Part II
the
above
of
the similarity projections
auxiliary theorem proved
which is simply
of $ on itself constitute a field (division algebra)
of
elements of character (#, e).
If
is
isomorphic with the set
of order v each of the r left-invariant sub-spaces

where a

is

of dimensionality

ducible

v.

occurs

The number of times

in

an

irre-

the

regular representation is
a
the
factor of
dimensionality g of the representation.
accordingly
Any element a can be reduced into its components a ik
which may be any elements of the independent sub-spaces \) ik
In accordance with (7.7)
representation

[a ik ]

= /Xi/V

(7.8)

and a ik may be replaced by the corresponding element <x ijk of

the field 0.
Since conversely any such element a ifc is by (7.8)
associated with a similarity projection [a ik of :p t on J) and therefore with a definite element a ik of character
we obtain 3
(iK)^
-

fc ,

REDUCTION OF AN ALGEBRA

313

one-to-one reciprocal correspondence between the totality of

all elements a of the simple algebra p and the totality of matrices

22

(7.9)
r2

of order r

whose components a

The correspondence

is

are elements of the field 0.

ifc
such that to the three fundamental

operations of the one (addition of elements, multiplication of

an element by a number and multiplication of two elements)
correspond to the same operations of the other. Note that in
particular

We

have thus proved

Wedderburris Theorem.*
:

Any of the simple algebras, whose

constitutes the given algebra />, is simply isomorphic
with a simple mntric algebra in a certain field (division algebra]
defined over the field of the original algebra.
direct

sum

(Remark. The invariant sub-space $ k consists of all elements

a such that the matrix ||a a has as its only non- vanishing column
the & th
The element e f is then described by that diagonal
matrix all of whose components vanish except the one occupyth
ing the i place, which is 1.)
.||

It is readily seen that the central of the simple algebra p

consists of those elements whose matrix (7.9) is of the form

a
0*

where a belongs

to the central of the field 0.

Our construction was divided

into

two

steps.

First

was

which are
completely reduced into the sub-spaces t', r",
both right- and left-invariant and then these were further
reduced into the left-invariant sub-spaces p,-. We must now
return to the consideration of the
on the left by (7.5) we find

first

step.

On

multiplying

#s'

and on multiplying

e'x

on the right by the same factor

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

314

Hence
xe'

= E'X

commute with all elements and belong to the central

e', e",
of the algebra.
The sub-spaces t'
are both rightt",
p
and left-invariant in the sense that neither the transformation
the

x'

xa nor

x'

ax leads out

irreducible in this respect

"

them

In order to

simple."

(7.10).

If

of

them, and they are furthermore

it

indeed,

show

is

a sub-space which

is

is

we

for this reason

we proceed

this

call

as follows

both right- and

invariant then cither e is contained in t or t t

t
is an invariant sub-space of the irreducible pj and
,
fore either
or p,- itself.
In the second case we have
t

For

0.
is

left-

there-

hence e { is contained in r^
right-invariant
If
is
in
e
the
T
same is true of any e which is equit
(7.11).
valent to
For the similarity projection x'
xb of p, on J)
associates e with some element a of J), by means of the equation

since T

is

a b and since

(7.12),

If

in t

a,- is

e is also.

then since

-3 t'

= Zt
r

*t
-

not

all

the

can

be empty, i.e. one of the e\ must occur in t

But they must
then all occur in t hence also e'
t'.
Ee'^ and consequently t
.

(7.13).

Then
in t

that

either r

when

let t

Again

e'

t'

be a right- and left-invariant sub-space.

or it is empty; in the former case e' is

It

follows from

is

necessarily the

in particular r

left-invariance

it

is

must

sum

of certain of the spaces

t',

t",

irreducible in the sense of rightcoincide w ith one of the t', t",

and

Hence the reduction (7.6) is unique. This further shows that

every right- and left-invariant sub-space r possesses a generating
unit i which belongs to the central of the algebra, and that t
can be completely reduced into r and a supplementary rightand left-invariant sub-space.
(7.14). If p is an irreducible (left-) invariant sub-space with
the generating unit e, then pe' is invariant, and since pe'
e'p
it is either
or
Since
itselt.

the equation pe
$
while for all others

must hold
J)e

0.

for

We

some one

of the

then say that

e',

e",

belongs

to

J)

REDUCTION OF AN ALGEBRA

315

and that conversely e or p belongs to s. p is a sub-space of the

right- and left-invariant te.
An algebra p = t, concerning which we only assume that it
is

is

completely reducible into irreducible invariant sub-spaces J) tl

necessarily obtainable by successive application of the follow-

ing processes
(A) Construction of a field
we take as elements the matrices
(B) Transition to matrices
of a fixed order r whose components are arbitrary elements of
the field
(C) Direct summation.
:

The

processes (B) and (C) are formally completely determined

of an elementary character.
Hence the
construction of algebras is reduced to the construction of fields,
i.e. of special algebras in which division is possible (" division

and are therefore

algebras

").

The converse

is naturally also true

any algebra constructed
is
and
the
three
(C)
completely reducible, for:
steps (A), (B)
by
a
is
itself
If
the
t
field, t is itself an irreducible
algebra
(A)
if a is any non-null element of the field
of
t.
For
sub-space
this is merely
then fa runs through the entire field with f
:

the content of the division axiom.

(B) The matrices (7.9) in which all components of every
column except the z th vanish constitute the irreducible subspace p tl and the space r of all matrices is the sum of these
,-.

J),

is

show this we must prove that if a

then any element of p can be expressed

irreducible

to

element in p,
form xa. a as well as a' = xa has as
column the z th
dropping the last index
columns by
t

'

(i,
respectively.

<*2,

'

',

The equation

r),

a'

a i, <4

xa

is

'

its
t,

is

any

in the

only non-vanishing
we denote these two

'

',

<0,

then

*-=!

we

are therefore concerned with proving the theorem that

non-vanishing "vector" (a^

"
vector
any given
(040^

any

a r ) can be transformed into

'*
C) by an appropriate linear
not
all
the
Since
a* vanish take one of them,
correspondence.
and
let all g ik for which k 4= 2
not
vanish
does
which
a
say 2
to
determined
be
be
is
then
f 12
by the equation
'

'

'

that this

is

possible

is

guaranteed by the division axiom.

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

316

The assertion is self-evident for this step.

In general only the first step, (A), does not lend itself to an
exhaustive formal treatment. However, if the field over which
tfie field
(" division algebra ") referred to in (A) is defined is
(C)

algebraically closed this step becomes extremely simple

The only division algebra of finite order over an algebraically
:

closed field is this field

itself.

Consider an

Proof.

algebra

order v

of

defined

over

an

If a is an element of the algebra

algebraically closed field.
1 powers
there must exist a linear dependence between the v

av

av

~l

a,

i.e.

1,

numbers

of the field.

of degree

m ^

a linear relation whose coefficients are

Hence a satisfies an algebraic equation

= A + y^- +
= a m + y^" +
1

/(A)

-f

f(a)

ym
yml

0-

Since the field is algebraically closed /(A) can be expressed as

the product of linear factors
:

/(A)

(A

a x )(A

a m ).

a m l)

(A

,)

Correspondingly
(a

ai l)(a

a 2 l)

(a

0.

(7.15)

We now

introduce the assumption that the algebra of order v is

then the product of two or more elements
a division algebra
can vanish only if one of the factors is 0. Hence we may conclude from (7.15) that
a^l for some t; the algebra then
consists of the products of the modulus 1 with any number of
the fundamental field, and therefore the algebra itself is simply
;

a=

isomorphic with this

If

we

field.

are dealing in the field of

auxiliary theorem

(7.3)

by the more

the above,

all

complex numbers the

can be replaced, in accordance with

definite

(7.3'). All elements of the form ex'e are zero if the primitive
If they are equivalent
idempotent elements e, e' are inequivalent.
all such elements are multiples of one of them (which is different

from

0).

The number of times an irreducible representation

in
the
appears
regular representation is not merely a factor of the
dimensionality of the representation ; it is actually equal to it.
Our analysis has thus revealed the true source of this remarkable
Further

fact.

Under

these circumstances the given (" semi-simple ") algebra

sum of simple matric algebras over the original field.

is the direct

REDUCTION OF AN ALGEBRA

317

We

obtain a complete set of basal units

ik

e'ikl

e^

'

'

'

IK

these basal units satisfy the multiplication

for the algebra
"
11
law of matrix units, i.e. products of the type
;

44 = 4
and

all

are

7 17 )
-

The correspondences

others vanish.

* -*

The

a -> IKJI,

ll<4ll,

the inequivalent irreducible representations I)',

are the generating units
basal units e'iit e*l9

of the irreducible sub-spaces p t with which

e'
is the element of character
struction.
ik

1)",
e\,

e\,

we began our

con-

(ik) generated by
P on *> l Gt that element which
this correspondence associates with e\.
After having obtained the irreducible representations in
this constructive way we derive their orthogonality properties
again from our present standpoint. For the moment let the
trace of a denote the trace of the correspondence

the correspondence

/W

x->y
on

of t

which

ax

(7.18)

associated with a in the regular repreIn terms of the co-ordinate system defined by the

itself

is

sentation.
basal units above this correspondence becomes

Each

of the g'

columns

of variables

&,

'

fib,

'-

fa

undergoes the transformation with matrix

a is accordingly
-

g'

/,

i-=l

By

(7.16) this

is

equivalent to the equations

for the basal units.

Hence by

(7.17)

(k

||ajj||

1, 2,

-,

g'}

the trace of

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

318

other types of products of basal matric units have a

vanishing trace.
If the algebra is the algebra of a group of order h the correspondence (7.18) is expressed in the original co-ordinate system,
consisting of the elements s associated with the elements s of
the group, by the equation

and

all

y(s)

From

follows that the trace, as defined above, of a is

but in the case of a group algebra we have
0(1)
called
0(1) itself, without the factor h, the trace of 0.
previously
On returning to this original definition of the trace we need
merely to replace the right-hand side g' of the orthogonality
this

it

equal to h

relations (7.19) by g'/h.

Equation (7.16)
explicitly for the coefficients

may now

be solved

a,'*

ptr
o

(*4)

a(s)

The connection with the development

obtained by noting that the
&(*)

=
o

(7-20)

in

Chapter

'(O

III,

13,

is

(7-21)

of the matrix U'(s) associated with the

the group in the irreducible representation If.
character of f)' is therefore

are the

components

element

The

4(*-').

of

x '(s)

eV

(7-22)

and

(7.19) yields the orthogonality relations for the representations.

We

have thus arrived at a constructive formulation of the

theory, in which the fundamental concepts involved in and the
It supplies
range of validity of each step are clearly apparent.
us with a constructive method for obtaining a complete set of
irreducible representations,

as well

as

establishing the ortho-

gonality relations.
In dealing with the continuum of all complex
Additional remark.
numbers and a group algebra defined over this field we can, in accordance with the remark at the end of 3, completely reduce the modulus 1
into real primitive e i and the space r into the corresponding unitaryorthogonal irreducible
in such a

way

that

Further, the projections rt can be normalized

To show this we note that
conjugate to e {k
-

\\.

e'

ki

is

CHARACTERS OF THE SYMMETRIC GROUP

the conjugate of

e'

lk

is

319

under these conditions an element of character

(hi)

and must therefore be the product

The

rules
/

il kl

~'

of

e'
ki

y ik

-' -/

il

il>

by a number

kf\k

yield the conditions

on the coefficients.
and (7.19) we find

Further, y ik

We then find that the

the

numbers

(take, for

placing the original correspondences

positive, for

from

= ft\lft\ where
= y
On re-

form yit

example,

)3?

(7.23)

lt-).

by /^/^ we find that the new e^

Our representations I/, if,
are

/J.

actually conjugate to the new e'ik

accordingly thrown into unitary form.

is

B.

and

real

yik can be brought into the

are positive real

PJ

is

EXTENSION OF THE THEORV AND PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS

The Characters

Symmetric Group and

Equivalence Degeneracy in Quantum Mechanics

8.

of the

=
= =

The notation employed in this section is as follows TT

TT,
the symmetric perriutation group of / things, t
p
(TT)
the corresponding algebra, e a (primitive) idempotent element
:

is

le the (irreducible) invariant sub-space of t generated

the
by e, t)
representation induced in p by the regular representation, g the dimensionality of )) and I), x the character of
e that element of the set e', s",
I),
(7.14) to which the irre-

of p,

\)

ducible p belongs
*$ the corresponding symmetry class of
tensors of order /, consisting of all tensors of the form &F,
the representation^ the algebra
of symmetric transformations
(and therefore of the linear group c) which is induced in ty by
When further differentiation is necessary, we also denote
itself.
this
In case the considerations are valid
by JQ(X) or n (x)
for an arbitrary finite group TT, h denotes the order of TT (== /!
;

for

TTf

).

Determination of the Group Characters.

We
To

this

begin by calculating the character of the representation I).

end we construct the trace of the linear correspondence

*-> y

a*

(8.1)

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

320

of p on itself
it to be

Now

the considerations of the previous section show

consider instead of (8.1) the projection

x -> y

axe

(8.2)

it coincides with (8.1) within J) and

on p
of
an element y of J). On choosing
into
x
r
element
sends any
in
in
such
a way that the first g fundat
the co-ordinate system
mental vectors span the sub-space p, the last h
g rows of the
hence the trace of the
matrix of (8.2) consist only of zeros

of the total space t

projection (8.2) of the total group space is equal to the trace of

In terms of components equation
the correspondence (8.1) in J).
(8.2)

is

y(*)

and the trace

is

2XWXO,

*)

therefore

where the inner sum is extended over the pairs

of the group which satisfy the equation 1st'
the trace

(t*'t

/,

s,

t'

of elements

or explicitly,

is

Hence the character x

of

f)

is

given by

or
X(*)

l
1
Ze(rs- r~ }.

/
*

In particular, the dimensionality g of the representation

the space p) is

X(0

t)

8 3 ')

(and

*(!).

Resonance or Equivalence Degeneracy.

The

significance of our results for quantum mechanics, as

7
The complete
recognized by Wigner, is the following.
reduction of the tensor space ffl into invariant sub-spaces ^J t
implies a separation of the terms of the physical system //,
consisting of / equivalent individuals / (electrons), into sets of
terms which no dynamical influence whatever can cause to
We have further seen
enter into combination with each other.

first

CHARACTERS OF THE SYMMETRIC GROUP

that the reduction of

321

into the $< parallels the complete

reduction of the total group space t of the symmetric permutation
Hence there is a system of
*roup TT into invariant sub-spaces p t
terms associated with every irreducible representation f) of TT
which' we denote simply as the term system x> using the
character x of 1) as a name for the system and the multiplicity
of this term system is the number m(x) of times that I) occurs
in the regular representation.
This suffers a slight modification
in case n </, for we must then ignore all J) t which are not contained in T
But since t is both right- and left-invariant,
t|9?A
all sub-spaces which are equivalent to an irreducible invariant
Hence the multiplicity of the term
p lying in T are also in r
or
is
system x
according as that e with which the character
m(x)
is
associated
X
by (7.22) is in r or not. From the physical
the
standpoint,
only additional fact of interest obtained from
the more extended theory built up on the assumption that the
number field in which we are operating is algebraically closed
is that then the multiplicity m(x) is equal to the dimensionality
Furthermore, it is impossible to
g of the representation I).
resolve this multiplicity by any physical means whatever, for
corresponding terms in these various term systems remain in
coincidence under all dynamical influences.
consider the resolution of terms in the case in which the
interaction between the / individuals is expressed by a small
perturbation energy \W, neglecting higher powers of the small
-.

We

Assume

for the moment that the energy levels

On
a
^ii ^2
single individual I are non- degenerate.
of
the
terms
of
type
neglecting the perturbation // possesses energy
A.

parameter

'

'

'

E = E + E 2 +-

we

first

,;

concern ourselves with such a term.

(8.4)
Its

multiplicity

/! and the corresponding co-ordinates in tensor space are the

coefficients F(z 1
2
if) whose indices are any permutation
This
coefficient
s of 1, 2,
i/) is the component
F(i l i t
/.
is

t'

x(s) of the

element

F(l,

2,

-.,/)

The separation of the term (8.4) is to a first

determined
by the reduction of the corresponapproximation
dence

of the algebra

(IT).

'

F(i<i*

if)

'*/; *i*t

2>(h*i

'

'

'

k f )F(k l k 2

*,)

<*>

form here the matrix

fe
if
the energy and i lf 8
lf
to diagonal

i'

of the coefficients a represents

2,

k f are permutations

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

322
of

s,

2,

1,

This equation

/.

the form
*(s)

therefore be written in

may

Z*(s,t)*(t).

(8.5)

The equation

(V

'

'

describing the

*i'''' k f

'

')

!->!',
s

any

fixed permutation

!/;

*,

fe,)

which

of a, in

symmetry

a(i l

',/->/'
expressed by

r, is

a(sr, tr)

a(s,

t)

r is here
for the only coefficients in which we are here interested
considered as applied to the indices 1, 2,
/themselves rather
;

than the sub-indices.

and equation

Hence

a(s

a(s,

t)

may now

(8.5)

(a)

where

a,

t}

st~ l

depends only on
l

a(st~

be written in the abbreviated form

:

ax

(8.6)

x x are the symmetry elements of the algebra

}

components

(IT)

with

a(s), x(s), x(s).

On restricting ourselves to
the system space 9V the
of
*P

an invariant irreducible sub-space

element x of (IT) lies in the correThe
terms
into which (8.4) is
2
p.
l}
g
g
sponding
resolved by the perturbation and which belong to the term
system x under consideration are, to the approximation involved

W W

the perturbation theory, the characteristic numbers of the

correspondence (8.6) of $ on itself. The sum of these terms must
therefore equal the trace of this correspondence, or
in

Wi

+ W +

W.

Za(s} x (s}.

(8.7)

The sum

of the squares of these terms, of their third powers,

etc., are obtained

W\

reiterating the correspondence

by

Wl

+ Wl - Za

T (s)

(a), i.e.

X (s),

(8.7')

where the a r (s) are the components

ar

of the

symmetry element

(s]

OrM =

or

0,

according as

Z*,(st-

or 4=

I,

m
'

)*(t).

"

"

exchange energies
a(s) are known we can
to
calculate
those
of
the terms arising from
this
formula
apply

As soon

as

the

CHARACTERS OF THE SYMMETRIC GROUP

323

in the term system x

for this we need
the character x it is not necessary to have an
expression for the idempotent generator e or the
explicit
representation Ij of IT.
These considerations are immediately applicable only if we
If we take into account the perignore the spin phenomena.
turbation due to the interaction of the electrons before that
due to the spin, as in the case of normal term order, the mere
existence of spin implies that each of the energies E { is at least
We shall later concern ourselves with the far-reaching
two-fold.
modifications caused by the spin and by the Pauli exclusion
principle, which enables us to discard the majority of possible
terms.
The unperturbed If will have, in addition to terms of the
type (8.4), terms in which groups of two or more summands
appear with the same indices. The multiplicity of the term

which are contained

(8.4)

only to

know

=/)
with integral non-negative weights

(8.9)

but

/< is

/!

AA
,

The corresponding tensor

(8.10)

/>r

coefficients

x(s)

are those obtained

from

....

...;..)

2 2

/ arguments. But a permutation

only permutes the first /x indices among
we may no
themselves, the next /2 among themselves, etc.
longer distinguish between the permutations s and ps they
must be considered as giving rise to but one component. Such
of order
)
permutations p constitute a group IT'
n(f^ /2
h'
and two permutations s, t are to be considered
',
fi\fji
as the same if they are left-equivalent with respect to this subwhere p is an element of TT'}. The
t,
group TT', i.e. if s s t (ps
of
elements
x
the
only
algebra (TT) in which we are now interested
are those which satisfy the equation

by the permutations

without

is

effect

s of the

if it

x(t]

= x(s]

when

=s

s (mod.

TT')

they constitute a linear sub-space t'

t(Tr') of dimensionality
is
a
More
t'
right-invariant sub-algebra, for
precisely,
(8.10).
1
if s s / then also sr s tr.
further
Again a(s, t)
afcr )
a(ps)
if

is

in

TT'.

a(s),

a(sp]

=
= a(s]

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

324

We

now concerned with

are

*(s)

Za(sr

the correspondence x -> x in

(mod.

)x(t]

t'

(8.11)

TT'),

"

"

indicates that both 5 and t run through

a complete set of elements of the group which are inequivalent
mod. TT'. As x runs through r', xe generates a sub-space p' of t'
which is transformed into itself by the correspondence (8.11),
and the reduction of this correspondence of J)' into diagonal
form yields those terms arising from (8.9) and lying in the term

where the

mod.

IT'

system x- The trace of (8.11) in p' is equal to the trace

correspondence A,,: x -> x in r' which is obtained from
by replacing x by xe, i.e. x(t) by

of the
(8.11)

Hence
tr(A e )

=E
mod.

{
n'

8, t

Since a^r 1 )
written

a(rt~

when

mod.

(mod.

this trace

TT'),

may

be

Za(rt-i)e(r-*t).
TI

'

sum does not depend on which

we have happened to choose from the set

particular element

Naturally this

group elements
hence on dropping the restriction
which are equivalent mod. TT'
on the range of t the above sum is multiplied by the order h'
t

of

of TT':

tr(A.)

=
n

Za(rr*)e(irit)
r,

= b>Wx(*).
n

(8.12)

x( s ) ls ^ ie character of ^ as determined by (8.3).

In particular, the dimensionality of ', i.e. the number of terms
in the system x arising from (8.9), is obtained by replacing the
symmetry element a in (8.12) by the element a defined by

Here again

a
this

(s)

number

is

or

0,

according as s =

(mod.

TT')

or not

consequently

(8.13)

We

express this result, the validity of which is not restricted

permutation groups, in the theorem
Let TT' be a sub-group of rr of order h' and let $ be a left-invariant
Consider the elements x of
sub-space of the group space r of TT.
to

CHARACTERS OF THE SYMMETRIC GROUP

325

which satisfy the condition x(s)

(TT)
x(t), where s and
two
elements
TT
the
which
are
any
of
left- equivalent
group
the elements of (TT) which are of this type and which
mod. IT'
lie in J) constitute a linear sub-space whose dimensionality is given
by (8.13), where x is the character of the regular representation in p.
The sum of the terms is equal to the trace (8.12), and the
sums of their powers are given by
the algebra
t

are

2X0X0
.

W
The only way
of the

(8.14)

from (8.7') is by the introduction

and the fact that ar (s) is now defined

this result differs

denominator /j!/2

by
t

Denote the numerically different energy

and the multiplicity
by ", E",
We now distinguish between the various variables
of EM by n v
"
"
"
v by an
auxilprincipal quantum number
having the same
"
k v which assumes nv values. An energy
iary quantum number
Degenerate Case.

levels of the individual /

level of the

type
E'

of the

"

...

nl n2

and the corresponding tensor

from those of type

</>

(8.15)

// has the multiplicity

unperturbed total system

/!

+
nf

'

coefficients

are

those obtained

&2

by any permutation

s of the

"

"

kf/

/pairs

(v\k)

of

arguments

we

write

instead
x(s\k l k 2

k f ) or briefly

x(s\k).

Similarly the coefficients of the energy matrix are denoted

The energy
and lying

arising from (8.15) by the perturbation

term system x are, to a first approximation,

levels

in the

by

determined by
(*!*;

k) x (s),

(8.16)

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

326

where a

(s\k

/)

the composition

or

according as s

I,

or not, and

I}.

(8.17)

denned by

is

*,(s\k\

l)

Za,(sr

m}a(t\m;

\k;

t,(m)

If

the unperturbed energy level

is

the tensor coefficients in which

tained from

we

form

of the

are interested are those ob-

(k.
"

/"
Let exactly f[ of the auxiliary quantum numbers k lv (v=l,
etc.
/') have a certain value k ly f'2 a different value k 2
an(
i
let
have
the
analogous
/'>
/i, /2,
/i +/2
,

meaning

'

for the

'

'

!,, /")

quantum numbers k&(v

associated

with the principal quantum number 2, etc. Then those permutations p which leave the above tensor coefficient unchanged
constitute a certain sub-group 7r'k depending on the distribution
,

quantum numbers k, of the group

the order of
the non-degenerate case above

of auxiliary

Tr'

f[\

by an

left

(8.16)

is

[k]

1}

is

(8.18)

a Q (s\k

/)

in

= f[\f^\

unchanged when s is multiplied on the

ir' and on the
right by an element of n\.
k
now becomes

a(s\k\
element of

The formula

introduced

TT'

or

according

as

and

(mod.

TT^)

or not, and in the composition rule (8.17) we first sum with

respect to t mod. 7r'm and then over the various possibilities

(m n

In every case

w 12

21

).

we obtain

explicit expressions for the sums of

of the perturbed energy levels in terms of

the various powers

the character x of the term system under consideration and the

exchange energies
9.

a(s).

Relation between the Characters of the Symmetric

Permutation -and Affine Groups

The thorough correspondence

sentations

of

the

existing between

symmetric permutation group

the repreand the

TT/

RELATION BETWEEN CHARACTERS

327

representations of order / of the linear group c must lead to

a simple relation between the corresponding characters.
In
dealing with the linear group it suffices to consider only the
"
"
principal transformations

(i=

*<->e<*,
of the vector space

9ft

9ft n ,

for

2,

1,

any

n)

(9.1)

linear transformation

is

conjugate within C to a principal transformation except for

those cases in which two or more of the characteristic numbers
e coincide.
Furthermore, if we restrict ourselves ab initio to
the unitary group U the one in which we are interested in
the result is valid without exception and the
are
physics
complex numbers of unit absolute value. The problem here
proposed is identical with that of investigating the distribution
of the terms of // among the various term systems x
the
absence of interaction between the various individuals and when
the single system 7 is non-degenerate, for on choosing a Heisenberg co-ordinate system # in the system space of / (i.e. one in
t

which the operator representing the energy

of /

is

in

diagonal
/

form) the variable x assumes the multiplicative factor e(

E t\
--~

time

in

/.

We

denote the characteristic * of the representation

of
the linear group whose substratum consists of all tensors of the
form eF by X(S) or X(e 1 s 2
where the element 5 of c is
*, e n
the principal transformation (9.1).
The l are to be considered
as n independent variables.
The transformation of tensor space
associated with (9.1) consists in multiplying the coefficient
,

F(hi

Z 2>

'

',

*'/)

of the tensor

by

et

lf

The sum

of

multipliers, extended over all linearly independent

coefficients of a general tensor of the form F'
eF, is the desired
A component in which fl of the arguments i are
characteristic.

these

all

equal to
But the
this

1,

/2 are equal

number

type

is,

-is multiplied

to 2,

of linearly

by equation

"

by {* e^
independent components of

"

e n'1

of

(8.13),

here x $ the character of the representation I) of 777, the sum

")
TT(/I, /2,
being extended over all elements s of the group) TT'
which permutes the first fl numerals among themselves, the next
l

/2 among
*

"

We

themselves, etc.

That

this

number

(9.2)

depends only

hereafter to employ the

prefer," foi the sake of clarity,
"
"
for finite groups.
for continuous and
character

characteristic

"

word

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

328

on the character x

a fact of greatest importance for our present

is

The

considerations.

result

X(e lf e t>

is

where the inner sum

'

is extended over all the elements s of

denote
the value of the character x f r an
*)
to
the
class f of conjugate elements of
belonging
our formula may then be written

We

'

^(/i) /2>

element
777

by

^(I)

where

/ 1/z

(k)

the

is

belonging to the class

elementary manner.

f.

number of elements of 7r(flt /2

This number can be evaluated

in

an

Distribution of Permutations in Classes.

Any permutation 5 is a product of cycles, no two

common numeral. The 5- term cycle (1 3

contain a

of

which

7 2 4) is
2 into 4,

a permutation which sends 1 into 3, 3 into 7, 7 into 2,

and 4 into 1 again
writing these 5 numerals at equidistant
intervals on the rim of a wheel, this permutation may be conGiven
sidered as the rotation of the wheel about the angle 2n 5.
;

any permutation,

for

example

123456789
I

(9.5)

347 198265,

be separated out by first determining the number

is transformed, then the number (7) into which
3 is transformed, etc., until a number is obtained which has
this number can, of course,
already appeared in the cycle
be
After
1.
out
the
first cycle the remaining
only
separating
numbers can be handled in the same way, and the process may
be continued until the desired result is obtained. The permutation (9.5) is, in terms of its 3 cycles,
the cycles
(3)

into

may

which

(1

The reduction

3 7 2 4)

(5 9)

(6 8).

(9.6)

an arbitrary permutation into its cycles is

obviously unique. This way of writing the permutation enables
us to tell at a glance whether two given permutations are conjugate in nf or not, for an element conjugate to (9.6) is obtained
of

by replacing the numbers

in any order.
The class f

by the same numbers

1,

2, 3,

to

which an element

4,

belongs

is

thus

RELATION BETWEEN CHARACTERS

329

determined entirely by the number of cycles and the number

in particular, any permutation s and
of integers they contain
l
We denote the class
its inverse s~
belong to the same class.
f whose elements s consist of i l cycles with one numeral, i 2 with
and write x(f)
x( z i *2
*)
by (i 1 2 3
two, 3 with three,
;

z'

z'

z'

'

*>

naturally

H +
i

The number

of classes

+3z +

2z 2

the

is

non-negative integers z\, 2

The number of elements
z'

i'

To show

'

=/.

number

(9.7)

of solutions of (9.7) with

3>

in the class

(vV 3

'

'

")

IS

we write the f integers 1, 2,

/ in any of the
i l integers by
orders
and
of
first
divide
off
the
each
/! possible
then
divide
off
2z' 2 in
the
next
parentheses,
groups of 2, the next
3z' 3

in

this

groups of

3,

The symbol

so obtained

is

to

be inter-

preted as the expression of permutation in terms of its cycles.

Each of the/! possible arrangements so obtained leads to a definite

element

5 of the class

f,

and

all

such elements must be included.

We must now investigate how often

the same s occurs among these

the 5-term cycle (1372 4) can also be read as (3 7 2 4 1),
the particular integer with which we begin is
(72413), etc.
immaterial
such a cycle will occur five times.
Hence those
I
2 * 3 3
arrangements which differ only by a cyclic per-

Now

/!.

mutation

of the

numerals

in

each cycle are

all

associated with

same element s. Furthermore, the i 1-term cycles may be

written down in any order, the 2 2- term ones in any order, etc.,
and these i^.i^l
arrangements all lead to the same element s.
Hence each element occurs exactly l'i ij.%* / 2
times, and the
total number of elements in the class is accordingly given by
the

z'

(9.8).

We

must also determine the number of elements of f which

are contained in the sub-group 7r(/lf /2
For this purpose
).
we divide the numbers from 1 to f in sections of lengths fly
,

/2

the

and consider only those permutations s which permute

numbers of the first section among themselves, the numbers

On dividing s into cycles

themselves, etc.
of the cycles will be contained in the first
section, i.e. will consist only of numerals belonging to the first
section, some will be contained in the second section, etc., and

of the

second

as in the

among

above some

no cycle will consist of numerals belonging to different sections.

Denoting the number of 1-term cycles contained in the first

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

330

by t u the number
etc., whence necessarily

section
z 12 ,

2-term cycles in this section by

of

3z 13

number

the

requirement

permutations of

of
is,

by

2,

1,

/x

this

satisfying

(9.8),

in!

'

ii2!

'

" 2'"

nd

'

rd

3
etc., sections, the number
Proceeding analogously for the 2
all our requirements is
of permutations in ^(fifz
') satisfying
all
numbers
of
of
the form (9.9) for the
the
product
given by
But such an element is a member of the
various sections.
,

class

(ifa

if

and only

*!,

if

Zi..

'

'

f2,

(9.10)

hence

(i)

where the sum

(9.10) and

is

extended over the various solutions

2>

= /i,

in (9.4)

is

the only restriction on the

al
a2

Our

results

powers, for

= /2,

'

'

'

The inner sum

27"

of equations

=
=

accordingly

sum being

+E +
el + el +
2

the conditions (9.10).

s;,

Let

can be expressed entirely in terms of these sums of

by the multinomial theorem

(i)

(t)

RELATION BETWEEN CHARACTERS

331

over which the sum is extended,

We thus finally obtain
are subject to the restrictions (9.10).
the simple formula

where the variables

i*i,i A2

X(e,, s s>

iz\

(9.11)

We have so far made use only of the elementary connection

between the groups TT and C. If we now introduce the assumption
that the number field over which our algebras are defined is
algebraically closed, and is in particular the continuum of all
complex numbers, the primitive characters
have the orthogonality properties

of the finite

group

TT

Furthermore, the number of primitive characters is equal to

The above relations assert that the
the number K of classes.
matrix of the x(f), where x runs through the entire set of primitive
characters and ! all classes, has as its reciprocal the matrix
1

Hence we

also

have

for

I.

This is, in fact, merely an alternative form of the completeness

In dealing with the symmetric permutation group TT/
theorem.
1
I""
I and the order is h
/!.
On multiplying the expression (9.11) for the primitive
an d summing over all the primitive
character X by x(h*2
*)
characters x of ^Y, we obtain, with the aid of the relations
derived above, the important formula

(9.12)

where x and X are the characters

representations of 777 and c n
.

of corresponding irreducible

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

332

10.

Direct Product.

Sub-groups

Programme.
If two atoms or ions with fly /2 electrons, respectively, come
together to form a molecule we may to a first approximation
neglect the interaction between the two atoms so long as the
In this approximation
distance between them is relatively large.
the two kinds of electrons are dynamically different, for the
electrons of each atom are influenced only by the nucleus and
the remaining electrons of the same atom.
The symmetry is
TT' of the
symmetric group
things in which the first /x and the last /2
A similar situation
things are permuted among themselves.
arises when three or more atoms come together to form a
These considerations immediately suggest the followmolecule.

therefore described

TT

777

of

/! -f

by the sub-group

ing problems.

The theory developed

2-4 is to be extended to the

in
which the symmetric permutation group is replaced
by any permutation group TT'
Naturally the definition of a
symmetric transformation in tensor space is to be adapted to
I.

case in

the

new

situation
if

a(i l

we

k1

kf

require
of (1.2)

only

that

the

arbitrary permutation belonging to

1, 2,
/.
say that these transformations are

We

coefficients

remain unchanged under an

the group TT' of the sub-indices

symmetric

with respect to TT'

they constitute an algebra Z' which is
more
extensive
than 27. This question is immediately
obviously
settled by the remark that all our previous deductions are valid
for an arbitrary permutation group TT'
Here TT' is considered as
an independent group rather than as a sub-group of the sym;

'.

metric group.
II. Let the set of integers from

1 to / be divided into two

more sub-sets. We consider, as an example, the case of
two sub-sets the " red " numerals from 1 to/! and the " green "
ones from 1 to/2 fi + /2 = /.
Let TT' consist of all permutations
of the red among themselves and the green among themselves.
Hence a permutation s' = (s^ s 2 of TT' consists of a permutation
s l of the/! red numerals and a permutation s 2 f the green ones
TT' is the direct
product TT I X 7T 2 of the symmetric group TT I of f l
and 7T 2 of /2 things. Or conversely, this direct product the
abstract definition of which has nothing to do with the group
of permutations of / things
may be considered as a sub-group
TT' of the
symmetric group of /
/i + A things on arranging
the sets of numerals, on which permutations of TT I} 7r 2 act, one
after the other to form a single set.
But here we are interested

or

in the following

problem (which can be proposed

for arbitrary

SUB-GROUPS

DIRECT PRODUCT.

333

to discuss the properties of a group TT I X 7r 2

groups)
direct
which is the
product of two finite groups TT I) rr 2
III. In order to discuss the structure of molecules we must
eventually take into account the interaction between the various
atoms or ions contained in the molecule. This means that we
must finally return from the sub-group TT' to the full symmetric
group TT, so we must examine the relations existing between the
group TT and its sub-group TT'. Here again the problem is not

-finite

restricted to permutation groups.

Direct Product.

Let

be two

groups of orders /lt /2 respectively.

TT I X 7r 2 are the
product TT
pairs
s 2 ] consisting of an element s l of TT I and an element s 2 of
An element of the algebra of TT is accordingly a function
TT I?

7r 2

The elements
(s l}
7r 2 .

x ( s ii

S 2l>

product

an<J

finite

of the direct

follows from this that the algebra of

it

of the algebras (TT^

and

TT

is

the

(7r 2 )

(7T 2 )

X -multiplication of vector spaces introduced

of (TTJ) and an element x 2
element x l :x l (s
=
x
the
element
x l X x 2 of (TT), whose comyield

in the sense of the

in

II,

X 2 (s 2

An

10.

of

(7T 2 )

l)

ponents are given by

Indeed, given any two algebras p l p 2 their direct product

p
p l X p 2 can be constructed and multiplication in p defined by
,

(a l

a 2 )(b l

b 2)

(a^ X

a 2b 2)

whether they are group algebras or not.

If

pa

is

a linear sub-space of t

p^

(a

=-=

1,

2),

an element

p x X p 2 if and only if it belongs to

of s^ holding s 2 fixed, and to
)p 1 when considered as a function
when s l is held fixed indeed, any element of this kind can
J) 2
be expressed as a linear combination of products of the form
a l X a 2j where a l is in
1
If p4a
and a 2 in p 2
2) is an
invariant sub-space of t A generated by the idempotent element
of p a
and the representation space of the representation
induced in p a by the regular representation, then p is also
el X e2
invariant, has as generating idempotent element e
and is the substratum of the representation l) l X i) 2 of p. It is

x(s ly S 2 ] of

(TT)

is

in p

evident that the equivalences ^ t

^2 imply the equipi, p 2
valence pi X p 2
pi X piSuppose the two p a considered above are also irreducible

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

334

the question then arises as

with respect to their algebras pa
is
whether
irreducible
to
$l X ^2
(with respect to p) and whether
;

= pj

Pi ^

p2

equivalent to p'

pi

p2 ~

p$>

(pi irreducible) 0n/y

#<?'
P an d P' are inequivalent if
Pi*
p2if
elements
of
of
in
if
the
i.e.
x,
identically
sub-space consisting
here e
e X
character (e, e') contains only the element
2
e'
Now the formula
e( X e'2

(*i

* a )(*,

* 2)(4

= *i*i*i

X 4)

shows immediately that the sub-space (e, e') is the direct product
e() and (e 2 4), an d can consist merely
two sub-spaces consists merely of 0,

of the two sub-spaces (e ly

of
only if one of these

inequivalent to $( or J) 2 is inequivalent to ^ 2'is thus answered in the affirmative

regardless of the nature of the field over which the algebras are defined.
The first question is answered in the affirmative in III,
9,
for the only case of physical interest, i.e. that in which the field
If we are more interested in the reis algebraically closed.
in the representations we can argue
of
than
duction
the algebra
of
elements of character (e, e) is the
as follows.
The algebra
direct product of the field (division algebra) (P l of elements of
character (e lt e^ in p l and the field
2 of character (e 2 e z ] in p 2
Assuming the original field is algebraically closed, all elements
of
a are multiples of e a and consequently all elements of p
with character (e, e) are multiples of e. This proves the irreIf, however, the original field over which
ducibility of \) l X J) 2
the algebras are defined is not algebraically closed our assertion
is correct only if the direct product (P l X $ 2 of the two fields
is again a field, and this is by no means always the case.
But
in any case the question concerning the nature of the direct
product of algebras is, as in the question concerning the structure
of an algebra in
7, reduced to the analogous problem for fields
i.e.

if

only

is

Our second question

(division algebras).
all

Again taking the fundamental field to be the continuum

complex numbers, the complete reduction

into irreducible invariant sub-spaces

of

a has as a consequence,
accordance with the above, the reduction of t
t x X t 2 into
invariant irreducible sub-spaces J)^ X ffi.

in

Sub-groups.

Let

it

be a sub-group of the given

x' of the algebra t'

/>'

(TT')

of

TT'

finite

group

consists of

TT.

An

element

components

#'($')

DIRECT PRODUCT.

SUB-GROUPS

335

associated with the various elements s' of TT'.

However, such
an element can, and in the following will, at the same time be
considered as an element of the algebra p
we need only
(TT)
to define the components x'(s) associated with elements s of TT

which are not contained in TT' as

the addition and multiplication
other or with arbitrary numbers
"

"

"

This disturbs in no way

elements of (77') with each
of the field.
An element x of

zero.
of

"

to TT' or
lies
in (TT') if and only if all combelongs
ponents x(s) associated with elements s of the group that are
not in TT' vanish.
of t' is generated by a
An irreducible invariant sub-space
primitive idempotent element e' and is the substratum of a
representation f)' of TT induced in p' by the regular representation.
On reducing the modulus 1 of TT' into independent primitive
idempotent elements
(TT)

'

= JX +
=
i

(io.i)

a certain number, say g', of elements e\ will appear which are

the sub-spaces p t which they generate are all
equivalent to e
'

equivalent to p' and the regular representation of TT' contains f)'

Equivalent summands are added together into
g times.
such partial sums. Considered as an element of the total
e is, however, in general reducible into indealgebra p
(TT)
pendent primitive idempotent elements

e'

Ze*

A-l

(10.2)

Here again equivalent summands on the right are collected

let the e* in the first such partial
together into partial sums
sum generate the representation fy of TT we shall in the following
be interested only in these.
Let the sub-space p with the
be
unit
e
a
generating
representative of the sub-spaces p generated by the e*.
The elements of (77) of the form xe' constitute
an invariant sub-space <p'> which is the substratum of a representation \l)'> of TT induced in p' by the regular representation
of TT.
Our formula asserts that cm reducing <J)'> into its irreducible constituents I) occurs exactly b times.
In order to obtain a simple characterization of the elements
of <p'> we divide the elements of the group TT into sets of group
elements which are equivalent mod. TT'
the u ih such class
consists of the group elements a u s', where s' runs through the
sub-group TT'. An element x of the algebra (TT) has as components
the numbers x(a u s'} may, for fixed u, be considered as
%(<**$'}
the components of an element x'u of the algebra (TT'), so that x
;

rt

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

336

be considered as the set of elements x'u belonging to the

The formula y
xe' then becomes y'u
x'u e' in
algebra (TT').
if
x
to
if
and
all
the
hence
only
belongs
<jp'>
partial
(TT')
elements x'u lie in '. The correspondence

may

x -> y == ax

may

then be written
y(a u s')

= Z Z a(a u s't'~^
v

t'

}x(a v t'}

in n'

or

where

a'uv is

the element of the algebra

a w (s

(TT')

a(o u s'a~

defined by

).

The representation
first

<f)'> may therefore be constructed as follows

associate with the element a of (TT) the matrix \\a uv \\, the
:

which are elements of the algebra (TT') instead of

and
then
numbers,
replace each a uv by the matrix A'uv associated

coefficients of

with

it

in the representation f)' of TT'

in the earlier part of the
.

As we have seen

present chapter,
the representations are obtained with the aid of a double Peirce
we therefore consider the elements x
e'xe' of
decomposition
character (e' e'). The idempotent elements *,
appearing
in (10.2) are of this character, and such an element x may be

expressed in terms of

its

components

= Z W*p +
=
,/9

'

'

(10.3)

We now

7 for our more restricted set

repeat the analysis of
let F^ be a one-to-one similarity correspondence
on p and let the element into which e a is sent by the corre-

of elements:
of p

If, as we now assume,

spondence F^r^ be denoted by e a p*.
the field over which the algebras are defined is algebraically
closed e a xeft is necessarily a multiple x aft of e a p.
We then obtain

instead of (10.3) the reduction

= Zxpe +
aft

(10.4)

(where the x Mft are numbers) and the representations

Here, as in

7,

but in contrast with our usual notation, the product of

JT is to be read from left to right.

two or more correspondences

DIRECT PRODUCT.
Now

SUB-GROUPS

337

in particular x is in (TT') then x

e'xe' is a numerical
multiple of (10.2), and the matrix \\x^\\ associated with such an
if

a multiple of the unit matrix.

The degree of the
secular equation, the solutions of which determine the character-

element
istic

is

thus decreased from g to b for an element x

We now proceed to examine the cause of

is

numbers,

of character

(e

e'}.

this.

Let
(z

be
of

1,

2,

be a one-to-one similar correspondence of p' on p<

g'), and let the element into which it sends e'
considering an arbitrary element x of the algebra
,

On

b\
TT

F^

as the set x'u

we

see that the correspondence

xe'

-> xb\

a one-to-one reciprocal and similar mapping of <p'> on <p/>

the projection F[ of
on p gives rise to such a projection of
This projection associates with the reduction
<J)/> on <'>.
of <'> into irreducible invariant sub-spaces a reduction of the
same kind of the sub-space <p t'>
corresponding to equation
is

(10.2)

we obtain

the equations

e\

On combining
modulus

Now

(TT).

(10.1)

2Xi

a=l

and

(10.5)

'

'

(10*5)

we obtain

a reduction of the

into independent primitive idempotent elements of

of 1 and their reductions
consider the partial sums
e\
i

(10.5)

as written

Each row

one above the other.

is

then

as-

sociated with a definite representation t)' of TT' and each column

on the right-hand side, the terms of which are sums of the form
e &i, is associated with a definite representation t) of TT.
We
i

now

summands ej occurring in the first

those elements ej which are equivalent

collect together all the

column on the right,

The

to

e.

of

which

is

i.e. all

then broken up into sub-sets, each

associated with one of the inequivalent irreducible

set of indices

is

of TT'
the first of these sub-sets, which
representations f)',
associated with I)', consists of the bg' double indices az.
1
1
of p^ on $'
Let the similarity projection J
k send

is

^"

into

e\. k

If x' is

an element of
x'

(TT')

e\

the equation

= JX x'e +
k

i,*

yields the reduction

*
.*

'

'

0- 6

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

338

with numerical coefficients

and

x' ->

the representation t)'.

(The partial sums should preferably be written one
above the other rather than horizontally.) TV may be conx'

llcJ

\\x ik \\

is

as a similarity transformation of <p;> on <p'> and

therefore contains a transformation of the same type of p at on
Fira then provides us with a similarity correspondence
$a
Let Fj be a fixed one-to-one similarity correspondof p t on J).

sidered

ence of pj on p and let the similarity correspondence FjF^ of

n px send ej into ,/ #. We may take the correspondence
tyj
;

Fj

r'iFgi as

On

sub-sets.

az, and similarly for the remaining

/
1
the
F-FA (r^Fa )~ l
applying
correspondence F^F^

for the index

to equation (10.5)

we

find

C=l

The equation
J,K

J,

(10.8)

then determines the representations

:

*)

By
of

(10.6)
(77')

and

(10.7)

x ->

|k,jdl

the matrix associated with an element x

is

X ai;

==
0k

*0

x ik> XJK

where the two indices J and

belong to different sub-sets.
But this means that on restricting TT to n' the representation J)
reducible into the irreducible representations !)',
of TT',
b
have
times.
thus
a
conobtained
appearing exactly
fy'
structive proof of the theorem 9
First Reciprocity Theorem (for arbitrary groups).
If <!)'>
contains the representation 1) of TT exactly b times, then on restricting the group TT to TT', f) contains the representation I)' of TT' exactly
is

We

b times.

the sub-group TT' consists merely of the unit element 1

theorem reduces to our previous result
the number of
times an irreducible representation appears in the regular
Both the comrepresentation is equal to its dimensionality.
theorem
and
this
case
on
the
plete
special
depend
assumption
that the field over which the algebra is defined is algebraically
If

this

closed.

Connection with Symmetry Classes of Tensors.

We
group

apply the results of our investigation III to the symmetric

and make use of the correlation described in I above for

TT

PERTURBATION THEORY

339

An irreducible sub-space p
TT'.
a
determines
class
let the
symmetry
ty
(TT)
$p of tensors
of
the
TT
and
linear
corresponding representations
group c be
An
irreducible
and
invariant
i)
respectively.
sub-space ))' of
a
class
of
determines
tensors
which
is invariant
symmetry
^'
(TT')
of all transformawith respect to the more extensive algebra
tions which are symmetric with respect to TT'
as such *$' is

fr

as well as for its sub-group

of

'

the generating unit of p', ty' consists of all

but this is equivalent to saying that
tensors of the form e'F
of (TT) belongs to <p'>.
the symmetry element
Hence the
reduction of ^' into irreducible invariant sub-spaces with respect
to the more restricted algebra
parallels the reduction of <>').
Let f)' be that representation of TT' induced in p' by the regular
that representation of c whose subrepresentation of TT' and
stratum consists of all tensors in the symmetry class *$'. Hence
our general theorem or rather its converse, the truth of which
follows immediately from the theorem itself
allows us to state
the

irreducible.

If e' is

'

Second Reciprocity Theorem (applicable only

to

permutation

of TT contains the
irreducible representation I)' of TT' exactly b times when considered
as a representation of the sub-group TT' then conversely the repreIf the

groups)

irreducible

representation

t)

'

sentation

of

contains the representation

we take

exactly b times.
as in step II above,
p'

can
then always be taken in the form p t x p 2 an ^ the irreducible
invariant sub-space p* of (TT A ) determines a symmetry class ty a
of tensors of order fa (a
Denote the corresponding
1,
2).
Finally

as

TT'

TT I

7r 2

representations of

TT^

and

by

fy,

and

The

*$'

associated

with p'
tensors of order /
2 consists of all
p! X
/x
/2
which satisfy the symmetry conditions of
with respect to
their first /t indices and the symmetry conditions of ^ 2 with
i.e. ^'
X ^5 2 Our theorem now
respect to the last /2

becomes

Third Reciprocity Theorem

If the
(for permutation groups}.
of TT contains, on restricting TT to the
TT I X 7r 2
the representation f)j X t) 2 of TT' exactly
sub-group TT'
b times (fy, an irreducible representation of rr a ), then conversely the
x X Jp 2 of C contains the representation
representation
exactly b
irreducible representation

fy

times.

11.

We

Perturbation Theory for the Construction of

Molecules

return to the investigation of the physical system If

As long
consisting of / electrons or equivalent individuals /.
as we disregard the interaction between the individuals we obtain,

340

among

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

We
others, /1-fold energy levels E of the type (8.4).

consider in particular the case in which the

are different
t
In order to follow the resolusimple levels of the individual /.
tion of
due to the mutual interactions of the electrons, to
the approximation which characterizes the perturbation theory,
we must first determine the elements a of the algebra of TT, the
components a(s) of which are the exchange energies, and transform the matrices corresponding to a in the various irreducible
,

representations of TT into diagonal form by an appropriate

now assume that the most
change of co-ordinates ( 8).
important of the exchange energies a(s) are those belonging to
the permutations s of a certain sub-group TT' of TT
all others
shall be small in comparison with them (" quantities of 2 nd
Our procedure is divided into two steps, corresponding
order ").
to the investigation of sub-groups carried out in the preceding
Let a' denote that element of the algebra (TT'} which is
section.

We

defined

by
a'(s)

a(s)

or

is an element of the sub-group TT or not, and let

according as
the matrices associated with a' in the irreducible representations
then
of TT' be referred to principal axes
I)'
;

^ k), e.a'e, - W
The characteristic numbers W\ are the energy levels on neglecting
ela'e'k

(i

e\.

nd
we assume they are all different.
order
perturbations of 2
In order to examine the further resolution of such a term
nd
Wi under the influence of the 2 order perturbation we
in
with
the
accordance
need,
perturbation theory, to consider
only that part
;

W=

a*

= e'ae'

(e'
e'), where we have written e' in
This term yields b terms
a belonging to the
associated
with
the
class
irreducible
x
representation
symmetry
of TT, the values of which are the characteristic numbers of
f)
e'ae' as in
the matrix \\a^\\ associated with the element a*

of

a which

place of

is

e\.

of character

the algebraic elements appearing in these con(10.4').

siderations are real and the corresponding matrices are conAll

sequently Hermitian.
We apply the procedure to the process by which molecules
are constructed from their constituent atoms. 10 We consider
as an example two atoms joining to form a molecule, the one
/ fl
/2 We
containing /x and the other /2 electrons
consider the two nuclei as held fixed at a distance d apart, which
;

PERTURBATION THEORY

341

linear dimensions of the atoms, and

determine
their
interaction
energy as a function of d.
attempt to
TT
7r
of
all permutations which
TT'
consists
The sub-group
2
I X
we have seen
send no electron of one atom over into the other
in
10 that we may then take the primitive idempotent elements
is

large

compared with the

X 2 where e^ e 2 are
the
interaction between
neglecting
(TT-J), (TT^ respectively.
the electrons of the one and the electrons of the other atom we
which belongs to definite symmetry
obtain an energy term
e' generates a sub-space *$'
X $2
states of both atoms,
is
all
which
invariant
under
tensor
the
symmetric
space W)
(of
that the state of the molecule is described
transformations
by a tensor of this sub-space ty means that the state of the first
Hence on reducing
and that of the second in ^J 2
atom is in
into
irreducible inwith
reduction
the
of
in
<p'>
^'
parallel

e'.

e'

of the algebra (n

in the

form

el

On

in

variant sub-spaces

there occur b sub-spaces ?P (a) which are equivalent to one another

and which belong to a certain representation of TT or to a certain
symmetry class of terms of the total system. The procedure
sketched in the preceding paragraph thus leads to b terms which
(1) arise, due to the perturbation, from the given unperturbed
term (8.4) and (2) which belong to certain given symmetry
f the two atoms and the molecule.
This
states xi, X2 an d X
into sub-spaces, each of
reduction of the total system space
which corresponds to a definite symmetry state of each of the

atoms taken separately and of the molecule, naturally is not

bound up with the approximate calculation of levels with the
the connection between the two
aid of perturbation theory
on
the
above
condition (1) into account
taking
appears only
the very essence of which implies the assumption of small per;

This somewhat sketchy account of the situation

of the type (8.4), in which
the energies t of the individual / are non-degenerate, can readily
be extended to cover other more complicated types of unperturbed terms. These other cases are of course of much greater
physical interest, for we have seen in Chapter IV that all atomic
turbations.

arising from an unperturbed term

-

energy

levels,

11
except 5-terms, are necessarily degenerate.

The fact that the total system may be in any one of several
symmetry states *$, corresponding to different energy levels
(i.e. binding energies), when the symmetry states of the component atoms are given
later

show that these

is

of greatest importance.

possibilities, finite in

We

shall

number, coincide with

342

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

those predicted by the empirical theory of the valence bond, and

that consequently the symmetry state of an atom is that which
chemists call its valence state. The situation thus arising cannot
be described adequately in terms of classical models e.g. the
fact that the two
atoms constituting an
2 molecule can behave in such a way that the state of the molecule may lie in
either the space of symmetric or anti-symmetric tensors of
order 2
only the first case can lead to an attraction which will
bind the atoms together the second always results in a re-

12

The binding energy between two ions of total residual

charges e ly e 2 is naturally due mainly to the Coulomb potential
"
"
or
e^e^d (*' ionic binding
polar bond "), but the corresponding
energy for two neutral atoms is due for the most part to the
4t
"
interaction of the
exchange energies
a(s) of the electrons of
"
"
or
the two atoms (" atomic binding
non-polar bond ").
This quantum-mechanical solution of the puzzle offered by the
non-polar valence bond was first given by F. London and
pulsion.

W.

Heitler.

The following points

are to be taken into consideration in

applying the theory of perturbations to the actual evaluations.

On neglecting the interaction between the various electrons
we
each is subject only to the attraction of the two nuclei
should therefore perhaps begin with the characteristic numbers
E t and the corresponding characteristic functions ifj^xyz) of
;

problem. The first approximation should then

be obtained by taking into account the repulsions between the
electrons of each of the atoms separately, thus introducing a
dynamical difference between the two kinds of electrons. This
procedure is naturally significant only so long as the distance d
between the atoms is large in comparison with their linear
dimensions a. But then it is also reasonable to take as our
th
approximation that in which each of the electrons is subject
only to the attraction of its own nucleus (plus the closed shell
of electrons which are not to be taken into explicit account in
the calculations).
Let this one-electron problem for the first
atom have the characteristic values E i and characteristic functions </*,, and let the corresponding quantities for the second
atom be ^, ^. The fact that the
and the fa together
cannot constitute an orthogonal system indeed, they are not
even linearly independent, for the t alone constitute a complete
But if we break off
orthogonal system causes some difficulty.
the series of quantum states at a finite n which can be chosen
higher the larger the value of d/a under consideration the

this one-electron

finite set

PERTURBATION THEORY

343

constitute an almost orthogonal system

the
fundamental metric form G the coefficients of which are the
of

functions

i/r

scalar products

(where

and k run through the primed

as well as the

indices), differs but little from the unit form.

Indeed,
of the form (t/^,
r ) is of order of magnitude e~ dla

un-primed
an integral

To show

we note

that if the two centres of force are nuclei or closed

"
"
residual charge, the normal states of the
unit
cores "with
atoms are given by
this

where

and

are the distances to the

two

cores.

The integrand

in

dfa
This integral can readily
everywhere ^ e
evaluated on introducing bi-polar co-ordinates (r,
volume element is then

is

dV
and the range

of integration
r

On

is

r',

exactly
the

<f>]

^rr'drdr'
a
defined by

r'^d,

be

<

d.

introducing
r

-f-

___,,,

-=
r'

we obtain
00

For the /-electron

functions

+1

problem we therefore start with

'

<A(h,

'

',

if)

the

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

344

in this
approximations to the characteristic functions
of
the
co-ordinates
are
those
the
electrons
and
i runs
/
product
is
each
of
which
of
the
one
z/,
primed
through the values i lt i 2
The fundaor un-primed indices between 1' and n' or 1 and n.
G X GQ X
mental metric form G
X G Q has as components
i f ) with ^(k^ k 2
the scalar products of ^(i ll i 2
k f and
the components of the energy //, the potential part of which is
obtained by adding together the potential energies resulting
from the attractions and repulsions of the various electrons and
i f ) with the
the two cores, are the scalar products of iff(i l
vector H$(k
&/) into which 0(&j
&/) is sent by the
operator H. We consider the resolution of the unperturbed
term

as

+E

=(! +

fl ]

(E r

The components
G(i l
in

;,;

'

which the indices

*/)

and H(i,

k arc permutations

z,

k,
s,

/,

*,),

(11.1)

of
respectively,
'

form G(sr l and //(sr 1 ). We

with components G(s)
introduce the (real) elements G and
are next replaced by G' and //' with comand //(s). G and
X 7r 2) and otherwise
ponents G(s) and //(5) if s is in TT' =
'

1,

A,

',

1',

',

A', are of the

the justification for this lies in the fact that the components
associated with an s which is not in IT' are very small
they are
G' is in fact the modulus, whereas
of relative order e~ 2dla
is not
the procedure employed previously must therefore be
modified in the following purely formal respect.
On repeating
the reasoning, keeping in mind the fact that
is no longer the
modulus, we find as the secular equation for the determination
of the b terms A
a

=W

in

AC,,

//.,

=
|

0,

(11.2)

which

terms of the notation employed in the preceding section.

This procedure is open to the criticism that whereas the
second order perturbations between the electrons of the same

in

atom

are neglected, the interaction between the two atoms, which

considered to be of second order, is taken into account. The
results are therefore inapplicable to the limit d/a -> oo and can
at most be applied successfully in cases in which d/a is consider-

is

PERTURBATION THEORY

345

On the other hand, we

ably larger than 1 but not too large.
that
the
solution
of the quantum
could begin by assuming
for
is
atoms
the individual
Let the
already known.
problem
function $ l of the co-ordinates of the first fl electrons be a
characteristic function of the first atom corresponding to the
energy term E 1 (so normalized that the integral of $i*(ii is unity)
it will belong to a certain simple symmetry state of the first
atom, i.e. there exists a certain real primitive idempotent element
ej of (TTJ) such that e^^
^. Similarly, let 2 be a characteristic function of the second atom for the term /? 2
having a
2
2
Neglecting the interaction
corresponding property
1/4.
function of
between the atoms,
2 is a characteristic
the molecule consisting of the two atoms and having the energy
E E l E 2 e' ^i X e 2 is a primitive idempotent element
n l X 7T 2 and has the property
of the algebra of 77'
;

if/

</f

=^

</f

=
=

The functions

s</r,

i/j

which are obtained from

the totality of
i/r by
a
linear
function
arguments, span
space
of dimensions
in which the sifi are natur-

5 of its

/! permutations
(91) of a finite number
ally

linearly independent nor mutually orthogonal.

of perturbations requires us to find those functions
which are such that the orthogonal projection of H<f>

neither

The theory
(f>

on

of

(9?)

is proportional to 6 itself
the factors of proportionality
are then the values of the displaced terms, to a first approximation.
must therefore evaluate the integrals G(s, /), //(s, /) of

(9t)

We

and

t$-sj*

t$-H(s*l/)

and solve the secular equation

\XG(s

G and

//

/)

t)

depend only on
G(s,

H(s,

t)\

H(s,

t)

0.

s :*

G(r*s),

- H(r

This

s).

is proved by the fact that the integral of $

is unchanged
on replacing /r,
an
by r</f, r</> (r
arbitrary permutation)
H(sifi)
is equal to sPIifj because of the
symmetry of the operator H.
Let Q and
again be the elements of (n) with components
<f>

<f>

G(s), H(s).

They

satisfy the equations

e'Ge'

G,

e7/e'

On comparing this with (11.1) it is to be remembered that there the

hence
permutations s and / operate on the indices and not on the arguments
the elements (11.1) are. in our present notation,
*

G(t~

l
,

s~ l )

and

H(t~

l
t

s~ l ).

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

346

and are therefore

of character (e

we

Indeed,

e'}.

',

have, for

example,

e'(r-

whence

nf>,

H(s^)

Ze'(r~

l
)

H(sr^),

and on multiplying
H(s)

this latter

by $ and integrating we
or

Ze'(r~i}H(sr)

H=

find

He'.

H e'H whence, since

real,
H = e'He' as asserted.
The only non-vanishing elements of the matrix
which corresponds to the element H in the representation
then follows that also

It

H=

e'tt

e'

is

and consequently

||//j^||,

are (in the notation of

10 with

I),

those contained in the

of
sub-matrix
which
b
in
the row and column
square
length
indices J and
are of the form ocl.
We are thus led directly
to the secular equation
e[

e'}

of b ih degree.
(The most natural method of solving this equation
consists in finding that linear transformation which sends the

Hermitian form with

the

coefficients

same time reduces

\\H aft

\\

the trace of the matrix belonging to

or

If

in particular

6=1

into the unit

G^

to diagonal form.)

H in

the above

form and at

SH^

then

is

the representation

symmetry system

I),

of the

molecule contains but a single term arising from the unperturbed

term E
its value is, in accordance with the equation derived
above, given by
;

ZG(s) x (s)

The accent on the right-hand

>

Z'G(s) X (s)

side indicates that these

sums

are

extended over only those permutations s which do not

13
It
belong to TT'. This formula (11.3) is due to F. London.
will be shown later that in the case of diatomic molecules b
to be

we must

expect, however, to find higher values of

The real difficulty
b in dealing with more complex molecules.
in getting inconsists
from the physical standpoint naturally
is

always

formation concerning the exchange energies H(s).

It is

to

be

SYMMETRY PROBLEM OF QUANTUM THEORY

noted, however, that

we need

347

only to concern ourselves with the

sums

over the various classes, for since x( s ) IS a class function all

in (11.3) for elements in the same class I may be
added together to give the above coefficients multiplied by x(I)-

summands

Without doubt these investigations, which are as yet in their

infancy, are of fundamental importance for theoretical chemistry
the non-polar bond is due to the exchange energies. Heisenberg
;

has given an explanation of ferro-magnetism with the aid of

these

same

12.

On

14

principles.

The Symmetry Problem

of

Quantum Theory

taking the spin into account the components of a vector

x(u), which represents the state of a single electron, has two

the first of these refers to the spin and runs from
indices t and i
1 to v, while the second refers to the translation and runs from
;

oo (as long as we do not restrict

the consideration of quantum states with fixed
Our vector space 9ft is accordingly 9t vn
9ft v X 9ft n
energy).
The state of a system consisting of / electrons is now to be
represented by a tensor of order / in this space
V(^\i\^ C 2*2
"
"
so
a
tensor
to
double
which
^ if)
stands,
speak, with
one foot (the Greek indices) in the space JR V and the other (the
This tensor space is completely reducible,
Latin indices) in iR n
with respect to the algebra Zvn of all symmetric transformations
of the index pairs (u), into irreducible invariant sub-spaces,
1

to n.

Actually

ourselves

and n

to

each of which

idempotcnt symmetry operator.

principle states that only one of these subit automatically abolishes the
physically realized
is

generated by

'.n

The Pauli exclusion

spaces ty vn is
physically absurd existence of multiplicities which cannot be
resolved and at the same time denies the existence of absolutely
non-combining systems of terms. Furthermore, according to
Pauli this ^$, n is the space {9UV n} of all anti-symmetric double
;

tensors.

On ignoring the spin perturbation, ty vn is to be reduced as far

as possible into sub-spaces ^5 which are invariant with respect
to the special symmetric transformations of the form
(*)

which do not depend on the Greek indices

our old algebra

27

= 2J n

at

all

This transition from

these constitute

2vn

to

Sn

is

to

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

accomplished in two steps. We first ignore the interaction

348
be

between spin and translation, but allow the translations to

interact among themselves in an arbitrary manner and similarly
we must then consider only the
the spins among themselves
symmetric transformations of the form
;

'

y(h

i/

'

*i

if

c(ii

ic,)

k f ).

k,

(12.2)

These transformations do not constitute an algebra themselves,

"
"
but they belong to their
n which
algebra S v X
enveloping
consists of all transformations whose coefficients

Kf
KI
are unaltered on subjecting the two rows 4
t/
Greek indices to the same arbitrary permutation a and the
two rows of Latin indices to the same arbitrary permutation s.
;

of

The second step then consists in letting y in (12.2) be the identity.

The first step thus consists merely in making the permutation
Greek indices independent of the permutation of the Latin
indices, and the second in restricting the first of these permuta-

of the

tions to the identity.

In the first place, then,

metry operator a X
F(L I I I

ifif),

a and the Latin

operator

is

we introduce the elementary symwhich, on applying it to the double tensor

subjects the Greek indices to the permutation

to the permutation s.
The general symmetry

then an arbitrary linear combination

a
elementary ones

of these

2>(tf, s)(a
<T,

s)

we have thus

with the algebra

to deal

p of elements *, the components #(cr, s) of which are functions

p
both of whose arguments run through the elements of the group TT.

We

denote the element with components F(cr, s)

(a X s)F
the
F'
aF
the
double
tensor
obtained
by
equation
(F
from F by the operator a) is equivalent to F
F 3. The
group TT X TT of elements a X s contains TT itself as the sub-group
So far as the first step is conconsisting of elements s X s.
our
amounts
to
the following
Let l(s) be the
cerned,
problem
of
a
components
primitive idempotent element of the algebra

=p=

(77)

We

set

l=l(s)(s X

s)

and study the elements

stitute

of the

an invariant sub-space

form
(t

xl in p

p.

which

is

to

t)j

They

con-

be reduced

SYMMETRY PROBLEM OF QUANTUM THEORY

into its irreducible invariant constituents

have

Pauli's case

in

349

we

in particular

The procedure which

seems natural to follow is first of

of p in any two ways as the sum of
primitive independent idempotent elements

all

to express the

it

modulus

Zel

2>,.

(12.3)

An

arbitrary element # of the algebra of p x p is reduced into

independent constituents in accordance with the equation

2>(*;

= Zx

e,}

tj

(12.4)

,;

Now we know from 10, II, that the elements of the form % ij
constitute an irreducible invariant sub-space p, ;
consider
-

*/=

2>,,/
.;

this

in

The projection % -> y

light.

invariant

certain

which

sub-space

(p l; )

=
of

xl
(r

sends

t)

over into
Since those

p, y

constitute an invariant sub-space of

we
have
the
two
either (p i;
only
^,j
typical possibilities
or this projection x -> xl maps p, in a one-to-one and similar

x of

J)

for

; ,j

xl

-)

manner on

(p,/).

The sum
(r

arranged

some particular

in

r),

r(Pu),

order,

is

(12.5)

such that each term can,

in virtue of its irreducibility, only either be contained in

sum of the preceding terms or be independent of this sum.

the

On

retaining only those terms arising from this second possibility,

into the sum of certain of the
(t X t)j is completely reduced
in (t X t)j by the regular
induced
the
representation
(J) ^)
TT X TT is correspondingly reduced
of
the
group
representation
It will be
into its irreducible constituents of the form f)' X t).
for
the correspondence
remembered that this symbol stands
t

(",s)->L7

U(s),

(12.6)

representations a -> U'(a),

This representation {)' X I) appears with a
of TT.
certain multiplicity b(x x) which is determined by the number
of pairs ij in (12.5) whose */ generate the representation f)'
and whose e f generate I). These considerations are of course

where

t)',

I)

are

the

irreducible

s -> U(s)

',

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

350

merely a repetition for the case at hand

of the proof of

theorem

(6.1).

We now

return to the space of double tensors and consider

/v

the sub-space
defined by those of the form IF.
substratum of a certain representation Q(ZV X 27n of
and its complete reduction is given by the formula
)

X
X

It

is

the

S X Eny
v

(12.7)

n).

This remains correct even if v or n is less than /.

Earlier in
this chapter we introduced the right- and left-invariant subspace t of t as that sub-space consisting of all elements F which
correspond to tensors F in the ^-dimensional vector space SR n
.

On

denoting

this r

which depends on n (and only

for

coincides with the entire

t

r),

by

we should

consider the algebra

n

instead of

But

t.

if

e\

is

in r

and

e j in t,

the manifold
v

of elements x(e i

and every

ek
v

belongs to

(e t )

This shows that (12.7) remains correct under

r (r).

not decreased on restricting x to r X r,

which is equivalent to such an e'{ (e } ) also

e$) is

this restriction to r

which

^f

the only effect

that those terms for

is

the 0-dimensional representation are illusory

are now ready to take the second step
to perform the
2
to
transition from the algebra
X
v
n
n by taking y in
the
then
as
see
identity.
immediately that the
(12.2)
consists of the
of
whose
substratum
27,
representation 2(2)
double tensors of 2 in the sense of equation (12.1), is completely
reduced into its irreducible constituents
corresponding to
the various primitive characters x f 1*1
accordance with the
{,

is

We

Z
We

=Z

equation

() = 2Xx)
X

The
is

multiplicity m(x) with which this representation

given by

m(x]

= ZW,

xmX

occurs

(12.8)

'),

where N n (x) is the dimensionality of the representation

n
and the sum is extended over all the primitive characters x
of TT.
Hence on disregarding the spin perturbation we obtain
the same type of reduction into non-combining systems of
terms as before, except that the multiplicity, which was previ,

ously equal to the dimensionality g of x,

is

now

given by

(12.8).

SYMMETRY PROBLEM OF QUANTUM THEORY

351

(The spin perturbation causes weak inter-system combinations

term of the system
is
the
its
into
m(x) components. m(x)
multiplicity of the
X
f
r
which
Term
structure.
do
systems x
m(x)
multiplet
not appear at all.)
Our reciprocity theorem enables us to determine the conAs mentioned before, TT is contained in TT X TT as the
stants b.
the algebra p
sub-group of elements of the form s X s
(TT)
in
the
of
elements
of the form
as
X
totality
p
p
algebraic
appears
The elements xl of the algebra p constitute an
a(s)(s X s).
to take place and, in addition, resolves each

invariant sub-space

irreducible

J)i

let

the irreducible repre-

which is induced in this sub-space by the regular

The
representation be denoted by 1), and its character by X(s).
all
elements
of
the
form
in
is then <pi> in the
of
xl
X
p
p
space
10
it is the substratum of the representation
notation of

sentation of

77

contains the representation f)' X I) exactly

the reciprocity theorem then tells us that the number
times
of times the representation f)' X f) contains the representation
<t)!>

of p

p.

<f)i>

on restricting TT X TT to its sub-group TT is also b.

restriction to TT sends the representation (12.6) of

fyi

TT

Now

this

into

TT

the representation
(s, s)

of

TT.

TT

is

(no

ij

of

TT

longer with

U(s)

x) ^ the number of times

contained in the representation ty x I)
boldface multiplication sign !).
Hence

expressed by

%',
With

This means, however, that b(x

the representation

of

-> U'(s)

X)

',

is

= Wfc'WxW*-

(12.9)

)}.

we have

carried our solution of the problem of deterthe

mining
multiplicities m(x) as far as is possible in the general
this

case.

Consider in particular the special cases (1) complete symmetry,

the
2=[5R/], and (2) complete anti-symmetry,
{9i/}
For the first X(s)
Pauli case.
1.
With each irreducible

representation x is associated the contragredient representation

~1
^ the substratum of the first
with character x( s )
x( s }
is generated by the idempotent element e the substratum of

Or we may describe this situation

generated by e.
an
d
that
are
^
ie characters of mutually contrax
x
by saying
~1
gredient representations.
(Accidentally x( s }
x( s ) ^ or the
TT
this
does not hold for a general
complete symmetric group
the latter

is

permutation group, however, whereas our entire theory does.)

Equation (12.9) now becomes
b(K, X)

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

352

But

in virtue of the

orthogonality property of characters this

is equivaccording as the representation
The expression (12.8) for the multiplicity
alent to x or n tthen assumes the simple form

mean value

is

or

the representation f) X t) contains the identical

- 1 once or not at all
according as f)' is equivrepresentation s
alent to the contragredient of f) or not is nothing other than
the fundamental theorem [III, (10.5)] on which the entire
theory of representations was based.
8S
In the second (anti-symmetric) case X(s)
Now

The theorem that

11

"dual
associated
representation f)*
if f) is generated by the idempotent element e then f)*
with I)
= 8 S e(s~ 1 }. Or if
is
e*(s)
generated by the idempotent
vThe expression for the
s --> U(s)
then I)* 5 -> 8^ [/(.?)
I)
the character of the

is

multiplicity

is

in this case

If we denote the 1-dimensional representation s -> 8 S by

{!},
the fundamental theorem mentioned above tells us immediately
that f)' X 1) contains the representation {!} once or not at all
(12.10) is the actual
according as I)' is equivalent to t)* or not.
for
this
case
is
the
one which is of
second
multiplet formula,

interest for atomic physics.

Additional Remarks.

The only cases of importance for physics, (1) that of symmetric and (2) that of anti-symmetric double tensors, can be
handled by elementary methods. We again refrain as long as
possible from making restrictive assumptions concerning the
The method will be
field over which the algebras are defined.
illustrated
e lt

by application

to case (1).

are

equivalent

(12.11) //
e 2 are also.

e lt

e2

idempotent

then

elements,

Let ^ l be mapped on J) 2 by a one-to-one similarity

jT # 2
b is here the element, of charx\b
1
acter (e ly e 2 ), into which e\ is sent by 7
Let the inverse correspondence carry e% over into a, which is then of character (e 2 ej.
F carries a over into e% since the element associated with a by
Proof.

correspondence

SYMMETRY PROBLEM OF QUANTUM THEORY

F is

ab

we have

that

el

ba.
e2

ez

We

ab,

ab.

we

Similarly,

353

find with the aid of

P~ l

then have
el

ba

e 2 ae l

e^e^

a,

b.

Conversely, the existence of these equations guarantees that

x2

x lb

%i

x 2a

are reciprocal similarity correspondences J^^foThat is, the

existence of these four equations means that e l and e 2 are
"
"
need only to
roof
these equations in order
equivalent.
to conclude that e l and e z are then also equivalent
i.e., go

We

over to the quantities % associated with each of these % by the

We

l
definition x(s)
have here neither assumed that
x(s~ ).
the e are primitive nor that the field is algebraically closed.

The invariant sub-spaces

p generated by e. e are
(12.12).
the substrata of mutually contragredient representations.
Let $ consist of all elements xe
we introduce in
Proof.
,

addition

to

this

left-invariant

sub-space the right-invariant

elements of the form ex. Let

sub-space q consisting of all

tr (xy) be the trace of the elements x and y, which may vary
we assert that it is a non-degenerate
freely in J), q, respectively
if tr
bilinear form.
That is
identically in q then the
(ay)
element a of J) must be 0, and if tr (xb)
identically in p the
if
is
element b of q must be 0.
z
Indeed,
any arbitrary element
whatever and a is in J), then
;

az

ae

ez

ay,

in q
ez is in q.
Hence the assumption that tr(ay)
a
whence
for
that
[cf.
arbitrary z,
4].
implies
tr(az)
0.
Similarly for the remaining case tr(xb)
Now let .p and q be referred to arbitrary co-ordinate systems
and let the co-ordinates of x, y be ,, 2
', *M
v
^i* ^2,
Then tr(#y) is of the form
respectively.

where y

'

'

>

"

(,*)

The theorem above shows that g

and that the

coefficients s ik

may

^h

and h

^ g,

whence h

= g,

be considered as the coefficients

Hence on choosing
a non-singular linear transformation.
the co-ordinate system in q in an appropriate manner tr (xy)
may be reduced to the canonical form

of

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

354

But then
tr (xy)

tr (yx)

tr (yr~

rx).

Hence the simultaneous substitution

x'

rx,

y'

yr~

which does not lead out of p, q respectively, leaves the trace

These two transformations are therefore contra-

invariant.

gredient in the new co-ordinate systems; our assertion (12.12)

then follows immediately on writing the second of these equations
"
"
roofed
form y'
in the
ry and noting that y runs through

A.

the left-invariant sub-space p generated by e as y runs through q.

After this preliminary skirmish we apply the method employed before, somewhat modified, to the case (1) in which
s

x*)-

=j]Z(

We

are

now

elements

interested in the reduction (12.4) only for symmetric

elements which satisfy the equations

#, i.e.

X (ar

sr)

(12.13)

x(a, s]

This amounts to replacing x by xl

we subsequently
note that xl(e' X e) is not symmetric and accordingly multiply
again on the right by /. We thus replace e X e by l(e' X e)l
rather than (e X e)l and proceed to obtain an explicit expression
for the reduction, rather than calling on the aid of the reciprocity
theorem.
First, the components of l(e' X e) are (on ignoring
the factor I//!) given by

for all

r.

Ze'(ro)e(rs)

Zt(s-*r-*)e'(r<J)

ee

- l

a).

This expression vanishes

l
l
equal to e(s~~ a)
e(a~ s).

if

ee'

for

e'

This suggests that

e we find
we choose

it

is

two complete reductions (12.3) of the modulus 1. The

in the sum (12.4) which then remain for symmetric
terms
only
x
xl are those of the form x(e i X *,-), and the factor l(e X e )
1
is the element with components
has
Since x(e X
^^(cr"" ^).
not been reduced identically to
on restricting x to the domain
as the

of

symmetric elements, the sub-space which

as

to

the

irreducible

it

generates

--

is

A.*~

before, equivalent
p,
next step consists in multiplying on the right with
l
e(a~ s) becomes, in accordance with (8.3) and (7.22),
here,

,-)

X
/,

J^.

The

whereby

SYMMETRY PROBLEM OF QUANTUM THEORY

Our

final result is that

any symmetric x can be reduced

355
in ac-

cordance with

XB'

XB"

where

e(or, s]

= ~ s(a~^)

(12.14)

is to be remembered that the number

any irreducible representation appears in the regular
one is given by its dimensionality.
It follows from the fact that e(s) is a class function that these

in deriving this result it

of times

elements
elements

",

s',

in

methods and

X
is

p.

constitute a set of independent idempotent

This result is in fact obtainable by direct

valid, regardless of

whether the

field

which

in

we are operating is algebraically closed or not. To show this

we note that any " symmetric " element x(ar s) is a function
t

only of

scr~

in virtue of (12.13)

x(a, s]

= x(sa~

Thus there

).

correspondence between the symmetric

elements of p X p the space of which we denote by [t X t]
and the elements of t. Direct computation shows that this
exists

one-to-one

correspondence associates with each left-invariant sub-space of

a left- and right-invariant sub-space of r, and conversely
[t X t]
the reduction of [t X t] into left-invariant sub-spaces thus
parallels the reduction of r into sub-spaces which are both leftand right-invariant. The whole problem is thus much simpler
its solution is obtained by carrying
for [r X t] than for r itself
over the equation
x
xe'
xe"
(7.5)
;

the algebra p to [r X t], the result of which is (12.14).

Nevertheless we must return to the previous less elementary
and this result presupposes that the
analysis in order to see
that each of the irreducible infield is algebraically closed
variant sub-spaces of [t X t] obtained in this way is equivalent

for

form p x J) (where
^
$ and p are irreducible invariant sub-spaces of r with generating
units e and e).
The completely anti-symmetric case can be dealt with in a
to a sub-space of the algebra t

of the

corresponding elementary way.

The complete reduction of the manifold 2 of tensors in the
2-dimensionaf spin space 9^, v
2, is accomplished with the
f is
formula
aid of the Clebsch-Gordan
Kj X S t X
[III, (5.9)].
(c}

(/factors),

where!

is

the representation of the linear

C 2 by itself, and by the formula mentioned above this

c
representation is completely reducible into the irreducible ( v
The
where v can assume only the values /, /
2, /
4,
1, and to each of these possible
dimensionality of ( v is v

group

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

156

corresponds here but one irreducible

(12.10) then tells us that there exists

there

limensionalities

Formula

epresentation.
nly one term

system having the multiplicity p-f- !(=/+!,

1, /
3,
compare the beginning of 15 on this point.
)
The preceding analysis seems to me to be necessary in order
o obtain a complete understanding of the relations implied by
he permutation group without recourse to the approximation
haracteristic of the theory of perturbations.
So far as the
atter is concerned we proceed as follows.
Again consider a
erm of the form (8.4) of the unperturbed system, the only
iegeneracy of which is that necessitated by the equality of
he /electrons. The perturbation equation is then
;

JWi,

'

'

*/'/)

fhere the a(s) are the

re

Z*(sr*)

F(i 1 fe 1>

exchange energies and i l

/ by the permutations

obtained from
be the tensor in spin space defined by
1

,et

i,*,),

if
t

s,

(12.15)

kl

kf

respectively.

<f>

F(t 1 l

i 2 2,

-,

t//)

^(412

he anti-symmetry of the double tensor

nd on

letting a'(s)

8S

a(s), (12.15)
<f>

'he

problem
umbers of

pace

is

/)

then

tells

us that

becomes

a'fr

(12.16)

thus reduced to that of finding the characteristic

linear correspondence in the 2/-dimensional

this

3t{.

^i(-P) be the characteristic functions of the single electron.

the perturbation is due solely to the Coulomb forces between
be various electrons, that part of the energy matrix a(i l
//;
i
kf) which is due to the perturbation is obtained additively
om terms of the form

Let

an(l the denominator

^here a 4=

ft

wo points

PM

<P

"

'

dv<

the distance between the

of the ^ tells us that
tiis integral can be non-vanishing only if the
permutation s,
rhich sends the set of indices k into the set i (both of which
re permutations of 1, 2,
/), is either the identity or the
In
this
latter
case we find
ransposition (<xj3).

and Pp.

is

The orthogonality

SYMMETRY PROBLEM OF QUANTUM THEORY

On

357

the right-hand side of (12.16) we then have only the terms

I and the
arising from s
transpositions s
(<xj9)

Dirac has given a remarkable formula for the transposition

Let @ a be the spin of the ath electron
acting on a spin tensor.
S%, S* S" are then the operators
;

acting on the

th
<x

1|

||0

0|

||i

-i]

II

0,

|o

index of the tensor

-i

<

if).

On

calculating

in particular

(&&) =

+ SJSJ + SJS*

515*

&

1
2
(which should perhaps be written ((3 X @ ) instead, since
2
affects only the first index and
only the second), we find that
it is the operator

acting on the
a{l

+ &&)}

first
is

two

indices, all other places being 0.

the substitution

#01), #01)

<f>(00)

or the transposition of the first two indices.

mav then be written in the form

'

This

may

<

The energy

(12.17)

(12.18)
ft

be interpreted as saying that the coupling between

the electrons a and B

is

responsible for the term

energy operator. However, the constant

16
represent the energy of the unperturbed system.

in the

Hence

does not

358

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

C.

EXPLICIT ALGEBRAIC CONSTRUCTION

13.

Young's Symmetry Operators

We now

supplement the general theory developed above

an
by
explicit algebraic construction of the irreducible representations of the symmetric permutation group TT
This
ny.
problem is, as we know, equivalent to that of constructing the

primitive

/ by means
"

classes of tensors of order

"

symmetry

of

here a
idempotent symmetry operators e
symprimitive
metry class is one such that the symmetry of the tensors belonging to it cannot be further increased by the addition of
further symmetry conditions such an additional condition
;

either reproduces
to 0.

with

them

the tensors of the class or reduces

all

This construction

is

due to A. Young and G. Frobenius

all
16
;

we

are able to verify step by step the entire theory

help
of representations of the symmetry group in an explicit and
its

elementary manner.

We are already acquainted with two very simple processes

which yield tensors of maximum symmetry " symmetrization,"
by means of which "the tensor F yields the completely symmetric
"
tensor JsF, and
sF.
which sends F into
alternation
s
:

The

first of these processes can be readily generalized as follows

"
"
if
divide the range from 1 to n of the
variables
ifa
on which the general tensor component F(i l i 2
if) depends
(or, what amounts to the same, the sub-indices 1, 2,
/),
into sub-sets of lengths/!, /2|
/ We then
/i +/2
:

We

symmetrize with respect

to the indices of

'

each of these sub-sets.

rrrrrrn

Pattern

7, 5, 4, 4, i.

This distribution into sub-sets may be readily visualized with

"
"
the aid of a
P P(fl9 /2
as illustrated in the
pattern
)
each of
the
accompanying figure [for
pattern P(7,'5, 4, 4, 1)]
in
of the
one
the / squares
the pattern is occupied by a different

Each of the sub-sets mentioned above

1, 2,
/.
constitutes a horizontal row of the pattern, and the various rows
are arranged one under another.
The individual sub-sets may

/ integers

YOUNG'S SYMMETRY OPERATORS

359

the
be arranged in order of decreasing length /j 2j /a 2>
pattern then consists of non-interrupted vertical columns as
Those permutations
well as non-interrupted horizontal rows.
p which permute the members of each row among themselves
:

constitute a sub-group (p) of

by

ir(fi,

which

/2

is

)].

to

TT

of order/, !/2

[denoted in

The symmetry operator described above, and

be applied to an arbitrary tensor,

is

henceforth p will always denote an arbitrary permutation which

sends no numeral of one row into another row.
So far we have made no use of the process of alternation.
If after having symmetrized with the aid of the operator a we
alternate with respect to certain of the variables or sub-indices
if
1, 2,
,/, we certainly obtain
any two of these numerals
are in the same row, for the tensor obtained by the symmetrization is symmetric with respect to any two such numerals and
the result of subsequently alternating with respect to them must
be 0. To avoid this situation we choose one variable in each of
the rows and alternate with respect to them
since the order
of the variables in each row is so far immaterial we may place
these chosen variables in the first column.
We then disregard
the first column and proceed to alternate with respect to a set of
variables obtained by selecting one from each row of the remainder of the pattern
these variables may now be shifted into
the second column.
This process is continued until we have
the result is that we have symmetrized
covered the entire pattern
with respect to the rows and have followed this symmetrization by
alternation with respect to the columns.
Let q denote an arbitrary
permutation which permutes the variables in each column among
themselves
these q constitute a certain sub-group (q) of TT.
The alternation described above consists in applying the sym;

metry operator

ZV

9,

and the

entire process consists in applying the resultant operator

We

call

c the Voting

ba

qp.

symmetry operator

belonging to the

pattern P.
In order to obtain a unique symmetry operator c associated
with a given pattern P we must specify the way in which the
numerals from 1 to n are to be distributed in P
they shall be
:

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

360

introduced in such a way that on reading the pattern, as one

would read a page of a book, they appear in their natural order
If we write them in any other order, say that ob1, 2,
/.
tained from the standard form with the aid of the permutation r,
we obtain a " conjugate " element c r which, as is readily seen
on considering the relation between the tensors generated by
,

these two operators,

related to c

is

crr

re

Hence the introduction

From now on we

or

by

c r (s)

c(r~ sr}.

merely in a new name.

with
symmetry quantities,
operate
of r results

i.e.

we consider the
elements of the algebra (TT), instead of tensors
invariant sub-space p c of t consisting of all elements of the form
xc and the representation t) c of TT induced in it by the regular
y
With p c is associated the symmetry class ty c
representation.
of all tensors of the form cF.
If we replace c by one of its conc
we
obtain
of
instead
jugates r
p c an equivalent invariant subin this sense the order in which the variables are written
space
in the pattern is quite immaterial.
We hope that c is irre;

ducible and that the totality of representations f) c associated

all possible patterns constitutes a complete set of inequivalent irreducible representations of TT. This hope is strengthened
by the fact that the total number of patterns is just equal
to the number of inequivalent irreducible representations. To
show this we note that the number of patterns is equal to the

with

number of
/ = /i +/2
On writing

partitions of

'

'

Jl

we

see that this

the equation

which
/2

number
lr,

into integral non-negative

satisfy the condition
Y \i

is

2r 2

J2

/3

===

equal to the

3r 3

summands

/ S^/2
x

2>

r 2>

number

of solutions of

+..-=/

for non-negative integral r.

But we have already seen that this
is the number of classes of
conjugate elements in TT and, by the
is
therefore
general theory,
equal to the number of inequivalent

irreducible representations of

TT.

the dimensionality n of the vector space is less than /

the only non-vanishing symmetry classes are those arising from
patterns containing at most n rows, for if the first column is
longer than n alternation with respect to the variables standing
in it alone causes an arbitrary tensor to go over into 0.
The
only patterns which we need in this case are consequently those
obtainable from the algebra r instead of r, where r
as
If

= \W

YOUNG'S SYMMETRY OPERATORS

361

2 above.
The number of inequivalent irreducible
defined in
into
which the tensor space SR/ can be
invariant sub-spaces
reduced is accordingly decreased to the number of partitions
of

n integral summands /

into

= A + /s +

'

+ fn

'

which

A^A^-'-^/n^o.
A permutation s = qp

which is obtained by composition

from a permutation p of (p) and a permutation q of (q) can be
This is an immediate consequence
so obtained in only one way.
can be fulfilled only by
of the remark that the equation qp
l
=z | q
for
it asserts that p
|,
q~
belongs to (p) as well
p
The components of the symmetry operator c can
as to (q).

=
=

therefore be described as follows

the set

(q)(p)

as the unique

permutation

We

cerning

when

s belongs to
decomposition s

c($)

unless s belongs

this set c(s]

to

according

qp yields an even or an odd

q.

must now prove the following three

c

con-

assertions

or, more precisely, c satisfies

(1) c is essentially idempotent
an equation cc --- y c, where y is a non-vanishing numerical
factor.
Furthermore, y is an integral positive number which
Then replacing e by e
is a factor of /!.
r/y, e is idempotent.
;

(2)

The sub-spac

is

pc

irreducible, the e introduced in (1)

is

primitive.
(3) Different patterns lead to inequivalent sub-spaces p c
The execution of this programme depends upon a simple
.

combinatorial

auxiliary

theorem,

Denote the lengths

develop.
P with rows of lengths /lf / 2

of

by

We

think of the pattern

/*,

to

/*,'*:

/*+/; +

/.+/ +
*

which we now proceed

the columns in the pattern

=/.

as cut out of a rectangular chess-

board consisting of fl horizontal rows and /* vertical columns,

and the permutation s as operating on / chess-men occupying
the / fields.
On interchanging rows and columns in P we obtain
the dual or transposed pattern P*
Auxiliary Theorem. A permutation s belongs to (qp) if and
only if any two pieces originally in the same row are not sent into
.

the

same column by

s.

evident that this condition

is necessary in
Proof.
order that s belong to (qp}. The change of position which one
of the pieces suffers as a result of s can be accomplished in two
It
moves, a horizontal and a vertical move (in this order).
is at first conceivable that the horizontal move could send the

It

is

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

362

piece into a field of the original board which is not contained in

the pattern P.
If the decomposition 5
qp is possible p must
represent the horizontal move and q the subsequent vertical

one

and p are thus uniquely determined.

above theorem
the horizontal move can never throw them into the same column,
i.e. the same field.
It only remains to show that the horizontal
it

Now

is

clear that q

s satisfies the conditions enunciated in the

if

move can never send any

piece out of the pattern proper, or

which s sends into a column of length f* come from the
We divide the chess-board horizontally
first f* rows of the pattern.
into an upper and a lower part, the upper consisting of the
:

those pieces

which are sent into the first column

hence there
from
by
by assumption,
/* different rows
are at least (and therefore exactly) /*
which
come
them
of
/*
from the lower part of the board and not from the first/* rows.
Note that /*
/* is exactly the number of fields in the first
column which lie in the lower part of the board. On applying
this argument to each column in succession we find that the
number of pieces which s sends into those columns which protrude into the lower part of the board is exactly equal to the

first

/* rows.

The

pieces

5 are,

number

of fields in this part of the board.

Hence all the pieces
lower part of the pattern are sent into columns whose
lengths are greater than /*, and the only pieces s sends into a
column of length /* come from the upper part of the board.
This auxiliary theorem allows us to assert that if s does not
belong to (qp) then there exist two pieces in a single row which
are sent into the same column by s.
If u denotes the trans-

in the

position of the two pieces in their initial positions and v their

here u belongs to (p)
vs
transposition in the final then su
and v to (q).

14. Irreducibility,

ence,

We now

Linear Independence, Inequival-

and Completeness

examine the Young symmetry operators

with the various patterns.

c(sp)

associated

Obviously

c(s),

c( q s)

8 q -c( S ),

(14.1)

where p, q are, as usual, elements of (/>), (q), respectively. 17

Theorem (14.2). Any element a of (TT) which satisfies equations
(14.1)

a(sp)
is

a multiple of c.

= a(s),

a(qs)

= S,.a(s)

(14.3)

IRREDUCIBILITY, LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

To prove

this

theorem we
a(qp]

= A the

setting a(l)

first

363

note that (14.3) implies

= 8,

a(l)

equation
a(s)

= X-c(s),

hich is to be proved, is certainly correct for all group elements

of the form qp.
must next show that a(s)
Q it s does
)t belong to the set (qp).
Such an s implies that there exist
anspositions it and v, lying in (p) and (q) respectively, for
hich su
vs.
But then by (14.3)

We

a(su)

hence

a(s)

Theorem
ultiple of

a(vs)

a(s),

a(s) or a(s)

=8

a(s)

a(s),

0.

Every element of

(14.4).

(IT)

of the form cxc is a

c.

was shown

in the general theory that this theorem is

a primitive idempotent element of (IT) and if
le field in which Nve operate is algebraically closed
here we
it
from
the
we
wish
to
show
as
)proach
opposite direction,
for
in
c
that
it
c
to
that
is
order
hold$
rectly
primitive,
prove
ow obviously any element of the form xc satisfies the first of
hence any
}uations (14.3) and any element ex the second
emcnt of the form cxc has both properties and is consequently
It

ilid

if

is

multiple of

c.

yc and y is a positive integer which

contained in/!.
That cc is a multiple of c follows immediately from the
revious theorem
y is therefore the number

Theorem

cc

(14.5).

Zc(t}c(t')

tt'

et the sub-space

ity

The

J) c

C (f).

c(s)
8

of elements of the

projection

x -+y

form xc be

of dimension-

(14.6)

any element x into an element lying in this sub-space

id is, within ;p c itself, merely the multiplication y
Its
yx.
ace is therefore yg
to see this we need merely to adapt the
On
)-ordinate system in group space to the sub-space J) c
le other hand its trace is immediately obtainable from (14.6) or
rojects

y (s)
is/!c(l) ==/!, hence

x(t)c(s-*t)

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

364

Consider the meaning of this fact that y is positive, i.e. that

l
c(s)c(s~ ) is oftener positive than negative
hence the character of the repree
c\y is idempotent
sentation t) c induced in J) c by the regular representation is
!

by

(8.3)

xM = ifr-).
We

(14.7)

obtain as a by-product the fact that the dimensionality g

is a factor offl.
f) c

of the representation

Theorem

(14.8).

J) c

is irreducible.

We know

already that this theorem is a consequence of (14.4),

but it may be instructive to prove it directly as follows. Let
e
c\y be reduced into two independent idempotent elements

ee i

Now by
of e

theorem
hence e l

the

for

either e v

We

~ /a,

A,
Theorem
/2

/i

c'c

el

0.

say that the pattern P' with rows of lengths

higher than P if the first non-vanishing difference

shall

/L*'"

fit

any element

e le l

A.

e or e l

ev

ee^e

of the form ee^e is a multiple

then yields the equation A 2
A
1
either
A
or
A
i.e.
Consequently
0,

(14.4)

= Xe.

number

whence

e i,

e ie

'

'

is

positive.

// the pattern P'

(14.9).

is

than

higher

then

0.

We

do not here assume that the variables are written in

the patterns P, P' in the normal form agreed upon in the previous
in which the numerals appear in their natural
section
i.e.
order on reading the pattern as one would a page of a book.
The proof is based on the fact (F) that there exist two numerals
which are in the same row in the pattern P' and in the same
column in the pattern P. If v is their transposition it belongs
to the group (p ) associated with the rows of P' and at the same
time to the group (q) associated with the columns of P
hence
1

c'(sv)

On

c'(s}

Zc'(sr

alone

c'c(s)

c(vs]

c(s).

vt in

replacing

c'c(s)

by

we

}c(t}

==

Zc'(sr*)c(vt}

(14.10)

find

Zc'(sr

v)c(t)

c'(st~ )c(t)

c'c(s}.

(14.11)

IRREDUCIBILITY, LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

(F)

is

evident

if

row

the

first

row

of P'

already longer than the

is

of P, for
impossible to distribute the
in the first row of P' over different columns of

first

365

it is

= /!

// numerals

if

/x

< f(.

and the numerals of the first row of P' are actually

/i
distributed over different columns of P, we discard the first
row of P' and the ft fields of P containing the same numerals as
If

On shifting the fields of P upward to fill in the gaps

into a pattern which has exactly the same
transformed
P
if we discarded the first row of 5
as
we are only
appearance
this row.
is

interested in the fact that this process leaves

all

pieces in their

The proof can then be completed by mathematical induction by assuming that it holds for the abbreviated
patterns obtained by omitting the first rows of P and P'.
Theorem (14.12). Let c, c',
be the Young symmetry
original column.

operators associated with different patterns P, P'.

the corre-

are then linearly independent.

sponding sub-spaces p f p f
be arranged in such an order that
Let the P, P', P",
P is higher than P', P' higher than P",
*.
An element x of
is
with
c
p
p
reproduced by right-multiplication
c/y but, by
the previous theorem, this process transforms all elements
into 0.
Assume there exists such a linear
x of ', x" of J)",
,

dependence
x

x'

x"

x =

on right-multiplication with c we find

and consequently
The theorem is thus reduced to the
x"
0.
same theorem for the smaller set P', P",
and the proof
follows by mathematical induction.
Theorem (14.13). Different patterns P, P' give rise to in-

x'

equivalent sub-spaces p f> p c >.

The proof is accomplished by a direct derivation of the

Let P' be higher than P. Since we
orthogonality relations.
did not assume in proving theorem (14.9) that the numerals
were distributed in the same order in the two patterns P and P',
we may replace the element c with components c(s) by the
"
"
element c r -i with components c(rsr~ l )
conjugate
:

2c'(st- )c(rtr~

0.

0.

Summation with

respect to r yields

X ,(t]

Xc'(sr*)

On

writing x

= Xc>

==

Xc' this
l

formula

2x'(sr ) x (t)
t

is

= o.

equivalent to

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

366

In particular

the two sub-spaces were equivalent we would have %'(t)

since x^"" 1 ) == x(0 f r 'he symmetric group the
equation would yield
If

= x(0>

and

above

o.

But

this is impossible, for by (14.7) the character x(s) has

rational components, and in particular x(l)
g 4= 0.
This last conclusion is valid only if the number field in which

we

non-modular

naturally this restriction is irrelevant

Nevertheless it constitutes a blemish which should
be removed, for the remainder of our deductions only introduce
in the field under
the minimum assumption that /! is not
from
the
we
know that
Now
consideration.
general theory

operate

is

for physics.

Theorem

ZxMxfc"

(14.14).

1
)

=A

The blemish mentioned above is removed by proving

We must show that
directly.

this

theorem

or
Ze(rsr*r~*)e(s)
r,

On
this

replacing the

1.

summation variable

by

sr,

where

is

fixed,

becomes
l
1
Ze(sr)e(s~ r- )

1.

(14-15)

r,*

Consider next the function

a(s

s')

Ze(sr)e(s'r-i)

it satisfies the second condition in (14.3).

these conditions is also satisfied, as can be seen

as a function of s

But the

first of

immediately by replacing

r in

l
by the summation variable p~ r.

*(*, *')

= c(s)

Ee(r}e(s'r-i]

Hence by

= c(s)

(14.2)

e(s'}

IRREDUCIBILITY, LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

and therefore the left-hand side
*

is

actually equal to

The

of (14'15) or

i\

367

1.

relations
(14.16)

show that the primitive characters obtained by our construction

from the various symmetry patterns are linearly independent,
and since their number is equal to the number of classes of
conjugates in the group TT, any class function can be represented
as a linear
l(^),

which

^n
combination of the x( s }particular, the function
is 1 for 5
and otherwise 0, must possess such

an expansion

f\'l(s)

mx(s)

m'x'(s)

(14.17)

~l

Multiplying by x( s ) an<^ summing over s we obtain, with the

aid of the orthogonality relations (14.16), the equation

or

m=
for w.

Since

yM =

e ( rsr

(14.18)

~l
)

e r(s),
r

equation (14.17) gives the reduction of the modulus 1 into

Hence the regular repreprimitive idempotent elements e r
sentation is reduced into the irreducible representations t) c
Since /! l(s)
associated with the various symmetry patterns.
is the character of the
regular representation, eq. (14.18) is a
.

proved in the general theory that

times each irreducible representation appears
in the regular representation is equal to its dimensionality.
This completes our direct and elementary development of the
theory of the representations of the symmetric group.

direct verification of the fact

the

number

of

The method
i.e.

that

cc'

of proof

employed

P'

lower than

if

is

in establishing theorem (14.9),

will now be used to answer

another question. Let a be the operator, introduced in the

previous section, which symmetrizes with respect to the ciphers
occupying the rows of P
:

a(s)

or

according as s belongs to

(p) or not,

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

368

and

the numerals be written in the pattern P', which is

lower than P, in an arbitrary order.
I assert that ac'
0.
There exist two numerals which occupy the same row in P
and the same column in P'. If v is the transposition of these
two numerals then
let

a(sv)

and the assertion

replacing

c',

is

there

a(s),

c'(vs)

c (s)

proved with the aid of

by

Hence

#, c' .

(14.10),

(14.11)

on

also

a(st-*)c'(rtr-

0,

Za(st-*)x'(t)

or

a(r^) x '(rs)

0.

That is, the sum of the \((] extended over all elements t = rs
which are left-equivalent to s mod. (p) [i.e. r in (p)], is zero.
In particular,
^> where the sum is extended over all
x( s }
8

elements s of (p)
% is the character associated with a pattern
P' which is lower than P.
On applying this result to the con;

siderations of

(in particular, to (8-13)

// the individual I

ff.)

has the simple energy

we

find

levels

E E
lt

21

the

term

appears only in those symmetry

of the unperturbed system
'
classes of tensors whose pattern P'
is not lower
P(// /2
)
than P
)
P(/>/2
Thus we saw in discussing the two-electron problem that
E 2 appeared in the '* anti-symmetric "
terms of the form
l
"
"
term systems, whereas terms such
as well as the
symmetric
as 2E l appeared only in the latter.
Finally, we consider the relations existing between two
f

E +

P and P* with generators c, c* and characters

The
group (p) which permutes the members of each
X, x*row of P among themselves coincides with the group (q*) which
permutes the members in each column of P* among themselves
= (p*). If s = qp is in (qp), then s~ l = p~ lq~ l =
similarly (q)
dual patterns

q*p*

is

in (q*p*}

and conversely
c(s)

Hence
s" 1

is

in general

not in (q*p*)

= 8,,

<:*(*-')

even when
we have
c*(sr

for such

l
)

s is

an element

= 8 = 8,.
?

not in (qp) and, consequently,

= 8,

c(s).

AND VALENCE

SPIN
"

Dual

"

elements
the

exactly

c,

369

are therefore related to each other in

"
"
as the
duals
introduced in
12.

c*

same way

Further
y*

= r; x*(O = x*(*) = s.-xW

g*

= g.

If P is higher than Q, then conversely P* is lower than Q*.

For if we lower P by taking away the last field of one of the
rows of P and adding it to the end of a later (shorter) row, one
of the columns of P is increased at the expense of a later (shorter)
column by such a process of shifting individual fields, in which
no gap is to occur in a row or a column, P can be transformed
;

into the lower pattern Q.

15.

Spin and Valence. Group-theoretic Classification

of Atomic Spectra

the vector space 3R

3t 2 s on ly 2-dimensional, the only
symmetry patterns P which give rise to primitive symmetry
classes of tensors of order f are those which consist of at most
v fields and the second
two rows. Let the first row contain /
If

then

/
;

v=fThe symmetry pattern P

number v which we call
the values /, /
4,
2, /

is

its

2/.

thus uniquely characterized by the

and v may assume any

valence,

of

Let

ty v be the totality of tensors

of the form cF obtained by applying the Young symmetry
operator c associated with the pattern P to the totality of tensors
F and let v be the representation of the linear group, the
A sufficiently
substratum of which is the tensor manifold ?$ v
in
the
first as well
general tensor of order / which is symmetric
as the second rows of indices is given by
.

JXJX---XJXE
X

t)

t)

t)

(I

(/

terms),

v terms)

where

On alternating with respect to the

are two arbitrary vectors.
columns we find that the representation SQ V of the linear group
C = c 2 is that one which is induced on the quantities
(*0>2

Hence
denoted

is

" X&lY

*?

S
(

rl

r2

V).

the representation of the linear group which

in III,

5,

by

v.

was

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

370

This remark supplies the

connection with the symmetry

problem of quantum mechanics as dealt with in 12 on applying the Pauli exclusion principle

when

the existence of the spin,

taken into account. 18 Since

the spin space is 2-dimensional, formula (12.10) tells us that
the only patterns P which give rise to a term system are those

but not

its

dynamical

effect,

is

whose duals P* consist of at most two rows, i.e. those P which

If v is now the number of
themselves have but two columns.
fields by which the first column of P exceeds the second we call
v the valence of the term system or of the corresponding state of
The multiplicity of the term system with valence
the atom.
v is v + 1, and to each of these possible multiplicities corre12
sponds but one term system as we have already seen in

We

(in particular p. 356).

the

"

previously (Chap. IV) called s

spin quantum number."

The

fact that the longest column of

dimensionality TV of the vector space 9ft

v/2

cannot exceed the

associated with the
electron translation may result in a further restriction on the
This situation cannot arise
possible symmetry patterns P.
as long as we deal with the total oo -dimensional system space.
On the other hand if we restrict ourselves, for example, to those
states of the electron which are characterized by a fixed principal
quantum number n and a fixed azimuthal quantum number /
and which therefore constitute a (21
l)-dimensional subif
within
we
i.e.
consider
$R
space ^{(nl)
only those states of
the atom in which all the / electrons outside a closed core are
in 3t(n/), the dimensionality TV is reduced to 21
1.
Then /
cannot exceed 2(21 -\- 1) and the possible valences of the states
under consideration are given by the following table
e

1,

2,

3,

4,

4/,

1010
2

4/

1,

4/+2

This table again gives us the alternation law, but shows that in
addition the number of possibilities decreases from the middle
of the table on.
The possible multiplet numbers 2s
1 of
terms in these states is one greater than v.
"
This
valence" v, which describes the symmetry state of
the system, is actually the chemical valence, as was shown by
We allow two atoms, consisting of flt /2 electrons
JF. London.
to
come together to form a molecule with/
respectively,
fl -\- /2
electrons.
Let
$ 2 be irreducible invariant sub-spaces of

AND VALENCE

SPIN

371

In order to find which

the system spaces SR/ 1 9t{* respectively.
symmetry states the molecule is capable of assuming when the
and the second in $ 2 we must comfirst atom is in the state
the
reduce
X
^ 2 ^o its irreducible constituents.
space
pletely
If we consider this decomposition as taking place in the vector
space of electron spin rather than in that of electron translation (the justification for which will be given below), the
,

^
^

it
is solved by the Clebsch-Gordan series (III, 5.9)
us that if the valences of the symmetry states of the two
atoms are v ly v 2 the resulting symmetry states of the molecule
are those with valences

problem

tells

Vl

v2

vl

v2

vl

vz

4,

-,

j^

v 2 \.

(15.1)

This situation can be readily visualized in terms of the symmetry

Bring the two symmetry patterns P lt P 2
patterns as follows.
of the two atoms into the positions shown in
the accompanying diagram and then shove 2
vertically upwards, one field at a time, until one
of the two columns of the combined pattern is
1
each of these steps represents a possible
closed
symmetry pattern for the molecule, in which v is
the number of fields which are not paired horiThe saturation of the valence bonds
zontally.
here appears as the pairing of fields or, more physically, as the saturation of the spin of an electron
in one of the atoms with that of an electron in the
The empirical theory of the valence bond
other.
has therefore a rather profound significance.
We have yet to justify our use of spin space
Let the representarather than translation space in the above.
tion of the permutation group rr f corresponding to the twocolumned symmetry pattern of valence v be denoted by t) v its
;

dual

!)

consists of

but two rows.

The Clebsch-Gordan

series,

10 as applied to
together with the third reciprocity theorem of
the linear group C
C 2 tells us that on restricting TT to the subgroup TT' == 7r x X 7T 2 which permutes the electrons of each atom
,

separately the representation

of

t)*

of

TT

contains the irreducible

once or not at

representation f)^
f)*f
all, according as
v is one of the values (15.1) or not.
From this it follows immediately that the same result holds for the duals on reducing
after restricting TT to TT'
i) v
Applying the same reciprocity
theorem in the opposite direction for the case in which c
Cn
is the linear
group in n dimensions, we find that the representation
of c (or the algebra 2) contains the representation
Vl x
Va
TT'

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

372
v

once or not at

all

according as v

On reducing ri X V2
not.
we may expect to find other

into

one of the values (15.1) or

is

its

irreducible

constituents

representations which may even

occur more than once in addition to these simple ), but these
additional representations will correspond to symmetry patterns
with more than two columns and are, in virtue of the Pauli
The number
exclusion principle, of no importance for physics.
11 is accordingly at most equal to 1 in the case
b introduced in
of diatomic molecules.
Molecules which consist of a larger number of atoms can

be studied by the same method.

terested in the case of three

If

atoms and

in

particular

we

are in-

their valences are v l} v 2}

z>

3,

we can determine with the aid of the Clebsch-Gordan series

the number b v of times the representation (S v occurs in the
are
reduction of
X V3 Those v for which b v 4
Vl X (S t
the valences of the possible symmetry states of the molecule
(

and

here be greater than 1) are the corresponding multiplicities. The characterization of the quantum
and symmetry states of a molecule which is formed by the
union of three atoms in given quantum and symmetry states
requires, in addition to the valence v, a further index which
distinguishes between the various b v possible energy levels.
But this description of the various possibilities differs from the
the manifold of possible
empirical theory of the valence bond
b

bindings

bv

is

(which

may

smaller. 20

Classification of Spectral Terms.

Let the unitary or the complete linear group cvn in the system
space 9? of the single electron be restricted to the group cv X C n
of transformations Sv X S n the two factors of which are transformations of the spin and translation spaces 9l v 91 n respectively
The space {9U} of anti-symmetric tensors of
9t
91,, X 9i n
order / is then reducible into irreducible invariant sub-spaces
with respect to the algebra of symmetric transformations of
We thus obtain a distribution (I) of spectral
the form (12.2).
this step is of
terms among the various symmetry classes
universal validity and is applicable to molecules as well as
atoms.
The further classification of terms, as discussed in Chapter IV,
"
"
"
"
rather than
A, refers to
states, i.e. to
simple
quantum
those states which are related to spatial rotation and moment
of momentum in the same way that the quantum states are
related to displacement in time and energy.
Naturally this
b a (the elements of which
application of the rotation group b
,

AND VALENCE

SPIN
we now denote by

is significant only for atoms

r,
which are considered as fixed centres

a,

the nuclei of

ions),
force.

373

(or
of

So long as we concern ourselves only with the electron

translation and neglect the mutual perturbations of the electrons,

which are characterized by principal and azimuthal quantum
numbers n and /, each individual term of the system is charn 2l / 2
n ft //).
acterized by the quantum numbers (n lt / x
;

The number

such a term appears in a given symmetry

is equal to the dimensionality of the linear sub-space
system
The resoluin which the atomic states under consideration lie.
tion caused by the mutual perturbations parallels the reduction
of this sub-space into its irreducible constituents 9U with respect
of times

the resulting components of the

group b of rotations
The spin space is
term have the natural multiplicities 2L
1.
to
be
reduced.
Let
induce
the
b
representations
similarly
a -> V(d) in 5R V and 5R n respectively. This
or ->
v
[/(or) and
second step (II), in which the spin and translation spaces are considered separately, is interpreted from the stand-point of group
theory as meaning that we associate with the element (a, r)
to the

f)

of b

the transformation
of

cv

U(a)

Cn

V(r]

we thus obtain

and on

Cn

a
to

restricting C,
6-parameter sub-gfoup
this sub-group our original irreducible sub-space is further
completely reducible into irreducible constituents. The irreducible representation of b X b induced in such a sub-space is

of the

type s
the coupling

The

f.

final step, (III), consists in

introducing

the

6-parameter sub-group is thereby

restricted to a 3-parameter sub-group, i.e. that sub-group
induced in the total system space by the rotations b. The
spin perturbation then resolves each such term multiplct into
cr

most 25

its (at
.

3>i

-f-

1)

2E>,

components
(j

- +
/

5,

+s-

1,

|/

s\)

X ^i is here a representation of b instead of b X b.

the transformations induced in the
2, and
Actually v
spin space 9R 2 by the rotation group constitute the unitary group
in two dimensions.
Consequently the transition from C v to I) v
this is the
in step (II) involves no reduction in spin space
essential simplification caused by the fact that $R V has so small
naturally $)

a dimensionality.
To the symmetry system of terms corresponds a certain
irreducible representation of the unitary group ll in the space
3t* of the electron translation and with it a certain irreducible
characteristic ( 9)

X(e,,

).

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

374

The

co-ordinates # t in the space 9ft* are broken up into classes

1
in the manner described in Chapter IV,
-

[w

x(m)

/,

',/];

1,

(m

x'(m')

/'

-..,-/'];

1,

Each

of these classes describes a (21

l)-dimensional sub-space
9ft(n/) of 9ft* in which the group t) 3 of spatial rotations induces
<
the irreducible representation $) l and is characterized by the

quantum number n and the azimuthal quantum number

The arguments e of X are correspondingly broken up into
To give the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers
classes.
of the individual electrons
without stating how these numbers
are distributed among the / electrons we need only to state
how many (/') electrons are represented by states in each of
principal

/.

3 of the
the various sub-spaces 9ft'
If, for example,
9ft(n/).
electrons are in 3ft' and the remaining 5 in 9ft" (/
8) we must
3
in
variables
X
the
that
which
is
of
out
of
separate
part
degree
e t belonging to 9ft' and of degree 5 in those belonging to 9ft".

The

multiplicity

M of the corresponding term

E(n^)
"

E(n 2 l 2

E(n,lf )

"

atom in the symmetry system under

the
unperturbed
consideration is then obtained from the part of X described
above by setting all e contained in it equal to unity. In order
to determine how this M-fold term is broken up on taking the
mutual influence of the electrons into account we replace the
em
the variables
variables e(ra) of the class 9J(/) by e(m)
m
e'(w') of the class 9ft(nV) by e'(w')
(with the same e), etc.
The resulting expression must be a linear combination of the
of

'

sums
+L

PL

m--L
with

non-negative

integral

__ c - L

coefficients.

This

enables

us

to

which of the various total azimuthal quantum numbers L

appear, and how often, in the resolution of the above term
each such L-term has still the multiplicity 2L 4- 1.
Example. We consider, as an example, the case in which
3 and all three electrons are in the same sub-space 9ft(n/).
/
tell

The

possible

symmetry patterns

n up
n ~

are

rrri

AND VALENCE

SPIN

375

their
principle allows only the first two
and v = 1, and the corresponding terms are
The first
therefore quadruplets and doublets, respectively.
pattern defines the anti-symmetric tensors of order 3 and the
The corresponding characteristics
third the symmetric tensors.

The Pauli exclusion

valences are v

are therefore

Xl

sl

On

^=

*,

therefore the

sl

presentations of

+%

27s?

The dimensionalities

re-

and

corresponding
of times the representations X x X 2 X 3
are easily shown to be 1, 2, 1, (in accordance

numbers
3

the

of

to these three patterns,

7T 3

appear in (c)
with the equation

of

s2

^7 e t
<*j <^k

fc

introducing

we have X 3

/*, X 3

<j <

3!

of the representation

(c)

<i

22

-f-

of

-f-

Now

2
).

the characteristic

c is

(re,)

35 2

6*!

(2s,

s2

2s,.

^3

(15.2)

the equation
/,

Xx

2X 2

X3

5 3)

2X 2

then allows us to conclude that

X2

We
of

s2

prefer to carry out the evaluation with the aid of the

sums

powers

it
'

27

27Si

^2

t\i

^3

i>

&%

we then have
^2

^^

^3

$2,

^3

== ^3

the

addition to (15.2).
Consequently
which we are interested are

in

characteristics

in

Doublets

X2

Quadruplets

The

by

X,

-(t,

-^(t,

(15.3)

3 ),

3)

(f 2

solution of the problem discussed above

1 variables s, by the set
replacing the 2/

3)

J.
is

(15.4)

now obtained

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

376

and then expressing

the form

t^

2>

sum 2a L (L]

as a

^3

of expressions of

with integral multiplicities a L

The computation is considerably
both
sides of the equation by e
simplified by multiplying
1,
as (L) then becomes /yfl
e~ L
The multiplicities so obtained
.

are given in the following tables

='-

o/j ol

Multiplicity

2,

2,

by

"

Multiplicity:

/,

and
/

1,

-1,

1,

~iA

3/,

Multiplicity.

3/

1,

1,

3/

2,

3/

0,

1,

ji

;
'

~~%"T

o)

2,

3. 3/

3,

-1,

1,

and

(alternately

*
"

0,
i

(alternately

-,

each step).

1,

by

(increasing

^^

0,

1,

0, 1, 2 L

UV57

each step)

^^' J^iJL3

*,

3,

(increasing

t2

3/

i)

4, 3/

1,

5,

0,

i,

(repetition with period 3)

On

applying these results to the computation of X 2 X l with the

and (15.4) we find that the number of terms with
total azimuthal
quantum number L is as given in the
,

aid of (15.3)

following

tables

Doublet System

up

0,

1,

2,

The period

is

3,

4,

5,

0121234

(1)

to

/.

here 3

the multiplicities in the

in the

second period are those of the first increased

by 2, those
third are obtained from those in the second
by adding 2,
,

2'

3/ -

01

3f,

1,

3f -

3/ -

2
|

3,

3/

4, 3/

5,

etc.

2"

down

to

==

The

/.

but the multiplicities

the previous one bv

is

periodicity
again 3,
each period are obtained from those in
adding 1 instead of 2.
Quadruplet System. The periodicity is here 6 instead of 3
(1) For the values of /. from
to / the first
in

plicities

odd

(L
1

to period.

= 0,
1 1

1, 2,
1.

period of multi2 1 2 and for

multiplicities increase by 2 from period

3, 4, 5) is

The

for even

DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERS OF
For values

(2)

300101
nultiplicities

16.

L from

of

3/

down

to

the

AND
first

<n

377

period

is

whether L is odd or even, and the

are increased by 1 from period to period.
regardless of

Determination of the Primitive Characters of

u and

TT

The guiding principle in the whole of the present chapter

the
is
reciprocity between the symmetric permutation group 777
and the algebra H of symmetric transformations. But this
be replaced by the special
latter can, as was shown in
1,
symmetric transformations induced in tensor space by the linear
transformations of vector space and which constitute a group
Indeed, we may even
(c)f isomorphic with the linear group C.
The algebra S is thereby
restrict c to the unitary group u.
not to a finite group, it is true, but to a
referred to a group
Now we have seen in Chapter III
dosed continuous group.

we may expect such groups to behave in a manner entirely

analogous to that met in dealing with finite groups, at least
As
if we concern ourselves
only with unitary representations.
a rule we find in mathematics that the continuum is more easily
that

the formula (9.11), which

handled than a discrete manifold
the
fundamental
expresses
reciprocity mentioned above, will
therefore better serve to compute x from X than the converse.
We therefore next evaluate the characteristics X of the
continuous irreducible unitary representations of the n-dimen;

group li by a direct method which is independent

our previous development. The case n -- 1 has already been
solved in III,
8
the procedure there developed serves as
a model for the present case.
With this in mind we first prove
sional unitary
3f

theorem
continuous function /(eoj,

the following auxiliary

o> 2

-,

a) n )

of absolute

which possesses the period 277 in each of the n

and which satisfies the functional equation
1

real

arguments

a
is

necessarily of the form

/((to))

e(h l a> l

h^a) 2 -f

where the constants h are integers.

On introducing the n functions

/iH

=/K

0, 0,

.,

0),

/,() =/(0,

a,, 0,

-,

value

0),

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

378

we

of one variable,

are able to conclude from the functional

equation above that

therefore suffices to prove the theorem for functions /(o>) of

It

we have already done [III, 8],

"
"
of
the group it is conjugate to a
element
5
Every
principal
element E, i.e. to a transformation of the form

one variable, and this

*->#
The numbers

(v

e,

1, 2,

(16-1)

n).

-,

modulus and may therefore be

e v are of unit

pressed as

/""

ex-

e(a> v )

"

"

a> ly to 2
o> n (which are
terms of the
-,
angles of rotation
the
transformation
of
5.
determined
mod.
unitary
only
2?r)
In order to employ the orthogonality relations it is necessary
to determine the volume dS of that portion of the group manida> v
fold U whose elements have angles between a)v and a> v
a
let
a
a
n
denote
a i> a t,
n)
n being any
numbers,
D(a lt 2
"i

in

'

'

the product
i

n(a
<k

-a )=
k

\a "\

a, I

the n rows of the determinant on the right are

The
an
obtained by replacing a successively by a ly a 2y
evaluation of the volume clement dS will be carried out in the
of differences

'

following section

dS

=--

we

A A&^rfcos

here anticipate the result

rfw n

D( 6l

62

-,

e n ).

(16.2)

The determination of the primitive characteristics of ll is

21
accomplished by combining the following important facts.
1. Symmetry.
Each element S of U is conjugate to a prinelement
E, (16.1). Hence it suffices to determine the
cipal
characteristic X of a continuous representation of ll for such
a principal element. E goes over into a conjugate transformation within ll on permuting the e v
hence X is a continuous
w
the
and
is of period 2?r in each
v
symmetric function of
angles
:

of them.
2. Arithmetic Properties.

The principal elements constitute

on compounding two such elements
<*>
are added.
The normal co-ordinates
y k in representation space 91 can therefore be chosen in such a
way that the principal elements correspond to principal transformations
an Abelian sub-group
E' the angles a> v
,

of

k-

DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERS OF
we have shown

AND

379

77

5, that any commutative system

can
be brought simultaneously into
of unitary correspondences
On
compounding two principal elements the
diagonal form.
be a representation is expressed by the functional
condition that

indeed,

in

I,

equation
p(a) ly o> 2

-)p(>i

o>2,

= p(aj +
l

The

each of the multipliers p

pk
us that each p k is of the form

for

oii, a) 2

+ <*4

'

'

')

auxiliary theorem then

tells

e(h^^

A M o> n ),

The characteristic of the

integers.
hence X is a finite Fourier
representation is the sum of these p k
series in the arguments to with integral non-negative coefficients.
The " weights " of a representation are the sets of exponents
h n ) of each term
',
(A!, A 2|
where the constants h are

which actually appears in

"
to be
higher'* than (h(,
difference A x
3.

h\, 4i 2

is

h'%,

For

Orthogonality.

The term

X.
h'2

h nw n )

all

h'n )

*>$'
(h lt A 2

the

if

&

first

hn)

is

said

non- vanishing

positive.
characteristics

X the

primitive

integral

XAAdoi,

dw n

must have the value

2n

V=

In
-

dw n

{AArfoi!-

(16.3)

These orthogonality relations suggest that we introduce the

A X in place of the characteristics X they
quantities
are also finite Fourier series, but they are anti- symmetric functions
of the angles co instead of symmetric ones.
h n being
h l9 k 2t

integers arranged in decreasing order

we construct
f (*i, A 2

the
-,

(t

A n)

elemental

sum

^(A^

2:

A 2c^ 2

A n co n ),

(16.5)

the alternating sum over the permutations of the arguments

the term which we have written down is the highest one
in the sum.
Every alternating Fourier series is a linear aggregate
of such elemental sums
since the coefficients of these sums are

i.e.
<JD

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

380

integers,

and

particular that of the

in

"

"

term

highest

is

1,

with integral coevery alternating Fourier series, such as

efficients can be expressed as a linear aggregate of the form
,

c-

ht

(A 1(

'

)+

/4

S(h\,

(16.6)

Let this expansion be

with integral coefficients c c',
in
such
a way that the set
in
i.e.
decreasing order,
arranged
is
of
than
h
etc.
2y
exponents
higher
)
(/*!,
),
(h[, ti>>,
is
in
then
the
term
A
A
is
an
elemental
itself
f
2?
highest
(Aj,
)
.

sum, namely

A
Hence

if

f(n

the highest term

in

1,

0).

flj

to
daj n

dajdwz

2-77

by a

We now

f ?(A,,

hz

/2

and h are always in

/,-

all

we have

the relation

denote integration with respect to

rotation from
for

2,

X has exponents

in the following the numbers

(16.7) with one another.

We

1,

the

angles

and write

single integral sign

of
dco

calculate

the h and the h are arranged in decreasing order in accordance

with (16.4). Consequently no permutation of the h can coincide
with a permutation of the h' unless
*i

O=

the integral of each of the (n

is

',& =

J4,
2

In this latter case those n

which the permutation

terms, for
of the A', each contribute
hence
contribute

(16.8)

terms in the product

unless (16.8) holds.

therefore

*;;

n
(2?r)

of the h

to

is

same as that
and all others

the

the integral

n!(27r)

according as (16.8) holds or not.

to the elemental sum A, we find
=:

On

Applying

this in particular

w!(27r)

setting the expansion (16.6) in the equation

-V

DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERS OF
we

find

\c\

z
-f-

-|-

\c'\

vanishing integers only the

1 or
we must have c

Since the

1.

AND

381

are non-

c'
}

TT

term can appear in (16.6), and

and since the coefficient of the

first
1,

(as of X) must be positive we are restricted to

highest term of
We have thus shown that every
the first alternative c=\.

primitive characteristic is of the form

(16.9)

where the hi are integers arranged in decreasing order : h 1 > h 2 >

The function defined by (16.9) is a finite Fourier series with
the highest term (flt /2
fn ) the coefficient of this term, its
.

multiplicity,

is 1.

The

question to be answered asks

the form (16.9) is conversely the
characteristic of some irreducible representation of u or not.
Our explicit algebraic construction allows us to answer this
To show this we first note that the
question in the affirmative.
of
order
/ arising from the symmetry pattern
representation
with (at most n) raws of lengths flt /2
fn has as highest
this
can
seen
be
fn )
immediately by conweight (/!, /2
as
the
representation
generated by alternation from
sidering
the product of n vectors, the first of which occurs /x times as
a factor, the second /2 etc. (as in the simple case at the beginning
of
The / are here any integers satisfying the conditions
15).
4.

Completeness.

whether every function

last

of

On

dividing the transformation corresponding to the arbitrary

element S of U in this representation by the / th power of the
determinant of 5 (/ being any fixed non-negative integer) the
/,
highest weight of the resulting transformation is (/x
this simple device thus enables us to disI,
', fn
1)
0.
We have thus proved that
pense with the restriction fn

'

'

unitary representations of the unitary group U n

are obtainable by completely reducing the representations (u)-f for
into their irreducible constituents and multiplying
/== 0, 1, 2,
by the \-dimensional representations
all

irreducible

5->(det. S)

[1

0,

1,

We

2,

].

have further shown that the characteristic of the irreducible

representation
/) of order f of u, which is gener)(/,, /2
ated by the symmetry pattern P(fi, /2
is given by equation
*, /),
,

(16.9).

382

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

We

could also have obtained this last result with the more
If
transcendental method of proof employed in steps 1 to 3.
of
all
in
continuum
the
we are operating
complex numbers
rather than an arbitrary field the proof of the completeness of
the irreducible representations of a finite group can be formulated
in such a way that it can be taken over immediately for the case
of a closed continuous group with the aid of the theory of integral

The particular application of this general groupequations.

theoretic completeness theorem to the group b 2 of rotations of
a circle into itself yields the completeness of the Fourier orthogIts application to
onal system e im * (m
1,
2,
0,
).
the closed group u n yields the following two facts
(1) Every
in
of
is
fact
a
the
form
characteristic.
primitive
expression
(16.9)

For if it were not it would be a non-vanishing function of position

on the group manifold in fact, a class function whose Fourier
coefficient with respect to each irreducible representation
other functions of the
the functions (16.9)
(16.9).
(2)
constitute a complete set of orthogonal functions for symmetric
o> n
this result is of no particular
periodic functions of a) l} o> 2
as
it
is
a
of
the
interest,
consequence
completeness of Fourier's
in
Our
one
dimension.
orthogonal system
general considerations

vanishes

it

is

indeed orthogonal to

We

form

further find

all

that

(1) to (4) yielded so many properties of primitive characteristics

that we were able to obtain an explicit expression for them from
these properties alone.
The assumption that h n
constitutes
Consequences.
fn
no actual restriction
the characteristic is then a symmetric
of order /.
rational integral function of the
The e are in fact
roots of the characteristic polynomial /(r)
det (rl
S) of
it is therefore possible to
the unitary transformation 5
express
X rationally and integrally in terms of the coefficients of this
polynomial, and therefore in terms of the coefficients of the
matrix 5. The restriction to the unitary group can then readily
be removed, but we shall not go further into these considerations

here. 22

The dimensionality of the representation X is found by

X for the unit element, all of whose characteristic
numbers e v are 1. On substituting directly in (16.9) we obtain
the indeterminate form 0/0, so we proceed as follows.
Take
calculating

a) l

in

l)o>, a) 2

(n

(n

2)oj,

wn

Oo>

terms of the single angle co. The determinant in the numerator

is then the alternating sum of the terms obtained from

of (16.9)

the product

eih^n

l)w)

e(h 2 (n

2)co)

e(

DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERS OF
of the

by permutations

numbers n

1,

AND

2,

383

TT

it

is

therefore equal to

or to the product of the differences of the expressions ^(/^eo),

obtained by subtracting any member of the set from
e(htf*)),
of
the
earlier
members. On allowing aj -> we have
any

e^at)

The

~ iw(hi

h 2 ).

of the representation
dimensionality
in
is consequently
the
above
',
/2
/n)
'

i>

e(h&>)

denoted

by

D(h lt

=--

D(n _!,...,!,

(16.10)
0)

Evaluation of the Characters of TT,.

Having obtained explicit
of
the
the
characteristics
for
representations of U n
expressions
we now employ the connection between the representations of
TTf and l! n developed in
9 to evaluate the primitive characters
In equation (9.12) x * s the character and X the charof 777.
the irreducible representations of 777 and U n re)
spectively, generated by the symmetry pattern P(flt /2
if the
in particular we must put X
pattern has more than
of

acteristic

The sum

n rows.

is
extended over all possible symmetry
The expression (16.9) for X then allows
with
/fields.
patterns
us to enunciate the following rule for the evaluation of x

XM,

'

(iJ*

'

(16.11)

')

denote the value of the character of the irreducible representation

of 777, which is generated by the symmetry pattern
!)(/!, /2
)
for an element 5 belonging to the class I
<P(/i, /2
(ifa
).
),
Choose an arbitrary positive integer n and construct the sums
,

a i>

e n and
of powers of n independent variables e lf s 2
the product Dfa, 6 2
The term (16.11)
e n ) of their differences.
is then the coefficient of the term e} e$
e" [A t
/,
(n
i)]
'

'

"

2j

in the expansion of
Z>(e lf e lf

We

-,en)-c7V4-

here assume that the pattern

(16.12)

has at most n rows

hence

we wish to obtain all primitive characters of TT/ we must choose

n ;>/. The rule shows that the components of the characters
if

are integers.
This result

was obtained by Frobenius

in a purely algebraic

manner, without introducing the continuous group

u.

M But

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

384

comes

believe that the real reason for the rule

to light only

when we

consider this connection between the groups TT/ and

it enables us to understand why a second
integer n in addition to /is involved.
is obtained by substitutThe dimensionality g of t)(/lf /2
)
il
in the
i3
I
/, i 2
ing the argument s
Formula (9.12) is then
character x-

Un

in

particular,

where the sum is extended over all patterns P(]\, /2

Since
*)
a l is the characteristic of the n-dimensional representation
5 -> 5 of the group U by itself, this merely means that in
C
'

the complete reduction of

$
On

"

*tK/i>

/2

the

(c)f

irreducible

representation

we already know.
for X we obtain

Appears exactly g times, as

'

")

substituting the explicit expression (16.9)

e" in the
g is accordingly equal to the coefficient of e^e**
the
on
side.
the
The
term
left-hand
expansion of
product
n
t ie
of
the
determinant
must
is* 2*
expansion
n"
be multiplied by the term
'

'

'

'

'

A i"~*i

'

h *-ki

of a{ in order to obtain a contribution to the term e^e* 1

k n ) here run through the perof the product.
(k l} k 2j
mutations of n
and g is accordingly equal to the
1,
1,
*

alternating

sum
Z'

/i

/ 7

<*)

over these permutations, or equal to the determinant

!

- n+

'

1)!'

(A-

h\

1)!'

(*

1)

-n+

The rows

2),

of this determinant consist, on reading from right to

of
left,
polynomials in h of degrees 0, 1,
(n
1) with highest
The determinant is therefore
coefficient 1.
,

n~ l
I,

h
A*,

ll
1
|

DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERS OF
and we

finally obtain the simple

g=
n

is

AND

385

TT

formula

f\D(h,,h,,
hn

to be taken at least as large as the

(16.13)
\

number

of

rows

in the

the reader should convince himself by

)
pattern P(/i, /2
that
the value of (16.13) remains unchanged
direct calculation
;

on replacing n by n

1.

Frobcnius' rule for the character and this formula for the

dimensionality are vastly superior to

for

(14.7)

purposes of

practical evaluation.

As an example, we carry through the computations

for the

the results are given in the table below.

The group 7r 4 contains twenty-four elements which are divided
each of these classes is designated
into five classes of conjugates
asin the second column of the table by the values (t',i" a
)
The first column contains the number of
sociated with it.
indicates
or
elements in each of these classes, and the sign
case of four electrons

whether the

Each

even or odd permutations.

class consists of

remaining columns contains the values of a primitive

character for the classes in whose row they stand. The symmetry
pattern to which each of these characters belongs is indicated at
of elements in
the head of the column by the numbers fl9 /2
The first and the last of these columns may be filled in
its rows.
immediately, and the second and third with the aid of Frobenius'
The fourth is then obtained from the second on noting
rule.
we need
that its symmetry pattern is the dual of that of 2
column
the
second
in
then merely to replace the values
by their
contain
3
2
and
Since patterns
negative for the (-)-classcs.
=
on
Hence
2.
but two rows we may take n
writing x, y in

of the five

place of 6j, 2 wc h avc nicrcly to find the coefficients of x*y (for

the column 31) and # 3 y 2 (for the column 22) in the following

polynomials
(

+ y)\
y)(x + y) (* +

X -y)( X

(x

2
)

(*

y)(x*

+y
= (x + y)(* -

)(*

(x

(x

y)(*

+y
+ yX* +
)

y)(x

4
.V ),

2 2

3
)

(*

y )(*

),

dimensionalities of the five irreducible representations are

contained in the first row they are 1, 3, 2, 3, 1. The verification
of the orthogonality relations is left to the reader.

The

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

386

Calculation of

17.

Volume on

Consider the line elements going out from the unit point f
U, i.e. the infinitesimal unitary transformations 85
We may take as the real components
\\8s*p\\.

on the group manifold

of this

"

vector

"

the n quantities -

Ss^ and the

and

real

< jS) the

thus n 2 which is therefore the
No w in a linear algebra
dimensionality of the group manifold it.
of this kind we may replace any two real quantities a, b by the
a
ib obtained from them by
complex quantities a
ib,
a simple linear substitution
we may therefore replace the

imaginary parts of the n(n

total

number

of

l)/2 quantities 8s a/3 (a

components

is

and imaginary parts

real

Ssa/g

of

8^3

(a

<

by

18)

S^ag

itself

and

Ss/3*.

On

transporting such an infinitesimal vector to the point

5 on the group manifold by a left-translation its terminus goes
into the point 5
dS
we must
5 85
5(1
85), d5
therefore consider the infinitesimal element 85
S~ l dS as the
"
"
vector
which leads from 5 to 5
Our definition of
dS.
volume on the group manifold [III,
12] consisted in the
the parallelepiped defined by n 2 vectors 85 leading
following
from the fixed point 5 to the neighbouring points S
dS has
as volume the absolute value of the determinant formed from the
2
components of the n vectors 85. In accordance with the above
remarks we may take as components of the vector 85
\\8saLp\\
the totality of coefficients 8j a/3 themselves.
Any 5 can be expressed in the form

(17.1)

a principal (diagonal) element of U and U is unitary.

unchanged on multiplying U on the right by any principal
element. We employ a geometrical terminology which will

where

is

is

CALCULATION OF VOLUME ON

387

allow us to visualize our procedure by means of an analogy.

Two elements U, U' of it which are right-equivalent with respect
U
UE will be said to
to the group of principal elements
"
From the n 2 -dimensional manilie on the same vertical [/]."
2
fold it we obtain by projection the (n
n) -dimensional mani1

fold

[it]

of verticals

same

belong to the

[U] on considering all points of u which

vertical to be coincident.
This process of

identifying equivalent elements

was described

in general in the
met it in I,

beginning of Chapter III we had, in fact, already

of projection in affine space.
1, in the special case

We may now

consider

merely as a representative element of the

allowing [U] to run through the entire mani-

in (17.1)

on
vertical [U]
fold [it] and the angles o>, of
;

e(a> 2 )

E=

^ aj < 2n
vary independently over the complete range
5 defined by (17.1) describes the manifold ll exactly

to

the element

times.

The vector

8C7

U~ l dU leads from

the point

U of

the vertical

dU

of the vertical [U
-fdU\.
[U] to the neighbouring point
The totality of all points on [C7 -f dU] which are in the neighis given by expressions of the form
bourhood of

(U
where SE

is

+ dU)(l + BE) = U +

(dU

+ U 8E)

an arbitrary infinitesimal principal element with

8w v on the

the corresponding
principal diagonal
8E. Since the terms in the. principal
vectors are S[7
8[7
diagonal of 8C7 are pure imaginary, E may be uniquely determined in such a way that all terms in the principal diagonal of
8C7 vanish
we call this transition from [U] to [U
dU] the
"
The transition from some other
horizontal transition from C7."
of the vertical [U] to the point (U
point
dU)E of [U
dU]
is
of
vector
means
the
accomplished by
coefficients

UE

JS.

That

this linear transformation (17.2)

8U

(17.2)

determined by E, which

is unimodular follows from our general remarks concerning closed continuous groups and can in this
case be readily verified by direct computation.
Naturally this

sends

into 8' [7,

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

388

same equation holds

[7,

UE

respectively

for the horizontal transitions &[/,

&'U

E- l -&U-E.

(17.3)

n horizontal vectors 8t7 leading out from

"
"
whose content
parallelogram
the absolute value of the determinant of the n 2

&'U from

infinitesimal

U
is

determine an
measured by
n components

On allowing each point

=t= ]8) of the various vectors 8f7.
on the periphery of the parallelogram to describe the vertical
\U] we obtain a tube whose horizontal sections are paralleloits projection on [u] is the original element of volume,
grams"
"
the
Since the linear
parallelogram
^defined by the S/.
transformation (17.3), S/7->S'(/, is unimodular, the content of
each horizontal section is the same, and may therefore be considered as the content of the volume element on [u].
We now examine the variations in [U] and E in (17.1) when
We have
S goes over into 5
dS.
Swa/s (a

SU - UE
and therefore

dS-U +

S-

dU = dU

+/

On

multiplying both sides of this equation by

we

find

U~ l 85

or

S'S

f/- 1

The components

We now

85
of the

-I-

SU

U-

{E~

E~
l

U~ S~
l

8U E

8/7

/i

matrix contained

define a parallelepiped at

dE.

5 which

E~ l U~

+8

8[/}

in

8/{.

(17.4)

parentheses arc

shall

serve as a

volume element in the following manner

n2
n of the n 2
sides 85 are obtained from (17.4) on allowing the angles of
2
rotation to remain fixed, i.e. 8E
n hori0, and drawing n
zontal vectors 8f/ from the point U to form a volume element
the remaining n vectors 8S are then
of magnitude d[U] on [u]
a
in
such
that
for
chosen
each of them one and only one of
way
o>
the angles
The
r changes by dw, and [U] remains unchanged.
2
corresponding n vectors 8'S define, in accordance with (17.4),
an element of volume of magnitude
:

r--

CALCULATION OF VOLUME ON

389

U~ l 85 U is uniSince the linear transformation 85 -> 8'5

modular this volume is equal to that of the element defined by
the 85 themselves. Since e
1/e the product II in (17.5) can

be written
,)(?,

e,)

8,6,

ej(e a

- IJ = A

Tta volume element described by S on allowing

[U] in (17.1) to describe an infinitesimal volume element of magnitude d[U] on [u] and on allowing the angles of rotation wv to vary

The

by

final result is

da>,

has the magnitude

A 5 d^dwt

da> n

-d[U].

(17.6)

On integrating with respect to d[U] over [u] we obtain the

theorem, already 'applied in the preceding section, concerning
the magnitude of that portion of ll in which the angles of rotation
have values lying between to, and a*,
d<o v

These considerations remain valid on restricting ourselves

to the group u of unitary transformations with determinant 1.

The angles

of rotation are then subjected to the restriction

0>!

<*

'

+ "n =

(17.7)

0,

and the only difference in the result is that the factor da> n in
Condition (17.7) allows us to normalize
(17.6) is to be omitted.
the linear form h^^ +
+ h na) n in the angles of rotation in
=
such a way that h n
h n ) in the
the exponents (h lt h 2
of
the
are
of
then
U
weights
non-negative integers.
representations
;

It is desirable,

however, not to impose this normalization h n

to remark that only the differences between
;

we need then only

the

are

hi
*

$(fii /2

of

'

',

/n)

significance
f

the

^e unchanged

irreducible

representations

on increasing each of the

/,

by the same

In particular, these considerations justify

integer.
the expression used in Chapter III for the volume on the group

manifold of the unimodular unitary group U 2

and the

results

of the
preceding section constitute a direct proof, which is independent of the completeness theorem, of the fact that the

constitute a complete set of

representations of U 2 denoted by (
inequivalent irreducible representations of U 2
.

THE SYMMETRIC PERMUTATION GROUP

390

18.

Finally,

characters

we show the usefulness of our formulae for the

n
"
by deriving two simple branching laws from them.

Branching law for

1.

The

Branching Laws

the

Permutation Group.

with the symmetry pattern

to the sub-group TT / _ ] of
P(fi> fz>
")
1
into
the
sum
things,
of those irreducible
permutations of f
the
representations of TT/^J associated with
patterns
irreducible representation of
'

TT/

Deduces, on restricting

l>

ir f

/2

those patterns in which the rows are not arranged in decreasing

Each such constituent appears exactly
length are to be omitted.

(In words, these patterns are obtained from the original

one by removing a field in turn from the end of each row which
is actually longer than the following one.)
Let s be a permutation of the numbers 1, 2,
Proof.
Considered as a
2 f3
1,
belonging to the class (i l
).

once.

/I

'

z'

permutation of the/numbers 1, 2,
,/, s leaves the last number
the number of one-term cycles is thus increased by 1,
and s, considered as an element of 777. belongs to the class

fixed

("*!>

2*2>

"

Z 3>

"

")

A
we

have

n the expansion

o^-'aj
the

as

= Za^
of

coefficients

**,',

=0

or

e''

e'

(18.1)

terms

those

for

x/'./v-W

which

18 2 )
-

according as any of the signs ^ in the above inequalities is

or not.
actually
Xf ls ^ ie primitive character of 7r/ rl belongto
the
On the other hand,
symmetry pattern P(/i, /2,
ing
).

>

is
the coefficient of ej 2*
in A a\ a%
h2 >
[h l
f
^ ie representation of TT/
equal to the character Xfj2--( s )
with pattern P(/,, /2
Hence on multiplying (18.1) with
).
fi n d
B
6
we
n
(T!
1
2
1

Xfi/2

'

'

5)

'

'

Our branching law

a hi-L ht, *,-

a hi,

Ai-1,

*,+'

follows from this result

and

'

'

(18.2).

The

branching law leads to a recurrence formula for the dimensionalities g(fl9

f2

BRANCHING LAWS
Branching law for

2.

On
an

(n

cn

391

restricting C n to the sub-group of linear transformations of

1)- dimensional sub-space the irreducible representation
"

f c n reduces into
f Cn-i f r which

"

(fiy /2>

")
'

'

(/ii /2,

')

sum

the

of

all those

representations

A^/^A^/^- -^/^^A;

(18.3)

each of these constituents appears exactly once.

The linear transformations 5 of the sub-space c n _!
Proof.
are simply isomorphic to those linear transformations
xn
which x n -> x n
Hence e w
xn
5 of the variables x l9 # 2
",
:

'

be replaced by
inator is then

is

to

e2

D(e lf

_>)

-,

6l

l)(e a

last

I)(e 3

we subtract

the second column from the

second,

0,

0,

1
;

!)

first,

and fmally the n th from the

is 0,

1),

of the previous ones

l)-row determinant.
(n
in the numerator by the factor (Sj

row then

(_>

-!)

column of D(e lt e 2
and factoring the resulting
In order to divide the determinant

by subtracting the

from each

The denom-

the characteristic (16.9).

as can be seen
s n _!, 1)

1 in

-i

1)

the third from the

8t

(n

l)

The

last

the determinant is thus reduced to

Now divide each element in
1).

a determinant of order (n
1 in accordance with
the y th row by e v

The

result

But

this

is

is

that

the

we then have

sum

of all (n
|e*'i,

AI >

A;

On

h,

>

in the

1)

-rowed determinants of the form

e*',
h'i

numerator the determinant

A3

>

e*'"-i|,

>/Ci ^

An

(18.4)

2 from h[ and A 2
1 from h ly n
*,
subtracting n
h'n _i and A n in order to obtain the numbers / [(16.7)], the
inequalities (18.4) become the inequalities (18.3) and our theorem

from
is

proved.

APPENDIX

Proof of an Inequality
(Page 77.)
IN order to prove the inequality stated on page 77 we must
differentiable function 0, which
is defined for all values of the real variable #, satisfies the

show that any continuous and

condition
-f-

-f 00

-f OO

00

provided, of course, that the integrals involved actually exist.

The Schwarz inequality

employed
tegrals

in

Chapter

or rather each

Applying

becomes, on replacing the sums by

sum by two

in-

integrals

this inequality to
i

'

by taking

and transforming the integral

f

d
into

]*Tx
partial integration over the range
desired relation (*) provided the term

by

oo,
#t/n/I,

o,

we

which

is

obtain the
integrated

x ->
That this is actually the case
oo.
if the two
on
the
of
integrals
right
(*) converge can be seen by
the following indirect proof.
Let be any pre-assigned positive
out,

approaches

as

393

APPENDIX

394

constant and consider a positive value of x for which x

2

and which

is

so large that

Ur dx

The Schwarz

j.

a
\

*ft(x}

>e

inequality

dx

then

tells

us that for x <,

~"~ x' <> x

whence

<;
,

The

2
integral of #

a
|

^r

+ -x

over the range from # to x

is

-\

yc

.
"**

**>

Hence

it

-v*
&

1 e

~
4 x

~7

follows that conversely

imply the inequality

e
~~

-e

~I~

then

APPENDIX

Composition Property of Group Characters

(Page 169.)

THE fundamental
,^>

U(s) which

s ->

property of the irreducible representation

expressed in the equation

is

U(st)
is

paralleled

by the

U(s)U(t)

relation

If x, JK are two elements of the algebra of the group,

Proof.
the second of which belongs to the central, and if

x
then

-> X,

JK

->

in

$),

The matrix associated with z

-1.

AT

in

.6

is

-X and

its

trace

is

On

setting

we

find

r*(*) y(0 X (st) -=

zx(s)
S

*,t

Since

which

y(t)
t

depends only on the

belongs we may

*,

y(t)

X (s) x (t).

class of conjugate elements to

replace

X (st)

by

I27x(*'-

fr)

on the left-hand side of the previous equation. Then the coefficient of x(s)y(t) on either side of the equation depends only
on the class to which the element / belongs, and since x(s) is an
395

390

APPENDIX

arbitrary function, y(t) an arbitrary class function, the assertion

(*) follows from the fact that the two coefficients must agree.

We

have omitted mention

of this equation (*) in the text

in order not to interrupt the systematic development of the

theory of representations, which is completely described by the

orthogonality relations and the completeness theorem.

APPENDIX

A Theorem

Concerning Non-degenerate Antisymmetric Bilinear Forms

(Page 274.)

WE

consider the given non-degenerate anti-symmetric bi-linear

form

"

"

of the two vectors

anti-symmetric product
[jt)j
Let
be
x
,r
and
f\
2
Cj
(A*,,
any non-vanishing
t)
(y k ).
vector
then by assumption [t^j] cannot vanish identically in
and consequently a second vector e 2 can be found such that
jc,
Tlie simultaneous equations
1[tVa]

as

the

2 linearly independent solutions e 3>

then have/
These
c/.
vectors are furthermore such that no linear dependence can
,

exist

between them and

C 1? C 2

for

if

follows on building the anti-symmetric products [c^] ^^ ^ 2

that ^i
0.
^2
^i
may therefore choose
[^2?]
as a basis from which
c i> ?2>
a
co-ordinate
i.e.
as
', C/
system,
all vectors may be constructed.
Let the anti-symmetric proit

We

duct be expressed in terms of the components

this new co-ordinate system by

i,

r] k

of

=
=
721

=
=
V22
y l2

0,
1,

=
=
723
y 13

397

t)

in

The manner in which the new fundamental vectors were

mined requires that of the coefficients y ik = [e e
yii

0,

0,

fc ]

y ir
y 2/

0,

0.

deter-

APPENDIX

398

In consequence of the anti-symmetry all y tl y i2 with i

3,
/
vanish, and the matrix of the y ijb is completely reduced into the
,

2-rowed square sub-matrix

1
1
,

and an

Mathe(/
2)-dimensional anti-symmetric matrix.
matical induction with respect to the dimensionality /yields the
desired theorem that / is necessarily even and that the original
form can be transformed into
(^i^a

2*11)

by an appropriate

(^37?4

4^3)

linear transformation.

(//2

terms)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER

PAGE
(1)

(2)

(3)

Proved in complete generality by M. PLANCHEREL, Circ. Mat.

Palermo, 30, 330 (1910), and E. C. TITCHMARCH, Proc. Lond. Math.
Soc. (2), 23, 279 (1924).
39. Acta Mathematica, 45, 29; 46, 101; 47, 237 (1924-26).
H. WEYL, Math. Ann. 97, 338 (1926), gives a brief development of

39.

the subject, which is most intimately related to the completeness

theorem of the theory of representations of continuous groups to
16.
be considered in Chaps. Ill and V particularly in V,
39. D. HILBERT, Grundziige einer allgemeinen Theorie der linearen
Integralgleichungen, Leipsic 1912, Part 4 (collected papers apE. HELLINGER, Journ.
pearing in the Gott. Nachr. 1904-1910).
f.

(4)

und angew. Math. 136, 210 (1909).

WINTNER, Spektraltheorie der unendlichen Matrizen

d. reine

39.

A.

(Leipsic

1929).
(6)

40.

Math. Ann. 102, 49 and 370 (1929). In addition to J. v.

A. WINTNER see M. H. STONE, Proc. Nat. Acad.
15, 198 and 423 (1929).
Gott. Nachr. 1927, 1, Part V.

NEUMANN and
Sci.
(6)

40,

CHAPTER
(1)

II

In addition to the books by SOMMERFELD, RUARK-UREY and

GERLACH cited in the introduction, see M. PLANCK, The Theory of
Heat Radiation (English translation by M. MASIUS, Philadelphia
"
the article
1914)
Quantentheorie," by W. PAULI, in GEIGER and
SCHEEL'S Handbuch der Physik, Vol. 23, p. 1 (Berlin 1926). For a

41.

careful treatment of the theory of quantized orbits as developed

during the years 1913-25 see M. BORN, The Mechanics of the Atom

the
1927)
(English by J. W." FISHER and D. R. HARTREE, London
"
Elementare Quantenmechanik
second volume,
(Berlin), which
deals with the new quantum mechanics, was written jointly with
P. JORDAN and has not been translated into English.
For
L. DE BROGLIE, An Introductreatises on quantum mechanics see
tion to the Study of Wave Mechanics (English by H. T. FLINT,
E. U. CONDON and P. M. MORSE, Quantum
London 1930)
Mechanics (New York 1929) P. A. M. DIRAC, The Principles of
Quantum Mechanics (Oxford 1930) J. FRENKEL, Einfiihrung in die
Wellenmechanik (Berlin 1929) A. HAAS, Wave Mechanics and the
;

New Quantum Theory

(English by L.
399

W. CODD, London

1928)

W.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

400
PAGE

HEISENBERG, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory

O. HALPERN
(English by C. ECKART and F. C. HOYT, Chicago 1930)
and H. THIRRING, Die Grundziige der neueren Quantentheorie
For a connected report on the subject see
H.
(Berlin 1929).
HONL and C. ECKART, Grundziige und Ergebnisse der WellenE. C. KEMBLE
mechanik, Phys. Zeits. 31, 89 and 145 (1930)
and E. L. HILL, General Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Rev.
Mod. Phys. 1, 157
2,
(1929-30).
Ann. d. Phys. 20, 199 (1906).
Ann. d. Phys. 17, 132 (1905)
42.
46.
J. FRANCK and P. JORDAN, Anregung von Quantenspriingen
durch Stosse (Berlin 1926), or article with same title in GEIGKR and
;

(2)
(3)

(4)

SCHEEL'S Handbuch der Physik, Vol. 23, p. 641.

In addition to the fundamental paper of W. HEISENBERG,
M. BORN and P. JORDAN, Zeits.
Zeits. f. Phys. 33, 879 (1925), see
M. BORN, W. HEISENBERG, and P. JORDAN,
f. Phys. 34/858 (1925)
P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Roy. Soc.
Zeits. f. Phys. 35, 557 (1926)
109 (A), 642 (1926). L. DE BROGUE, Ann. de phys. (10) 2, 22
E. SCHRODINGER,
Ondes et mouvements (Paris 1926)
(1925)
Ann. d. Phys. 79, 361, 489 and 734 80, 437 81, 109 (1926). For
Selected Papers on Wave Mechanics
English translations see
by L. BRILLOUIN and L. DE BROGLIE (trans, by J. F. SHEARER and
W. M. DEANS, London 1928) Collected Papers on Wave Mechanics
by E. SCHRODINGER (trans, by W. M. DEANS, London 1928).
49. A. EINSTEIN, Phys. Zeits. 18, 121 (1917).
A. EINSTEIN, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1924, 261
50.
1925,
S. N. BOSE, Zeits. f. Phys. 26, 17Js (1924).
For relation
3 and 18.
to wave mechanics see E. SCHRODINGER, Physikal. Zeits. 27, 95

48.

(5)
(6)

(1926).

see also W. EI.SASSKR, Naturwiss.

Phys. Rev. 30, 705 (1927)
For diffraction of electrons passing through thin
16, 720 (1928).
metal foils see G. P. THOMSON, Proc. Roy. Soc. 117 (A), 600 (1928)
also Wave Mechanics of Free Electrons
(New York 1930).
Further: S. KIKUCHI, Jap. Journ. Phys. 5, 83 (1928)
E. RUPP,
Ann. d. Phys. 85, 981 (1928) and Naturwiss. 17, 174 (1929)
H. MARK and R. WIERL, Naturwiss. 18, 205 (1930) and Zeits.
f. Phys. 60, 741 (1930).
The completeness proof for the Hermitian polynomials
(8) 58, 69.
[58] can be obtained from the development in COURANT-HILBERT,
Methoden der mathematischen Physik I. The same methods suffice
to guarantee that the one -electron ion has no discrete terms other
5 [69].
than those obtained in
For their connection with the
LAGUERRE polynomials see E. SCHRODINGER, Collected Papers.
W. GERLACH and O. STERN, Ann. d. Phys. 74, 673 (1924).
(9) 67.
A. EINSTEIN and P. EHRENFEST, Zeits. f. Phys. 11, 31 (1922).
For the theory of solutions of differential equations in the
(10) 68.
neighbourhood of a regular singular point see L. BIEBERBACH,
Theorie der Differentialgleichungen, 3rd ed. Part II, Chap. IV
E. L. INCE, Ordinary Differential Equations, 160
(Berlin 1930)
and 365 (London 1927)
J. PIERPONT, Theory of Functions of
a Complex Variable, Chap. XIII,
209 (Boston 1914).
For the general theory of continuous spectra of differential
(11) 70.
equations see H. WEYL, Math. Ann. 68, 220 (1910)
applications
to quantum theory E. SCHRODINGER, I.e. ( 4 )
E. FUF.S, Ann. d.
Phys. 81, 281 (1926). For transition probabilities between

(7)

50.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

401

PAGE
positive and negative energy levels in the field of a central charge
Ze see Y. SUGIURA, Inst. Chem. and Phys. Research, Tokyo,

Papers, No. 193 (1929).

Sci.

(12)

The

74.

collision

M. BORN'S

problem discussed

in

the text gave rise to

quantum mechanics Zeits.

G. WENTZEL, Zeits. f. Phys.

statistical interpretation of

38, 803 (1926).

Phys. 37, 863
40, 590 (1926)
J. R. OPPENHEIMER, Zeits. f. Phys. 43, 413 (1927).
Exact calculation, W. GORDON, Zeits. f. Phys. 48, 180 (1928).
P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc.
74. M. BORN, Gott. Nachr. 1927, 146.
Roy. Soc. 114 (A), 243 (1927). W. ELSASSER, Zeits. f. Phys. 45,
522 (1927). For a report on the entire field see G. WENTZEL, Die
unperiodischen Vorgange in der Wellenmechanik, Phys. Zeits. 29,
E. U. CONDON, Quantum Mechanics of Collision
321 (1928)
Processes, Rev. Mod. Phys. 3, 43 (1931).
74. G. GAMOW, Zeits. f. Phys. 51, 204
52, 496 and 510
53,
R. W. GURNEY and E. U. CONDON, Nature,
601 (1928-1929).
122, 439 (1928) Phys. Rev. 33, 127 (1929). These are followed by
a series of papers in the Zeits. f. Phys. 52-60 by v. LAUE, KUDAR,
R. H.
SEXL, MOLLER, BORN, ATKINSON, HOUTERMANS. Further
FOWLER and A. H. WILSON, Proc. Roy. Soc. 124 (A), 493 (1929)
Another application by
O. K. RICE, Phys. Rev. 35, 1538 (1930).
R. H. FOWLER and L. NORDHEIM, Proc. Roy. Soc. 119 (A), 173
General investigation by E. SCHRODINGER, Sitzungsber.
(1928).
f.

(13)

(14)

(15)

Preuss. Akad. 1929, 2.

See H. WEYL, Philosophic der
76.

Mathematik und Naturwissen-

schaft, Part II, Naturwissenschaft, II Methodologie (Munich 1926).

For the fundamental interpretation of the quantum theory
(16) 76.
see
HEISENBERG, Zeits. f. Phys. 40, 501 (1926) N. BOHR,
:

Naturwiss. 16, 245 (1928), or Nature, 121, 580 (1928). Also

H. WEYL, Zeits. f. Phys.
J. V. NEUMANN, Gott. Nachr. 1927, 1
A. SOMMERFELD, Phys. Zeits. 30, 866 (1929) thor46, 1927, 1
oughly treated in HEISENBERG'S book cited in (1).
Gott. Nachr. 1927, 245.
(17) 78.
Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Vol. 2, XXV: Theorie der
(18) 79.
konvexen Korper, 12, 157 (Leipsic 1911).
Zeits. f. Phys.
(19) 80.
J. V. NEUMANN, Gott. Nachr. 1927, 273;
E. SCHRODINGER, Ann. d. Phys. 83, 15 (1927).
57, 30 (1929).
W. PAULI,
L. NORDHEIM, Proc. Roy. Soc. 119 (A), 689 (1928).
SoMMERFELD-Festschrift Probleme der modernen Physik, 30 (Leip;

sic 1928).

(20)
(21)

80.
86.

P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc. I, 25, 62 (1928).

For a detailed account see the books by HUND and PAULING-

GOUDSMIT
(22)

cited in the Introduction.

This formulation of the fundamental problem of perturbation

theory refers to the more general case in which the perturbation
function
also depends explicitly on the time t\ equation (8.1)
See M. BORN'S investigation of the adiabatic
is valid in any case.
principle in quantum mechanics, Zeits. f. Phys. 40, 167 (1927),
and H. WEYL, I.e. 16 ). E. FERMI and F. PERSICO, Rend. Ace. d.
M. BORN and V. FOCK, Zeits. f. Phys.
Lincei (6) 4, 452 (1926)
51, 165 (1928).
95. The recognition of the non-commutativity of multiplication
and the discovery of these commutation rules was a most im87.

(23)

portant step in

HEISENBERG'S

first

paper and in the further

BIBLIOGRAPHY

402

PAGE
development of the new quantum mechanics

BORN, HEISENBERG and JORDAN

(24)

cited in

4
(

the papers by

in

).

96. An excellent account of the HAMILTON-JACOBI theory of

dynamics and of the perturbation theory of classical mechanics
is to be found in the chapters of GEIGER and SCHEEL'S Handbuch
Vol.
der Physik on these subjects by L. NORDHEIM and E. FUES
V, Chaps. Ill and IV. The English reader may refer to the book
by M. BORN cited in (*). For canonical transformations in quantum
mechanics see P. JORDAN, Zeits. f. Phys. 37, 383
38, 513 (1926)
P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc.
F. LONDON, Zeits. f. Phys. 40, 193 (1926)
Roy. Soc. 113 (A), 621 (1927).
100. H. WEYL, Raum-Zeit-Materie, 5th ed.,
40, 41 (Berlin
or the English translation by H. L. BROSE, Space, Time
1923)
and Matter, 35 (London 1922). E 'SCHRODINGER, Zeits. f. Phys.
:

(26)

(26)
(27)

F. LONDON, Zeits. f. Phys. 42, 375 (1927).

12, 13 (1922).
102, Collected Papers, p. 76. New data by J. S. FOSTER and
L. CHALK, Proc. Roy. Soc. 123 (A), 108 (1929).

104.
This result is easily obtained by elementary methods for
a rectangular parallelepiped. For the general proof see H. WEYL,
Journ. f. d. reine u. angew. Math. 141, 163 143, 177 (1912-13)
Rend. d. Circ. Mat. Palermo, 39, 1 (1915). R. COURANT has carried
over the method from integral to differential equations
see
Chap. VI in COURANT-HILBERT, Methoden der mathematischen

Physik
(28)

(29)

I.

In
104. P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Roy. Soc. 114 (A), 243 (1927).
addition to this paper on emission and absorption see also the one
on dispersion to be found on p. 710 of the same volume. For
JEANS' treatment of black body radiation, which led to the

RAYLEIGH-JEANS radiation law, see J. H. JEANS, Phil. Mag. 10 (6),

91 (1905). P. DEBYE, Ann. d. Phys. (4), 33, 1427 (1910), introduced
the quantum of action into this theory.
109. Led by arguments of a general statistical nature, EINSTEIN
had recognized the necessity for introducing stimulated emission
long before the development of the new quantum mechanics and
had derived equations (13.9), (13.10)
Phys. Zeits. 18, 121 (1917).
The new quantum mechanics completes the derivation by obtaining
:

(30)

the probability coefficient A, eq. (13.8), from the structure of the

atom.
109. V. WEISSKOPF and E. WIGNER, Zeits. f. Phys. 63, 54 (1930).

CHAPTER
(1)

III

For the general foundations of the theory of groups and

the development of the theory of finite groups see
W. BURNSIDE,
Theory of Groups of Finite Order, 2nd ed. (Cambridge 1911)
G. A. MILLER, H. F. BLICHFELDT and L. E. DICKSON, Theory and
A. SPEISER,
Applications of Finite Groups (New York 1916)
Theorie der Gruppen von endlicher Ordnung, 2nd ed. (Berlin 1927).

110.

(2)

112.

Vergleichende Betrachtungen liber neuere geometrische

Math. Ann. 43, 63 (1893)
or
Forschungen (Erlangen 1872)
F. KLEIN, Gesammelte naathematische Abhandlungen, Vol. I, 460
;

(Berlin 1921).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

403

PAGE
120. Following the fundamental results of T. MOLIEN on the theory
of hyper-complex numbers (Math. Ann. 41 and 42, 1893), the
theory of representations of finite groups was developed princiThe
pally by G. FROBENIUS (Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1896-99).
most important general results were re-discovered by BURNSIDE
l
above. The method developed by I. SCHUR,
cf. his book cited in
Neue Begriindung der Theorie der Gruppencharaktere, Sitzungsber.
Preuss. Akad. 1905, 406, is particularly recommended for its

(3)

clarity.
(4)

134.

The development

of

NORTHER, Math.

6 follows E.

Zeits.

30, 641 (1929), in particular $ 3 and 16. The uniqueness of complete reduction rather than reduction follows in general W. KRULL,
O. SCHMIDT. Math. Zeits. 29, 34
Math. Zeits. 23, 161 (1925t
R. BRAUERand I. SCHUR, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1930,
(1928)
;

209.
(5)

SCHUR'S treatment of the theory of representations, cited in

based on this lemma.
153. W. BURNSIDE, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. (2), 3, 430 (1905).
156. G. FROBENIUS and I. SCHUR, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad.

152.
3

(6)
(7)

is

1906, 209.
(8)

161. The method of integration over the group manifold is due to

A. HURWITZ, Gott. Nachr. 1897, 71, although it was applied by him
to the theory of invariants rather than to the theory of groups.
SCHUR first obtained the orthogonality properties of the
I.
characteristics of the continuous rotation group in this way and
used them to prove the completeness of the system of known
representations

Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1924, 189, 297, and

346.
(9)

166.

For a modern book on algebra see L. E. DICKSON, Algebras

the German edition,

Arithmetics (Chicago 1923)
Algebren und ihre Zahlentheorie (trans, by J. J. BURCKHARDT and
E. SCHUBARTH, Zurich 1927), follows an author's revision which has
not appeared in English. Also B. L. VAN DER WAERDEN, Moderne
II (Berlin 1931).
An algebra was previously called a
Algebra
"
system of hyper-complex numbers," and is at present to some
the algebra of a group is there
extent in the German literature
"
The usual procedure in modern
referred to as a
Gruppenring."
algebra consists in reducing the algebra into simple ma trie
algebras, in which case the theorems on realization by linear transthis development will be followed
formations appear as corollaries
in Chap. V.
173. See R. WEITZENBOCK, Invariantentheorie (Groningen 1923).
The foundation for the proof of the fundamental theorem of the
D. HILBERT,
theory of invariants is the HILBERT basis theorem
Math. Ann. 36, 473 (1890). The author has shown (Math. Zeits.
24, 392, 1926) that the fundamental theorem is valid for any closed
and for any semi-simple continuous group. The older theory of
invariants was almost exclusively concerned with the group c n
A really
of all linear transformations with unit determinant.
modern book on the theory of invariants is lacking.
175. The theory has been presented by S. LIE himself, with the
Theorie der
assistance of F. ENGEL, in a huge three- volume work
Transformationsgruppen (Leipsic 1893, 1930). See also S. LIE,
Vorlesungen iiber kontinuierliche Gruppen, ed. by G. SCHEFFERS

and

their

(10)

(11)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

404
PAGE

(12)

(Leipsic 1893) and the brief presentation in H. WEYL, Mathematische Analyse des Raumproblem's, 5th lecture and Appendix 8
The exclusively English reader may be referred
(Berlin 1923).
to J. E. CAMPBELL, Introductory Treatise on LIE'S Theory of Finite
Continuous Transformation Groups (Oxford 1903).
180. E. CARTAN, Bull. Soc. Math. d. France 41, 53 (1913). See
M. BORN and
also H. WEYL, Math. Zeits. 23, 275 (1925)
P. JORDAN, Elementare Quantenmechanik, Chap. IV.
181. For the more profound theory of ray representations see
I. SCHUR, Journ, f. d. reine u. angew. Math. 127, 20
132, 85 138,
155 (1904-11).
184. This theorem is contained in my investigations on the
Math. Zeits. 23, 271
24,
representations of semi-simple groups
To this type of group belong the
328, 377 and 789 (1925-26).
with unit determinant, the
groups c n of all linear transformations
"
"
rotation groups b n and the
complex group of all linear transformations which leave a non-degenerate ant-symmetric bi -linear
form in two arbitrary vectors in a (2) -dimensional space invariant.
The first and second of the above papers are concerned
with these most important cases. The topological investigation
of the rotation group is to be found in Chap. II,
5 (24, 346).
;

(13)

(14)

CHAPTER
(1)

IV

191. The theory of atomic spectra, which is developed in this and

the following chapter, is to be compared constantly with the
in particular see the books by HUND, PAULINGempirical data
GOUDSMIT and GROTRIAN cited in the Introduction. The application of the theory of representations of the 3-dimensional rotation
group to atomic spectra is treated by E. WIGNKR, Zeits. f. Phys.
43, 624 (1927)
J. v. NEUMANN and E. WIGNER, Zeits. f. Phys.
The subject has also been treated system47, 203 49, 73 (1928).
atically recently by E. WIGNER
Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf der Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren (Braunschweig
for a report on the subject see C. ECKART, Application of
1931)
Group Theory to the Quantum Dynamics of Monatomic Systems,
Rev. Mod. Phys. 2, 305 (1930). The inner quantum number was
introduced, on basis of the empirical data, by A. SOMMERFELD,
Ann. d. Phys. 63, 221 (1920)
70, 32 (1923).
191. The theory of the terms of diatomic molecules is treated in
Zeits. f. Phys.
the following fundamental papers by F. HUND
43, 805 (1927)
40, 742 (1927)
42, 93 (1927)
36, 657 (1926)
Further see
R. S. MULLIKAN,
63, 719 (1930).
51, 759 (1928)
Phys. Rev. 32, 186 and 761 (1928); 36, 699 and 1440 (1930).
M. BORN and J. R. OPPENHEIMER, Ann. d. Phys. (4) 84, 457 (1927).
A
E. U. CONDON, Phys. Rev. 28, 1182 (1926)
32, 858 (1928).
series of reports and discussions on this subject is to be found in
for a detailed report on
Trans. Faraday Soc. 25, 611-949 (1929)
the entire field of molecular spectra see R. S. MULLIKAN, Rev.
Mod. Phys. 2, 60 (1930) 3, 89 (1931) see also the text by RUARK
and UREY cited in the Introduction.
191. W. ELERT, Zeits. f. Phys. 51, 8 (1928). Cf. H. BETHE, Ann.
d. Phys. (5), 3, 133 (1929)
E. HUCKEL, Zeits. f. Phys. 60,423 (1930).
;

(2)

(3)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

405

PAGE
194.

Appropriate methods for" carrying through the perturbation

self -consistent field ") have been
(method of the
D. R. HARTRFE, Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 24, 89
developed by
(1928).
J. A. GAUNT, Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 24, 328 (1928).
Also J. C. SLATER, Phys. Rev. 32, 339 (1928) 34, 1293 (1929) 36,
57 (1930).
E. U. CONDON, Phys. Rev. 36, 1121 (1930)
E. U.
CONDON and G. H. SHORTLEY, Phys. Rev. 37, 1025 (1931). V.
FOCK, Zeits. f. Phys. 61, 126; 62, 795 (1930). G. BREIT, Phys.
Rev. 35, 569
36/383 (1930). W. HEITI.ER and G. RUMER, Zeits.
f. Phys. 68, 12 (1931).
(5) 201. "See the report by H. HONL, Ann. d. Phys. (4^ 79, 273 (1926).
For a derivation of the formulae on quantum mechanics, although
not from the group-theoretic standpoint, see M. BORN, W. HEISENPERG and P. JORDAN, Zeits. f. Phys. 35, 557 (1926). Also in Chap.
IV of BORN and JORDAN, Elementare Quantenmechanik.
W. PAUT.I, Zeits. f. Phys. 43, 60f (1927).
(6) 203.
G. E. UHLENBECK and S. GOUDSMIT, Naturwiss. 13, 953
(7) 203.
Nature 117, 264 (1926).
(1925)
O. RICHARDSON, Phys. Rev. 26, 248(1908). A. EINSTEIN and
(8) 205.
W. J. DE HAAS, Verhandl. d. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 17, 152 (1915)
E. BECK, Ann. d. Phys. (4), 60, 109 (1919).
18, 173 (1916).
A. P.
S. J. and L. J. H. BARNETT, Phys. Rev. 17, 404 (1921).
CHATTOCK and L. F. BATER, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 223, 287 (1922).
A report on a unified notation for the designation of terms of
(9) 207.
atomic spectra in terms of quantum numbers has been presented
by H. N. RUSSELL, A. G. SHENSTONE and L. A. TURNER, Phys.
Rev. 33, 900 (1929). It has also been found necessary to ascribe
a spin to the atomic nucleus in order to account for the hyper-fine
E. BACK and S. GOUDSMIT, Zeits. f. Phys. 43, 321 (1927)
structure
S. GOUDSMIT and R. F. BACKER, Phys. Rev. 34,
47, 174 (1928)
1501 (1929)
S.
GOUDSMIT, Phys. Rev. 37, 663 (1931). J.
HARGREAVES, Proc. Roy. Soc. 124 (A), 568 (1929). E. FERMI,
G. BREIT, Phys. Rev. 37, 51 (1931).
Zeits. f. Phys. 60, 320 (1930).
E. BACK and A. LANDE, Zeemaneffekt und Multiplettstruk(10) 209.
tur (Berlin 1925) A. LANDE*, Zeits. f. Phys. 15, 189 (1923). W.
A. LANDE", Zeits.
FAULT, Zeits. f. Phys. 16, 155
20, 371 (1923).
f.
Phys. 25, 46 (1924). W. HEISENBERG and P. JORDAN, Zeits. f.
Phys. 37, 263 (1926). K. DARWIN, Proc. Roy. Soc. 118 (A), 264
For (ij) and (si) coupling see J. H. BARTLETT, Phys. Rev.
(1928).
35, 229 (1930)'.
H. WEYL, Math. Zeits. 23, 292 (1925). J. v. NEUMANN
(11) 210.
and E. WIGNER, Phys. Zeits. 30, 467 (1929).
C. G.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 117 (A), 610; 118, 351 (1928).
(12) 210.
DARWIN, Proc. Roy. Soc. 118 (A), 654 (1928). A. LAND, Zeits.
f.
in the same volume F. MOGLICH, 852,
Phys. 48, 601 (1928)
and J. v. NEUMANN, 868. V. FOCK, Zeits. f. Phys. 55, 127 (1929).
For the older work concerning the interaction of spin and orbital
moment of momentum see L. H. THOMAS, Nature, 117, 514 (1926)
W. HEISENBERG and
J. FRENKEL, Zeits. f. Phys. 37, 243 (1926)
P. JORDAN in the same volume, 863.
P. A. M. DIRAC in Quantentheorie und Chemie, Leipziger
(13) 217.

(4)

calculations

(14)

Vortrage, 1928, 83 (Leipsic 1928).

Zeits. f.
220. H. WEYL, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 15, 323 (1929)
Phys. 56, 330 (1929). V. FOCK, Zeits. f. Phys. 57, 261 (1929).
V. AMBARCUMIAN and D. IVANENKO, C. R. Acad. sc. USSR. 1930, 45.
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

406

PAGE
224. See WENTZEL'S report cited in II ( 1S ) A. SOMMERFELD, Wave
Mechanics BORN and JORDAN, Elementare Quantenmechanik O.
KLEIN and Y. NISHINA, Zeits. f. Phys. 52, 853 (1929). Y. NISHTNA,
same volume, 869.
A. SOMMERFELD, Ann. d. Phys. (4) 51, 1 (1916). For the
(16) 237.
significance of these results for the theory of X-ray spectra see
SOMMERFELD'S book cited in the introduction. Perturbation
calculation in the new quantum mechanics, W. HEISENBERG and
P. JORDAN, I.e. 10
exact derivation by means of the Dirac theory
of the electron
W. GORDAN, Zeits. f/Phys. 48, 11 (1928) C. G.
DARWIN, I.e. ( 12 ) A. SOMMERFELD, Wave Mechanics, p. 257 ft.
W. HEISENBERG, Zeits. f. Phys. 38, 41 1 (1926). Correspond(17) 241.
W. HEISENBERG, Zeits. f
ing energy calculation for He atom
Phys. 39/499 (1926). P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Roy. Soc. 112 (A),
661 (1926). J. A. GAUNT, Proc. Roy. Soc. 122 (A), 613 (1929)
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 228 (A), 151. Y. SUGIURA, Zeits. f. Phys. 44,
190 (1927). W. V. HOUSTON, Phys. Rev. 33, 297 (1929). J. C.
SLATER, Phys. Rev. 32, 349 (1928). G. BREIT, Phys. Rev. 34,
"
"
553 (1929)
36, 383 (1930). The
sub-space leads
symmetric
to the Einstein-Bose statistics, which is discussed in the references
cited in II ( 6 above.
The statistics arising from the "anti-sym"
metric
sub-space was developed by E. FERMI, Zeits. f. Phys.
36, 902 (1926) and applied by W. PAULI, Zeits. f. Phys. 41, 81
(1927), to the explanation of paramagnetism and by A. SOMMERFELD
to the electron theory of metals
A. SOMMERFCLD, W. V. HOUSTON
and C. ECKART, Zeits. f. Phys. 47, 1 (1928).
(18)244. E. C. STONER, Phil. Mag. () 48, 719 (1924). W. PAULI, Zeits.
f. Phys. 31, 765 (1925).
It is to be remembered that this development antedates the new quantum theory and the theory of the
(16)

) ;

spinning

and that

electron,

quantum numbers

n,

I,

j,

Pauli's

of the four
re-classification

introduction

demanded a complete

of all spectroscopic material.

248. P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Roy. Soc. 114 (A), 243 (1927). On
P. JORDAN
taking the interaction of the particles into account
and O. KLEIN, Zeits. f. Phys. 45, 751 (1927).
P. JORDAN and E. WIGNER, Zeits. f. Phys. 47, 631
(20) 250, 280.
(1928).
P. JORDAN and W. PAULI, Zeits. f. Phys. 47, 151 (1928).
(21) 253.
G. MIE, Ann. d. Phys. 85, 711 (1928). W. HEISENBERG and
W. PAULI, Zeits. f. Phys. 56, 1 (1929) 59, 168 (1930) W. HEISENAnn. d. Phys. 9, 338 (1931).
BERG, Zeits. f. Phys. 65, 4 (1930)
L. ROSENFELD, Zeits. f. Phys. 63, 574 (1930).
J. R. OPPENHEIMER,

(19)

17
E. FERMI, Rend.
).
Phys. Rev. 35, 461 (1930). G. BREIT, I.e.
Ace. d. Lincei (6) 9, 181 (1929). L. LANDAU and R. PEIERLS,
Zeits. f. Phys. 62, 188 (1930).
L. ROSENFELD, Ann. d. Phys. (5)
5, 113 (1930).
H. WEYL, Journ. f. d. reine u. angew. Math. 141, 163 (1912).
(22) 257.
See P. JORDAN, Die Lichtquantenhypothese, in
(23) 261.
Ergebnisse der exacten Wissenschaften, 7, 158 (1928).
Proc.
P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Roy. Soc. 126 (A), 360 (1930)
(24) 262.
Cambr. Phil. Soc., 26, 361 (1930). J. R. OPPENHEIMER, Phys.
For a report on this theory see P. A. M. DIRAC,
Rev. 35, 939 (1930)
Nature, 126, 605 (1930). For an attempt to avoid the negative
energy levels by a reduction of all operators see E. ScHRdoiNGER,
Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1931, 63.
(

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PAGE
264.

407

See articles by HEISENBERG-PAULT and ROSENFELD cited

(25)

in (").
(26)
(27)

276. H. WEYL, Zeits. f. Phys. 46, 1 (1927).

280. A rigorous proof of these theorems for oo-dimensional space
has been announced by M. H. STONE, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 16,
172 (1930)
J. v. NEUMANN informs me in a recent letter that he
has also obtained a proof of this theorem.
;

CHAPTER V
(1)

The transition from the group 27 to the algebra Z, which is

suggested by quantum mechanics, has also improved the theory
see H. WEYL, Ann.
from the purely mathematical standpoint
The connection between the repreof Math. (2) 30, 499 (1929).
sentations of u n or c n and -n-f was first clearly seen by I. SCHUR in
Further see
H. WEYL, Math.
his Dissertation (Berlin 1901).
I. SCHUR, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1927,
Zeits. 23, 271 (1925)
58; 1928,100. On the symmetry classes of tensors see A. YOUNG,
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 33, 97 (1900)
H. WEYL,
34, 361 (1901).
Rend. Circ. Mat. Palermo, 48, 29 (1924).
287. This has been emphasized by P. A. M. DIRAC, Proc. Roy.
Soc. 123 (A), 714 (1929).
291. G. FROBENIUS used the term "characteristic unit" for

284.

(2)

(3)

Akad. 1903, 328), and this

into the physical literature.
But in the
"
has been used in systematic
meantime the term
idempotent
"
The notions of right- and left-invariinvestigations on "algebras.
"
"
left-invariant sub-algebra
and
ant sub-algebra
correspond
"
"
"
"
and left-ideal in arithmetic when all the
with those of
ideal
"
elements of the algebra are considered as
integers."
303. E. STEINITZ, Journ. f. d. reine u. angew. Math. 137, 167 (1910).
307. Our proof of this theorem follows E. NOETHER, Math. Zeits.
this

concept

(see Sitzungsber. Preuss.

name has been taken over

"

(4)
(5)

(6)

30, 641 (1929).

313. In the older investigations T. MOLIEN (Math. Ann. 41 and
42, 1893) and G. FROBENIUS operate in the field of all complex
numbers. The extension to arbitrary fields is due to J. H. M.
WEDDERBURN. and is also valid for algebras which are not coma branch of the subject into which we have not
pletely reducible
M.
H.
entered
WEDDERBURN, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. (2) 6, 99
J.
See also the book by
Bull. Am. Math. Soc. 31, 11 (1925).
(1907)
:

DICKSON
6
(

).

referred to in III
See further E. ARTIN,

).

Our proof

follows E.

NOETHER,

Abh. Math. Semin. Hamburg,

I.e.

5, 251

G. KOTHE, Math. Zeits. 32, 161 (1930).

WIGNER, Zeits. f. Phys. 40, 492 and 883 (1926-27). W.
HEITLER, Zeits. f. Phys. 46, 49 (1927). Only the simplest cnse,
consists of / different,
that in which the unperturbed term of
non-degenerate terms of the individual /, is considered in detail
in these papers.
This direct derivation follows H. WEYL, Math. Zeits. 23,
(8) 328.
271 (1925).
See G. FROBENIUS, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1898, 501.
(9) 338.
W. HEITLER and F. LONDON, Zeits. f. Phys. 44, 455 (1927).
(10) 340.
W. HEITLER, Zeits. f. Phys. 46, 47 (1927) F. LONDON, in the same
(1927)

(7)

320.

E.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

408

PAGE
Zeits. f. Phys.
volume, 455. W. HEITLER, Gott. Nachr. 1927, 368
F. LONDON, Zeits. f. Phys. 50, 24 (1928).
W.
47, 835 (1928).
HEITLER, Zeits. f. Phys. 51, 805 (1928). M. DELBRUCK, Zeits. f.
Quantentheorie und
Phys. 51, 181 (1928). F. LONDON, in
Zeits.
f.
Chemie, Leipziger Vortrage 1928, 59 (Leipsic 1928)
Phys. 63, 245 (1930). M. BORN, Zeits. f. Phys. 64, 729 (1930).
L. PAULING,
38, 1109 (1931).
J. C. SLATER, Phys. Rev. 37, 481
Journ. Ann. Chem. Soc. 53, 1367 (1931).
The calculation is carried through in the first paper by
(12) 342.
HEITLER and LONDON cited in 10 ). Further see
Y. SUGIURA,
Zeits. f. Phys. 45, 484 (1927).
S. C. WANG, Phys. Rev. 31, 579
E. C. KEMBLE and C. ZENER, Phys. Rev.
28, 663 (1927).
(1928)
P. M. MORSE and E. C. G. STUCKELBERG, Phys.
33, 512 (1929).
Rev. 33, 932 (1929).
Zeits. f. Phys. 50, 24 (1928).
(13) 346.
Zeits. f. Phys. 49, 619 (1928); SoMMERFELD-Festschrift
(14) 347.
Probleme der modernen Physik (Leipsic 1929).
P. A. M. DIRAC, I.e. 2 ).
For a detailed term calculation
(15) 357.
following this scheme and examples see papers by SLATER, CONDON,
CoNDON-SiiORTLEY, BORN-RUMER cited in (4) above.
The introduction of the symmetry operators c into the
(16) 358.
x
theory of invariants is due to A. YOUNG, I.e. ). But he proved the
of
neither
nor
that
of
first was proved by
the
Jp c
irreducibility
f) c
G. FROBENIUS, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1903, 328, and that of
the latter by E. CARTAN, Bull. Soc. Math. d. France, 41, 53 (1913)
and H. WEYL, I.e. 8 ). The symmetry classes were re-discovered in
quantum mechanics by F. HUND, Ze~its. f. Phys. 43, 788 (1927).
The development from theorem (14.2) to (14.8) follows a
(17) 362.
train of thought communicated to the author in a letter from
;

J. v.

(18)

370.

NEUMANN.
See F. HUND,

I.e.

16
)

J. v.

NEUMANN and

E.

WIGNER,

Zeits.

49, 73 (1928).
Phys. 47, 203
F. LONDON, Zeits. f. Phys. 46, 455 (1928).
(19) 370.
W. HEITLER, Zeits. f. Phys. 51, 805 (1928).
(20) 372,
378.
Follows H. WEYL, I.e. ( 8 ). In the same way the character(21)
"
istics of the rotation group in >z-dimensional space, the
complex
"
and all semi-simple groups can be calculated
Math.
group
Zeits. 24, 328, 377 and 789 (1926).
L.c. 8 ).
On removing the unitary restriction, the proof
(22) 382.
that we here obtain all irreducible representations of c n requires
the use of the infinitesimal elements of the group. The knowledge
won for u n has been carried over to c n under the broadest assumptions by J. v. NEUMANN, Sitzungsber. der Preuss. Akad. 1927, 26
f.

Math.

Zeits. 30, 3 (1929)

and L SCHUR, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad

1928, 100.
(23)

383.

Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. 1900, 516.

OPERATIONAL SYMBOLS
The number
->
-3

refers to the

the

symbol

is defined

with ... is associated ... 110, 114.

is contained in 290.
conjugate complex of x 15.

transposition:

symmetry
~

page on which

for operators 13,

patterns 361.

Hermitian conjugate

symmetry

for operators

17,

quantities 352,

elements of an

algebra 167.
a(s)

a(s~

296.

contragredient matrix 123, representation 123.

equivalent as correspondences of the ray field 21.
transforms as 145.

scalar product 16, 32.

vector product

o
c

[HA]

(in

\(HA

3-dimcnsional space) 27

AH)

commutator

264.

temporal mean value 88.

vectors 90, vector spaces 90, correspondences 91,
representations 126, groups 127, algebras and their
elements 333.

for

multiplication of representations of two groups 127.

addition of representations 113.

transition from
transition from

tj

\)

to
to

$
J)

287.
290.

409

LETTERS HAVING A FIXED SIGNIFICANCE

The number

page on which

refers to the

the quantity is defined

LATIN
velocity of light

=e

e( x )

(E X)

Young symmetry

e-

ix
.

Ev E =
z)

electric field strength 99.

level 44.

energy

number

of electrons, order of a tensor 139, 281.

4-vector potential multiplied by e/ch 214.

/
fa

faft

curlof/,(^

F
F(i

operator 359.
element
primitive idempotent
(generating unit 291)
of
the
electron.
charge

lj

action of the electro-magnetic field 215.

2
.,
if) tensor 139, 281.
dimensionality of a group representation 120, Lande gfactor 204, 207.
Planck's quantum of action divided by 2?r 51, order of a

z'

finite

H
(H XJ
/

group 118.

51.

energy

H H =

magnetic

z)

VJ

strength 99.

field

signature 188.

quantum number 189, 190.

energy-momentum vector 220.
k
auxiliary quantum number 228.
L
azimuthal quantum number 64, 185, 194
/,

y
Jn

y,

inner
total

(L X)

L v Lz

terms

0, 1, 2, 3, 4,

for

s,

p, d, /, g,

S orbital moment of momentum 63.

magnetic quantum number 64, 193, multiplicity of a
presentation 321, 350
(= p) mass of the electron.
,

re-

M, M'

mc\h.
action of the material

(M XJ

My, M =

dimensionality of

z)

501

number

total

field 211.

moment

of

momentum

a vector space

69.

410

1
;

179, 187.

principal

quantum

LETTERS HAVING A FIXED SIGNIFICANCE

411

LATIN
canonically conjugate variables 94, a permutation in the
rows, columns of a symmetry pattern 359.

p, q

momentum

P linear

(Px, Pv, Pz)

symmetry pattern

q electric dipole moment 83.

qv qz )
distance from centre.
element of a group
spin quantum number 206.
s v sz)
3 electric current density 218, s* charge-current
4-vector 214.

(q x ,

r
5
(s xt

(Sx

Sv

= @ spin

S,)

178, 203.

-t

5.=

,5,=

interchange of
valence 369.

,5,=

148.
1

energy-momentum tensor

t*

#o

of a particle 51.

358.

fa,

ij/ 2

and

218.
'

^r/,

^2

149.

perturbation energy 86, total action 216.

of space time (t

x i X 2 x s or tx y ^co-ordinates

XQ

XQ

98, or ct

211).

GERMAN.
C

(For

3-dimensional

under Latin
cn

vectors

see

their

components

letters.)

group of (unimodular) linear transformations

in

n dimen-

sions 128.
(t)f

representation of

order/

gv

3)^(0

2;)

whose substratum

is

the tensors

of

125.

representation of

z;th

degree of

C2

or U 2 '^ b 3

128, 142.

group in n dimensions 142

cluding improper rotations 143.

same but

bn

orthogonal

3)(m)

l-dimensional representation of rotation group b 2 141.

e n co-ordinate system in vector space 2.
unitary representation of the rotation group induced in
the function space of ^(x y z) 143.
abstract group 114.

e i, e 2
($

g
fa

9!R

b'n

in-

>

conjugation 118.
mean value 158.

p, ty

representation of the rotation group induced in system

space 187.
invariant sub-space of t, 9R/ respectively 287, 282.

an algebra considered as a vector space 286,

31

290, 350.

= r=
tj

LETTERS HAVING A FIXED SIGNIFICANCE

412

GERMAN
vector space |, ffi corresponding space of tensors of order/,
[ffl] space of the symmetric tensors, {9?/} space of the
anti-symmetric tensors, 239, 242.
Wt, 3L system space of electron translation, spin 196.
91

left-translation 116.

ta

U n (unimodular) unitary group

II

in

n dimensions

representation giving rise to

quaternions 182.
vector in n dimensional vector space

S3

ray

139.

of

algebra

complex

1.

GREEK
e 2 /ch fine

8(#)

85
8

Dirac 8-function

except for x

(=

= k or

()y

1)

is

an even or an odd permutation 121.

D0 2

Laplace's operator a 52.

generating element of a right- and left-invariant sub-space

311.

polar co-ordinates 60.

ft(= m) mass of the electron.
6,

<f>

frequency 50.

= j~ Larmor factor
= symmetric group

rr

7T

electric

p
<f>

<>

-\

17.

-- -<>

5
2

-e

1 according as s
signature 201.

d2

i =J=

<

and \$(x)dx

255.

structure constant 216.

1 or
according as

Kronecker symbol

8 ik

</r

X,
aj

unit of

Zeeman

separation.

of

permutations of /objects 121.

charge density 218, an algebra 304.

electro-magnetic 4-vector potential 98.

vector defining the state of the material

X group

characteristics, 150, 151.

angle of rotation 151.

field 49.

INDEX
The numbers

refer to pages of the text, those in boldface to the pages ivhere the
concepts introduced in boldface are defined

unitary irreducin ray space

182,
quantum kinematics as A. g.
A. system of
of rotations 272 ff.

Abelian group 118,

its

ible representations 140,

forms

Atom, Rutherford's model

theory of

of

44,
quantum
a. lines 45.
224, 261,

photon

a. 107,

Action of material field 211, of electromagnetic field 215, total 216, 222.

Adaptation of
sub -space 3.

co-ordinate

Addition of vectors

system

of correspondences 6, of matrices 7, of repreof elements of an

sentations 126,
algebra 165, 303, of numbers of a
field 302,
direct sum of algebras 311.

Afrine

correspondence
spondence, linear ; a.

5,

automorphic correspondence of group 134,

Auxiliary quantum number, see under

Quantum number.
Azimuthal quantum number,
Quantum number.

Balmer

geometry

ff.,

12.

inequality 33,
representations 169.

modulus or principal unit

1 68,
304,
division a.
304,
(= field) 304, 316, central of a. 167,
invariant
sub-a.
311,
167,
280,
generating unit of s.-a. 168, 291,
direct sum 311,
direct product 333,
reduction into simple matric a. 167.
309 ff., 315
representation of a. 166,

basal

units

68,

for

system

of

39.

Bohr magneton
Bohr, N.

xiii,

Boltzmann
Born

48, 74.

Bose

50.

66, 205.

43, 95, 105, 236, 245.

108.

Bounded Hermitian form

Brackett

304 ff., regular representation 289,

complete reduction of representation
a. of complex quaternions 182,
306

under

Black body radiation 41, 104, 256.

Bohr, H.

Algebra, general concept 303, of group

166,
181, 286,
simple 311, 113,
order of a. 304,
semi-simple 316,

see

45.

Bessel's

Corre-

see

Bohr's

a. 43,

Automorphism 115,

to

xiii,

radiation on classical
and Bohr theories 44, on quantum
theory 104 ff., 256 ff., Hund's vector
model of a. 191, 244 ; see Spectrum.

theory of

25.

Absorption

Alternation law 207, 370.

39.

46.

Branching rule, for spectra 207, for

linear and permutation groups 390 ff.

of

linear

transformations

307,

of

symmetric transformations 282, 332,

its enveloping a. 284,
reduction of
a.

of linear transformations 307

doublets

anomalous

Zeeman

204.

with

effect 205.

Alkaline earth spectrum 207, 246.

Alternation 358.

48, 53, 211, 220.

Burnside's theorem 153.

ff.

Alkali spectrum 85, 86, 202,

in

de Broglie, L.

Canonical variable 52, 94, c. transformation 96. in quantum mechanics

c.
98,
aggregate 79, c. basis for
rotations in ray space 274.
Central, of group 118,
313.

413

of algebra 167,

INDEX

414

of product re301, 306, 308,

presentation 140, of (Sf x (& g 128,
c. r. of
190,
uniqueness 136, 156,

Character, group or group characterof unitary reistic 150, 327, 395,

presentation 156, primitive c. 150,
on addition and
behaviour
150,

292.

system space with respect to energy

of representation
induced in
80,
system space by 8 188, of group
space 294, of tensor space 301, of
an algebra into simple matric algebras
167, 309 ff., 315.

multiplication 151, oithogonality proFor charperties 156, 159 ft., 317.

acters of special groups ste under
qualifying adjective.

t>

Character of element of algebra 295.

Composition

of

mechanics

compared

^ompton

London

with

81, 94,
c." combination principle 47,

190,
82.

Clebsch-Gordan

73,

xiii,

series

128,

163,

phenomena

190,

Combination

Conservation law, for electricity 214 ff.,

energy 82, 218, 220, momentum 218,
moment of momentum 188,
220,
Dirac's c. 1. 227,
of quantum
221,
field

ff.

"principle, " Ritz-Rydberg

classical

44, 48, 82,

Commutation

47, 82.

r.

rules,

infinitesimal

for

moment

for

of

rotations

momentum

179,

178,
for

in second quantization 249,

well- Dirac equations 254 ff.

spin 227,
for

Max

Commutative

field 302,
c. group 118
operators transformed simultane
ously to principal axes 25.

c.

Commutator

273.

of

functions

harmonics

62,

on

3,

of

group

spherica
manifolc

of system of unitary repre

sentations 140, 159, 170, 305, 318
of product representation 164
com
plete system of orthogonal vectors in
170,

c.

3-space 257.

Complete reduction of correspondences

or representation 9, 122, sometime
equivalent to reduction 18, 123, 136

re-

presentation 123.

Contravariant vector

Convex region

13.

79.

Co-ordinate system, in vector space 2,

adapted to sub-space 3, transformation of c. s. 4,
normal c. s. 16,
in special
21, Heisenberg's c. s. 80,
in general relativity
147,

relativity

219.

general 110,

Completeness of 'unitary-orthogonal sys

tem

ff.

Correspondence

177, 264, 267.'

Commutator form

264

Contact transformations 96.

Contragredient transformation 12,

Heisenberg's 94,
wave
274,
interpretation of 275,
equation derived from c. r. 277 ff.,
c.

4.

Conjugation 118.

5.

46, 70

74.

Conjugate of element of group 118,

for permutation group 328,
of element of algebra 167.

Closed shell 86, 245.

Collision

effect 224.

Congruent modulo sub-space

371, as quantum rule for composition of moment of momentum 190,

as valence rule 371.

Cogredient transformation

of transformations 6,

Composition series, of sub-groups 132,

of sub-spaces 122, 135.

mechanics
quantum
"

c.

see Multiplication.

no,

conjugate elements 118, in

permutation group 328
c. function 150, 156, as element in
central of group algebra 169.

Classical

systems

c.

compared with second quantiza-

c.

tion 248

of

symmetric

physical

behaviour of energy on

Class

of

91,
of
92, 193,
moment of momentum 190,
of
c.
equivalent individuals 239, 241 , under
Pauli exclusion principle 244, method

Characteristic number of Hermitian form

or operator 21, 35, of unitary form 26,
of energy
multiplicity of c. n. 22, 26,
characteristic vector or func56, 80
of wave equation 56, 80 ;
tion 21, 35,
c. space 22, of energy 80, 192, of
moment of momentum 189, 192.

or
identical

transformation,
110, inverse

in, product in, isomorphic 112,

automorphic 134, similarity 283
linear
5 ff., 21, = projection 282,
;

in function space 35,

trace 11, ISO,
dual 13,
contragredient 12,
123,
Hermitian 18, unitary 16, infinitesimal unitary 28 ff., rotation of ray

X -multiplication 90, respace 20,

duction and complete reduction 9,
irreducible system of 1. c. 122, 153 ff.,
symmetric c. in tensor space 282.
For special groups of correspondences
see

under qualifying

adjective.

INDEX
Correspondence principle 95.
Coupling, Russell-Saunders or
(;>')

(j/)

Electro-magnetic

linear

in
173,
c. vector

quantity
197

quantum mechanics

Cyclic group 117.

tive

50, 53, 70.

Decomposition, see Complete reduction,

of space 3, 122, of dual space 14,
into charin unitary geometry 18,
acteristic spaces, 22.

Degenerate

83,
perturbation
system
accidental degeneracy 192.

of 86,

Degree of a representation

120.

Derivative of operator 94.

of space
representation 120.

Dimensionality

2,

3,

of

invariant

and
e.
342, 346,
conserva218, 220,
tion 188,
zero-point c. 104, 258, 261,
inertia of e. 221,
e. quantum 41.

system of

symmetry

123,

variable,

ele-

sym-

352,

by
measure-

represented

74,

ment of 74

mean

275,

value

or ex-

intensity on transition
pectation 75,
83, 197,
composition 91, totality of
d.v. represented by irreducible system
d.

e. of radiation field
of simple state 189, IQI,
of system of equivalent individuals
320 ff., 356, of molecule 346, exe.

momentum

Hermitian form

Energy, and

e.

metry pattern, 361, 369.

238

of
Emission,
photon 44, quantum
theory of e. and absorption 107, 224,
stimulated
261,
107,
spontaneous

change

matrix 13,

ff.,

295.
74.

220,

304, 316.

ment and representation

Dynamical

e.

103, 258,

Double tensor 347.

12,

of an

spin 215,

Dispersion 53, 224,

transformations

Element, of group 114, of group algebra 166, of algebra 303, idempotent e. 1 68, 291, independent 292,
real 295,
trace 299,
primitive 293,
317, scalar product 299, character

in

Directional quantization 67, 75, 205.

field)

law 54, 80

ff.,

e.

of

equa-

tions for electron 213, 218, 225,

central field 227 ff., quantization
D. theory of proton 262
253 ff. ;

Dual space

existence vs. constitution of

e. and proton 262.

its operator 51 ff., 80 ff.,

in
e.
level 44, 50,
97, 187, 215,
collision phenomena 70,
in perturbation theory 86 ff.,
on composition 92,
in electro-magnetic field 101, with

109, 210, 211, 217, 225, 255, 260,

262, 357.

on charged

108.

Dirac

Division algebra

field, effect

moment

"
energy levels and
positive e."

225,
261,

Elsasser

8-function 36, 255.

relativistically

dipole

Electron, de Broglie's equation for e.

53,
Schrodinger's 54, in, Dirac's
e.
beams 50, spin 195, 196,
213,
translation 196, in spher203, 276,
ically symmetric field 63, 227,
nega-

13-

Cycle of a permutation 328.

Davisson

e.

interaction with
particle 98, 213, 222,
matter 105, 261, equations of 102,
218,
quantization 104, 253, action
215.

40.

Covariant

Dirac's

e. c.

214, 217,
83, 104, 197.

206,

206.

Courant

415

tion of

97, 187, 266.

Dynamically independent systems 92.

322,
51,

Enveloping algebra 284, for double tensors 348.

Equality, axioms of

1 1

2.

Equivalence degeneracy 239

ff.,

320.

Equivalent individuals, state of system

consisting of e. i. 239 ff.,
energy 241,
320 ff., 356, quantization 246.
Equivalent systems of linear transformations
121, e.
representations 120,
sub-spaces 135, 283, e. points with
to
e.
transformation
112,
respect
elements with respect to sub-group
118.

Effective

quantum number,

see

under

Quantum number.
Einstein 42,

50.

Electric charge, atomicity of 216,

positive and negative 262,
e. c. density
and current density 215, conserva-

Euclidean geometry

Exchange energy
Expectation or

15, 112.

322, 342, 346.

mean

value of physical

quantity 75, 78, 92.

Exponential function 28,

of matrix, 29.

INDEX

416
Factor group 119, 132.
Faithful realization 114.

Ferro-magnetism 347.
Field

equations, for electro-magnetic

for matter 213 ff.,
102, 218,
their quantization 104 ff., 253 ff.

field

number f. 294, 302, algebraically

commutative 302, finite
closed 294,
f.
of modulus p 303;
ray f. 20,
vector f. 20, point-f. 1 10.

Field,

Fine structure, in hydrogen 203,

f.

s.

236

118, sub-g. 116, index of sub-g.

118, self-conjugate or invariant sub-g.
factor g. 119,
119, 132,
simple 132,
direct product 127,
closed continuous
160 ff.,
Lie theory of continuous g.
invariant
175 ff,
g. manifold 160 ff.,
realizsub-space of g. manifold 291
ation of g. 114,
representation of g
120, of sub-g. 127, 334, of direct
;

product 333,
of

g.

g.

166,

matrix 165,

181,

algebra

For special

286.

groups, see under qualifying adjectives.

Gurney

74.

constant 216.

Gyro-magnetic

effect 205.

Form, linear 12, bi-hnear 13, 16, 18,

Hermitian 18, unitary 16, commutator 273,
273, 397-

anti-symmetric

Fourier coefficient 33,

F.

tegral 39,

c.

series

bi-linear

in-

33,

or group matrix for

50, 138.

Ilamiltonian
anics 94,

46, 70, 74.

Frequency 50,

42.

equations,

mechanics 96, 98,

representation 165.

Franck

Hallwachs

Hamilton

Bohr's

f.

rule 47,

105,

in

Heisenberg

in

quantum

xiii,

in

classical

quantum mechfield

theory 253.

48, 80, 82, 222, 264,

347-

109.

Frobenius
Function

Heisenberg's co-ordinate system 80.

156, 358, 383.

space

32,

of

quadratically

integrable functions 143.

Heisenberg-Pauli fheory of the quantum

field 253 ff.

Heitler 342.
Galois, 132.

Hellinger

P-process 126.

Hermite

Gamow

Hermitian form or operator 18,

74.

invariance 100, 213, 220, relation to conservation of electricity 214,

Gauge

role in quantization 256, 271.

217,

Generating unit 291,

symmetry

independent 292,

complex numbers 295,

in field of

nondegenerate 18, positive definite 18,

unit 15,
idempotent 23, in function
space 35, 37, bounded 39, product

H. f.
number

of

function of infinitesimal
canonical transformation 97.

Generating

of

class of tensors 296.

Geometry, affine or vector iff., 112,

Euclidean 15. 112, unitary 15 ff.,
characterized by group 112.

39, 40.

18.

trace 20,
characteristic
transformation to
35,
principal axes for single H. f. 21 ff.,
for Abelian system 25 ;
II. f.
32,
represents physical quantity 74, 275,
chararteristizes
statistical
aggregate
H. conjugate 17.
79, 239;
20,

Hermitian polynomials 57

Gerlach

65, 75.

Hertz, H.

50, 53, 70.

Hilbert 39.

factor,

Lande, 204, 205, 207.

Goudsmit

203.

transformations g. Ill,
114 ff.,
isomorphic 115,
automorphic correspondence of g.
commutative or Abelian
115, 134,
118, cyclic 117, order of finite g.
118, of element of g. 117, central
10
abstract

Group

ff

ff.

Hertz, G. 46, 70, 74.

Germer
-

21,

42.

Hilbert space 32.

Hund's vector model of

the

atom

191,

244.

Hydrogen atom
theory 63

ff.,

on Schrodinger's
45,
on Dirac's theory 234 ff.,

spectrum 45, 69,

236.

fine structure 203,

INDEX

417

correspondences
Idempotent Hermitian form 23, 37, Isomorphic
element of an
i.
simply isomorphic groups 115.
independent 23
algebra 168, 291, independent 292,

112

primitive 293.

Jeans

Identity correspondence 6,
sentation 121.

110,

repre-

Infinitesimal unitary transformation 28 ff.,

moment of momentum
rotation 27 ff.,
induced by i. r. 178, canonical trans-

group
Inner

element of continuous

160, 177.

number,

quantum

42, 102, 103

coupling 206.

Jordan-Holder theorem 131

Independent, linearly i. vectors 2, i.

forms
23,
idempotent
idempotent
elements of algebra 292.
Index of sub-group 118.

formation 96,

(jj)

under

see

ff.

Jordan, P. 261, 280.

Kinematically independent systems 92,
190,
perturbation of 93.

Kinematics of system determines representation

in
189,
system
space
Heisenberg's quantum k. 94 ff., as
Abelian group of rotations 272 ff.,
in second quantization 250,
k.
of

Quantum number.

spin 195, 203, 276.

Klein's Erlanger programme xv, 112.

measure of probability 49,

of dynamical variable on transition
of spectral lines 44, 83, 232,
83, 197,

Laguerre polynomials

Intensity, as
i.

in

anomalous Zeeman

effect 201.

Interaction between matter and

tion 104

flf.,

radia-

261.

ficulty

in

Dirac's

special

relativity,

quantum mechanics

for

210

treatment

i.

ff.,

of

dif-

54,

Laporte's rule 201, 203.

polynomials and associated

with spin 230.

field

functions 62,

Lenard 42.
Leonardo da Vinci
Lie

invariance.

Light,

48

1 1

2.

176.

of

-in
equations 268 ff.
sense of general relativity 219,
under
change of gauge 100, see Gauge

quantum

70.

204, 208.

Legendre

Interchange, of right and left 225,

past and future 109, 227, 263.
Invariance,

Lande,

wave and corpuscular nature of

ff.,

53-

algebra 303, see Algebra ;

correspondence 5, see under Corre1. form 12,
1. covariant
spondence;
quantity 173, 1. projection = 1. correspondence 282, 1. sub-space 2;

Linear,

1.

1.

Invariant of transformation group 117,

in
170,
171.
representation space
classical theory 170 ff.
Invariant sub-space
of transformations
left-i. s.-s.

and

in

maximal

under

122,

168, 311,

significance in
;

i.

system

135,

group space 289

right-i. s.-s.

space 296 if.,

theory 320

8,

ff.,

282,
left-

in tensor

quantum

sub-group

119,

132.

Inverse correspondence 6, 111,

of group 114.

element

Involution 13.
lonization potential 46.
Irreducible invariant sub-space 122, 282,
system of linear transformations, rereduction into i.
presentation 122,
constituents 122, 135 ;
irreducibility

in unitary
for reducible
136, 292, 301,
algebra 305. for algebra of transformations in completely reducible

complete irreducibility

domain

vector space, 307,

1.

momentum,

see

Momentum,

Linear group, complete

representations 123
tion

of

($/

cn

ff.,

128

ca

linear.

simplest
representa-

123,

ff.,

its

ir-

reducibility 299,
representation (/, g
reduction of (c )* equivalent
131, 1 64 ;
to reduction of algebra of symmetric
transformations 284 ff., unitary restriction immaterial 285,
result of
the
reduction
characteristics
301,
relation to characters of
335 ff.,

symmetric

permutation

representations

of

group

order

326309,

branching law 391.

London

342, 346, 370.

Lorentz group, restricted, obtained from

C 2 147 ff.,
complete L. g. obtained on

adding

reflection

147,

positive

and

and
147,
negative transformations
Dirac's equations 212 ff., transformation induced in system space 268

Lyman

45.

ff.

INDEX

418
Magnetic quantum number,
Quantum number.

under

see

under Pauli
multiplicity 321, 350,
exclusion principle 352, in 2 -dimensional spin 355, 369,
multiplicity and
valence 369 ft., branching rule and
alternation law 207, 370.

Magneto-mechanical anomaly 205.

Magneton, Bohr 66, 205.
Magnitude, absolute, of vector
see

no,

Mapping

16,

Multiplication, of vector

19.

Correspondence,

Transformation.

Matric algebra, -simple 168, 313.

dual or transposed 13, unit
7,
addition 7, multiplication 8, re-

Matrix
6,

and completely reduced

transformation of m. 8, norm
trace 11 ;
gronp m. 165.

duced

9,

tization of 104

ff.,

102, 218,
quanM. action 215.
253,

Mean

value or expectation of physical

quantity in pure state 75, 78, 92, in
m. v. over group
mixed case 79;

manifold 158.

Measurement of dynamical variable 74

Metric

ff

v.

Neumann

Minkowski, H.
Mixed state 79.

Normal co-ordinate system

n. state
147,
ativity
n. term order 206.

16,

of

in rel-

atom

45,

operations on 302

Number, of field 302,

characteristics n. 21.
linear
Operator
6,
correspondence
Hermitian 18, in function space 35,
representing dynamical variable 55,
considered as 'function of time 81,

79.

derivative of o. 94.

Modulus, of algebra

168,

304,

reduc-

Molecule, spectrum 191, perturbation

theory and constitution 339 ff., nonpolar bond 342, London formula
on taking
for binding energy 346,
account of Coulomb forces 356, valence theory 369 ff.

195.

tion of 168, 301

Moment

of

momentum

tion 179, of

D^ 179

orbital 64, 195,

187,
spin 195, 203, 218, behaviour on
composition 190, conservation 188,
219 ff., 227, reduction of system
space with respect to m. of m. 192,
induced by infinitesimal rotations of

system

Lorentz transformations 185, 269.

Momentum,

linear,

and

its

operator 51,

conservation of energy
220,
218, 264 ff.

and m.

Motions, geometrical in,

196, 206,

Orthogonal group,

373,

group of
as

176.

relativis-

normal
234,
anom198,
alous Zeeman effect 204, 208 ff.,
alkali
and
doublets
204, singlets
triplets in alkaline earths 207, 246,

phenomenon 204,
Zeeman effect 101, 193,

quantum
of

see

transformation

theory

momentum

47,
64,

Rotation group
16,

o.

vectors 16.

for group
Orthogonality relations 32,
characters
159 ff,, 317, for symmetric permutation group 367.

Oscillator 43, 56 ff., 84,

black body
radiation as system of o. 102 ff., 258,
quantum mechanical laws of system
of o. 249.

Parseval's equation 33, 35, 162.

Paschen

45, 236.

Paschen-Back

Moseley's law 69.

Multiplet

moment

Order, of finite group 118, of element

of group 117, of sub-group 118,
of finite algebra 303.
o.

of a representarn. of m. of phy-

older

in
orbital

of finite field 303,

Orbit,

tic

40, 78.

Noether, E. 134.

15.

Millikan 42, 245.

sical

i,

11,

Maxwell's equations

by number

of correspondences and matrices 6 ff.,

of numbers of field 302, of elements
of algebra 165, 303, quaternion m.
outer or X -m. of spaces, vectors,
138,
of representations
operators 90, 125,
126, direct product of groups 127,
X-m. of repre333, of algebras 333,
sentations 127
scalar m. of vectors
16, of elements of an algebra 299, 317.

effect 208.

Pattern,
symmetry,
pattern.

see

Symmetry

Pauli 77, 203, 211, 244, 264, 347, 351.

exclusion principle 207, 244 ff.,

reduction of algebra of symmetric transformations 281, 323, 347 ff.,

Pauli

and

355, 370

ff.

INDEX
and

Peirce reduction 312.

Periodic

242

the

of

system

elements

p.

69,

linear
unitary- orthogonal 23,
linear correspondence 282.

Proton, Dirac's theory of 262.

ff.

Permutation u, reduction into cycles

328,
conjugate 328, as operator on
tensor 281.
Permutation

group, symmetric 121,

elements as symmetry
classes 328,
operators 286, relation to symmetry
class of tensors 286 ff., for arbitrary
P-

419

characters 320, 383 ff.,

characteristics of unitary
use of characters to
331,

33 2 >

g-

Pure

conditions for 77.

state 75,

Quantization,
theory 47,

the

in
in

older

quantum

Schrodinger's theory
in Heisenberg's 93 ff.,
of
51, 56,
composite system 89, of electromagnetic field 104, 253, second 246,
of
Maxwell- Dirac field equations

relation to

253

group

205.

ff.

directional or space q. 67, 75,

calculate

exchange energies 322 ff.,

Quantum, of action 41, 51, of energy 41.
energy of non-polar bond 346, exof
representations 358 ff., Quantum kinematics, Heisenberg's 94 ff.,
plicit theory
as Abelian group of rotations 272 ff.,
reciprocity theorems 339,
branching
law 390.
in second quantization 250.
theory 86 ff., for kinematically independent systems 93,
for
individuals
321 ff.,
equivalent

Perturbation

for molecules 339 ff ;

p. energy 86,
for
for axially symmetric field 192,
magnetic field 101, 193, 204, 224,
for electric field 101, 224,
spin p. 196,
Dirac theory 224, determines
in
transition probability 89.
.

Pfund

general scheme
dynamical law 54, 80, 97, 187,
266,
composition 91, Heisenberg's
formulation 93, Schrodinger's equa-

Quantum mechanics,
74

ff.,

tion 54, 101,

Dirac's equations 213,
218,
Heisenberg-Pauli q. m. of wave
fields

253

ff.

Quantum number,
selection

muthai and

46.

auxiliary (k) 228,

relation to azi233,
inner q. n. 228, 233

rules

Photo-electric effect 42.

azimuthal q. n. (/, /) 64 ff., 142, 196,

determines orbital moment of mo-

Photon 42, 49,

mentum

Planck

xiii,

54, 104, 248, 258, 261.

selection rules 84,

65, 196,
on composition 194, 207, 373,
201,
relation to auxiliary
n. 228, 233 ;
q.
inner q. n. (/,/) 189, 196, deter-

41.

Planck's radiation law 41, 108.

Point-field

mines

no.

Polynomial, characteristic 11,22;

mitian 57 ff.,
Legendre 62,
spin 230,

Herwith

unit
293,
symmetry class 358.

character

150,

unit of algebra 168, 304

transformation 128, transformation of Hermitian forms to p. axes 21,
2 S> 3 2 39>
f r unitary forms 26, 39;

Principal

p.

>

p.

quantum number,

see

under

Quantum number.
Probability, relation to intensity 49,
that a dynamical variable assume a
given value in a pure state 75, in a
mixed state 79, p. density and current
transition p. 73,
density 50, 2 1 5 2 1 7
in composite system 90, 93,
83, 89,
for an atom in radiation field 106 ff.
,

moment

of

momentum

magnetic (m) 64, 193, determines

2-component of moment of momentum

Laguerre 70.

Primitive

total

behaviour on composi189,
selection rules
190, 10,4, 206,
198, relation to auxiliary q. n. 228, 233 ;

179,
tion

selection rules 85, 198,

orbital moment of
momentum 209, in Dirac's theory
232 ;
principal or total (n) in hydrogen 69, in hydrogen-like spectra 85,

65, 180, 189,

of spin and

of

no group-theoretic significance
true 86, 243, effective 243 ;
144,
radial 64, 144 ;
spin (s) 206, relation to valence 369.
has

Quantum

state 43, 56, 80, 188,

simple

189.

Quaternion 138,

complex

182.

Radial

quantum

number,

see

under

Quantum number.
Product, see Multiplication.
Projection, with respect to sub-space 4,
in unitary geometry 18, orthogonal

Radiation, from atom 44, 83

field 102 ff., 215, 256
224,

body

41, 104.

ff.,
ff.,

105

ff.,

black

INDEX

420
Ray

4,

20,

system 75,
r.

field 273,

Rayleigh
Real

r.

representation 181

48, 82.

Rontgen
gener-

ating unit 295.

Realization of group 114, faithful 114,

of algebra 1 66
contracted 118, 119,
linearr.
representation 120, see
Representation.
;

Reciprocity theorem, for arbitrary group

for permutation group 339.
338,

Reduction

of

correspondences or reuniqueness 136,

156,
complete r. 9, 122, 135 (see
Complete reduction), sometimes im-

presentation 9, 122,

complete

r.

18, 123, 136, 292, 301,

of regular representation
305 ff., of system space of
equivalent individuals 238 ff., antisymmetric r. for electrons 242, 351 ff.,
symmetric r. for photons 248, 351 ff.,
influence on term spectrum 241 372 ff.,
general treatment without spin 296 ff.,
with spin 347 ff., for symmetric and
anti-symmetric cases 351 ff
306,

289

308,

ff.,

Reflection, signature induced

146, 188.

Regular representation 289,

305

by

r.

line 45.

Ritz-Rydberg combination principle 44,

ff.

42.

element of algebra 167,

plies

Resonance

represents state of physical

r. field 20,
rotations of

143,

reduction

43.

Rotation group, in 2-space and its representations 140 ff., orthogonality

of characters
162
in 3-space
;

and

its

representations

142

rela-

ff.,

tion to unitary

group in 2-space 144,

augmentation by improper rotations

orthogonality of characteristics
completeness 143, 163, 180, 184,
generated by infinitesimal elements 175, representation induced in
system space
185,
195,372;
n -space 184.
143,
163,
389,

Rotation

in ray space 21, 181, 273,

representation by r. of ray field 180,
quantum kinematics as Abelian group
of r. 272 ff.

Rupp

50.

Russell-Saunders coupling 206.

Rutherford

xiii,

Rydberg number

74.
xiii,

45, 69.

Scalar product, see Multiplication.

Scalar quantity, commutes with moment
of momentum and signature 188,
selection rules 197.

98 ff., 146 ff.,

of quantum mechanics 210 ff., of
wave fields 268 ff., r. and spin 204, 217,
222 ff.,
general 219.

Relativity theory, special 5

1,

Representation, of finite group 120,

of continuous group 160 ff.,
by rotations of ray space 181,
degree or
dimensionality 120, character 150,
complete reduction 122, irreducible
122,
uniqueness of reduction 136,
criterion for irreducibility 159,
156,
identical 12 1,
equivalent 121, unitary 136 ff., any r. equivalent to unitary
r
1 57 *
formal processes: addition
X -multiplication 126, 127, X126,
126,
127,
/"-process
multiplication
of algebra 166,
r of sub-group 127

Schrodinger

48, 50, 56, 102, 187, 216,

220, 258.

Schrodinger's equation 54 ff., relativfor system of equivalent

istic
jo I,
as limiting case of
194,
particles
Dirac's
derived
from com234,

mutation rules 277

Schur,

I.

ff.

152.

Schwarz' inequality 30, 393.

Second

see

246,

quantization
Quantization.

under

regular 289 ;
general theory
orthogonality properties 157 ff., 317,
in terms of group algebra 165 ff.,
completeness of system of r. 159, 170,
318,
proved by reduction of regular
For r. of special groups,
r. 305 ff.

304

see

ff.,

under qualifying

in

quantum

Selection rules 44, 84, 85,

for oscillator
for electron without spin 84 ff.,
84,
with spin 232, for scalar quantity 197,
for vector quantity 197,
for auxiliary

quantum number
inner 198,
201,
for signature 201.

233,

azimuthal 84,

magnetic 85,

198,

adjective.

Resonance, between states of same energy

between equivalent individuals
87,
239 ff., 320.
.

Secular equation 1 1 2 1 26,

theory 88, 209, 344.

Self-conjugate sub-group 119,

132.

Semi-simple algebra 316.

maxima

INDEX
Separation of terms by perturbation 87,
axially symmetric perturbation
321,
in normal Zecman effect 101, 193,
in anomalous Zeeman effect 204,

193,
198,

208

421

State of a physical system, represented

by vector or ray in system space 54,
74 ff., pure 75, 78, mixed 79, of
total

system under-determined Q2

or stationary 43, 56, 80,

simple 189.

quantum

ff

Series, in
85, 202.

hydrogen 45,

in alkalies

69,

88,

Stationary state, see under State.

Series of composition, see Composition

Statistical

canonical

aggregate 78, 239,

series.

79-

Signature,

of

143,

representation

dynamical variable 188, 203,

as
Statistics,

selec-

tion rule 20 1.

Bose-Einstein 50.

Stern-Gerlach

group 132,

Simple algebra 311, 313,

effect 65, 75, 205.

37

Stieltjes integral

state 189.
(si)

Stoner's rule 243.

coupling 206.

Smekal-Raman

Sommerfeld
Space,

and

193, 236.
I

ff.,

linear

dual 12, unitary 15 ff.,

2,
Hilbert or function 32, 143, reduction
or deromposition 20, 22,
composition
series 122, 135,
product 90, tensor
re281
s.
ft.,
115, 160,
group
125,
sub-s.

algebra as
presentation 120, 171 ff.,
see System
vector s. 286, 305,
system,

space

Space quantization 67, 75, 205.

Span, space spanned by vectors

Sub-space 2, 32, invariant, under single

transformation 8, under system of
transformations
similar 135,

with spin
theory, without spin 194,
206 ff., application of Pauli exclusion
242
ff.,
principle
groupretheoretic classification 369 ff.,
duction into term classes 283 ff., 320 ff.,
calculation of term values 320 ff.
of characteristic
molecular 1.91 ;
;

36.

see

Addition

Spin, electron 195, 196, 203, as relativ

istic phenomenon 204, 217, 222 ff.,
s.
moment of momentum 195, 221,
magnetic effect 204, 224, s. and
valence 369 ff. ;
s, perturbation 196,
in Dirac's theory 222 ff. ;
s.
203,

number.
effect, linear 102.

under Quantum

see also

see

Correspondence.
s.

field,

rule for influence

209.

Superposition principle 49.

Symmetric permutation group,

see Per-

mutation group, symmetric.

Symmetric transformation in tensor space

Hermitian 283,
282, special 284,
unitary 285, enveloping algebra 284,
for arbitrary permutation group 332.

Syrnmetrization 358.
class of tensors 287, 296,
of spectral terms 321,
primitive 358,
multiplicity 321, 350 ff., 367.

Symmetry

Symmetry operator

Spherical harmonics 60 ff., 84, as basis

of unitary representation in function
space 142, with spin 230 ff.

equivalent or
Invariant

122,

283,

sub-space.

of magnetic

ions 45,
in Schrodinger's theory 69,
in Dirac's theor> 234,
of alkalies 85 ff.,
doublets 204, of alkaline earths 207,
of elements of
246,
3-electron 374,
periodic table 206 ff., 242
general

Stark

116, 334 ff., cyclic 117,

self-conjugate or invariant
maximal invariant 132.

119,

Sum,
3, 20.

Spectrum, atomic, line s. reduced to

term s. 44, of hydrogen and I -electron

quantum number,

(left-

index 118,

Substitution in,

see

289,

right-) invariant 167, 311, 314.

Sub-group

affine, linear, vector

numbers

left-invariant

Sub-algebra,

effect 224.

286,

Symmetry pattern 358

Young's 359.
dual on trans-

ff.,

generated by
symmetry operator 359 ff.

posed 361, 308,

Young

for translation 54, 74, 195,

for spin 195,
total 185, 196, 347 ff.,
for equivalent individuals 1 86, 206 ff.,
to
reduction with
respect
347

System space

energy 80,

moment

of

momentum

with regard to symmetric

permutation group 283 ff., 320 ff.,
with regard to Pauli exclusion prin1

88, 206,

ciple 242

ff.,

281

ff.,

347

ff.

INDEX

422

ff.,
139, 281,
symmetry] Unitary group, in 2-space 137 ff., its
287, 338, 358, double to
unitary representations (/ 137, comt. space 125, 281 ft, symmetric
characterpleteness 137, 163, 389,
347
istics 151, 163,
connection with rotransformation in*t. space 282, intation group b 3 144,
variant sub-space 296, reduction 301
augmented 146 ;
in H-space 139 ff.,
reduction of (u)/
energy- momentum t. 218.
and algebra of symmetric transformaTerm 44, as energy level or charactertions 285,
characteristics 331, 381,
see also under
istic number 46, 56, 80,
completeness 381.

Tensor

125

class of

t.

Spectrum, Separation
normal 206.

Thomson, G.

order,

Unitary- orthogonal system of vectors

or functions* 19, 33, completeness 33,

P. 50.

on group manifold

number,
Quantum number.

.Total

t.

quantum

Valence 342, 369,

Trace, of matrix or correspondence 11,

of element of algebra 299, 317.
150,

CorrespondTransformation, linear 4
contragredient 12, unitence, linear
ary 16, principal 128, symmetric in
tensor space 282, for arbitrary permutation group 332, special symin
canonical 96,
metric 284,
t. to principal
quantum mechanics 98
for
t. group 111,
axes 21 ff., 37
;

special groups, see

adjective.

Translation,

06

in radia-

116,

right- 116.

Translation, electron 195.

True

quantum

electron 86, 243

Vector, v. space, v. geometry 1 ff., in

Hilbert space 31 ff., v. field 20, covariant and contravariant 13, absolute
magnitude 16, dual 17, scalar product 16, unitary-orthogonal v. or
system 16, 19, as element of Abelian

group 1 34
3-v. operator in quantum
mechanics 197, selection and intensity
;

198 ff., complete system of

orthogonal v. in 3-space 257, v,
potential of electro-magnetic field 98.
rules

and group 53.

of, on manifold of
for
closed continuous group
160,
unitary group 386, for unitary unimodular group 162, 389.

Velocity, phase

measure

Volume,

ff.

left-

v.

under qualifying
Vector model of atom, Hund's 191.

Transition probability 83, 89,

tion field

158.

under

see

number,

under

see

Quantum number.

Wave

equation,
Schrodinger's 54

de
ff.,

53,
Brogiie's
Dirac's 213,
101,

218, 225.

Uhlenbeck
Uncertainty

Wave
203.

principle

77,

derivation

Wave

393-

Unimodular

Heisenberg-Pauli quantiza-

field,

tion of 253

linear transformation,

group

128.

Unit, element of group 114, of field 302,

of algebra (modulus or principal unit)
1 68,
304, idempotent
304, basal
291, independent
168,
generating
u.
292, primitive 293, real 295

ff.

length 53.

Wedderburn's theorem 313.

Wentzel

Wien

74.

41.

Wigner

280, 320.

Wintner

39.

Hermitian form

15.

Unitary correspondence, transformation,

characteristic numbers
ff.,
u.
infinitesimal
28,
geometry
u. t. as canonical t. of quantum
15 ff.,
mechanics 98, u. representation of

Young, A.

358.

Young's symmetry operator 359.

matrix 16
26,

group 137

ff.

Zeeman

normal 85, 101, 193, 198,

for
198, 204, 208, 223,
doublets 204, for multiplets in geneeffect,

anomalous
ral

208

ff.