L13 PDF

Instrumentation and Control
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Swapna Kulkarni
Discrete State Process

Control Systems
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Relay Sequencers: One way to provide a discrete state controller is
to use physical relays to put together a circuit that satisfies the
requirements of the ladder diagram. Such a control system is called
a relay sequencer or relay logic panel.
The diagram contains so many relay-related terms and symbols as
the ladder diagram technique of describing discrete state control
systems originated from relay logic systems.
The ladder-diagram has evolved into an efficient method of defining
the event sequence required in a discrete state process control
system.
With relay control each rung of the ladder is evaluated
simultaneously and continuously, because the switches and relays
are all hardwired to ac power.
If any switch anywhere in the ladder diagram changes the state, the
consequences are immediate.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Special Functions: To build a relay-based

control system, it is necessary to provide
certain kinds of special functions not normally
associated with relays.
These functions are often provided using
analog and digital electronic techniques.
Included in the special functions are such
features as time-delay relays, up/down
counters, and real time clocks.
Hard-wired Programming
The event sequence required and described by the
ladder program will be provided by the relay system
when power is applied.
Thus, the program has been wired into the relays that
make up the relay logic panel.
If the event sequence is to be changed, it is necessary
to rewire all or part of the panel. It may even be
necessary to ass more relays to the system or to use
more relays than in the previous program.
Such a task is quite troublesome and time consuming.
Hard-wired Programming
A number of ingenious methods are used to ease some
of the problems of changing the relay program. One is
the use of patch panels for the programming.
In these systems, all relay contacts and oils are brought
to an array of sockets.
Cords with plugs in each end are used to patch the
required coils, contacts, inputs and outputs together in
manner required by the ladder diagram.
The patch panel acts like a memory in which the
program is placed.
With the development of reliable computers, it was an
easy decision to replace relay logic-based systems with
computer-controlled systems.
Programmable Logic Controller Design

The modern solution for the problem of how to
provide discrete-state control is to use a computerbased device called a programmable controller (PC) or
programmable logic controller(PLC).
Programmable Logic Controller Design

The move from relay logic controllers was an obvious because
1. The i/p and o/p variables of discrete-state control systems are
binary in nature, just as with a computer.
2. Many of the control relays of the ladder diagram can be
replaced by software, which means less hardware failure.
3. It is easy to make changes in a programmed sequence of events
when it is only a change in software.
4. Special functions, such as time-delay actions and counters, are
easy to produce in software.
5. The semiconductor industry developed solid-state devices that
can control high-power ac/dc in response to low-level commands
from a computer, including SCRs and TRIACs.
A programmable controller has the basic elements as the
processor, the input/output modules and the software.
FIGURE 8.25 Basic structure of the

programmable logic controller (PLC).
Curtis Johnson
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e]
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Processor
The processor is a computer that executes a program to perform
the operations specified in a ladder diagram or a set of Boolean
equations.
The processor performs arithmetic and logic operations on input
variable data and determines the proper state of the o/p variables.
The processor functions under a permanent supervisory operating
systems that directs the overall operations from data input and
output to execution of user programs.
The processor, being a computer, can perform only one operation at
a time.
Like most computers, it is a serial machine.
Thus, it must sequentially sample each of the inputs, evaluate the
ladder diagram program, provide each o/p, and then repeat the
whole process. The speed of the processor is important.
Processor
The heart of a PLC is microprocessor, much like
the ones used in modern personal computers.
Because much of the data in PLC operation is
processed bit by bit, special microprocessors
optimized for such operation, such as the AMD
2901 and 2903, are often employed.
With the great increases in processor speed, it is
now possible to employ a desktop personal
computer with data I/O boards running PLC
software to emulate PLC operation.
Input Modules
The input modules examine the state of
FIGURE 8.26 Typical wiring to a
physical switches and other input devices
PLC input module.
and put their state into a form suitable
for the processor. The PLC is able to
accommodate a number of inputs, called
channels.
Early versions of solid-state PLCs
continued the familiar association by
having an input module which was
connected to input devices through ac
line, as shown in fig.
If a switch PB1 was closed, the ac voltage
was impressed on the input module that
would internally provide a conversion to
a digital signal (1 or 0) as required by the
computer-based PLC processing unit.
Input Modules
Modern PLCs and the input sensors to which they
are connected are much more versatile.
The input module can usually be configured so
that the input device is simply connected with no
reference power.
Regardless of how the process input devices are
connected to the input module, the result is that
the state of each device is presented to the PLC
processor for evaluation by the ladder diagram.
Output Module
The objective of the o/p module is ultimately to supply
power to an external device such as a motor, solenoid, and
so on, as required by the ladder diagram.
Early relay-logic sequencers were able to provide 120 vac
directly to devices as long as the power requirement was
not too great.
When solid-state PLCs were introduced this was no longer
possible.
The output of PLC was now a high (a) or Low(0) signal of
low power dc.
Thus, the modern output module is designed to input the
processor digital o/p and use this to activate relays, SCRs,
TRIACs, BJTs, and other solid-state switches that can handle
the high-power ac requirements.
Output Module
In this case the PLC o/p module can be
wired directly to the o/p device and the
ac power source, as shown in fig.
This shows how the channels of the o/p
module are connected between the ac
power and common.
If the device, such as motor in fig.
requires a current that exceeds the
module output capability, then external
relays or solid-state switches can be
used.
Modern o/p modules can now provide
many other kinds of o/ps such as dc
voltages, pulse outputs, and even serial
digital o/ps that can be transmitted to
the o/p device over a network.
FIGURE 8.27 Typical wiring

to a PLC output module.

PLC Operation
The operation is not simultaneous for the
entire ladder diagram and is not continuous as
it is for relay sequencers.
This is very important and can have significant
impact if not taken into consideration in a
design.
Operation of the programmable controller can
be considered in two modes: I/O scan mode
and the execution mode.
I/O Scan Mode

During the I/O scan mode, the processor
updates all outputs and inputs the state of all
inputs one channel at a time.
The time required for this depends on the
speed of the processor.
Execution Mode
During this mode, the processor evaluates each rung of the
ladder diagram program that is being executed sequentially,
starting from the first rung and proceeding to the last rung.
As a rung is evaluated, the last known of each switch and relay
contact in the rung is considered, and if any TRUE path to
output device is detected, then that output is indicated, then
that output is indicated to be energized-i.e set to ON.
At the end of the ladder diagram, the I/O mode is entered
again, and all output devices are provided with the ON or OFF
state determined from execution of the ladder diagram
program.
All inputs are sampled, and the execution mode starts again.
Scan Time
An important characteristic of the programmable
controller is how much time is required for one
complete cycle of I/O scan and execution.
This depends on how many i/p and o/p channels
are involved and on the length of the ladder
diagram. A typical max. scan/execution time is 5
to 20 ms.
The speed of the controller depends on the clock
frequency of the processor.
The higher the clock frequency, the greater the
speed, and the faster the scan/execution time.
Scan Time
The length of time for one scan consists of three
parts: 1) input time 2)execution time and
3)Output time.
Most of the scan time comes from the execution
phase.
The scan time may have an impact on the ability
of the PLC to detect events that occur on the
inputs.
Ex. If some limit switch goes to the On state for
less than a scan time, it may be missed by the
PLC.
Example
Ex. A complex
manufacturing operation
results in a 30 ms PLC
scan time. The PLC must
detect individual 2 cm
objects moving on a high
speed conveyor. Fig. a
shows that the object
breaks a light beam, and
this provides a high input
to the PLC. What is the
highest speed of the
conveyor to be sure the
object is detected?
FIGURE 8.28 PLC scan time puts

restrictions on the speed of events.

Solution
The photodetector o/p will be high pulse

that will last for a time determined by
the conveyor speed:
tpulse=(2 cm)/(S m/s)=(2/S) s
where S is conveyor speed.
Fig. b shows the relationship between
the PLC scan time and the object pulse.
Suppose an object breaks the beam just
after the input phase of the scan.
To assure detection, the signal lasts until
the end of the next scan input phase.
The pulse time must be:
tpulse= 1 scan time=30 ms.
Thus, the maximum conveyor speed can
be determined as,
(2/S)=0.03 s or S= 66.7 cm/s
FIGURE 8.28 (continued) PLC

scan time puts restrictions on the
speed of events.

Programming Unit
It is an external electronic package that is
connected to the programmable controller
when programming occurs.
The unit usually allows input of a program in
ladder diagram symbols.
The unit then transmits that program into the
memory of the programmable controller.
Programming Unit
It may be small, self contained units,
such as shown in fig. 8.29.
In this unit, the ladder diagram is
displayed one rung at a time in a
special liquid crystal display(LCD).
The user can enter a program, perform
diagnostic tests, run the program
through the programmable controller,
and perform editing of the installed
program.
The installed program is stored in a
temporary memory that will be lost
without ac power or backup.
The program can be permanently
burned into a ROM for final
installation.
FIGURE 8.29 Hand-held

PLC programming unit.

Programming Unit
Another type of programming unit is
able to display many rungs of the
ladder diagram. Such a unit is shown
in fig. 8.30.
The program is still in temporary
memory.
Once the program has been
debugged, the programming unit is
disconnected, and the programmable
controller can now operate the
process according to the ladder
program.
There is the danger of loss of program
because of power failure, but this can
be prevented by placing the program
into the permanent memory.
FIGURE 8.30 Desktop terminal

PLC programming unit.

Programming Unit
The dedicated PLC programming unit can be
replaced by software and I/O boards on
common desktop or laptop personal
computers.
Special software allows the pc to program the
PLC and then download the program into the
PLC unit.
PLC Networks
Modern plants employ computer network technology to
link PLCs and other control hardware via network
communications systems.
These systems may use custom installations of Ethernettype local area networks (LANs) or dedicated control
networks such as Foundation Fieldbus or Profibus.
In any case, it is often possible to download PLC
programming from a development computer to the PLC
in which it will be used.
The network can also be used to edit an existing PLC
program and to transfer process data to a network
computer to analyze plant operation.
RAM/ROM
The temporary memory used during ladder diagram program
testing and evaluation is called RAM, for read and write memory.
Program in RAM can be easily modified.
When a program has been debugged and is considered finished, it
may be burned into a ROM.
ROM is read only memory and cannot be changed and is not
affected by power failure.
Rom can be programmed directly by the controller programming
unit. When the ROM is plugged into the programmable controller,
the device is ready to be placed into service in the industrial setting.
In the case of network programmable PLCs, the final PLC program is
downloaded into special re-programmable ROM in the PLC can be
erased and rewritten but that still its retains contents after powerdown.
Programming
Although the programmable controller can be
programmed directly in ladder diagram symbols
through the programming unit, there are some special
considerations.
These considerations include the availability of special
functions and the relation between external I/O
devices and their programmed representations.
The programmable controller has no real relays or
relay contacts.
The only real devices are those that are actually part of
the process being controlled-i.e. limit switches, motors,
solenoids and so on.
Addressing
In the ladder diagram, each switch device, output device, and relay
was referred to by a label.
Ex. CR1 referred to control relay 1
The programmable controller uses a similar method of identifying
devices, but it is referred to as the device address or channel.
The addresses are used to identify both physical and software
devices according to the following categories:
1. Physical input devices-ON or OFF
2. Physical output devices-energized (ON) or de-energized (OFF)
3. Programmed control relay coils and contacts
4. Programmed time-delay relay coils and contacts
5. Programmed counters and contacts
6. Special functions
Addressing
The address designation depends on the type
of programmable controller.
Some controllers may reserve certain
addresses for physical I/O devices, other
addresses for software control relays, and yet
others for special functions.
Table 8.1 PLC addressing
Function
Address
Input channels
00 to 07
Output Channels
08 to 15
Internal relays
16 to 31
Timers and counters
32 to 39
Programmed Diagram Interpretation

There is an important difference between the
interpretation of a physical ladder diagram.
This difference arises from the fact that the
programmed diagram bases the state of a rung on a
logical interpretation of the symbol rather than its
physical state.
In a programmed diagram rung, the ON or OFF state of
the output of the rung is determined by testing the
elements of the rung for a TRUE or FALSE condition.
If a complete TRUE element path to the output exists in
the rung, then the output will be made TRUE or ON.
In a physical diagram, the symbol for a NO contact indicates

a normally open contact through which current cannot flow
unless the contact has been closed.
Ex. For push button switch, close the contacts by pushing
For relay, relay coil must be energized
For NC contact, the idea is that current will flow until the
contact has been opened.
Ex. For push button switch, someone must open the
contact and stop the current flow by pushing.
For relay, relay must be energized to open the contact and
stop current flow through the contacts.
In a programmed diagram,
Contact
NO
NC
Open
FALSE
TRUE
Closed
TRUE
FALSE
For NO contact, it is said examined ON and if

it is ON, it is TRUE.
For NC contact, it is said examined OFF and
if it is OFF, it is TRUE.
FIGURE 8.31 Using an NC switch to turn on a light with relay logic and with PLC
programming: (a) Wrong, the button turns the light OFF; (b) with relay logic, the
button turns the light ON;
Fig. a shows that we cannot simply wire

the light to the switch. In this case,
the light will normally be ON and go
out (OFF) when the switch is
pushed.
Fig. b shows how to provide the answer
in a physical system with a control relay,
CR1. Now, CR1 is normally energized, so
its NC contacts are open and the light
will be OFF. When the button is pushed,
CR1 is de-energized and its NC contact,
which was open because CR1 was
energized, closes and the red light
comes ON.
Curtis Johnson

FIGURE 8.31 Using an NC switch to turn on a light with relay logic and with
PLC programming: (c) with a PLC program, the button turns the light ON.
Fig. c shows that we simply

refer to the push button with
an examine OFF symbol
connected to directly to the
light. So, if the switch has not
been pushed, a test of the
symbol shows it to be closed;
therefore, it interprets
logically as FALSE, and the
light is not energized by the
program. When pushed, it is
tested to be open, and
therefore there is a logic TRUE
and the light is energized.
Control Relay
The software control relay is denoted by a
circle with an identification number.
It can have any number of NO or NC contacts,
which are identified by the same number as
the relay.
Counter
A counter is programmed function that
FIGURE 8.35 The basic
counts(increment) every time the input
PLC counter.
changes from False to True.
If in one scan the input is False and in the
next scan the input is True, the counter
increments.
No further counts will occur until the input
goes False again and then True.
There are two input lines, one for the count
input and another to reset the counter.
The counter has an address and a preset
number of counts.
When the preset number of counts have
been accumulated, the counter becomes
True and can activate some other part of
the ladder diagram.
Counter
There are also counters that start with some
preset value and count down to zero, at which
time the counter becomes true.
Different PLC manufacturers have their individual
ways of addressing and describing the counter
function.
Some treat the counter as a device with a logic
output, in which case the counter output will be a
True or False and fed to some output device.
Some PLCs also provide a counter that can count
either up or down depending upon the state of
an input.
Timers
The programmed timer function plays an important
role in PLC applications to provide for needed delays in
some manufacturing sequence and to specify the
period of time that some operation is to last.
While activated by a true path, the timer begins to
accumulate time in front of ticks.
Each tick is worth a certain amount of time. The timer
is pre-loaded with a specified number of these ticks.
When the accumulated time ticks equal the pre-load
value, the timer itself becomes true.
Simpler Timer
The timer will have an address and FIGURE 8.37 PLC timer
functions: (a) simple timer
the preset number of ticks to count.
The amount of time per tick is a
function of the type of PLC being
used.
Typical values are 10 ms and 100
ms.
The timer only counts while it has a
true input.
If the input becomes False and then
True again, the timer will reset to
zero and start to count again.
Accumulating Timer
This will retain a tick count
when its output goes false.
When the input goes true
again, the tick count will
pick up where the previous
one left off.
It is necessary to have a
reset input to this timer so
that, when desired, the
timer can reset back to zero.
FIGURE 8.37 PLC timer

functions: (b) accumulating timer.

Scan time/ timer relationship

Depending upon the size of the program and the
type of PLC, a scan time can range from 5 to 20
ms or more.
Care must be taken not to design timer functions
with reactions less than a scan time.
Ex. A PLC has a 1 ms tick time and we want a light
to be triggered 15ms after a limit switch goes
true. In principle, we can use a timer with a
preset count of 15 since that would make 15 ms.
But if the PLC scan time were 20ms, there would
be an inconsistency.
A hardware timer can be used in these instances.
Special Functions
The one shot is an o/p that will go true for
only one scan when its input path is true. This
device is used for initialization and other
instances when an event is to occur only once,
even though the conditions that make it True
may occur again.
A shift-register is used to remember a certain
number of previous states of a rung. A four
event shift register could be used to
remember the state of a rung for the latest
four scans.
Special Functions
Modern PLCs are able to handle multi-digit
numbers as well as single-bit, binary numbers.
Thus, it is possible for a PLC to accept input from
an 8-bit ADC and store the result in a known
memory location or register.
These PLCs have the ability to perform a variety of
math operations on this data from simple +,-,* and
/ , to an exponential and trigonometric operations.
In this way, a PLC can be made to process
continuous plant data such as a PID control.
Summary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A discrete-state process is one for which the process variables can

take on only two states.
A discrete-state process-control system is one that causes the
process to pass through a sequence of events. Each event is
described by a unique specification of the process variables.
The hardware of the process must be carefully defined in terms of
the nature of its two states and its relation to the process.
The sequence of events can be described in narrative fashion, as a
flowchart, or in terms of Boolean equations.
A ladder diagram is a schematic way of describing the sequence of
events of a discrete state control system.
A programmable controller is a computer-based device that
implements the required sequence of events of a discrete state
process.
Controller Principles
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Swapna Kulkarni
CONTENTS
Introduction
Objectives
Process Characteristics
Control System Parameters
Discontinuous Controller Modes
Continuous Controller Modes
Composite Controller Modes
INTRODUCTION
We study the nature of controller action for
systems with operations variables that range
over continuous values.
Using measurements the controllers solve the
certain equations to calculate the proper output.
The equations necessary to obtain the control are
independent of both process and controller
function.
OBJECTIVES
Define understand the process characteristics
process system parameters
Describe the discontinuous and continuous
controller modes
Describe the composite controller modes
Compare and differentiate discontinuous and
continuous controller modes and their
advantages
applications.
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
Selection of controller modes is a function of
process characteristics.
Important Process Characteristics
Process Equation
Process Load
Process Lag
Self Regulation
FIGURE 9.1
Control of temperature by process control.
Curtis Johnson

Process Equation
The process equation is a function which
describes the process and provides the
information about other process parameters
which
influence the controlled variable.
For liquid temperature control the process
equation is
TL f (QA QB QS TA TS TO)
Process Load
The process load refers to set of all process
parameters excluding the controlled variable.
Nominal Set: It is possible to identify a set of values for the
process parameters that results in the controlled variable
having the setpoint value. This set of parameters is called as
nominal set.
Process Load: It refers to this set of all parameters, excluding
the controlled variable.
Nominal Load: When all parameters have their nominal
values, we speak of the nominal load on the system.
Nominal value: The required controlling variable value under
these conditions is the nominal value of that parameter.
Process Load
The controlling variable is adjusted to
compensate for this load change and its effect
on the dynamic variable to bring it back to
setpoint.
Transient
Another type of change involves a temporary
variation of one of the load parameters.
After the excursion, the parameter returns to its
nominal value. This variation is called a transient.
A transient causes variations of the controlled
variable, and the control system must take
equally transient changes of the controlling
variable to keep error to a minimum.
A transient is not a load change because it is not
permanent.
Process Lag
Process lag refers to the time consumed by the process itself to
bring the controlled variable to setpoint value during load
change.
Example: If the inlet flow is suddenly doubled in fig. 9.1, a large
process-load change radically changes the TL.
The control loop responds by opening the control valve to allow
more stem and het input to bring the liquid temp. back to
setpoint. The loop itself reacts faster than the process.
In fact, the physical opening of the control valve is slowest part
of the loop.
Once steam is flowing at the new rate, however, the body of
liquid must be heated by the steam before the setpoint value is
reached again. This time delay or process lag in heating is a
function of the process, not the control system.
Self Regulation
Some processes adopt to stable value without
being regulated via process control loop.
In fig. 9.1,(1) suppose we fix the steam valve at 50% and
open the control loop so that no changes in valve position
are possible.
(2) The liquid heats up until the energy carried away by the
liquid equals that input energy from the steam flow.
(3) If the load changes, new temp. is adopted (because the
system temp. is not controlled).
(4) The process is self-regulating, however, because the
temp. will not run away, but stabilizes at some value
under given conditions.

(1) Inputs to the controller are
a measured indication of both
the controlled variable and a
setpoint representing the
desired value of the variable,
expressed in the same fashion
as the measurement;
(2) The controller output is a
signal representing action to be
taken when the measured
value of the controlled variable
deviates from the setpoint.
FIGURE 9.2 The error

detector and controller.

Error
Variable Range
Control Parameter Range
Control Lag
Dead Time
Cycling
Controller Modes
Error
The deviation of controlled variable from the
setpoint is called error.
The error is given by the following equation
e =r - b
Where e= error
b= measured value of variable
r= setpoint of variable (desired)
Error
Example : If the setpoint in a 4-20 mA range
corresponds to 7.5 mA and the measured value is
10.0 mA then the error is -2.5 mA.
This current error has little direct meaning
unless it is related the controlled variable.
It is necessary to work back and prove that this
error corresponds to some variable value (flow
level temp etc).
Error
To describe controller operation in a general way,
it is better to express the error as percent of the
measured variable range (i.e., the span).
The measured value of a variable can be
expressed as percent of span over a range of
measurement by the equation
cp=(c-cmin)/( cmax- cmin)*100
where cp=measured value as percent of
measurement range
c= actual measured value
cmax= maximum of measured value
cmax= minimum of measured value
Error
It is always better to express the error in
percent of span. The equation is given by
ep= (r-b)/(bmax-bmin)*100
where ep= error as percent span
bmax =max. value of measured variable
bmin =min. value of measured variable
Problem
A velocity control system has a range of 220 to
460 mm/s. If the setpoint is 327 mm/s and the
measured value is 294 mm/s calculate the
error as of span.
Solution:
ep= (r-b) / (bmax- bmin) x 100
ep =(327 -294)/ (460-220) x 100
ep =13.75%
Variable range
The variable range can be expressed as the
minimum and maximum value of the variable
or the nominal value the deviation spread
about the nominal value.
Ex. Temperature range is 300-400 K

Control parameter range is the range
associated with the controller output.
The controller output range is the translation
of output to the range of possible values of
the final control element.

The controller output as a percent of full scale
when the output varies between specified limits
is given by the following equation
p= (u-umin)/ (umax-umin)*100
Where
p= controller output as percent of full scale
u value of the output
umax maximum value of controlling variable
umin minimum value of controlling variable
Problem
A controlling variable is a motor speed
that varies from 800-1750 rpm. If the speed is
controlled by a 25 to 50 v dc signal calculate
(a) the speed produced by an input of 38 v
and
(b) the speed calculated as a percent of
span.
Solution
The linear relationship between
speed and voltage is given by the basic
equation S =mVin+ c
The two simultaneous equations are
800 =25 m +c
1750= 50 m+c
Solving the above equations we get
m =38 and c =150
The equation for the speed can be given by

S =38 Vin +150
(a) When Vin=38 v ;S =38x38-150= 1294 rpm
(b) Speed calculated as of span (i.e
controller output)
P =(Sp-Smin) / (Smax-Smin)x100
P =(1294-800)/(1750-800) x 100
P =52 %
Control Lag
Control lag refers to the time for the process
control loop to make necessary adjustments
to the final control element.
The control system also has a lag associated
with its operation that must be compared
with process lag for appropriate control
action.
Example Actuating the steam control valve
Dead Time
Dead time is the elapsed time between the
instant a deviation (error) occurs and the
corrective action first occurs.
This time is a function of both process and
process control system.
Example: The control of chemical reaction by
varying reactant flow through a long pipe
Cycling
Cycling is defined as the oscillations of the
error about zero value or nominal value.
This means that the variable will be cycling
above and below the setpoint value.
Two types of cycling
1) Steady state cycling
2) Transient cycling or error
Steady State Cycling

Steady-state cycling is one in which
oscillations will continue indefinitely.
In such conditions peak amplitude of error
and period of oscillations are important in
understanding the nature of process variable.
Transient Cycling
Transient cycling is one in which oscillations
will decay to zero after some time.
In such conditions initial error and period of
cyclic oscillations are important in
understanding the nature of process variable.
Controller Mode
Controller modes refer to the methods to
generate different types of control signals to final
control element to control the process variable.
Classification of Controller modes
(1) Discontinuous Controller Modes
Two-position (ON/OFF) Mode
Multiposition Mode
Floating Control Mode Single Multiple Speed
Controller Mode
(2) Continuous Controller Modes
Proportional Control Mode
Integral Control Mode
Derivative Control Mode
(3) Composite Controller Modes
Proportional-Integral Control (PI Mode)
Proportional-Derivative Control (PD Mode)
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control (PID or
Three Mode Control)
Controller Mode
Based on the controller action on the control
element there are two modes
1) Direct Action: If the controller output increases with
increase in controlled variable then it is called direct
action.
Ex.: A level control system that outputs a signal to an
output valve. If the level rises, the valve should be
opened(i.e. its drive signal should be increased)
2) Reverse Action: If the controller output
decreases with increase in controlled variable then it is
called reverse action
Ex.: A simple temp. control from a heater. If the temp.
increases, the drive to the heater should be decreased.
Discontinuous Controller Modes

1) Two-Position Mode:
P= 0 %
ep < 0
=100%
ep >0
This relation shows that when the measured
value is less than the setpoint, full controller
output results. When it is more than the setpoint,
the controller output is zero.
Ex. A space heater. If the temp. drops below a
setpoint, the heater is turned ON. If the temp.
rises above the setpoint, it turns OFF.
Neutral Zone
In virtually any practical
implementation of the twoposition controller, there is an
overlap as ep increases through
zero or decreases through zero.
In this span, no change in
controller output occurs.
In fig., the range 2ep which is
referred as neutral zone or
differential gap, is often purposely
designed above certain minimum
quantity to prevent excessive
cycling. The existence of such a
neutral zone is an example of
desirable hysteresis in a system.
FIGURE 9.3 Two-position controller

action with neutral zone.

Applications
Generally, the two-position control mode is best
adapted to large-scale systems with relatively slow
process rates.
Ex. A room heating, air conditioned system, liquid-bath
temp. control and level control in large-volume tanks,
etc.
The process under two-position control must allow
continued oscillation in the controlled variable
because, by its nature, this mode of control always
produce such oscillation.
For large systems, these oscillations re of long duration,
which is partly a function of the neutral-zone size.
Multiposition Mode
This mode is used in attempt to reduce the
cycling behavior and overshoot and undershoot
inherent in the two-position mode.
p=pi
ep>ei i=1,2,3,.,n
As the error exceeds certain set limits ep, the
controller output is adjusted to preset values, pi.
The most common example is the three-position
controller where
p= 100
ep>e2
=50
-e1 <ep <e2
=0
ep<-e1
Floating Control Mode

If the error exceeded some preset limit, the output was
changed to a new setting as quickly as possible.
In this mode, the specific output of controller is not
uniquely determined by the error. If the error is zero,
the output does not change but remains at whatever
setting it was when the error went to zero.
When the error moves off the zero, the controller
output gain begins to change.
Actually, as with two-position mode, there is a neutral
zone around zero error where no change in controller
position occurs.
Single Speed
In the single speed floating control mode, the
output of the control element changes at a fixed
rate when the error exceeds the neutral zone.
dp
KF
ep ep
dt
dp
Where dt =rate of change of controller output
with time
K F =rate constant (%/s)
e p =half the neutral zone
ep ep
p= K F t+p(0)
where p(0)=controller output at t=0
Single Speed
Present output depends on the time history of
errors that have previously occurred.
The actual value of p floats at an
undetermined value.
Multiple Speed
In the floating point multiple speed mode, not
one but several possible speeds are changed
by the controller output.
Usually the rate increases as the deviation
exceeds certain limits.
If we have certain speed change points, epi,
depending on the error, then each has its
corresponding output rate change, Ki.
dp
K Fi
dt
e p e pi
If the error exceeds epi,then the speed is KFi

Applications
Primary applications of the floating point control
mode are for the single speed controllers with a
neutral zone.
This mode has an inherent cycle nature much like
the two-position, although this cycle can be
minimized, depending on the application.
The method is well suited to self-regulation
processes with very small lag or dead time, which
implies small capacity processes.
When used with large capacity systems, the
inevitable cycling must be considered.

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Instrumentation and Control

Discrete State Process

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

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Special Functions: To build a relay-based

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Programmable Logic Controller Design

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Programmable Logic Controller Design

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FIGURE 8.25 Basic structure of the

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FIGURE 8.27 Typical wiring

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I/O Scan Mode

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FIGURE 8.28 PLC scan time puts

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The photodetector o/p will be high pulse

FIGURE 8.28 (continued) PLC

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FIGURE 8.29 Hand-held

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FIGURE 8.30 Desktop terminal

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Timers and counters

Programmed Diagram Interpretation

In a physical diagram, the symbol for a NO contact indicates

For NO contact, it is said examined ON and if

Fig. a shows that we cannot simply wire

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Fig. c shows that we simply

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FIGURE 8.37 PLC timer

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Scan time/ timer relationship

A discrete-state process is one for which the process variables can

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Control of temperature by process control.

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Control System Parameters

FIGURE 9.2 The error

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Control System Parameters

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