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N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

NATHAM 624 401.
ISO 9001:2008
Reach the Stars
E LEARNING MATERIAL
SUB CODE: 12081

AUTOMOBILE TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL ENGINEEIRNG
(VI - SEMESTER)
DEPATMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
E-Learning Material
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SYLLABUS
AUTOMOBILE TECHNOLOGY
Subject Code: 12081
UNIT
TOPIC
Automotive Engines
II
Fuel and Fuel Feed Systems
III
Transmission and Power Trains
IV
Automotive Chassis
Automobile Electrical Equipment and Pollution Control
Unit - I
Basic engine components-functions, types, materials and construction of-cylinder blockcylinder head-gaskets-crankcase-oil pan-cylinder liners-comparison of liners-piston-expansion
control in pistons-piston
rings-types of compression and oil control rings-piston pin-
connecting rod-methods of connecting piston and connecting rod-crankshaft-fly wheel-cam

shaft-methods of cam shaft drive arrangements-valve and valve arrangements-L-I-F T.
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Combustion:
Stages of combustion-delay period-variables affecting delay period-combustion chambermethods of generating air swirl in diesel combustion chamber-types of combustion chambermerits and demerits.
Cooling systems:
Purpose-methods-air, water and other coolants-pump assisted cooling systems-fan-sensorsradiator types-pressure cap-expansion systems-merits-vented and pressurised-expansion
tank-troubles in cooling system-loss of coolant, overheating and overcooling-causes.
Lubrication systems:
Purpose-types of lubricants-properties-additives-service rating of oil-types of lubricating

system-types of filters-methods of cylinder and piston lubrication-high pressure systems-oil
pumps-troubles in lubrication system-oil leakage, low oil pressure and excessive oil
consumption-causes.
Unit - II
Requirement of an ideal petrol-octane number-detonation-properties of a good diesel fuelcetane number-diesel knock-methods of controlling diesel
knock-fuel
additives-alternate
fuels for petrol and diesel engines-benzol, methanol, ethanol, natural gas, LPG, vegetable oils
and bio-gas.
Layout of fuel feed system of petrol engine-types of fuel feed system-A.C. mechanical fuel
pump-S.U. electrical fuel pump-fuel filter-air
carburetors-simple
carburetor-carburetor
cleaners-types-carburetion-classification of
circuits-solex
operation-DTSI, VTI, CCVTI, PGMFI-petrol injection-MPFI
carburetor-construction
and
system- necessity-merits and
demerits.
Layout of diesel fuel feed system-single acting fuel feed pump-injection pumps-construction
and working of distributed type pump, CRDI-fuel injectors-purpose-types-single and multiplepintle and pintaux-governors- necessity-types of governors-mechanical and pneumatic-fuel
filters-primary and secondary filters-location and importance.
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Unit - III
General arrangement of power transmission system-arrangement of front engine drive-rear
engine rear drive-four wheel
drive-applications-clutch-function-components-types-single
plate, multiplate wet and dry clutches and diaphragm clutch-fluid coupling-clutch troubles
and their causes.
Gear
box:
Purpose-various resistance to motion-types of gear boxes-sliding mesh, constant mesh and

synchromesh-floor
shift and steering
column gear
change-mechanical and hydraulic
control system-variator-gear box troubles and their causes.
Drive line-propeller shaft-universal joint-cross type only-slip joint-final drive-function-types of

gear arrangement-straight
and spiral bevel, hypoid,
worm and
worm wheel-merits,
demerits and application-Hotch kiss drive-torque tube drive-radius rod.
Differential-purpose-construction and operation- self locking and non slip differential troubles
and their causes forces in rear axles-rear axles-semi floating, three quarter floating and full
floating axle-axle housing-types.
Unit - IV
Front axle:
Types-stub axle-elliot and reverse
elliot-lemoine and lemoine inverted-steering system-
Ackermann principle of steering-wheel alignment-factors-camber, caster, king pin inclination,

Toe in and Toe out on turns- steering linkages-steering gears-cam and double roller,
recirculating ball type, rack and pinion-steering troubles and causes- power steeringnecessity-types-layout of any one type.
Suspension system:
Functions-types of springs-leaf, coil and Torsion bar-front suspension systems-independent

front suspension-merits and demerits-types-rear end suspension-air suspension (brief
description only)-shock absorber-purpose-telescopic type-construction and working.
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Brake system:
Functions-
classification
of brakes-drum brakes-leading shoe
and
trailing shoe-self
energizing action-hydraulic brake-brake bleeding-brake shoe adjustment
mechanism-air
assisted hydraulic brakes-air brake-layout, functions of each components and application

only-disc brakes-construction and working- comparism of disc and drum type-brake troubles
and their causes-antilock brake system.
Wheels:
Disc wheels, wire wheel, spilt wheel and light alloy cast or forged wheels-brief description
and applications-tyres-functions-construction of tyres-cross and radial ply tyres, tubeless
tyres-comparison- properties of tyres-tyre wear and tyre service.
Unit - V
Battery:
Lead
acid
battery-nickel
alkaline
battery-construction-battery
rating-charging-testing-
starting system- circuit construction and operation of starter motor-starting motor drivesover running clutch and Bendix drive- construction and operation-solenoid switch-charging
system-circuit-alternator construction and operation- regulators-Dynamo.
Ignition system:
Types-battery coil ignition system-circuit-high-tension magneto-principle of operation of

flywheel magneto-electronic ignition-ignition system troubles and remedies.
Lighting system:
Circuit-head
light-aiming
adjustment-sealed
beam head
lights-fluorescent
lamp-traffic
indicator- directional signal circuits-horn circuits-wind screen wiper.
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Pollution:
Pollution control techniques for petrol and diesel engine emissions-controlling crankcase
emission (PCV)-controlled evaporative emission (VRS, VSS, VRR, ECS and EES)-treatment of
exhaust gas (catalytic converter, EGR).
Introduction to automotive electronics, radio-interference-suppressors-audio systems.
Refernce Books:
1.
Dolan.J.A.,Motor vehicle technology and practical work, ELBS, 1978.
2.
Dr.Giri.N.K,Automobile Mechanics, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1998.
3.
Automotive Mechanics, Edn. 6, McGraw Hill Co., New York
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UNIT - I
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES
Basic Engine Components

Engine Components:
Camshaft
Crankshaft
Connecting Rod
Cylinder Heads
Crank Case
Engine Belt
Engine Valve
Engine Oil System
Engine Block
Engine Overhaul Kits
Engine Brackets
Piston
Push Rods
stroke engines
Two-stroke engine:
A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine which completes the thermodynamic

cycle in two movements of the piston (compared to twice that number for a four-stroke
engine). This increased efficiency is accomplished by using the beginning of the compression
stroke and the end of the combustion stroke to simultaneously perform the intake and
exhaust (or scavenging) functions. In this way two-stroke engines often provide strikingly
high specific power. Petrol (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight
(portable) applications such as chainsaws and the concept is also used in diesel compression
ignition engines in large and non-weight sensitive applications such as ships and locomotives.
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Working principle of two stroke engine
1st stroke(Upward stroke):
1st stroke: The piston is at the bottom of the cylinder. A pipe at the left side is opened and
lets the fuel mixture, which is already compressed a bit, flow from the lower to the upper part
of the cylinder. The fresh gases expulse now the exhaust through an ejection pipe, which is
not closed by the piston at this moment
2nd stroke(Downward stroke):
2nd stroke: After being hurried upward, the piston now covers the pipe on the left side and
the ejection pipe. Because there is no way out any more, the upper, fresh gas mixture gets
compressed now. At the same time in the part below fresh gas is taken in by the piston
driving upward through the open suction pipe. At the upper dead-center, the compressed fuel
mixture is ignited by the sparking plug, the piston is pressed downward while he compresses
at the same time the fresh gas below. The process begins again as soon as the piston arrives
at its lowest point.
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Four stroke engine
Four-stroke engine:
Today, internal combustion engines in cars, trucks, motorcycles, aircraft, construction
machinery and many others, most commonly use a four-stroke cycle. The four strokes refer
to intake, compression, combustion (power), and exhaust strokes that occur during two
crankshaft rotations per working cycle of the Gasoline engine and Diesel engine.
The cycle begins at top dead center (TDC), when the piston is farthest away from the axis of
the crankshaft. On the intake or induction stroke of the piston, the piston descends from the
top of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is
forced (by atmospheric or greater pressure) into the cylinder through the intake (inlet) port.
The intake (inlet) valve (or valves) then close(s), and the compression stroke compresses the
fuelair mixture.
The airfuel mixture is then ignited near the end of the compression stroke, usually by a
spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine) or by the heat and pressure of compression
(for a Diesel cycle or compression ignition engine). The resulting pressure of burning gases
pushes the piston through the power stroke. In the exhaust stroke, the piston pushes the
products of combustion from the cylinder through an exhaust valve or valves.
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Working principle of four stroke engine
View
Edit
The operation of the engine is divided into 4 parts, which are called strokes:
Stage
Image(click to enlarge images)
1st stroke (Intake or

suction):
The piston sucks in the
fuel-air-mixture from the
carburetor into the
cylinder.
2nd stroke
(Compression):
The piston compresses
the mixture.
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3rd stroke
(Combustion or
power):
The spark from the spark
plug inflames the
mixture. The following
explosion presses the
piston to the bottom, the
gas is operating on the
piston.
4th stroke (Exhaust):

The piston presses the
exhaust out ofthe
cylinder.
Fuel combustion
Fuel combustion, also known as burning fuel, is the process by which a fuel is consumed in an
exothermic chemical reaction that released a great deal of heat and light. Usually, the fuel
that is combusted is a hydrocarbon that reacts with the oxygen in the air. A significant
amount of heat energy is required to trigger such a reaction.
The main use of fuel combustion is energy. The most common fuels used for the production
of energy are fossil fuels, which are made up of ancient, decomposed organic matter. Oil,
coal, and natural gas are three of the most common fossil fuels used in fuel combustion
reactions. The energy produced when these fuels are combusted can be used to power
anything from cars to household appliances.
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Combustion chamber
The Volume of the space in the Cylinder above the Piston with the piston at Top dead center
(TDC) in the Compression stroke. The Head of the piston, the Cylinder walls, and the Head
form the Chamber. Combustion of the Fuel-air mixture begins here when ignited by a Spark
plug. The design and shape of the combustion chamber can affect power, Fuel efficiency, and
emissions of an engine. Several combustion chamber shapes have been used including
Hemispherical combustion chamber, Bathtub combustion chamber, Wedge combustion
chamber, Squish combustion chamber, and Piston-crown combustion chamber.
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Parts of Engine
Engine block
Engine block is a machined casting containing cylindrically bored holes for the pistons of a
multi-cylinder reciprocating internal combustion engine, or for a similarly constructed device
such as a pump. It is a complex part at the heart of an engine, with adoptions to attach the
cylinder head, crankcase, engine mounts, drive housing and engine ancillaries, with passages
for coolants and lubricants.
The distance between the cylinder bores (midpoint to midpoint) cannot easily be changed
since the machining facilities would require extensive modification. Instead, the bore
(diameter) is commonly varied to obtain different engine displacements. This and the
minimum thickness of material required between two cylinders are a limiting factor
concerning the potential displacement because the bore to stroke ratio has to stay within
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certain limits. Engine blocks are usually made from cast iron or, in modern engines,
aluminium and magnesium.
Because of the importance of the engine block in the functioning of the car, it is
recommended that drivers perform regular maintenance on their vehicles to prevent damage
to internal parts which can be caused by overheating, insufficient oil, and other easily
preventable situations.
The engine block becomes extremely hot during normal operations, and drivers should be
cautious about touching it until it has cooled sufficiently. Some enterprising drivers and
aspiring chefs have also experimented with cooking foods such as baked potatoes on the
engine block, although this is not generally recommended because should the food may
become dislodged during cooking, potentially causing damage to the engine
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Various Items Mounted on the Cylinder block:
1. Cylinder head mounted on the top of the block to enclose the positions and the valves.
2. Camshaft and its supporting bearings on the side or in the lower portion of the block,
mounted parallel to the crankshaft.
3. Inlet and outlet manifolds attached to the block on its opposite sides.(in case small
engines)
In case of medium and heavy duty engines manifolds are attached with the cylinder head.
4. Fuel pump attached on side of the block.
5. Oil pan attached at the bottom of the block which serves as a reservoir and provides
cooling to the lubricating oil.
6. Lubricating oil pump which is driven by the camshaft and is mounted in the lower part of
the block
7. Ignition distributor which is driven by the camshaft and is mounted on side of the block
8. Housing for a fly wheel and the clutch which is attached to rear on side of the block
9. Cover for timing gears, chain driven is attached at front of the block
10. Main pulley, which drives water pump by means of belt system, is mounted on the front
end of the crankcase
Cylinder head
The detachable metal (Aluminum or iron) plate or cap that is bolted to the top of the Cylinder
block. It is used to Cover the tops of the cylinders, in many cases the cylinder head contains
the valves, it also forms part of the Combustion chamber. It has water and oil passages for
cooling and lubrication. It also holds the Spark plugs. On most engines a Valve cover or
Rocker arm cover is located on top of the cylinder head. Some engines have just one cylinder
head covering several cylinders, while others have separate heads for each cylinder. In some
Motorcycle engines and small engines, the cylinder head is not detachable -- it is Cast with
the cylinder which forms a blind hole.
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Piston
A piston is a cylindrical engine component that slides back and forth in the cylinder bore by
forces produced during the combustion process. The piston acts as a movable end of the
combustion chamber. The stationary end of the combustion chamber is the cylinder head.
Pistons are commonly made of a cast aluminum alloy for excellent and lightweight thermal
conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct and transfer heat.
Aluminum expands when heated and proper clearance must be provided to maintain free
piston movement in the cylinder bore. Insufficient clearance can cause the piston to seize in
the cylinder. Excessive clearance can cause a loss of compression and an increase in piston
noise. Piston features include the piston head, piston pin bore, piston pin, skirt, ring grooves,
ring lands, and piston rings. The piston head is the top surface (closest to the cylinder head)
of the piston which is subjected to tremendous forces and heat during normal engine
operation.
A piston pin bore is a through hole in the side of the piston perpendicular to piston travel that
receives the piston pin. A piston pin is a hollow shaft that connects the small end of the
connecting rod to the piston. The skirt of a piston is the portion of the piston closest to the
crankshaft that helps align the piston as it moves in the cylinder bore. Some skirts have
profiles cut into them to reduce piston mass and to provide clearance for the rotating
crankshaft counterweights.
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A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is used to
retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring groove which function
as the sealing surface for the piston ring. A piston ring is an expandable split ring used to
provide a seal between the piston and the cylinder wall. Piston rings are commonly made
from cast iron. Cast iron retains the integrity of its original shape under heat, load, and other
dynamic forces. Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to
the cylinder wall, and return oil to the crankcase.
Piston rings commonly used include the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A
compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the piston head. The
compression ring seals the combustion chamber from any leakage during the combustion
process. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited, pressure from combustion gases is applied to
the piston head, forcing the piston toward the crankshaft. The pressurized gases travel
through the gap between the cylinder wall and the piston and into the piston ring groove.
Combustion gas pressure forces the piston ring against the cylinder wall to form a seal.
Pressure applied to the piston ring is approximately proportional to the combustion gas
pressure.
A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove between the
compression ring and the oil ring. The wiper ring is used to further seal the combustion
chamber and to wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess oil. Combustion gases that pass by the
compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring.
An oil ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase. The oil ring is
used to lubricate the cylinder wall during piston movement. Excess oil is returned through
ring openings to the oil reservoir in the engine block.
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Connecting rod:
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The connecting link or arm between the Piston and the Crankshaft. It converts the up-anddown (Reciprocating) motion of the piston into the circular (rotary) motion of the spinning
Crankshaft. Often called con rod. It is an element which provides connection between the
piston and the crankshaft. It is made by drop forging process, from the steel or duralumin. A
lighter rod produces less vibration and regulates power efficiently. Its usual length is kept
twice the stroke.
Its small end which is connected to the piston may be of solid eye, split eye or slotted type.
The big end which is connected to the crankcase pin split type and h as a separate cap. The
cap is secured to the body of the rod by means of two or four big end bolts. In some of the
connecting rods, through hole or holes at the ends are provided for lubricating process.
Piston ring
A metal, split ring installed in the Groove on the outside wall of the Piston. The ring contacts
the sides of the Ring groove and also rubs against the Cylinder wall thus sealing the space
between the piston and the wall. Poor rings can cause poor Compression and severe Blowby.
Often seen as blue smoke out the Exhaust pipe.
Functions of Piston rings:
Following are the main functions of Piston rings:
1. To prevent the leakage of the compressed and expanding cases above the piston into
the crankcase.
2. To control and provide the lubricating oil between the piston skirt and cylinder walls.
3. To prevent the entry of the lubricating oil from crank case to the combustion chamber
above the piston head.
4. To scrap out the unnecessary and excessive lubricating oil from cylinder walls.
5. To prevent the deposit of carbon and other matters on the piston head caused by
burning of lubricant.
6. To provide easy transmission of heat from piston to cylinder walls
7. To balance the side tilting of the piston and to save its life to a certain limit
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Piston ring Material:
A ring should have excellent heat, wear resisting and elastic qualities. Therefore fine grained
alloy cost iron has proved superior to any other material used for this purpose. Rings of alloy
steel with chromium or hard material plating have also been used but they have not given
the results upto the mark.
Types of piston rings:
A piston ring consists of a set of rings. There may be two, three or four numbers of rings in a
set. there are
(a)Compression or Gas rings
(b)Oil Regulated rings
(c) Spring expander piston rings
Camshaft
One or more high spots or lobes provided on a rotating circular section is called cam. It
converts the rotary motion of the camshaft in the straight line motion. In an automobile
engine the main purpose of the cam is to open and close the intake and exhaust valves. In
some of the petrol engines the fuel pump is also driven by cam. The nose and flank of the
cam are hardened by means of chilling, flame hardening process or induction hardening
process.
A camshaft consists of number of cams integrated to it. For each engine cylinder, there are
two cams, one for each of the two valves. In some of the engines a spark ignition distributor
is also driven by the camshaft by means of gearing.
Material used for cam:
The material used for cams and camshaft is alloy steel or alloy cast iron. The camshaft
receives the drive from the crankshaft and rotates at half the speed that that of the crank
shaft.
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Methods of Camshaft:
(i) Camshaft Gear drive
(ii) Camshaft chain drive
(iii) Toothed timing belt
Engine bearing
The Bearings are provided between relative moving parts of the engine. The purpose of the
bearing is to minimize the friction between two moving parts and to increase their life. The
type of the bearings may such as
(i) Sleeve or bush bearing
(ii) Split sleeve bearing
(iii) Ball bearing and
(iv) Roller bearing
Bearings provides at the crankpins and main journals of the crankshaft are called Main
bearings. Mostly the main bearing is split sleeve type. In case of main journal the upper
bearing half is installed in the counterbore in the cylinder block and the lower bearing half is
held in the bearing cap. Similarly in case of crank pin the upper half is installed in the
connecting rod big eng and the lower half in the rod cap.
The main bearings are provided with oil holes and annular grooves for lubrication purposes. A
full round or bush bearing is used at the slamm eng of the connecting rod. In case of two
stroke or small engines the roller bearings are send at both the ends of the connecting rod
and ball bearings at the main journals of the crankshaft.
The bearing half is made of steel back to which one to three linings of soft bearing material
are applied. Different brasses and bronzes are used as lining materials in these bearings
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Crankshaft
Crankshaft is a main rotating shaft running the length of the engine. The crankshaft is
supported by Main bearings. Portions of the shaft are offset to form throws to which the
Connecting rods are attached. As the Pistons move up and down, the Connecting rods move
the crankshaft around. The turning motion of the crankshaft is transmitted to the
Transmission and eventually to the driving wheels..
The main parts of the crankshaft are crank pins, main journals, balance weights, webs and
flywheel flange. It also contains oil passages for lubrication purposes as shown in the figure.
It carries a starting pulley at the front and a flywheel at the rear end. The crankshaft may be
of single piece as well as built up type. In case of built up type, pins and journals are bolted
to the crank arms. The number of journals and the positions of the pins in different planes
depend upon the number of engine cylinders and their arrangements. The material used for
the crankshaft is generated described as copper chromium with high carbon and some silicon.
A thrust collar provided on one of the main bearings so as to sustain the axial loads along the
axis of the crankshaft.
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Types of engines
IC Engines may be classified the basic of cylinder arrangements.
1.
In line engine
2.
V-engine
3.
Horizontal engine
4.
Vertical engine
5.
Radial engine
6.
Opposed cylinder engine
7.
Opposed piston engine
8.
X-engine
9.
w-engine
10.
Y-engine
Straight engine
Straight engine:
Straight engine is an engine in which all the Cylinders (usually three or more) are arranged in
a straight row (either vertically or slanted). The pistons drive a common crankshaft. it is also
called inline engine.
A straight engine is considerably easier to build than an otherwise equivalent horizontally

opposed or V engine, because both the cylinder bank and crankshaft can be milled from a
single metal casting, and it requires fewer cylinder heads and camshafts. In-line engines are
also much smaller in overall physical dimensions than designs like the radial, and can be
mounted in
any direction. Straight configurations are simpler than their V-shaped
counterparts. They have a support bearing between each piston as compared to "flat and V"
engines which have support bearings between every two pistons. Although six-cylinder
engines are inherently balanced, the four-cylinder models are inherently off balance and
rough, unlike 90 degree V fours and horizontally opposed 'boxer' 4 cylinders.
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Five cycle engine:
An engine type that was first introduced by Mercedes-Benz in 1974. Its advantage is that it
produces more power than a four cylinder but takes up less space than an in-line six.
Four cycle engine:
An engine type often found in lightweight economy and sports cars. It is short enough to be
placed sideways in some front-wheel-drive models. Most fours vibrate noticeably, especially
at low engine speeds
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Straight engine:
V engine
Engine definition:
A V engine is a common configuration for an internal combustion engine. The cylinders and
pistons are aligned, in two separate planes, so that they appear to be in a "V" when viewed
along the axis of the crankshaft. The V configuration generally reduces the overall engine
length, height and weight compared to an equivalent inline configuration.
Various angles of V are used in different engines; depending on the number of cylinders,
there may be angles that work better than others for stability. Very narrow angles of V
combine some of the advantages of the V engine and the straight engine (primarily in the
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form of compactness) as well as disadvantages; Some V configurations are well-balanced and
smooth, while others are less smoothly running than their equivalent straight counterparts.
With an optimal angle V16s have even firing and exceptional balance. The V10 and cross
plane
V8 can be balanced with counterweights on the crankshaft. V12s, being in effect two Straight
6 engines married together, always have even firing and exceptional balance regardless of
angle. Others, such as the V2, V4, V6, flat plane V8, and V10, show increased vibration and
generally require balance shafts.
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Square engine
Square engine is an engine in which the Bore diameter and the length of the stroke are the
same.
Square four engine:
A four cylinder engine in which each cylinder axis forms one corner of a square. This
represents a way of doubling parallel twin cylinders to make a four cylinder unit, with two
separate parallel crankshafts connected by gears or chain. This arrangement allows the
engine width to be kept to that of a twin cylinder unit with only a small increase in length,
thus providing the advantages of an in-line four without the problem of width. Applied in
four-stroke and two-stroke motorcycles; in two-strokes mainly to permit rotary valve
induction
Over square engine:
An engine where the length of the piston stroke is greater than the diameter of the bore of a
cylinder. A relatively long stroke produces higher low-end torque at the cost of increased
piston speeds and reduced revving ability. also called long stroke engine:
Under square engine:
An engine where the length of the stroke is shorter than the diameter of the cylinder bore.
Theoretically a relatively short stroke improves high end revving ability but is poorer at lowend torque and is also called short stroke engine:
Radial Engine
The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which
the cylinders point outward from a central crankshaft like the spokes on a wheel. This
configuration was very commonly used in large aircraft engines before most large aircraft
started using turbine engines.
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Valves
Valve is a device to close and open a passage. In motor vehicle engines, two valves are used
for each cylinder-an inlet (or intake) valve and an exhaust valve. Fuel is admitted to the
cylinder by the inlet valve, and the burned gases escape by the exhaust valve. When closed,
the valve must seal the combustion space tightly. The valves are usually made of austenitic
stainless steel which is a corrosion and heat resisting material.
Exhaust valve is usually made of silichrome steel which is an alloy of silicon and chromium
with unusual resistance to heat. Inlet valve being subjected to less heat is usually made of
nickel chromium ally steel.
The valves are usually in modern passenger car engines are termed as poppet or mushroom
valves. The head of the valve has an accurately face with enough margin left to avoid a thin
edge. The angular face is ground on the valve head to make an angle of 45o , 30o to match
the angle of valve seat in the cylinder head. Spring retainer lock grooves are provided at the
end of the valve stem
Firing order of engine

The sequence in which the power impulses occur in an engine is called the firing order. The
firing order,or order in which the cylinders deliver their power strokes, is selected as a part of
the engine design to obtain the best engine performance.
When the cylinders are in line, the cylinder nearest to the radiator is designated as No.1 the
one directly behind it is No.2, and so on. The firing order is shown by the sequence of the
number of cylinders in which the culinders deliver the power strokes. For example, the firing
order of a four cylinder engine will be written as
1---2---4---3
This means that the firing will take place in the sequence of first , second, fourth and third
cylinder respectively in a four cylinder engine.
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Engine balancing firing order:
Engine balancing is related to firing order. One cylinder engine, working on four stroke cycle,
has only one power impulse for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. Hence it will not run
smoothly and quietly, inspite of the compensating effect f a large flywheel. The operation will
be very rough, and to withstand it, the engine parts must be made large and heavy. Hence
single cylinder engine working on four stroke cycle is not used in automobiles.
Scooters and motorcycles use two stroke single cylinder engines. Heavy vehicles adopt two-,
four-, six- and eight-cylinder engines. By increasing the number of cylinders, the power
impulses for each revolution of the crankshaft also increase, giving a more uniform torque
and smoother operation. Above four cylinders there is no period during which some cylinder
is not delivering power, and there is no time at which the flywheel must supply all the power
required to maintain the engine speed. The more cylinders in an engine, the more continuous
the flow of power, if the power impulses are spaced equally, the less work is to be done by
wheel in storing and releasing energy, and the less is the vibration. A lighter fly wheel can
serve the purpose in multi cylinder engines.
Comparison between two stroke four stroke engines
2-stroke engine
1. Compression Stroke. The piston goes
4-stroke engine
1. Compression Stroke. The piston
up and compresses a fuel/air mixture
goes up and compresses a fuel/air
(in a gas engine) or just air (in a
mixture (in a gas engine) or just air
diesel.)
(in a diesel).
2. Power Stroke. The fuel is ignited and
2. Power Stroke. The fuel is ignited (by
drives the piston down. As the piston
a spark in a gas engine, by being
goes down it not only turns the
injected into high temperature air in
crankshaft but also pressurizes the
a diesel.) The energy released
fuel/air mixture in the crankcase which
drives the piston down. This
is about to be admitted to the piston
provides the momentum necessary
for the next cycle. Near the bottom of
to keep the crankshaft turning and
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the stroke, an outlet opens and the
make the other three strokes
exhaust gases are released. Even
happen.
nearer the bottom of the stroke, an

inlet opens and new fuel/air (which was
just pressurized by the piston) rushes
in ready for compression.
3. Because a 2-stroke engine gets a
power stroke twice as often as a fourstroke engine, it puts out about twice
as much power (and makes twice as
much noise) as a four-stroke engine of
3. Exhaust Stroke. The piston goes up

and pushes the burned gases out
the exhaust valve. Intake Stroke.
The piston goes down and draws in
new air, or fuel/air mixture, ready
for the next compression stroke.
the same size.
Cooling System
Purpose-methods-air, water and other coolants-pump assisted cooling systems-fan-sensorsradiator types-pressure cap-expansion systems-merits-vented and pressurized-expansion
tank-troubles in cooling system-loss of coolant, overheating and overcooling-causes.
Lubrication Systems
Purpose-types of lubricants-properties-additives-service rating of oil-types of lubricating
system-types of filters-methods of cylinder and piston lubrication-high pressure systems-oil
pumps-troubles in lubrication system-oil leakage, low oil pressure and excessive oil
consumption-causes.
Purpose of Engine lubrication system:
The engine lubrication system is designed to deliver clean oil at the correct temperature
and pressure to every part of the engine. The oil is sucked out the sump into the pump,
being the heart of the system, than forced through an oil filter and pressure feeded to
the main bearings and to the oil pressure gauge. From the main bearings, the oil passes
through feed-holes into drilled passages in the crankshaft and on to the big-end
bearings of the connecting rod. The cylinder walls and piston-pin bearings are lubricated
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by oil fling dispersed by the rotating crankshaft. The excess being scraped off by the
lower ring in the piston. A bleed or tributary from the main supply passage feeds each
camshaft bearing. Another bleed supplies the timing chain or gears on the camshaft
drive. The excess oil then drains back to the sump, where the heat is dispersed to the
surrounding air. Lubrication
What is Lubricant?
A lubricant (sometimes referred to as "lube") is a substance (often a liquid) introduced
between two moving surfaces to reduce the friction between them, improving efficiency and
reducing wear. They may also have the function of dissolving or transporting foreign particles
and of distributing heat.
The lubrication system of an automobile is mostly used for collecting, cleaning, cooling and re
circulating oil in the engine of vehicle. The main function an automobile lubrication system is
to circulate and deliver oil to all the moving parts of an engine in order to lessen friction
between surfaces that comes in contact with each other. The lubrication system of an
automobile acts to reduce engine wear caused by the friction of its metal parts, as well as to
carry off heat.
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Components of lubrication system:
Automotive Fluids and Greases
Fuel System Additives
Oil Filters
Oil Pumps
Oil Strainers
Specific Usage Oils
Purpose of Lubrication:
(i) To minimize wear and friction
(ii) To remove heat from engine parts
(iii) To absorb shocks occurred between moving parts
(iv) To provide sealing action
(v) To act as cleaning agent
The main factors considered in a good lubrication system are as given under:
(i) The lubrication system should be reliable
(ii) The system should ensure the proper lubrication of all the working parts
(iii) There should be minimum consumption of lubricant because the excessive oil provides
friction and gummy action on the working parts of the engine.
(iv) The system should be provided with proper oil filters.
(v) The system should be provided with pressure gauge or oil indicators so that driver may
know the circulation of lubricant through different working parts.
(vi) The system consists of lubricant pf proper quality
(vii) The system should be provided with proper oil scaling and drain plugs to replace the oil.
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Oil pump, Oil strainer and Oil filter
Oil filter:
Oil Filters refer to devices or tools which are used for filtering impurities and dirty residue
mixed in the oil that lubricates and greases an internal combustion engine of the vehicle.
Oil Pumps:
Oil Pumps are the mechanical devices used for distributing oil to the other moving parts of
the engine of an automobile. More specifically, oil pump is a pivotal part of an automobile
lubrication system, which is used for dispensing pressurized oil through suction or by applying
pressure. In other words, these devices are especially created to raise, compress or transfer
fluids to the other important parts of an engine. There are innumerable types of oil pumps
like automotive fuel pumps, electric fuel pumps available in the market to suit your desired
specification.
Oil strainer:
Oil Strainers refer to a coarse-mesh metal screen, which are used for trapping foreign and
impure particulate matter present in oil. This device makes sure that the foreign matter like
lost washers, nuts and bolts does not enter into the oil pump. Oil strainers are generally
located between the oil reservoir space and oil pump. These strainers are mostly made of
stainless steel, aluminum, cast bronze, brass, chrome, copper, nickel, platinum, plastic,
wrought iron, polyvinyl chloride and other materials.
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UNIT II
FUEL AND FUEL FEED SYSTEMS
Fuels
Fuels are chemical substances which may be burned in oxygen to generate heat. They mainly
consist of carbon and hydrogen and sometimes a small amount of sulfur or minerals. There
are solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. Coal and Coke are examples of solid fuels. Petroleum oils
are usually a mixture of several liquid fuels.
Fuels
Classification of Fuels: Fuels can be classified as solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
Solid fuels: Examples of solid fuels are wood, coal, charcoal and coke.
Liquid fuels: Examples of liquid fuels are petrol, kerosene, diesel, alcohol, liquid hydrogen.
Gaseous fuels: Naturally occurring gaseous fuels are methane, liquid petroleum gas
(butane), hydrogen. Artificially prepared fuels gases are coal gas, oil gas, gobar gas, petrol
gas, water gas.
Fuels can also be divided into categories such as primary and secondary fuels.
Primary fuels: Fuels that directly produce heat on ignition are called primary type of fuels.
They are raw fuels. Examples are wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas, animal dung, etc.
Secondary fuels: Fuels that are processed and prepared from raw or primary fuels are
called secondary type of fuels. Examples are charcoal, coke, petrol, diesel, kerosene, coal
gas, gobar gas, water gas.
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Fuel Feed systems
Layout construction and working of mechanical and Electrical Fuel feed pumps Fuel filters
Multi Point Fuel Inject on Air filters, types dry type, wet type and oil bath type.
It is an object of the present invention to provide a fuel feed system for a vehicle in which,
even if a small fuel quantity remains in a fuel pump, an air inhaling phenomenon is not
generated when a vehicle jumps or runs on an upward slope. In the fuel feed system, a fuel
pump unit is accommodated in a fuel tank, and the fuel pump unit includes a fuel pump and a
fuel filter connected to a lower-end fuel suction portion of the fuel pump. The fuel filter is
shaped so as to extend outward from a region of the fuel pump as seen from the above, and
a filter housing for covering at least one of an upper portion and a lower portion of the fuel
filter, front and rear portions of the fuel filter, and right and left portions of the fuel filter is
provided with the fuel pump unit.
Carburetor
The carburetor is an automotive component that mixes air and fuel for an internal
combustion engine. The construction of a typical carburetor entails a "barrel" through which
the air rushes into the inlet manifold of the engine. The shape of the barrel causes the airflow
to increase in speed at the narrowest part. Fuel is introduced into the air stream through
small holes located at narrowest part of the barrel. This operation mixes air and fuel before it
is reaches the cylinder through the fuel injector.
A carburetor is basically a shaped tube. The shape of the tube is designed to spin the
incoming air and generate a vacuum in a section called the venturi pipe (or just the venturi).
In the side of the venturi is a fuel jet which is basically a tiny hole connected to the float
chamber via a pipe. It's normally made of brass and has a miniscule hole in the end of it
which determines the flow of fuel through it. In more complex carburetors, this is an
adjustable needle valve where a screw on the outside of the carburetor can screw a needle in
and out of the valve to give some tuning control over the fuel flow. The fuel is pulled through
the jet by the vacuum created in the venturi.
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At the bottom of the tube is a throttle plate or throttle butterfly which is basically a flat
circular plate that pivots along its centre line. It is connected mechanically to the accelerator
pedal or twist-grip throttle via the throttle cable. The more you push on the accelerator or
twist open the throttle, the more the throttle butterfly opens. This allows more air in which
creates more vacuum, which draws more fuel through the fuel jet and gives a larger fuel-air
charge to the cylinder, resulting in acceleration.
When the throttle is closed, the throttle butterfly in the carburetor is also closed. This means
the engine is trying to suck fuel-air mix and generating a vacuum behind the butterfly valve
so the regular fuel jet won't work. To allow the engine to idle without shutting off completely,
a second fuel jet known as the idle valve is screwed into the venturi downwind of the throttle
butterfly. This allows just enough fuel to get into the cylinders to keep the engine ticking
over.
Advantages of carburetors:
Analogue and very predictable fuelling behaviour, simple and inexpensive to build and
maintain.
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Disadvantages of carburetors:
Carburetor icing in the venturi, imprecise fuel metering, float chambers don't work well if
they're not the right way up.
Fuel tank:
The fuel tank is that part of an automobile engine, which stores the fuel supplied into the
engine. Depending upon the type of automobile and fuels, fuel tanks vary in sizes, types and
complexity of designs.
Automobile filter:
Automobile filter or an air filter is a device which purifies the air supplied to the engine by
removing dust and other particulates from it. Air filters are essential because the air supplied
to an engine needs to be free of pollutants, lest it damages the engine, contaminates the oil
or causes it to malfunction. Most of today's automobiles using fuel injection technology utilize
a pleated paper filter element in the form of a flat panel. The filter is positioned inside a
plastic box linked to the throttle body.
Air filter
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Fuel filter
Fuel filter is a device that removes impurities from the fuel before it gets to the Carburetor. It
is usually found near the Carburetor in the fuel line that comes from the Fuel pump (In-line
fuel filter), or inside the Carburetor (Integral fuel filter) or Fuel pump (Integral fuel filter).
This unit must be cleaned or replaced on a regular basis, usually once a year or it will become
clogged and restrict fuel to the Carburetor.
Without a fuel filter, the fuel injectors in a vehicle would get clogged very fast, because even
if the fuel was clean when it came out of the refinery, it still needs to be transported, and a
lot of the impurities come from fuel being stored and transported in dirty containers, not to
mention that the fuel tank in your own car has dirt and many other particles at the bottom of
it. It is crucial to replace the fuel filter at regular intervals ( no more than 30,000 miles), to
keep it from getting clogged.
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Oil bath air filter
The general principal of an oil bath air filter is that incoming air is sucked downwards through
the system towards a bowl containing a reservoir of oil. The figure shows how the airflow has
to make a change in direction from travelling downwards towards the oil pool before then
heading back upwards to the filter outlet. The air changes direction easily, however any dirt
carried in the air is unable to make the turn due to its inertia so it continues straight on into
the oil where it is trapped. This system is considered satisfactory for engines which are
generally working in clean air environments such as cars.
The majority of manufacturers have progressed this principle to make it even more efficient
at capturing the last remaining particles of dirt. The bottom of the air inlet pipe is submersed
below the oil level so that the air must pass through the oil (Figure 2). At this stage the
larger particles are captured by a combination of the inertia principle as detailed above and
by centrifugal force created within the oil reservoir. As the air heads back upwards under
suction through the filter it now must pass through a packing material (fibre, mesh, foam or
metal shavings). The air carries with it some oil up into the packing material where smaller
dust particles become trapped and the cleaned air continues upwards and out of the air
cleaner. The process of the air carrying oil with it up into the packing material has the effect
of washing the dirt particles back down into the reservoir.
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Oil bath air cleaners have been largely replaced by dry paper filters in most modern tractors,
as the oil makes servicing both messy and inconvenient due to the frequency of cleaning
required. Oil bath filters are, however, very efficient at capturing dirt and can sequent a large
amount of dirt relative to their size, without loss of efficiency. They are probably more
efficient at providing clean air to your engine than modern paper filters
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working of fuel feed pumps
Fuel Pump:
A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on a car or other internal
combustion engine device. Many engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not
require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank through a
line or hose to the engine. But in non-gravity feed designs, fuel has to be pumped from the
fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low pressure to the carburetor or under high
pressure to the fuel injection system. Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical
pumps that are mounted outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use
electric fuel pumps that are mounted inside the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines
have two fuel pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high
pressure/low volume pump on or near the engine).
Mechanical Pump:
Prior to the widespread adoption of electronic fuel injection, most carbureted automobile
engines used mechanical fuel pumps to transfer fuel from the fuel tank into the fuel bowls of
the carburetor. Most mechanical fuel pumps are diaphragm pumps, which are a type of
positive displacement pump. Diaphragm pumps contain a pump chamber whose volume is
increased or decreased by the flexing of a flexible diaphragm, similar to the action of a piston
pump. A check valve is located at both the inlet and outlet ports of the pump chamber to
force the fuel to flow in one direction only. Specific designs vary, but in the most common
configuration, these pumps are typically bolted onto the engine block or head, and the
engine's camshaft has an extra eccentric lobe that operates a lever on the pump, either
directly or via a pushrod, by pulling the diaphragm to bottom dead center. In doing so, the
volume inside the pump chamber increased, causing fuel to be drawn into the pump from the
tank. The return motion of the diaphragm to top dead center is accomplished by a diaphragm
spring, during which the fuel in the pump chamber is squeezed through the outlet port and
into the carburetor. The pressure at which the fuel is expelled from the pump is thus limited
(and therefore regulated) by the force applied by the diaphragm spring
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Electrical Pump:
In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and located inside of the fuel tank. The
pump creates positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The
higher gasoline pressure raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the
component least likely to handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the
engine, submersed in cool liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside the tank is that
it is less likely to start a fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark
and ignite fuel vapors, liquid fuel will not explode (see explosive limit) and therefore
submerging the pump in the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In most cars, the fuel
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pump delivers a constant flow of gasoline to the engine; fuel not used is returned to the tank.
This further reduces the chance of the fuel boiling, since it is never kept to be controlled via
pulse-width modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life of the pump, allows a
smaller and lighter device to be used, and reduces electrical load.
Fuel Feed Pumps

The fuel feed pump used for the diesel engine is similar to that of a fuel lift pump for the
petrol engine. It delivers the fuel from the tank to the injection pump continuously and at a
reasonable pressure. It is necessary because there is possibility of formation of vapour
bubbles and subsequently cavitations in the pump due to suction of the rapidly moving
plungers of the injection pump. This would lead to uncontrolled variations in the rate of
delivery of fuel to the cylinders, causing rough running and possibly even mechanical damage
to the engine. Also cavitations could cause mechanical damage in the injection pump.
Generally delivery pressures of between about 29 and 98 kPa adequate for preventing vapour
formation on the suction side of in-line type injection pumps. This pressure also ensures
adequate supply of fuel for filling the plunger elements at high speeds in a rotary or
distribution pumps.
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Fuel injectors
Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive petrol engines, having almost
completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s.A fuel injection system is designed and
calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will handle. Most fuel injection systems are for
gasoline or diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the diesel
and gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI's programmable firmware has permitted
common hardware to be used with different fuels. Carburetors were the predominant method
used to meter fuel on gasoline engines before the widespread use of fuel injection. A variety
of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.
The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes
the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor
relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the air
stream. The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from
a pump or a pressure container farther back in the fuel supply.
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Unit - III
Transmission & Power Trains
Clutch:
The Clutch is a device for connecting and disconnecting two shafts to be transmitted at will to a
second shaft, whose axis is coincident with that of the first.
Clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. Clutches
are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically driven
by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. In a drill, for instance, one shaft is
driven by a motor, and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so that
they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged), or be decoupled and
spin at different speeds (disengaged).
Requirements of Clutch:
Gradual Engagement: The clutch should be engaged gradually so that occurrence of sudden
jerks avoided
Size: The size of the clutch should be so small that should occupy minimum space.
Torque Transmission: The clutch should be so designed that the maximum torque of the engine
can be transmitted through it.
Heat dissipation: Due to friction occurring in this system a large amount of heat is generated.
Therefore the design of the clutch should ensure adequate dissipation of the heat.
Dynamic balancing: Fog the high speed clutches, the dynamic balancing is necessary
Provision of the clutch free pedal play: To take the full efficiency and to avoid the wearing of
clutch there should be slight free pedal play
Ease of operation: Engaging and disengaging of the clutch should not be tiresome to the
operator
Vibration Damping: Clutch system should be so designed that nouse produces in the
transmission can be eliminated easily.
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Type of Clutches:
The main types of clutches are given under
1. Friction clutch
(a) Single plate clutch
(b) Multi plate clutch (i) Wet (ii) Dry
(c) Cone clutch
(i) External (ii) Internal
2. Centrifugal Clutch
3. Semi centrifugal clutch
4. Conical spring clutch or Diaphragm clutch
(a) Tapered fingler type (ii) Crown spring type
5. Positive clutch-Dog and spline clutch
6. Hydraulic clutch
7. Electro magnetic clutch
8. Vaccum clutch
9. Over running clutch or free wheel unit
When one rotating disc is brought in contact with the other forcedly, then due to friction between
two, the power is transmitted from former to the later, this system is know as friction clutches,
When power is transmitted from one van to other due to centrifugal force by means of fluid this
mechanism of transfer of energy from one rotor to the other is called "fluid flywheel".
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Clutch function
Components of Clutch:
Flywheel mounts to the engine crankshaft

Clutch Disk the friction material assembly that provides easy engagement and firm torque
transference
Pressure Plate: also known as Clutch Cover this is the spring-loaded surface that locks the
clutch
Throw out bearing: also known as Release Bearing
Pilot bearing:-centers and supports the transmission input shaft (many cars do not have this
bearing)
Clutch cable: mechanical release mechanism for some vehicles
Clutch Master Cylinder : force-multiplying cylinder for vehicles with hydraulic release
mechanisms
Clutch slave cylinder: used along with a Master Cylinder for hydraulic release mechanisms
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Function of the clutch:
In an automobile clutch, the flywheel is connected to the engine, and the clutch plate is
connected to the transmission. When your foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure
plate against the clutch disc, which in turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to
the
transmission
input
shaft,
making
them
spin
at
the
same
speed.
The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between the clutch plate and the
flywheel, and how much force the spring puts on the pressure plate.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the release fork, which
presses the throw-out bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring. As the middle of the
diaphragm spring is pushed in, a series of pins near the outside of the spring cause the spring to
pull the pressure plate away from the clutch disc. This releases the clutch from the spinning
engine.
Parts description:
The Engine:
The engine runs the car. Without it working well, car wont function. The backbone of the engine is
the crankshaft, and it is the hardest working part of the engine. The crankshaft drives all beltdriven accessories, such as the water pump, the alternator, the A/C and the fan. But, its primary
function is to change the give-and-return motion of the piston and rod into a circling motion that is
transferred to the transmission, and drive wheels. As the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder burns, it
forces the pistons down. Each piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. As the
piston goes down, the connecting rod causes the crankshaft to turn.
The Flywheel:
The flywheel does a lot of things it acts as a balancer for the engine, reduces vibrations caused
by cylinders firing, and it provides a smooth surface friction surface for the clutch. But the
flywheels main function is to transfer engine torque (the turning effort produced by the pressure
from the crankshaft on the pistons) from the engine to the transmission. The flywheel connects the
clutch and the driveline to the engine. One side is bolted directly to the crankshaft, and one side is
bolted to the clutch assembly.
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The clutch disc:
Sandwiched between the flywheel and the pressure plate, the clutch disc is covered with friction
material on both sides. The center of the disc called the hub is splined to match the splines
on the input shaft of the transmission. Each clutch disc comes with a set of springs, located in the
hub, called the torsion damper system. These springs are designed to cushion the engagement by
absorbing a portion of the impact when the disc is squeezed between the flywheel and the
pressure plate. In street applications, the central hub is a separate part connected to the clutch
with marcel cushion springs. This absorbs any engagement impact.
The Pressure plate:
The Pressure Plate is, basically, a spring-loaded clamp that is bolted to the flywheel. The pressure
plate presses the clutch disc and allows for the transfer of power to the transmission.
The Throw-out bearing:
When the clutch pedal is pressed down, this bearing also called the Release Bearing moves
toward the flywheel. It pushes in against the pressure plates release fingers and moves them
against the force of the plates springs. This action moves the pressure plate away from the clutch
disc, interrupting the flow of power and reducing friction.
The clutch fork:
This piece provides a lever action to engage or disengage the clutch. It forces the throw-out
bearing into the pressure plate.
The Transmission:
The Transmission provides several selectable gear ratios, which allows the driver to match the
engine output to a variety of driving conditions. starting from a dead stop as we accelerate, the
engine needs to spin quickly to make the necessary power to move the car. Once we reached the
speed limit, the car needs less power to maintain speed. So, the transmission uses a high gear
ratio (lots of power, but not much speed) during initial acceleration, when climbing hills. It uses a
low ratio (lots of speed, but not much power) when we cruising.
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A centrifugal clutch is a clutch that uses centrifugal force to connect two concentric shafts, with the
driving shaft nested inside the driven shaft.
The input of the clutch is connected to the engine crankshaft while the output may drive a shaft,
chain, or belt. As engine RPM increases, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward and force the
clutch to engage. The most common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that
engage the inside of the rim of a housing. On the center shaft there are an assorted amount of
extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe. When the center shaft spins fast enough, the
springs extend causing the clutch shoes to engage the friction face. It can be compared to a drum
brake in reverse. This type can be found on most home built karts, lawn and garden equipment,
fuel powered model cars and low power chainsaws. Another type used in racing karts has friction
and clutch disks stacked together like a motorcycle clutch. The weighted arms force these disks
together and engage the clutch.
When the engine reaches a certain RPM, the clutch activates, working almost like a continuously
variable transmission. As the load increases the rpm drops, disengaging the clutch, letting the rpm
rise again and reengaging the clutch. If tuned properly, the clutch will tend to keep the engine at
or near the torque peak of the engine. This results in a fair bit of waste heat, but over a broad
range of speeds it is much more useful than a direct drive in many applications.
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Hydraulic clutch
Hydraulic clutch components:
Hydraulic clutches are usually self adjusting: The friction material on the clutch plate gradually
wears down. The position where the disengagement mechanism begins to take up therefore
changes and the clutch mechanism must adjust to compensate. Hydraulic mechanisms rely on the
diaphragm to return the hydraulic fluid through the master cylinder and into its reservoir as it
pushes the disengagement mechanism and the slave-cylinder piston back. The master cylinder
contains a valve to allow this to happen fully but the valve is open only when the clutch pedal is
fully raised - otherwise the disengagement mechanism would never operate. Resting a foot on the
clutch pedal full-time therefore prevents the clutch from self-adjusting, puts load on the throwout
bearing and can cause it to fail prematurely. Similar problems can occur from resting a foot (longterm) on the pedal of a cable-operated clutch.
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Hydraulic and cable-operated clutches are adjusted so there is a little essential "play" before the
pedal starts to operate the disengagement mechanism. In a hydraulic clutch this ensures that it
can self adjust. In a cable-operated clutch it ensures that the throwout bearing is under no load
unless actively changing gears; manual adjustment may be necessary every few months as the
clutch plate wears or the cable stretches. The fluid level in the reservoir of a hydraulically operated
clutch should be checked weekly and the fluid should be replaced annually because it is
hygroscopic and water causes corrosion.
The slave and master cylinder seals can fail and it is a good idea to carry spares (and hydraulic
fluid) if travelling in remote locations. Racing drivers can change gear without a clutch and you can
too in an emergency to drive a vehicle without using the clutch. The starter motor is powerful
enough to start a vehicle in first gear on the flat or even up a slight slope, although it is not
recommended as common practice! (Also useful if stuck with a dead engine on a railway crossing
when the express is due.
Motorcycle clutches
The major working component of a motorcycle clutch is the friction plates. The friction plates take
the abuse and wear of daily riding. Designed as a consumable item, they wear out and need to be
replaced. Motorcycle clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating plain steel and friction
plates. One type of plate has lugs on its inner diameter that key it to the engine crankshaft, while
the other type of plate has lugs on its outer diameter that key it to a basket that turns the
transmission input shaft. The plates are forced together by a set of coil springs when the clutch is
engaged. Racing motorcycles often use slipper clutches to eliminate the effects of engine braking.
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Components of motor cycle clutch:
Mechanical clutches
Mechanical clutches are composed of one or more discs. Most of them are equipped with a
diaphragm spring and they are hydraulically actuated by means of a hydro pneumatic clutch servo.
A pressure plate pushes the disc against the flywheel and transfers the torque from the When the
clutch pedal is depressed, the linkage moves the release bearing lever. The release lever is
attached at the opposite end to a release bearing which straddles the transmission clutch shaft,
and presses inward on the pressure plate fingers or the diaphragm spring. This inward pressure
acts upon the fingers and internal linkage of the pressure plate and allows the clutch plate to move
away from the flywheel, interrupting the flow of power.
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Mechanical clutch inner view
Main Components of Mechanical Clutch:
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Compression plate
The compression plate is a mechanical component made up of:
1.
spacing rivet
2.
leaf spring
3.
compression plate
4.
leaf spring attachment
5.
ring
6.
cover
The compression plate (3) is a strong steel ring that makes pressure against a disc by means of
helical springs or diaphragm springs.
There are two types of compression plates:
1. Helical spring loaded compression plate:
This type of plate is not currently used in clutches mostly because it is not resistant to the high
speeds of late engines. Also, its pressure on the disc is dramatically reduced with facing wearing,
thus increasing the clutch pedal effort.
2. Leaf spring loaded compression plate:
Resistance to high engine speeds, together with a compact design that allows a smaller housing
(essential for saving space), makes the leaf spring loaded plate a standard in practically all
vehicles manufactured nowadays. Moreover, the leaf spring design makes it possible to work with
lower and nearly constant initial loads during the plate life thereby reducing the clutch pedal
effort.
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Wet and Dry clutch
Wet clutch:
A 'wet clutch' is immersed in a cooling lubricating fluid, which also keeps the surfaces clean and
gives smoother performance and longer life. Wet clutches, however, tend to lose some energy to
the liquid.
Dry clutch:
A 'dry clutch', as the name implies, is not bathed in fluid. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can
be slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in transmission oil), stacking multiple clutch disks
can compensate for the lower coefficient of friction and so eliminate slippage when fully engaged.
Fluid coupling
Fluid coupling is a device used for transmitting rotation between shafts by means of the
acceleration and deceleration of a hydraulic fluid. Structurally, a fluid coupling consists of an
impeller on the input or driving shaft and a runner on the output or driven shaft. The two contain
the fluid Impeller and runner are bladed rotors, the impeller acting as a pump and the runner
reacting as a turbine.
The fluid coupling resembles two fans with a liquid circulating between them. The engine turns one
fan, technically known as an "impeller," and this impeller pushes transmission fluid toward the
second impeller. As the liquid flows through the second impeller, it exerts a twist (a "torque") on
the impeller. If the car is moving or is allowed to move, this torque will cause the impeller to turn
and, with it, the wheels of the car. If, however, the car is stopped and the brake is on, the
transmission fluid will flow through the second impeller without effect. Overall, the fluid coupling
allows the efficient transfer of power from the engine to the wheels without any direct mechanical
linkage that would cause trouble when the car comes to a stop.
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Gear Box
Gearbox purpose:
transmission (To the Europeans, it's a gearbox. To the Americans, it's a transmission) or
gearbox is the gear and/or hydraulic system that transmits mechanical power from a prime
mover (which can be an engine or electric motor), to some form of useful output device.
Typically, the rotational speed of an input shaft is changed, resulting in a different output
speed. However, some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical direction in
which power is transmitted.
Sliding mesh gear box

An obsolete type of transmission or gearbox in which the gears on the layshaft are fixed to the
shaft rigidly, whereas the gears on the main shaft can slide on it by means of splines but are
otherwise in permanent rotational mesh with the shaft.
1.
main drive gear
2.
counter shaft
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3.
main shaft
4.
I gear
5.
II gear
6.
III gear
7.
top speed engaging dogs
Constant mesh gear box

Constant mesh gearbox is a type of Transmission in which all or most of the gears are always in
mesh with one another, as opposed to a sliding-gear transmission, in which engagement is
obtained by sliding some of the gears along a shaft into mesh. In a constant-mesh manual
gearbox, Gear ratios are selected by small Clutches that connect the various gear sets to their
shafts so that power is transmitted through them.
1.
I speed gear
2.
II speed gear s
3.
main shaft
4.
III speed gear
5.
top and III speed engaging dogs
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6.
top gear
7.
primary shaft or main drive gear
8.
counter shaft/cluster gear
Synchromesh gear box
1.
I speed gear
2.
II speed gear
3.
main shaft
4.
outer engaging unit
5.
inner engaging unit
6.
top gear engaging teeth s
7.
main drive gear
8.
top gear synchronizing cones
9.
counter shaft
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Epicyclic gearbox
Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing is a gear system that consists of one or more outer gears, or
planet gears, rotating about a central, or sun gear. Typically, the planet gears are mounted on a
movable arm or carrier which itself may rotate relative to the sun gear. Epicyclic gearing systems
may also incorporate the use of an outer ring gear or annulus, which meshes with the planet
gears.
Epicyclic gearing is used here to increase output speed. The planet gear carrier (green) is driven
by an input torque. The sun gear (yellow) provides the output torque, while the ring gear (red) is
fixed. Note the red marks both before and after the input drive is rotated 45 clockwise.
Clutch troubleshooting
Slippage:
The classic clutch symptom is slippage. Engine revolutions are not fully transferred to the
transmission. Power is not fully transmitted to the drive wheels. The engine seems to race but the
vehicle does not keep up! Slippage is most often caused by a worn clutch disc. Or, the clutch
pressure plate may be weakened by heat, age, or abuse. In either case, it means the vehicle
needs a new clutch. Replacing just one clutch part is not good practice. Automotive repair
professionals will not attempt such partial repairs. Worn or damaged clutches must be replaced.
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Less common causes of slippage include:
massive amounts of oil on the clutch (usually causes chatter, not slippage, see below), a broken
disc or pressure plate, a release cable binding, or transmission damage. Obviously, an oil-soaked
or broken clutch requires replacement. But, even when the problem is external, replacing a
slipping clutch may be warranted. Slippage causes almost instant damage to the clutch. Heat
produced by the slippage quickly damages friction material, contact surfaces, and springs.
Clutch Release Problems:
Clutch release problems are common. Even though the clutch pedal is depressed, you have trouble
shifting. In some cases it is impossible to get the transmission into gear. Sometimes there is an
accompanying sound of grinding gears! When these symptoms occur, they are most often the
result of the clutch not fully disengaging. The transmission input shaft is not allowed to come to a
stop. Engine revolutions are still being transmitted to the transmission. Sources for this problem
vary according to the type of clutch mechanism your vehicle has.
Mechanical Linkage:
Worn pivot points, broken or bent push rod, worn or broken cross-shaft, bent pedal bracket, or
cracked firewall can each cause this problem. Usually, several parts are contributing to the
problem. This type of mechanism tends to wear and fail with age and continued use.
Cable Operated Clutch:
Stretched, frayed or binding cable, broken or bent pedal bracket, or cracked firewall can be the
cause. Problems with a cable mechanism will often herald internal clutch problems as well. When
something happens inside the clutch that requires extra force to be exerted on the clutch pedal,
things break! Cables can also wear simply from age and use.
Hydraulically Operated Clutch:
Clutch master cylinder leaking or bypassing pressure, slave cylinder leaking, clutch flex hose
leaking, pedal bushings worn or missing, or a cracked firewall can reduce the systems ability to
disengage the clutch. Rule of thumb: If the clutch master cylinder is bad, replace both master and
slave cylinders as a pair. This will save you future heartache.
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Internal clutch Release Problems:
Not all release problems are caused by the release mechanism. Things can go wrong inside the
clutch as well. A loose damper spring in the clutch disc, bent disc, frozen pilot bearing, collapsed
release bearing, or metal shrapnel from a broken cover can cause the clutch to bind and not fully
release when the pedal is depressed. The release fork might bend. The pivot ball can wear or
break. There are many reasons for a clutch to hang up.
Clutch Chatter:
Clutch chatter, a vibration and/or noise when engaging the clutch, is likely to be caused by an
internal clutch problem. A warped disc, hotspots on the flywheel or pressure plate surfaces, worn
or dry input shaft splines, or worn release bearing.
Gearbox troubleshooting
The common faults of the gearbox and their causes are as given under
(i) Transmission noisy in neutral. Following are the causes of transmission noisy in
neutral position of the gear.
(a) Transmission pinion bearing worn, dirty or rough.
(b) In sufficient lubricant in gear box.
(c) Poor quality or incorrect grade of lubricant
(d) Constant mesh gears worn, chipped, burred or improperly machined.
(f) Constant mesh gears not properly meshed.
(g) Replacement of one constant mesh gear instead of the complete set of gears.
(h) Reverse idler gear worn, chipped, burred or improperly machined.
(i) Reverse idler gear shaft bush worn out.
(j) Misalignment or eccentric counter shaft gear assembly
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(k) Counter shaft worn out badly
(l) Too much lash in constant mesh gear train
(m) Too much end play of counter shaft gear and reverse idler gear.
(n) Main shaft pilot bearing broken or badly worn out.
(ii) Transmission noisy in gear wheel driving:
The following are the causes of transmission noisy in gear while driving
(a) Al the causes of neutral position more pronounced at low road speeds.
(b) Mechanical damper of clutch plate inoperative or improperly adjusted.
(c) Springs of mechanical damper of clutch plate broken or weaken.
(d) Main shaft of gear being rough, worn out or dirty.
(e) Teeth of transmission sliding gear rough, worn, pitted, burned, chipped or tapered.
(f) Too much clearance or end play of second speed main shaft gear on main shaft.
(g) Noise of clutch when free wheel is provided.
(h) Noise of speedometer gears.
(iii) Transmission leaks:
(a) Lubricant level too high in the casing
(b) Use of a lubricant which foams excessively
(c) Damaged or improperly installed oil seals and gaskets.
(d) Damaged, improperly installed or missing oil throw rings.
(e) Casing plugs loose, missing or threads damaged.
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(f) Casing bolts loose, missing or threads stripped
(g) Cracks in transmission casing or cover
Universal joint
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Spider (Universal joint):
The cross-shaped inner member of a universal joint is sometimes called a spider. Universal joints
allow for a small variable angle between the axis of the transmissions output shaft and the
axis of the propeller shaft, and between the axis of the propeller shaft and the axis of the input
shaft of the rear axle (1).The spider (6) ends (3) are called gudgeon. Around the gudgeons there
are rollers (4) kept in place by a cap (5), that allows them to roll freely. The Circlip (7) fits into the
(2) hole in the yoke and lock the cap.
A linkage that transmits rotation between two shafts whose axes are coplanar but not coinciding.
The universal joint is used in almost every class of machinery: machine tools, instruments, control
devices, and, most familiarly, automobiles.
It consists of two yokes attached to their respective shafts and connected by means of a spider.
The angle between the shafts may have any value up to approximately 35, if angular velocity is
moderate when the angle is large. Although one shaft must make a single revolution for each
revolution of the second shaft, the instantaneous angular displacement of the first shaft is the
same as that of the second shaft only at the end of each 90 of shaft rotation. Thus, only at four
positions during each revolution is angular velocity of both shafts the same.
The variation in angular displacement and angular velocity between driving and driven shafts,
which is objectionable in many mechanisms, can be eliminated by using two joints, with an
intermediate shaft. This arrangement is conventional for an automobile drive shaft. The axes of
the driving and driven shafts need not intersect; however, it is necessary that the axes of the two
yokes attached to the intermediate shaft lie respectively in planes containing the axes of adjoining
shafts.
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Universal joints show up in cars, where the engine causes a shaft, the drive shaft, to rotate along
its own axis. At some point you'd like to change the direction of the shaft. The problem is, if you
just bend the shaft, then the part after the bend won't rotate about its own axis. So if you cut it at
the bend location and insert a universal joint, you can use the constraint to force the second shaft
to rotate about the same angle as the first shaft.
Another use of this joint is to attach the arms of a simple virtual creature to its body. Imagine a
person holding their arms straight out. You may want the arm to be able to move up and down,
and forward and back, but not to rotate about its own axis.
Replacing a U Joint:
Support car in a safe position high enough to remove the driveshaft in question
Loosen appropriate nuts and bolts to remove the driveshaft
Remove all retainer clips from the inside or outside bearing caps
Position the shaft in vise to force the primary shaft downward, this will cause the lower
bearing cup to release
Loosen the vise and turn the shaft 180 degrees and retighten, force the upper bearing and
shaft downward, this will cause the lower bearing to release, now remove the joint
Repeat this operation for subsequent shafts or couplers
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Constant Velocity joint
A CV joint or constant velocity is a type of mechanism that connects two fixed rotating shafts. This
joint allows the shafts to be connected while axis pivots change, for example when suspension or
steering operation occurs. CV joints are widely used in front-wheel and rear wheel drive cars. CV
joints can deliver torque more evenly then conventional "U" joints. The CV joint is used because of
its ability to transmit more even torque throughout a particular flex range.
A CV joint can also deliver power on a wider range of angles then "U" joints, which makes them
more desirable than its older counterpart. One difference between the two joints is the way they
are serviced. A CV joint is constructed with a rubber boot that is meant to contain the lubricating
grease. A typical "U" joint has grease seals on each bearing cap so a boot is not needed.
The CV joint is virtually non-serviceable unless the boot ruptures or extreme conditions exist, like
high mileage or abuse. When the CV joint fails simply replace it with a new unit. A "U" joint is
much like the CV joint in that it too doesn't require service unless fitted with a zirk fitting meant to
allow grease to be inserted.
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Propeller Shaft
Propeller shaft-two piece and three piece construction.
Drive shaft:
The propeller shaft transmits power from the gear box to the rear axle. It consists of three main
parts given under
Main Components of Propeller shaft:
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The propeller shaft is basically made up of: Spider (universal joint) (1): The propeller shaft
transfers engine torque to the rear axle through one or more universal joints. Sleeve (2) and
sliding shaft (3): The splines on the ends at the propeller shaft fit perfectly into the splines in the
sleeve. This allows a length variation between the driving and the driven unit to vary slightly
without damaging the output and input bearings. Main bearing (4): The main bearing support and
guide the propeller shaft. Flange (5): The flanges connect the propeller shaft to the gearbox.
Shaft: It is a steel type shaft of a diameter and length suitable for the vehicle. Varying types of
chassis construction call for wither one, two or three sets of shafts
Universal joint
Slip joint
The drive shaft, or propeller shaft, connects the transmission output shaft to the differential pinion
shaft. Since all roads are not perfectly smooth, and the transmission is fixed, the drive shaft has to
be flexible to absorb the shock of bumps in the road. Universal, or "U-joints" allow the drive shaft
to flex (and stop it from breaking) when the drive angle changes.
Drive shafts are usually hollow in order to weigh less, but of a large diameter so that they are
strong. High quality steel, and sometimes aluminum are used in the manufacture of the drive
shaft. The shaft must be quite straight and balanced to avoid vibrating. Since it usually turns at
engine speeds, a lot of damage can be caused if the shaft is unbalanced, or bent. Damage can also
be caused if the U-joints are worn out.
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Type of Drive shafts:
There are two types of drive shafts, the Hotchkiss drive and the Torque Tube Drive. The Hotchkiss
drive is made up of a drive shaft connected to the transmission output shaft and the differential
pinion gear shaft. U-joints are used in the front and rear. The Hotchkiss drive transfers the torque
of the output shaft to the differential. No wheel drive thrust is sent to the drive shaft. Sometimes
this drive comes in two pieces to reduce vibration and make it easier to install (in this case, three
U-joints are needed).The two-piece types need ball bearings in a dustproof housing as center
support for the shafts. Rubber is added into this arrangement for noise and vibration reduction.
The torque tube drive shaft is used if the drive shaft has to carry the wheel drive thrust. It is a
hollow steel tube that extends from the transmission to the rear axle housing. One end is fastened
to the axle housing by bolts. The transmission end is fastened with a torque ball. The drive shaft
fits into the torque tube. A U-joint is located in the torque ball, and the axle housing end is splined
to the pinion gear shaft. Drive thrust is sent through the torque tube to the torque ball, to
transmission, to engine and finally, to the frame through the engine mounts. That is, the car is
pushed forward by the torque tube pressing on the engine.
Requirements of Propeller shaft:
For achieving efficient functions, the following are expected in a propeller shaft
(1) High torsional strength: Therefore, they are made of soild or hollow circular cross section
(2) Toughened and hardened: Therefore, thet are made of superior quality steel and are
induction hardened
(3) Efficiently jointed: Therefore they are generally welded by submerged are carbon di oxide
welding process.
(4) Dynamically balanced: Since the phenomenon of whirling may be critical at higher speeds,
therefore, propeller shafts are tested on electronic balancing machine.
(5) Reduced thrust loads. Since resonance is dangerous for the life of shaft. It also transmits
excessive dynamic force to the shaft's end supports, and so its occurrence should be avoided.
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Lubrication of Propeller Shaft:
The propeller shafts sliding splines (1) is to be greased in order to reduce friction in the slide joint.
Late-model propeller shafts have nylon lining on the sliding splines. The splines are lubricated
during assembly and no further lubrication of the splines is required as long as the tube end and
sleeve ends are intact. There are channels (2) in the spider to carry grease from the grease nipple
to the needle bearings.
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Propeller shaft trouble shooting
Following are the major troubles that may developed in the propeller shaft unit.
(i) Vibration: The vibration may develop in the propeller shaft due to the following reason
(a) Bent propeller shaft, remedy is to straighten it.
(b) Broken or worn universal joint crosses and bearings, remedy is to replace them.
(c) Loose propeller shaft supporting mounting, remedy is to tight it.
(d) Loose universal joint bolt nuts, remedy is to tighten them.
(e) Splines not properly aligned at sliding joint, remedy is to align them with the help of arrows.
(f) Intermediate flange not properly aligned with forward propeller shaft yoke, remedy is to realign
them.
(ii) Squak, metallic rattle, click or growl. Such trouble in propeller shaft may be due to the
following reasons.
(a) Due to lack of lubrication, remedy is to grease the joints
(b) Worn or broken universal joint cross, joint bearing and joint seals, remedy is to replace them.
(c) Universal joint bearings not seated properly in yoke or flange, remedy is to adjust them.
(d) Propeller shaft support mounting cap screws, loose, remedy is to tigheten them,
(e) Propeller shaft support improperly installed and loose intermediate flange, remedy is to install
properly and tighten the flange.
(iii) Lubricant loss at the joints:
This may be due to worn out joint seals, worn out universal joint cross as well bearings, and the
bearings not seated properly in the yokes or flangers
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Real axels
Hotchkiss drive:
The drive is very simple and generally is end in the vehicle. The weight of the body and the load of
the vehicle is passed to the axle through the spring, which is fixed rigidly in the middle to the
casing of the axle. The front end of the spring is dixed on the frame with bracket and the rear end
is supported in a shackle with the pins. The gear box shaft and the pinion shaft are connected by
means a propeller shaft. The propeller shaft is provided with two universal joints and one sliding
joint.
Spiral bevel
A spiral bevel gear is a bevel gear with helical teeth. The main application of this is in a vehicle
differential, where the direction of the drive carried by the (drive shaft) has to be turned through
90 degrees in order to power the wheels, propeller, etc. The helical design produces less vibration
and noise than conventional straight-cut or spur-cut gear with straight teeth.
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Differential
What is Differentials?
When a vehicle is negotiating a corner, the outside wheel has to travel a greater distance than the
inside wheel. Therefore the outside wheel must turn faster than the inside wheel. The differential is
the device within an axle assembly that differentiates the wheel speed between the two wheels.
The differential also transmits the power from the ring gear to the axle shafts and determine how
much power is delivered to each axle.
How differential works?
Assuming the wheels do no slip and spin out of control, the following two examples of car motion
describe how the differential works when the car is going forward and when it is turning. (see
Limited Slip Differential section for wheel slipping
When the car is traveling straight, both wheels travel at the same speed. Thus, the free-wheeling
planet pinions do not spin at all. Instead, as the transmission shaft turns the crown wheel, the
rotary motion is translated directly to the half-shafts, and both wheels spin with the angular
velocity of the crown wheel (they have the same speed).
When the car is turning, the wheels must move at different speeds. In this situation, the planet
pinions spin with respect to the crown wheel as they turn around the sun gears. This allows the
speed of the crown gear to be delivered unevenly to the two wheels.
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Function of the Differential:
When turning the vehicle the inside wheel slows down (1), the smaller satellite gears (2) start to
rotate on the spider. Thanks to this rotation the speed reduction is taken up from the inside wheel
and transferred to the outside wheel, which then speeds up (3).
It means that when a vehicle makes a turn, the inner wheel is subjected to a higher torque, which
reduces the inner drive shaft speed slightly. This causes the satellite gears to start working and
turn on their own axis, which causes the other drive shaft to turn with a slightly faster speed. This
movement prevents the inner wheel to slipping when the vehicle makes a turn.
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Differential lock
Differential lock, essential for driving on rough roads, may be easily enabled by simply removing
F/R diff case covers and removing screw pins. By using differential lock, drive power is transmitted
even if wheels on one side are not grounded.
The differential lock consists of a coupling sleeve (1) that is fastened on the right-hand side of the
differential housing and a sliding coupling sleeve (2) for the right-hand drive shaft.The diaphragm
(3) pushes on a sleeve (4) connected to a shift fork (5). The shift fork is connected to the sliding
coupling sleeve. The differential lock is engaged by a switch (7) on the instrument panel, and
switch (6) closes and light up the differential lock warning lamp in the instrument panel.
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Operation of Differential Lock:
To activate the differential lock, the driver just needs to press on the differential lock switch on the
instrument panel. The switch activates a solenoid valve, which applies compressed air to the
diaphragm in the rear axle. The diaphragm presses on the sleeve connected to the shift fork. The
shift fork causes the sliding coupling sleeve to move against engagement with the coupling sleeve
on the differential housing. When the two coupling sleeves are engaged, the differential is forced
to drive both drive shafts with the same speed. When differential lock is engaged the differential
lock warning lamp in the instrument panel lights up and an alarm sound.
Front axle
Front axle differential:
The front axle is a live driving unit with hypoid drive gears, and spherical steering knuckles,
containing constant velocity type axle shaft universal joints.
The differential is mounted in a housing similar to that used in the rear axle, except that the drive
pinion shaft is toward the rear of the front and to the right of the centre of the axle. This design
allows placing the front propeller shaft along the right side of the engine oil pan without reducing
the road clearance under the engine. The axle is of the full floating type and the axle shafts can be
removed without dismantling the steering knuckles.
The lubricant is retained in the steering knuckle housings by felt oil seals mounted in twin retainers
attached to the inner face of the housings, These seals also prevent dirt and grit entering the
housings. Inspect the seals regularly and replace them promptly if damaged. Keep the spring
loaded air vent or breather, mounted in the center housing cover, free of dirt at all times.
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1. Hypoid Bevel Drive Gear and Pinion Set (Matched)
2. Drive Pinion Oil Seal
3. Universal Joint End Yoke Assembly
4. Drive Pinion Nut
5. Pinion Shaft Bearing Cone and Rollers (Outer)
6. Pinion Shaft Bearing Cup
7. Pinion Bearing Adjusting Shims (Front and Rear)
8. Drive Pinion Bearing Cone and Rollers (Rear)
9. Drive Pinion Bearing Cup (Rear)
10. Differential Bevel Pinion Mate Shaft Lock Pin
11. Differential Adjusting Shims
12. Differential Bearing Cone and Rollers.
13. Differential Bearing Cup 14. Oil Seal Differential End
15. Axle Shaft (Left)
16. Gear Cover Screw Lock washer
17. Gear Cover Screw
18. Differential Bevel Side Gear
19. Differential Pinion Mate
20. Differential Bevel Pinion Mate Shaft
21. Gear Carrier Cover
22. Differential Case
23. Gear Carrier Cover Gasket
24. Axle Shaft (Right)
25. Hypoid Bevel Drive Gear Screw
26. Drive Gear Screw Locking Strap
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Rear axle
1. Wheel Hub Cap, Left or Right

2. Axle Shaft Nut
3. Wheel Hub
4. Brake Drum
5. Brake Cylinder Assembly, Rear
6. Backing Plate, Front and Rear Brake
21. Drive Pinion Bearing Cup, Front

22. Drive Pinion Bearing Cup, Rear
23. Drive Pinion Bearing Cone and
Rollers, Rear
24. Differential Bevel Pinion Mate
Shaft Lock Pin
25.Axle Shaft, Right
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7. Brake Cylinder Bleeder Screw
26. Differential Bevel Side Gear
8. Brake Hose Connection
27. Differential Oil Filler Plug
9. Axle Shaft Grease Retainer, Outer
10. Cone and Rollers, Axle Shaft Bearing
11. Axle Shaft, Left
Shaft
12. Differential Bearing, Cone and Roller
30. Hypoid Bevel Drive Gear Screw
13. Differential Bearing Adjusting Shims
31. Drive Gear Screw Locking Strap
14. Hypoid Bevel Drive Gear and Pinion
32. Differential Centre Block
Set (Matched)
33. Differential Bearing Cup
15. Pinion Bearing Positioning Shims
34. Differential Gear Carrier Cover
16. Pinion Bearing Cone Shims
Gasket
17. Drive Pinion Oil Seal
35. Axle Shaft Grease Retainer, Inner
18. Universal End Yoke Assembly
36. Axle Shaft Bearing Grease
19. Drive Pinion Bearing Oil Slinger
Connection
20. Drive Pinion Bearing Cone and Roller,
37. Axle Shaft Bearing, Cone and
Front
Roller
38. Differential Bearing Shims
39. Brake Shoe Anchor Pin
40 Brake Shoe and Lining Assembly
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Unit - IV
Automotive Chassis
Steering System
1. Housing Oil Seal

2. Lever Shaft Assembly
3. Housing Oil Filler Plug
4. Steering Column Clamp Assembly
5. Cam & Wheel Tube Assembly
6. Steering Column Oil Hole Cover
7. Horn Wire Contact Brush Assembly
8. Steering Wheel
9. Steering Column Bearing Spring
10. Steering Column Bearing Spring Set
11. Steering Column Bearing Assembly 12. Steering Column & Bearing Assembly
13. Steering Wheel & Horn Button Nut
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14. Horn Button
15. Horn Button Spring
16. Horn Button Spring Cup
17. Side Adjusting Screw
18. Housing Assembly
19. Cam Bearing Balls
20. Steering Gear Arm
21. Housing Bushing - Inner
22. Housing Bushing - Outer
Ackermen principle of steering

Ackermen Principle definition:
1.
Design having wheel spindles mounted on axle ends to permit spindles to be turned at an
angle to axle for steering purposes;
2.
The creation of toe-out when turning to minimize tire wear. To create the proper
geometry, the steering arms are angled to turn the inside wheel at a sharper angle than
the outside wheel. This allows the inside wheel to follow a smaller radius circle than the
outside wheel.
The principle of Ackerman Steering is the relationship between the front inside tire and front
outside tire in a corner or curve
Ackermen steering geometry:
Ackermen steering principle-an animated explanation:
Camber steering
The three major alignment parameters on a car are toe, camber, and caster. Most enthusiasts
have a good understanding of what these settings are and what they involve, but many may not
know why a particular setting is called for, or how it affects performance. Let's take a quick look at
this basic aspect of suspension tuning.
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Camber steering:
Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to vertical, as viewed from the front or the rear of the
car. If the wheel leans in towards the chassis, it has negative camber; if it leans away from the
car, it has positive camber The cornering force that a tire can develop is highly dependent on its
angle relative to the road surface, and so wheel camber has a major effect on the road holding of a
car. It's interesting to note that a tire develops its maximum cornering force at a small negative
camber angle, typically around neg. 1/2 degree. This fact is due to the contribution of camber
thrust, which is an additional lateral force generated by elastic deformation as the tread rubber
pulls through the tire/road interface (the contact patch).
To optimize a tire's performance in a corner, it's the job of the suspension designer to assume that
the tire is always operating at a slightly negative camber angle. This can be a very difficult task,
since, as the chassis rolls in a corner, the suspension must deflect vertically some distance. Since
the wheel is connected to the chassis by several links which must rotate to allow for the wheel
deflection, the wheel can be subject to large camber changes as the suspension moves up and
down. For this reason, the more the wheel must deflect from its static position, the more difficult it
is to maintain an ideal camber angle. Thus, the relatively large wheel travel and soft roll stiffness
needed to provide a smooth ride in passenger cars presents a difficult design challenge, while the
small wheel travel and high roll stiffness inherent in racing cars reduces the engineer's headaches.
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It's important to draw the distinction between camber relative to the road, and camber relative to
the chassis. To maintain the ideal camber relative to the road, the suspension must be designed so
that wheel camber relative to the chassis becomes increasingly negative as the suspension deflects
upward. The illustration on the bottom of page 46 shows why this is so. If the suspension were
designed so as to maintain no camber change relative to the chassis, then body roll would induce
positive camber of the wheel relative to the road. Thus, to negate the effect of body roll, the
suspension must be designed so that it pulls in the top of the wheel (i.e., gains negative camber)
as it is deflected upwards.
While maintaining the ideal camber angle throughout the suspension travel assures that the tire is
operating at peak efficiency, designers often configure the front suspensions of passenger cars so
that the wheels gain positive camber as they are deflected upward. The purpose of such a design
is to reduce the cornering power of the front end relative to the rear end, so that the car will
understeer in steadily greater amounts up to the limit of adhesion. Understeer is inherently a much
safer and more stable condition than oversteer, and thus is preferable for cars intended for the
public.
Since most independent suspensions are designed so that the camber varies as the wheel moves
up and down relative to the chassis, the camber angle that we set when we align the car is not
typically what is seen when the car is in a corner. Nevertheless, it's really the only reference we
have to make camber adjustments. For competition, it's necessary to set the camber under the
static condition, test the car, then alter the static setting in the direction that is indicated by the
test results.
The best way to determine the proper camber for competition is to measure the temperature
profile across the tire tread immediately after completing some hot laps. In general, it's desirable
to have the inboard edge of the tire slightly hotter than the outboard edge. However, it's far more
important to ensure that the tire is up to its proper operating temperature than it is to have an
"ideal" temperature profile. Thus, it may be advantageous to run extra negative camber to work
the tires up to temperature
Caster steering
Caster is the angle to which the steering pivot axis is tilted forward or rearward from vertical, as
viewed from the side. If the pivot axis is tilted backward (that is, the top pivot is positioned farther
rearward than the bottom pivot), then the caster is positive; if it's tilted forward, then the caster is
negative.
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Positive caster tends to straighten the wheel when the vehicle is traveling forward, and thus is
used to enhance straight-line stability. The mechanism that causes this tendency is clearly
illustrated by the castering front wheels of a shopping cart (above). The steering axis of a
shopping cart wheel is set forward of where the wheel contacts the ground. As the cart is pushed
forward, the steering axis pulls the wheel along, and since the wheel drags along the ground, it
falls directly in line behind the steering axis. The force that causes the wheel to follow the steering
axis is proportional to the distance between the steering axis and the wheel-to-ground contact
patch-the greater the distance, the greater the force. This distance is referred to as "trail."
Due to many design considerations, it is desirable to have the steering axis of a car's wheel right
at the wheel hub. If the steering axis were to be set vertical with this layout, the axis would be
coincident with the tire contact patch. The trail would be zero, and no castering would be
generated. The wheel would be essentially free to spin about the patch (actually, the tire itself
generates a bit of a castering effect due to a phenomenon known as "pneumatic trail," but this
effect is much smaller than that created by mechanical castering, so we'll ignore it here).
Fortunately, it is possible to create castering by tilting the steering axis in the positive direction.
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With such an arrangement, the steering axis intersects the ground at a point in front of the tire
contact patch, and thus the same effect as seen in the shopping cart casters is achieved.
The tilted steering axis has another important effect on suspension geometry. Since the wheel
rotates about a tilted axis, the wheel gains camber as it is turned. This effect is best visualized by
imagining the unrealistically extreme case where the steering axis would be horizontal-as the
steering wheel is turned, the road wheel would simply change camber rather than direction. This
effect causes the outside wheel in a turn to gain negative camber, while the inside wheel gains
positive camber. These camber changes are generally favorable for cornering, although it is
possible to overdo it.
Most cars are not particularly sensitive to caster settings. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure
that the caster is the same on both sides of the car to avoid the tendency to pull to one side. While
greater caster angles serve to improve straight-line stability, they also cause an increase in
steering effort. Three to five degrees of positive caster is the typical range of settings, with lower
angles being used on heavier vehicles to keep the steering effort reasonable.
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Hydraulic steering
King pin inclination

Kingpin inclination is the angle of the King Pin in relationship to the tire as the king pin and tire are
viewed from the front. It is only tied to Camber when reference is made to the adjustment of the
Camber. The effects of King Pin inclination can be affected by the size of the tire and the rim
offset. The reason an angle of inclination is added to the spindle is so that the scrub radius of the
tire turning can be eliminated or at least reduced. In the illustration you can see how the path of
the contact patch can be controlled with a carefully designed spindle..
Rack and pinion gearbox

Rack and pinion gear is a type of Steering system with a Pinion gear on the end of the Steering
shaft. The pinion engages a long rack (a bar with a row of teeth cut along one edge). When the
Steering wheel is turned, the pinion turns and moves the rack to the left or right. This movement
is carried through Tie rods to the Steering arms at the wheels.
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Shock absorber
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Steering gear box
Steering trouble shooting

(i) Hard steering: When the steering requires more effort that the normal, it is called "hard
steering". It may be due to the following reasons.
(a) Uneven or low tyre pressure. Remedy is to inflate to correct pressure.
(b) Friction in the steering gear, linkage and at the king-pin. Remedy is to lubricate the meshing
parts, readjust or replace them, if worn
(c) Disturbed alignment of the caster, camber, toe-in and king pin inclination etc. Remedy is to
check the alignment and readjust of necessary.
(d) Frame bent or broken. Remedy is to check frame alignment, repair or replace if necessary.
(e) Front springs or springs weak or sagging. Remedy is to replace them.
(ii) Excessive play in the steering system.
(a) Loose wheel bearing. Remedy is to readjust or replace the bearing.
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(b) Looseness in steering gear. Remedy is to readjust or replace the worn parts.
(c) Looseness in linkage. Remedy is to readjust or replace the worn parts
d) Worn steering knuckle parts. Remedy is to replace the worn parts.
(iii) Vehicle wander.
(a) Uneven or low tyre pressure. Remedy is to inflate to correct pressure
(b) Steering gear and linkage binding. Remedy is to readjust or replace the worn parts, if
necessary.
(c) Disturbed alignment of the caster, camber, toe-in and kingpin inclination. Remedy is to check
alignment and readjust as necessary.
(d) Looseness in steering gear, linkage and at kingpin. Remedy is to readjust or replace the worn
parts.
(e) Uneven load in the vehicle. Remedy is to readjust the load.
(f) Spring 'U' bolts loose. Remedy is tighten them
(iv)Vehicle pulls to one side.
(a) Uneven tyre pressure. Remedy is inflate to correct pressure
(b) Incorrect or uneven caster. Remedy is to check alignment and adjust as necessary.
(c) Tight front wheel bearing. Remedy is to readjust and replace the damaged parts.
(d) Springs sagging, broken, loose attachment. Remedy is to tighten and replace the defective
leaves or parts.
(e) Brakes grab or drag. Remedy is to readjust or replace the brake linings.
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(v) Steering kickback:
(a) Looseness in steering gear. Remedy is to readjust or replace the worn parts
(b) Looseness in linage. Remedy is to readjust or replace the worn parts.
(c) Shock absorbers defective. Remedy is to repair or replace the the shock absorbers.
(d) Type pressure uneven or low. Remedy is to inflate or correct pressure.
(e) Springs sagging. Remedy is to tighten the attachment or replace if necessary
Toe-in Toe-out
Toe-in and toe-out is the angle that the wheels deviate from the driving direction. It is used
because the driving force and road resistance tends to squeeze the rubbers in the suspension. By
giving the car a toe-in or toe-out setting the wheels are in a straight line when driving. The rear
wheels seldom have toe-in or toe-out. The front wheels of a rear wheel driven car mostly have
toe-in. Toe-out is used in front wheel driven cars because the driving force tends to turn the wheel
inwards. The kingpin inclination also plays a (minor) role in how much toe-in or toe-out is needed.
The less kingpin inclination the more steering momentum is generated pulling the wheel inwards
thus more toe-out is also needed to compensate.
Click this picture for animation:
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suspension System
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Independent suspension system

As the name suggests, independent suspension assemblies offer a separate "bridge" for each
wheel. They deliver the best ride characteristics by far, and are found most frequently in
passenger cars, minivans, and other street vehicles. This is the most popular kind of suspension
system in use today. If you like the "smoothness" of your car's ride, we can almost guarantee it
has independent suspension.
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Leaf spring
This article describes leaf springs in terms of vehicle suspension. Sometimes referred to as a semielliptical spring or cart spring, it takes the form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring steel of
rectangular cross-section. The center of the arc provides location for the axle, while tie holes are
provided at either end for attaching to the vehicle body. For very heavy vehicles, a leaf spring can
be made from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several layers, often with
progressively shorter leaves. Leaf springs can serve locating and to some extent damping as well
as springing functions. While the interleaf friction provides a damping action, it is not well
controlled and results in stiction in the motion of the suspension. For this reason manufacturers
have experimented with mono-leaf springs.
A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both ends or attached directly at one
end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle, a short swinging arm. The
shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when compressed and thus makes for
softer springiness. Some springs terminated in a concave end, called a spoon end (seldom used
now), to carry a swiveling member.
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Torsion bar
A torsion bar is a solid bar of steel which is connected to the car chassis at one end, and free to
move at the other end. They can be mounted across the car or along the car .The springing motion
is provided by the metal bar's resistance to twisting.
To over-simplify, stick your arm out straight and get someone to twist your wrist. Presuming that
your mate doesn't snap your wrist, at a certain point, resistance in your arm (and pain) will cause
you to twist your wrist back the other way. That is the principle of a torsion bar.
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Torsion bars are normally locked to the chassis and the suspension parts with splined ends. This
allows them to be removed, twisted round a few splines and re-inserted, which can be used to
raise or lower a car, or to compensate for the natural 'sag' of a suspension system over time. They
can be connected to just about any type of suspension system listed on this page.
The rendering below shows an example longitudinal torsion bar. The small lever at the far end of
the torsion bar would be attached solidly to the frame to provide the fixed end. The torsion bar
itself fits into that lever and the suspension arm at the front through splined holes. As the
suspension at the front moves upwards, the bar twists along its length providing the springing
motion.
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Hydractive suspension
Air suspension system
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The conventional metal springs faced some drawbacks which were air suspension system
overcomes and so they are preferred and used in more these days. Let's see some of the plus
points of this system.
1.
The automatic control devices installed in the vehicle allows making optimum use of the
variable space for deflection of wheel.
2.
The height of the automobile remains steady and so the changes in the alignment of
headlamp due to varying loads are restricted.
3.
It helps to reduce the load while the vehicle in motion i.e. the dynamic loading as the
spring rate variation between laden and unladen weight is much less.
4.
Air
1)
2)
It gives smooth and comfort ride of the vehicle.

springs
are
classified
Bellow
into
type
Piston
two
types:
and
type
The air springs shown are mounted on the front and rear axle. The atmospheric air first passes
through the filter where the dirt is removed and passed on to the compressor. Air is compressed
here and the pressure of air is raised from atmospheric to about 250 Mpa. This pressure is
maintained by the accumulator tank. The safety relief valve is provided on the accumulator as a
safety device and it opens when the pressure rises above 250 Mpa. This air then moves to lift
control valve and through leveling valves to air springs.
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Hydractive suspension
Shock absorber
The other main part of a car's suspension is the shock absorber. Contrary to its name, a shock
absorber plays a minimal role in absorbing impacts taken by the suspension. That's the spring's
job. A shock absorber dampens road impacts by converting the up and down oscillations of the
spring into thermal energy.
Without a shock absorber, a spring that has absorbed energy will release it by oscillating at an
uncontrolled rate. The spring's inertia causes it to bounce and overextend itself. Then it
recompresses, but again travels too far. The spring continues to bounce at its natural frequency
until all the energy originally put into the spring is used up by friction. This effect can be quite
detrimental to the stability of a vehicle.
Shocks and struts help control how fast the suspension is allowed to move, which is important for
keeping the tires in contact with the road. Most shock absorber designs have more resistance
during the extension (rebound) cycle than the compression cycle. This is because the extension
cycle controls the motion of the vehicle's sprung weight (half of the suspension and everything
else above the suspension). The compression cycle, on the other hand, controls the motion of
unsprung weight (wheels, tires, brakes, and half of the suspension). Obviously, there is a lot more
weight in the upper part of the car than unsprung weight in the lower part of the car.
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Purpose:
The primary function of a shock absorber is to control or damp the movement of the spring. A lack
of rebound control (shock extension) will cause a floating or bouncy ride, while too-stiff
compression damping can create a lack of control on rough terrain and a harsh on-road ride.
Shocks resist motion by using a piston and valves that are mounted on the end of a shaft and that
move through a fluid of thin oil. The fluid must pass through holes, valves, and slots in the piston
as the shaft is stroked in and out. Resistance is created when the oil is forced through the
openings on each cycle. Basically, shocks are of two designs: twin tube and mono-tube and can be
either gas pressurized or "low" pressure. The twin tube literally has two tubes: The inside tube is
where the work is done and the outside tube is a reservoir that holds extra fluids.
Basically, shock absorbers act as energy transfer devices which remove kinetic energy
(movement) from the spring, turn it into thermal energy (heat) and dissipate the heat into the
atmosphere.
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Function of Shock absorber:
It consists of a inner cylinder fitted with head at the open mouth. The head is also screwed into the
outer reservoir which is fixed to the eye by means of which the reservoir is secured to the axle.
Inside the inner cylinder a piston slides. The position is secured to the piston rod which is fixed to
an other eye by which it is secured to the frame. The outer portion of the piston rod and the
reservoir are covered with a protecting cover which is fixed with the eye and the rod.
The gland is provided at the head prevents leakage of the fluid by scraping around the piston rod
then passing it to the reservoir space through the drain hole. The inner cylinder is provided with
two valve systems one which is fixed at the bottom while other at the sliding piston. Both the
piston valve as well foot valve assembly has outer ring of holes and inner ring of holes covering by
the disc valves.
The inner cylinder is completely filled with fluid and the reservoir is half filled. When the axle eye is
moved upward then fluid must be displaced from the bottom side to top side of the piston. Under
this condition the fluid will pass through the outer ring of holes by opening the valve disc.
In this condition when the upper portion of the cylinder is filled fully or has less space then the
fluid will also be displaced through the inner ring of holes of the foot valve and the level of fluid in
the resevoir will rise. Similarly when the axle eye is moved downward then fluid will be displaced
from the top sode to the bottom side of the piston
Under this condition the fluid will pass through the inner ring of holes by opening the valve disc.
The vaccum left by the piston rod inside the inner cylinder during this movement is filled by the
fluid displacing from the reservoir to the inner cylinder by opening the disc valve of outer ring of
holes of the foot valve
General Features Of Shock Absorbers:
Some of the general features of the shock absorbers are as follows:
Shock absorber has seals that keeps the oil in and contaminant out
The metal used are stronger and harder. Modern shock absorber uses sintered metal which
provides durability and longer life.
Flat metals are used for constructing most of the cylinders which are welded at the seam.
Nowadays lots of shock absorber so manufactured are velocity sensitive.
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Rolling
A car's springs are the central part of the suspension. There are different designs of springs, such
as torsion bars and leaf springs, but nearly all of today's passenger cars use coil springs at all four
corners. A lot of trucks use coil springs too, with leaf springs for heavier load capacity typically
found on a truck's rear suspension system.
Springs absorb and store road shock caused by bumps, dips, cracks, and so forth (remember the
skateboard analogy). They absorb this shock by either compressing or extending. When a car's
wheel goes over a bump and gets pushed upward, the spring absorbs that additional load, keeps
the road shock from reaching the chassis, and makes sure the tire maintains contact with the
pavement.
The design of a spring affects how well the vehicle will ride and handle. A spring that absorbs lots
of energy will generally offer a comfortable ride. After all, it can absorb most of the road shock
(energy) that is being generated by the road surface. But there are always engineering trade-offs.
This kind of spring generally requires a higher vehicle ride height, which will cause the vehicle to
feel unstable during cornering. This instability is because the more distance a spring compresses or
extends, the more the vehicle "rolls" around on its suspension. This rolling is called weight
transfer, and it is caused by centrifugal force acting on the weight of the vehicle as it goes around
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a corner. Weight transfer can overload a tire's grip, which ultimately hurts traction, and therefore
handling.
Brake trouble shooting

The general complaints and troubles attributed to the brakes are usually classified as given under.
(i) Low brake pedal
(ii) Spongy brake pedal
(iii) Brake noises
(iv) Erratic brakes
(v) Brakes don't hold.
(i) Low brake pedal: The causes and their remedies of low brake pedals are explained under
(a) In case of mechanical brakes, worn out cables and conduits. Remedy is to replace them.
(b) Bent pull rods which permit too much play in mechanical linkage. Remedy is to straighten the
pull rods.
(c) Cross shaft improperly adjusted. Remedy is to adjust proper
(d) Cam blocks worn out. Remedy is to replace them
(e) Brake linings worn out too thin. Remedy is to replace them.
(f) Too much clearance between lining and drum. Remedy is to adjust them.
(g) Springs or clips broken. Remedy is to replace them
(h) In case of hydraulic brakes, low level of hydraulic fluid in master cylinder. Remedy is to top up
the master cylinder.
(i) Air in hydraulic line. Remedy is to bleed the system
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(j) Too much clearance between push rod and master cylinder piston. Remedy is to adjust the
push rod.
(k) Weaken master check valve., thereby failing to keep hydraulic preloaded. Remedy is to repair
or replace the valve.
(l) Master cylinder completely or partially closed thereby restricting the flow of fluid from reservoir
to cylinder. Remedy is repair or replace the valve.
(m) Weaken brake hoses expand. Remedy is to replace them.
Brakes
Types of brakes: apparatuses used to slow or stop a moving vehicle.
Drum brake: mechanism that slows and stops a car by fiction, by pression brake shoes against a
drum.
Drum: cylindrical part attached to the wheel, against which the brake shoes are pressed to stop
the car.
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Brake lining: frictional part on the outside edges of the brake shoes. Return spring: part of the
brake mechanism that returns the brake shoes to their initial position.
Piston: cylindrical part that transmits the pressure to and receives pressure from the brake shoes.
Wheel cylinder: type of roller that applies a uniform pressure to the wheel then the brake is
activated.
Brake shoe: part on which the brake lining is mounted.
Brake pads: part activated by the piston.
Wheel hub: central part crossed by the axel.
Stud: metal pin. Disk: round, flat, piece of metal, pressed against the wheel to slow or stop the
car.
Brake line: system liquid-transporting tubes.
Splash shield: protector that prevents dirt from fouling the braking system.
Disk brake: mechanism that slows and stops a car by friction, by pressing a disk against the
wheel axel.
Brake system
Introduction:
Brakes are the devices for slowing and stopping the vehicle. The braking operation is reverse of
the acceleration to the vehicle.
Purpose of brakes:
The main purpose of fitting brakes on motor vehicle are as given under
(i) In emergencies to bring the vehicle to rest in the shortest possible distance
(ii) To control the vehicle when it is descending along the hills.
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(iii) To keep the vehicle in desired position after bringing it in complete rest when there is no
deliver
To fulfill the above needs two independent braking system are provided in the vehicle.
(a) Service brake which is operated by foot padel in regular operation
(b) Emergency brake which os operated by a hand lever while parking the vehicle
Hydraulic brake system

Operation of Hydraulic brake system:
When a fluid enclosed in a pipe is used to transmit the pedal to road wheel instead of the use of
rod or cable, the system is called hydraulic brake. The system consists a master cylinder and
piston which is connected by steel piping to hydraulic wheel cylinders, provided at each wheel. A
wheel cylinder consists of two pistons which are pivoted to brake shoes
The air of the system is replaces by filling the brake oil under light pressure. The pedal lever is
linked to the master cylinder piston b y means of a piston rod. when a pedal is depressed the
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master cylinder piston is forces into the cylinder thus increasing the pressure on the brake oil.
Therefore due to this pressure the piston of the wheel cylinders are forced outwards and thus
expanding the brake shoes against the drums.
when the brake pedal is released it reduces pressure on the hydraulic fluid. At the same time the
retracting springs pull the brake shoes out of contact with the drums and force the wheel pistons
back to thier original positions. In this way the brake fluid is returned from the wheel cylinders to
the master cylinder. Now the brake pedal is again ready for the next operation.
Advantages of Hydraulic brake system:
The advantages of a full power hydraulic brake system over a common air over hydraulic brake
system are many.
Redundancy - The system eliminates the need for a redundant power source (i.e. air systems).
Size - Hydraulic accumulators are smaller than air storage vessels. Also, fewer components are
required in a hydraulic system.
Contamination - Full power hydraulic systems are less prone to contamination than air systems.
Service - Full power hydraulic systems are less complicated than air systems.
Control - Pedal feedback is more true.
Response - Brake fill and application is faster.
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Mechanical brake
When effort from the pedal is transmitted to the wheel brakes by means of cables, rods or shafts
then this system is known as mechanical brakes. The forces between the brake pedal and brake
shoes are developed or multiplied by means of different levers, linkages, cams, toggles or wedges
to produce effective braking. The common terms and mechanisms of mechanical brakes are
explained under
(i) Fixed Expander brakes:(ii) Leading and trailing shoes:(iii) Floating cam brakes
(iv) Floating anchor brakes(v) Brakes with two leading shoes(vi) Brakes with two trailing shoes
(vii) Brake linkages
Air brake systems

How do air brakes work?
When brakes are apply to a vehicle equipped with air brake system. The applications creates
friction between the brake linings on the brake shoes and brake drums. This converts moving
energy into heat by friction. The amount of heat required to stop the vehicle depends it's weight
and speed. If you apply more pressure, it will create more friction which, brings the rig to stop
quicker but also it means creating more heat. Application of brakes for extended period will also
cause brake fade.
Air Compressor :a machine that pumps the air into a smaller space to produce compressed air
powered by the truck engine and could be mounted to the engine or by brackets and fasteners.
Governor: A controller that limits the Air Compressor to produce amount of air required. It
controls the compressor cut-in (on) and cut-out (off) to make sure the compressor produces
enough air but not too much air. Governor is normally located on the compressor.
Air Dryer: Removes moisture and vaporized oil from the compressed air before it enters the air
supply tank. Air dryer is normally located between the air compressor and the supply tank.
Alcohol Evaporator: Prevents any moisture in the air brake system to freeze. Frozen moisture
could cause brake failure.
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Air Reservoir system: Stores compressed air before it's released to the brakes. The air in the
Reservoir is supply by the Air Compressor.
Safety Valve: Protects the air tank to over pressure or release access of air in case the governor
fails.
Warning Devices - low air pressure warns the driver when the air drops bellow 60 psi. A light and
buzzer goes off to warn the driver in the case of law air pressure.
Air Pressure Gauges - pressure gauge located on the dashboard indicates amount of air pressure
in the air tank. Some trucks are equipped with two air pressure gauges, one for each tank. Also
some trucks have application pressure gauge indicating amount of air pressure applied to the
brakes.
Brake Champers - holds or consists Diaphragm, Air Inlet, Push Rod, Return Springs, and Clamp.
Air enters the Brake Champers through the Air Inlet and pushes against Diaphragm which also
pushes the Push Rod. The Push Rod is connected to the Slack Adjuster. Return Spring returns the
Diaphragm to it's original position.
Slack Adjuster - a lever arm attached to the Push Rod.
Glad Hands - coupling devices at the end of the air lines where tractor connects with the trailer.
Glad hands are color coded, service line is normally blue and supply line is red. Service line
supplies air from the brake pedal to the trailer service brakes and supply line supplies air to the
trailer air tank and controls trailer brake.
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Drum brakes
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The working principle of the drum brakes involves a set of shoes or pads that create friction
against a drum connected to the rotating wheel. Drum brakes can be divided in to categories:
leading/trailing and twin leading.
The first type is usually seen on the rear wheels as it is not as powerful as the twin leading one.
The system contains two shoes, one that moves in the drum's direction of rotation and the other
that moves against it. For this reason, the leading/trailing drums are said to have equal breaking
efficiency for going forward and in reverse.
The twin leading drum design is found on the front wheels of vehicles because it provides the best
efficiency in the direction of motion. Unlike the leading/trailing system, this one's shoes are
moving in the rotation direction.
Although both types of drum brakes exhibit what is known as a "self-applying characteristic,
which means that the drum's rotation pulls the shoes towards the friction surface, the twin leading
one are more prone to this and therefore have greater braking force.
When activating the drum brakes, which basically means depressing the pedal, the rod in the
master cylinder forces the hydraulic oil through a series of tubes to the actual drums. There, the
fluid pushes the brakes shoes against the drum's interior linings.
While drum brakes were fitted on all four wheels in the first decades of the 20th century, this has
changed almost completely nowadays. Drum brakes are now usually used only on the rear
breaking, while discs have taken over the front.
One of the problems with drum brakes is that the heat dissipation process inside the drum is
insufficient to cope with the temperatures building up inside, which leads to deformation and
ultimately to vibration during braking. Another consequence of the poor heat dissipation is brake
fade.
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Disc brakes
On a disk brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses against
a piston. The piston, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk (rotor), which is attached
to the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop. This process is similar to a bicycle brake where two
rubber pads rub against the wheel rim creating friction.
The disk brake is the best brake we have found so far. Disk brakes are used to stop everything
from cars to locomotives and jumbo jets. Disk brakes wear longer, are less affected by water, are
self adjusting, self cleaning, less prone to grabbing or pulling and stop better than any other
system around. The main components of a disk brake are the Brake Pads, Rotor, Caliper and
Caliper Support.
Brake
Pads:
There are two brake pads on each caliper. They are constructed of a
metal "shoe" with the lining riveted or bonded to it.
The pads are
mounted in the caliper, one on each side of the rotor. Brake linings
used to be made primarily of asbestos because of its heat absorbing
properties and quiet operation; however, due to health risks, asbestos
has been outlawed, so new materials are now being used. Brake pads
wear out with use and must be replaced periodically. There are many
types and qualities of pads available. The differences have to do with
brake life (how long the new pads will last) and noise (how quiet they
are when you step on the brake). Harder linings tend to last longer and
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stop better under heavy use but they may produce an irritating squeal when they are applied.
Technicians that work on brakes usually have a favorite pad that gives a good compromise that
their customers can live with.
Brake pads should be checked for wear periodically. If the lining wears down to the metal brake
shoe, then you will have a "Metal-to-Metal" condition where the shoe rubs directly against the
rotor causing severe damage and loss of braking efficiency. Some brake pads come with a "brake
warning sensor" that will emit a squealing noise when the pads are worn to a point where they
should be changed. This noise will usually be heard when your foot is off the brake and disappear
when you step on the brake. If you hear this noise, have your brakes checked as soon as
possible.
Rotor:
The disk rotor is made of iron with highly machined surfaces where the brake pads contact it. Just
as the brake pads wear out over time, the rotor also undergoes some wear, usually in the form of
ridges and groves where the brake pad rubs against it. This wear pattern exactly matches the
wear pattern of the pads as they seat themselves to the rotor. When the pads are replaced, the
rotor must be machined smooth to allow the new pads to have an even contact surface to work
with. Only a small amount of material can be machined off of a rotor before it becomes unusable
and must be replaced. A minimum thickness measurement is stamped on every rotor and the
technician doing the brake job will measure the rotor before and after machining it to make sure it
doesn't go below the legal minimum. If a rotor is cut below the minimum, it will not be able to
handle the high heat that brakes normally generate. This will cause the brakes to "fade," greatly
reducing their effectiveness to a point where you may not be able to stop!
Caliper & Support:
There are two main types of calipers: Floating calipers and fixed
calipers. There are other configurations but these are the most popular.
Calipers must be rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking brake
fluid.
Single Piston Floating Calipers are the most popular and also least costly
to manufacture and service. A floating caliper "floats" or moves in a track in its support so that it
can center itself over the rotor. As you apply brake pressure, the hydraulic fluid pushes in two
directions. It forces the piston against the inner pad, which in turn pushes against the rotor. It also
pushes the caliper in the opposite direction against the outer pad, pressing it against the other
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side of the rotor. Floating calipers are also available on some vehicles with two pistons mounted on
the same side. Two piston floating calipers are found on more expensive cars and can provide an
improved braking "feel".
Four Piston Fixed Calipers are mounted rigidly to the support and are not allowed to move. Instead,
there are two pistons on each side that press the pads against the rotor. Four piston calipers have
a better feel and are more efficient, but are more expensive to produce and cost more to service.
This type of caliper is usually found on more expensive luxury and high performance cars.
Brake shoes
A Brake shoe is the part of a braking system which carries the brake lining or the brake block
in train brakes and bicycle
brakes
Bleeding brakes
The term "bleeding the brakes" refers to the process in which a small valve is opened at the caliper
(or wheel cylinder) to allow controlled amounts of brake fluid to escape the system. (When you
think about it, "bleeding" may appear to be a somewhat graphic term, but it appropriately
describes the release a vital fluid.) This is necessary because, while the brake fluid is an
incompressible liquid, air bubbles are compressible gas and their presence in the brake system
greatly reduces the hydraulic pressure that can be developed within the system. The same
methods used for bleeding are also used for purging, where the old fluid is replaced with new fluid,
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which is necessary maintenance. The brake fluid capacity of a typical automobile is around 250ml.
Brake fluid is toxic, and must be handled carefully and disposed of properly.
There are four methods of bleeding brakes - pressure bleeding, manual bleeding, gravity bleeding
and vacuum bleeding. Bleeding is necessary to remove air bubbles from the system. Air can enter
the brake system in a number of ways. A bleeder screw may not be tight, you may have a leak in
the system and accidentally empty the reservoir, allowing the master cylinder to draw air into the
system, removing a wheel cylinder or caliper, or opening the system for any reason will allow air
in. Most systems have high spots where the air will accumulate if not bled. If a brake line has a
loop in it or a section where the line is higher then the rest of the system, air will usually be
trapped there. Realize if the high spot is three feet from the wheel you're bleeding, you could
empty the line to that point to get the air out.
Operating the bleeder valve can be accomplished using the proper size six point box-end wrench
or a rubbing wrench. Do not use an open-end wrench, since they almost always slip off the bleeder
valve. Complete fluid could be changed using the pressure bleeder method, just be sure it's DOT 3
or 4 you're changing to. The bleeding sequence on most street rods is usually the same for all
methods of bleeding. Start with the wheel farthest from the master cylinder, usually the right rear,
then the left rear, right front, and left front. Clear plastic surgical hose or aquarium air tubing will
work fine to see the air bubbles coming out. Attach the wrench first and then push the clear hose
over the bleeder.
Master cylinder
Brake master cylinders are complicated affairs involving finely manufactured parts, minute
tolerances, springs, o-rings and rubber seals.
The diagram below is a simplified representation of a dual-circuit master brake cylinder. When you
step on the brake, its connected to the main plunger (on the right side of this image). As this is
pushed into the master cylinder it acts on the components inside. The rear plunger (in blue) is the
first one to start moving. As it moves forward, brake fluid from the reservoir is sucked in through
the fluid intake and return port. At the same time, fluid is sucked in through the equalisation port.
As the second circuit rear seal passes the intake and return port (about 1.5mm after the plunger
starts moving), it creates a fixed volume of fluid between the rear and front plungers. The more
you step on the brake pedal, the more this fluid is now forced out into the second brake circuit to
apply those brakes.
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At the same time, the pressure building up in this area overcomes the strength of the first circuit
return spring and the front plunger (red) begins to move too. As with the rear plunger, it too sucks
fluid from the reservoir until the first circuit rear seal passes the fluid intake and return port (again
about 1.5mm), trapping fluid between it and the front of the master cylinder. This fluid is then
forced out into the first brake circuit, applying those brakes.
When you take your foot off the brakes, the return springs push the plungers back into their
neutral position. Fluid returns to the brake fluid reservoir and the system goes back to an
unpressurised state.
Master Cylinder
When due to do fracture in the pipe line or due to leakage or joints, the hydraulic brakes fail which
may be the cause of a serious accident of the vehicle. Therefore to overcome this difficulty and to
provide safe guard against the accidents the master cylinder is designed in such manner so that
the separate lines for to rear and front brakes. The lines are so arranged that if one pair of the
brakes is failed, the other will be still effective. The master cylinder is designed on these base is
called 'tandem master cylinder'
Wheel cylinder
The wheel cylinder is a very important part of the drum brake assembly. It is made up of fluid
activated pistons that push brake shoes against the wheel drums to slow the vehicle. Leaking
wheel cylinders are the cause of many brake problems, such as unreliable stopping, brake shoe
damage and even partial brake system failure.
Anti lock brake system

What is ABS?
Anti lock brake system(ABS) is a safety system which prevents the wheels on a motor vehicle from
locking while braking.
ABS consists of two subsystems.
The ABS controller (computer), its associated sensors (inputs) actuators (outputs), wiring and
connectors.
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How it works?
The electronic antilock braking four port system consists of two magnet valves (see figure) per
wheel brake cylinder and two recirculation pumps with one drive. The two recirculation pumps,
both driven by one electric engine, are necessary, because the two hydraulic cycles of a dual
circuit brake system have to be separated. The pumps have a low throughput, but may
temporarily obtain very high pressures of up to 150 bars. Out of 8 magnet valves normally 4 are
closed and 4 are open; the springs of the magnet valves ensure that this holds in case of a power
failure too. The system operates like a normal dual-circuit brake system.
If the difference of the number of revolutions between the wheels - while braking - is too large,
the pipe to the wheel brake cylinder of the slower or locking wheel is blocked with a magnet valve.
If this is not sufficient to tackle the difference in numbers of revolution, the pressure is decreased
by opening the second magnet valve. Simultaneously, the recirculation pump starts, pumping the
brake fluid into the pipe which connects the master cylinder with the magnet valve.
The driver feels this pumping as pulsation in the brake pedal. It may occur up to ten times per
second. Naturally, the reaction time of the braking system at the wheel is much too slow to
perform a full standstill or a full easing of the brake in accordance with the fast pulsation. In
practice the swing will be between 20 and 35 percent slip. The front wheels are always
regulated separately, for the rear ones it varies. With a pneumatic brake there is no necessity
for a recirculation pump, because the assistant system always provides enough air pressure.
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Tyres
The tyres are placed and designed around the rims of the vehicle to cushion it and its load and the
passengers from the shocks and vibrations due to the road inequalities. The assemblies mounted
above the axles can be protected by the springs and shock absorbers but the unsprung parts and
units are protected only by the resiliency of the tyres. In addition to the comfort and protection the
tyres provide frictional contact between the wheels and the road, thereby a good traction is
secured. Tyres of basic two types, solid and pneumatic. The solid tyres have very limited usage on
automobile. The pnematic tyres are mainly of two types, tubed and tubeless tyres.
The main job of a tyre is to provide a cushion between the vehicle and the road and to maintain a
good, solid grip' on the road surface under acceleration and whilst cornering. So it has to provide
a comfortable ride, yet be as robust and hard-wearing as possible, maintaining safe and controlled
mano euvrability for your vehicle.
To achieve this, tyres need to be carefully constructed from a combination of different ingredients.
As many as 200 separate raw materials can be used in the construction of one tyre
The tread is the grooved outer layer that is in direct contact with the road. The rubber compound
is designed to grip the road, resist general wear and tear, and cope with high temperatures
generated by friction.
The basic purpose of a tire is to enable better vehicle performance by providing a flexible cushion
that absorbs shock while keeping the wheel in close contact with the ground.
Cross ply tyre
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Cross ply terminology:
The tread consists of specially compounded/vulcanized rubber which can have unique
characteristics ranging from wear resistance, cut resistance, heat resistance, low rolling resistance,
or any combination of these. The purpose of the tread is to transmit the forces between the rest of
the tyre and the ground
The sidewall is a protective rubber coating on the outer sides of the tyre. It is designed to resist
cutting, scuffing, weather checking, and cracking.
The chafer protects the bead and body from chafing (wear from rubbing) where the tyre is in
contact with the rim.
The liner is an integral part of all tubeless pneumatic tyres. It covers the inside of the tyre from
bead to bead and prevents the air from escaping through the tyre.
The bead of a cross-ply tyre consists of bundles of bronze coated high tensile strength steel wire
strands which are insulated with rubber. A cross-ply tyre designed for off-road use typically has
two or three bundles. A radial on-road tyre normally only has one. The bead is considered the
foundation of the tyre. It anchors the bead on the rim.
The cord body is also known as the tyre carcass. It consists of layers of nylon plies. The cord
body confines the pressure, which supports the tyre load and absorbs shocks encountered during
driving. Each cord in each ply is completely surrounded by resilient rubber. These cords run
diagonally to the direction of motion and transmit the forces from the tread down to the bead
The breakers are also know as belts. They provide protection for the cord body from cutting.
They also increase tread stability which resists cutting. Breakers can be made of nylon, aralon, or
steel wire
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Radial ply tyre
Radial Terminology:
The tread consists of specially compounded/vulcanized rubber which can have unique
characteristics ranging from wear resistance, cut resistance, heat resistance, low rolling resistance,
or any combination of these. The purpose of the tread is to transmit the forces between the rest of
the tyre and the ground.
The sidewall is a protective rubber coating on the outer sides of the tyre. It is designed to resist
cutting, scuffing, weather checking, and cracking.
The chafer of a radial tyre acts as a reinforcement. It increases the overall stiffness of the bead
area, which in turn restricts deflection and deformation and increases the durability of the bead
area. It also assists the bead in transforming the torque forces from the rim to the radial ply.
The liner is an integral part of all tubeless pneumatic tyres. It covers the inside of the tyre from
bead to bead and prevents the air from escaping through the tyre.
The bead of a tyre consists of bundles of bronze coated high tensile strength steel wire strands
which are insulated with rubber. A e designed for off-road use typically has two or three bundles. A
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radial on-road tyre normally only has one. The bead is considered the foundation of the tyre. It
anchors the bead on the rim.
The body ply of a radial tyre is made up of a single layer of steel cord wire. The wire runs from
bead to bead laterally to the direction of motion (hence the term "radial plies"). The body ply is a
primary component restricting the pressure which ultimately carries the load. The body ply also
transmits the forces (torque, torsion, etc.) from the belts to the bead and eventually to the rim.
The belts are layers of steel cord wires located between the tread and the body ply. Off-road
tyres can have up to five belts. Road tyres typically have one or two. The steel wire of the belts
run diagonally to the direction of motion. The belts increase the rigidity of the tread which
increases the cut resistance of the tyre. They also transmit the torque forces to the radial ply and
restrict tyre growth which prevents cutting, cut growth and cracking.
Tubeless tyres
Tubeless tires are pneumatic tires that do not require a separate butyl rubber inner tube.
Traditional designs of pneumatic tires required a separate inner tube which could fail for a number
of reasons, such as: incorrect tire fitment, or friction between the tire wall and inner tube
generating excess heat causing a blowout. Tubeless tire technology does away with the need for
an inner tube thereby increasing safety.
In a tubeless tire, the tire, which has an inner lining of impermeable halobutyl, and the rim of the
wheel form an airtight seal, with the valve being directly mounted on the rim.
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If a tubeless tire gets punctured, air escapes only through the hole, leading to a gentle deflation of
the tire. Conversely, an inner tube could potentially burst like a balloon, leading to a rapid
deflation of the tire which could result in sudden loss of control of the vehicle. A liquid tire sealant
can be added to tubeless tires to prevent deflation.
Wheels
Generally two types of wheels are used on the vehicle
(i) Wire wheel: It is a very tight wheel therefore generally being used in sports car. This wheel
can be fitted and removed very easily. It has a separate hub which is attacked to the rim by a
large number of wire spokes, which are arranged at different angles.
(ii) Disc wheel: This type of wheel consist a pressed steel disc instead of wire spokes. The disc
may be riveted or welded to the inner periphery of the rim. The disc also consists of narrow slots
near the rim to encourage the cooling of the brake drum. The cover or hubcab is mounted on the
disc by spring clips. This type of wheel is very simple and cheap, therefore being used in most of
the vehicles
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Unit - V
ELECTRICAL EQUIPTMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
Electric Current:
Electric current is defined as the rate at which charge flows through a surface (the cross
section of a wire, for example). Despite referring to many different things, the word current is
often used by itself instead of the longer, more formal "electric current". The adjective
"electrical" is implied by the context of the situation being described. The phrase "current
through a toaster" surely refers to the flow of electrons through the heating element and not
the flow of slices of bread through the slots.
Electromagnetism:
A fundamental physical force that is responsible for interactions between charged particles
which occur because of their charge and for the emission and absorption of photons, that is
about a hundredth the strength of the strong force, and that extends over infinite distances
but is dominant over atomic and molecular distances called also electromagnetic force.
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Fuel Gauge:
A fuel gauge (or gas gauge) is an instrument used to indicate the level of fuel contained in a
tank. Commonly used in cars, these may also be used for any tank including underground
storage tanks.
As used in cars, the gauge consists of two parts:
The sensing unit
The indicator
The fuel is stored in the gas tank. As the name suggests, the fuel pump forces the fuel from
the pump up the fuel line to the engine where it used in the combustion process.
The fuel pump is a multi-tasker. One of those tasks is to monitor the amount of fuel in the
tank. It does this by using the simplest of measures. It has a sensor that is known as a float.
As the name suggests, the float floats on the top of the fuel in the tank. The float is
connected to a fuel sensor. This is braced on the fuel pump. As the fuel goes up or down, the
sensor takes the readings and sends an electronic signal to the fuel gauge
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Oil pressure gauge
An oil pressure gauge gives an excellent indication of the health of various systems in the
engine.
The Lubrication System The oil pump takes in oil from the sump (oil pan), and forces it
through the engine under pressure. Since the oil pump is driven (indirectly) by the
crankshaft, oil pressure is to some extent determined by engine RPM. Pressure is kept from
rising too high by a relief valve. Typically, this is a spring-loaded ball, where a predetermined
amount of pressure lifts the ball off its seat to allow oil to return to the oil pan without
circulating through the engine.
The oil is pumped through drillings in the block and head, lubricating the bearings and also
helping cool the engine. After it emerges from the drillings in the crankshaft and other parts,
it drains back (with virtually no pressure) into the sump to be re-circulated. A filter in the
circuit keeps dirt and metal filings from scratching the bearings or damaging the oil pump
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Wind Screen Wipers
Introduction: A windscreen wipers a device used to wipe rain and dirt from a windscreen.
Almost all motor vehicles, trains, aircraft and watercraft are equipped with windscreen
wipers, which are usually a legal requirement.
Generator construction
A generator is a machine by which mechanical energy is transformed into electrical energy.
Generators can be sub-divided into two major categories depending on whether the electric
current produced is alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). The basic principle on
which both types of generator works is the same, although the details of construction of the
two may differ somewhat. Generators can also be classified according to the source of the
mechanical power (or prime mover) by which they are driven, such as water or steam power.
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Components of a generator:
Rotor: In its simplest form, the rotor consists of a single loop of wire made to rotate within a
magnetic field. In practice, the rotor usually consists of several coils of wire wound on an
armature.
Armature: The armature is a cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle. The axle is
carried in bearings mounted in the external structure of the generator. Torque is applied to
the axle to make the rotor spin.
Coil: Each coil usually consists of many turns of copper wire wound on the armature. The two
ends of each coil are connected either to two slip rings (AC) or two opposite bars of a splitring commutator (DC).
Stator: The stator is the fixed part of the generator that supplies the magnetic field in which
the coils rotate. It may consist of two permanent magnets with opposite poles facing and
shaped to fit around the rotor. Alternatively, the magnetic field may be provided by two
electromagnets.
Field electromagnets: Each electromagnet consists of a coil of many turns of copper wire
wound on a soft iron core. The electromagnets are wound, mounted and shaped in such a
way that opposite poles face each other and wrap around the rotor.
Brushes: The brushes are carbon blocks that maintain contact with the ends of the coils via
the slip rings (AC) or the split-ring commutator (DC), and conduct electric current from the
coils to the external circuit.
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Ignition System
Ignition system:
The system in an internal combustion engine that initiates the chemical reaction between fuel
and air in the cylinder charge by producing a spark. An ignition system for a multicylinder
internal combustion engine has three basic functions:
(1) to provide a sufficiently energetic spark to initiate the burning of the fuel-air mixture
within each cylinder;
(2) to control spark timing for optimum efficiency so that cylinder pressure reaches its
maximum value shortly after the piston reaches the top of its compression stroke; and
(3) to select the correct cylinder fired.
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Electronic ignition System
Electronic ignition:
The disadvantage of the mechanical system is that it requires regular adjustment to

compensate for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for
spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations. In addition, the spark voltage is also
dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency.
Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In an EI system, the contact breaker points
are replaced by an angular sensor of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks
a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotating
magnet mounted on a suitable shaft.
The sensor output is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger
a switching device such as a thyristor, which switches a large flow of current through the
coil. The rest of the system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the mechanical
system. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater
reliability and longer service intervals. For older cars, it is usually possible to retrofit an EI
system in place of the mechanical one.
During the 1980s, EI systems were developed alongside other improvements

such as fuel injection systems. After a while it became logical to combine the functions
of fuel control and ignition into one electronic system known as an engine management
system.
Magneto Ignition Systems

Magneto system
The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a
magnet inside a coil, and also operates a contact breaker, interrupting the current and
causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap.
The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Magnetos are not
used in modern cars, but they are often found on mopeds, with 2-stroke engines and also in
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aircraft piston engines, where their simplicity and self-contained nature confers a generally
greater reliability as well as lighter weight.
Aircraft engines usually have multiple magnetos to provide redundancy in the event of
a failure.
Alternators:
A.C generators or alternators operate on the same fundamental principles of electromagnetic
induction as d.c.generators. They also consist of an armature windings and a magnetic field.
But there is one important difference between two. Whereas in d.c. generators, the armature
rotates and the field system is stationary, the arrangement in alternators is just the reverse
of it.
Function of Alternator:
The functioning of alternators is same as that of the DC generators. As the magnetic field
around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. The rotating magnet or
the rotor turns and it cuts the field across the conductors. Thus, an electrical current is
produced which causes the rotor to turn. This rotating magnetic field causes an AC voltage in
the stator windings.
Alternator Principle of Operation
Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators. When magnetic field
lines cut across a conductor, a current is induced in the conductor. In general, an alternator
has a stationary part (stator) and a rotating part (rotor). The stator contains windings of
conductors and the rotor contains a moving magnetic field. The field cuts across the
conductors, generating an electrical current, as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless" generator), by
permanent magnets, or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings
and brushes. Automotive alternators invariably use brushes and slip rings, which allows
control of the alternator generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding.
Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor but are
restricted in size owing to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field
is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC
generators are usually larger machines than those used in automotive applications.
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TYPES OF ALTERNATORS:
The main parts of alternators are
stator, rotor. According to the construction of rotor
alternators are classified into two types.

1. Salient pole alternator
2. Cylindrical pole alternator(Non salient pole alternator)
Construction:
1. A stator for a dynamoelectric machine, comprising:
a stator core having a generally cylindrical shape, the stator core having a plurality of
circumferentially spaced slots, a stator winding including a plurality of conductors, each
conductor having a plurality of straight segments interconnecting a plurality of end loop
segments
the plurality of conductors organized into at least a first filar and a second filar, the plurality
of conductors organized into multiple phases defined by a circumferential pitch, each phase
having a conductor in the first filar and a conductor in the second filar; the plurality of
conductors organized into layers, each layer representing a set of equidistant radial positions
in the slots filled by the straight segments of the conductors; the end loop segments of the
first and second filars being circumferentially aligned and axially opposite each other; the
straight segments of corresponding conductors of the first and second filars residing in
common slots in the stator core; the straight segments of one phase being positioned in the
same layer as adjacent straight segments in the adjacent phase; and the plurality of
conductors arranged in a cascading structure defined by at least three consecutive straight
segments of one turn of one conductor residing in a common layer.
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AC Generator construction and working principles :
Pollution
Definitions
Air Pollution Costs refers to motor vehicle air pollutant damages, including human health,
ecological and esthetic degradation. Tailpipe emissions are pollutants released directly from
vehicle exhaust pipes. Lifecycle emissions include both tailpipe emissions and indirect
emissions from fuel extraction and refining, vehicle manufacturing, and construction of
facilities for transportation.
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Air pollution is a commonly recognized external cost of motor vehicle use. Mobile (motor
vehicle) emissions are considered more difficult to control than other emissions sources,
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VEHICLE EMISSIONS
Emissions = ( km travelled )( emissions / km)

Control technology is aimed at reducing the second
term: fuels, engines, vehicles etc.
Urban and transportation planning addresses the first
term: housing density, location, transportation
infrastructure
the second term is relatively insensitive to the
number of passengers in the vehicle
Increasing vehicle occupancy helps reduce
emissions: mass transit, car pooling etc.
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Vehicle Emissions Control Technology
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CONTROL TECHNOLOGY SI
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Air/Fuel ratio. CO and HC emissions increase as

mixture gets richer in fuel (start and high power
conditions), NOx emissions peak near stoichiometric
ratio
Fuel metering systems: carburetors and fuel injectors
(throttle body TBI, multi-port PFI, simultaneous or
sequential)
Electronic Control Systems adjust the air/fuel ratio
based on the signal from an oxygen sensor in the
exhaust
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Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Returns ~ 5% of Exhaust to
Intake Charge
Displaces Air/Fuel Charge
Without Affecting Ratio
Reduces Peak Temperature
Reduces NOx Emissions
OTHER COMBUSTION SYSTEM

MODIFICATIONS - SI ENGINES
Optimal combustion timing: combustion occurs
rapidly, near and shortly after TDC
Combustion timing - initial spark, ignition delay, flame
speed
Geometry and turbulence level in the combustion
chamber
Spark timing of 20-40 degrees crank angle before top
ded center (BTDC) - function of engine speed
High speeds and lean mixtures require higher spark
advance
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OTHER COMBUSTION SYSTEM

MODIFICATIONS - SI ENGINES
Cold-Start Emission Control - rich mixture and poor
combustion, inactive catalyst (when present) result in
high proportion of CO and HC emissions to take
place during initial start of cold engine
Automatic choke and inlet air heaters
Idling emission control and fuel cut-off systems - CO
and HC emissions are high at idle and deceleration
reduce idle speed (e..g. from 900 to 600 rpm and
adjust ignition timing to achieve stable conditions, cut
off fuel supply during deceleration
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Function of Supplementary Air
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CONTROL TECHNOLOGY - CI
PM and NOx more important in diesel exhaust than
CO and HC, relative to gasoline exhaust
A general trade-off between PM and NOx exists
although reductions in absolute levels of both
emissions have been achieved
Emissions more strongly dependent on engine
design - most emission reductions so far have been
achieved through combustion modifications rather
than exhaust aftertreatment in contrast to gasoline
engine emissions
DIESEL NOx FORMATION

CHARACTERISTICS
Most NOx formed during the high T and P premixed
combustion phase
NOx formation can be reduced effectively by
reducing flame temperature:
delay combustion into the expansion phase
cool the air charge going into the cylinder
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
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DIESEL PM FORMATION
CHARACTERISTICS
Particulate Matter forms in fuel rich zones primarily
during the mixing controlled combustion phase
mostly an aggregate chain carbon core (soot)
adsorbed hydrocarbons (aliphatic and polyaromatic):
soluble organic fraction (SOF)
significant fraction of SOF may come from lubricating
oil
Most of the PM formed during combustion is
subsequently burned during the expansion stroke,
the unburned part forms the emissions
Sulfur in the fuel forms sulfuric acid which is later
sampled as PM
PARAMETERS AFFECTING DIESEL

PM AND HC EMISSIONS
Air/Fuel ratio, generally lean overall, to allow for
complete combustion within limited time available for
mixing
Minimum = 1.5 for smoke point, smoke increases
dramatically below this limit
Rate of air-fuel mixing, can be enhanced by
imparting a swirl to the injected fuel
fuel injection timing
compression ratio
temperature and composition of charge in the
cylinder
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such as electricity generation plants and factories, because they are numerous and dispersed,
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ALL THE BEST
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N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

Reach the Stars

SUB CODE: 12081

Fuel and Fuel Feed Systems

Transmission and Power Trains

Automobile Electrical Equipment and Pollution Control

rings-types of compression and oil control rings-piston pin-

connecting rod-methods of connecting piston and connecting rod-crankshaft-fly wheel-cam

Purpose-types of lubricants-properties-additives-service rating of oil-types of lubricating

operation-DTSI, VTI, CCVTI, PGMFI-petrol injection-MPFI

system- necessity-merits and

Purpose-various resistance to motion-types of gear boxes-sliding mesh, constant mesh and

shift and steering

change-mechanical and hydraulic

control system-variator-gear box troubles and their causes.

Drive line-propeller shaft-universal joint-cross type only-slip joint-final drive-function-types of

and spiral bevel, hypoid,

demerits and application-Hotch kiss drive-torque tube drive-radius rod.

Types-stub axle-elliot and reverse

elliot-lemoine and lemoine inverted-steering system-

Ackermann principle of steering-wheel alignment-factors-camber, caster, king pin inclination,

Functions-types of springs-leaf, coil and Torsion bar-front suspension systems-independent

of brakes-drum brakes-leading shoe

energizing action-hydraulic brake-brake bleeding-brake shoe adjustment

assisted hydraulic brakes-air brake-layout, functions of each components and application

Types-battery coil ignition system-circuit-high-tension magneto-principle of operation of

indicator- directional signal circuits-horn circuits-wind screen wiper.

Introduction to automotive electronics, radio-interference-suppressors-audio systems.

Dolan.J.A.,Motor vehicle technology and practical work, ELBS, 1978.

Dr.Giri.N.K,Automobile Mechanics, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1998.

Automotive Mechanics, Edn. 6, McGraw Hill Co., New York

Basic Engine Components

Engine Oil System

Engine Overhaul Kits

A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine which completes the thermodynamic

Working principle of two stroke engine

1st stroke(Upward stroke):

2nd stroke(Downward stroke):

Image(click to enlarge images)

1st stroke (Intake or

4th stroke (Exhaust):

Functions of Piston rings:

Following are the main functions of Piston rings:

Types of piston rings:

(a)Compression or Gas rings

(b)Oil Regulated rings

(c) Spring expander piston rings

Material used for cam:

(i) Camshaft Gear drive

(ii) Camshaft chain drive

(iii) Toothed timing belt

(i) Sleeve or bush bearing

(ii) Split sleeve bearing

(iii) Ball bearing and

(iv) Roller bearing

Opposed cylinder engine

Opposed piston engine

A straight engine is considerably easier to build than an otherwise equivalent horizontally

any direction. Straight configurations are simpler than their V-shaped

Four cycle engine:

Over square engine:

Under square engine:

Firing order of engine