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THE A N A L Y S I S M E T H O D S
2.1
LOG-LOG SCALE
For a given period of the test, the change in pressure, Ap, is plotted on log-log scales
versus the elapsed time At, as illustrated on Figure 2.1 (Theis, 1935 and Ramey, 1970).
A test period is defined as a period of constant flowing conditions (constant flow rate
for a drawdown and shut-in period for a build-up test, see Figure 1.1). The complete set
of pressure data between two rate changes is used, from very early time to the latest
recorded pressure point. The log-log analysis is a global approach as opposed to
straight-line methods that make use of only one fraction of the data, corresponding to a
specific flow regime.
By comparing the log-log data plot to a set of theoretical curves, the model that best
describes the pressure response is defined.
Usually, theoretical curves are expressed in dimensionless terms because the pressure
responses become independent of the physical parameters magnitude (such as flow rate,
fluid or rock properties). An example of dimensionless term has been discussed in
Section 1.2.3 with skin factor S which is much more meaningful than the actual pressure
drop near the wellbore APski.. As shown in Equation 2.1, the dimensionless pressure pD
and time tD are linear functions of Ap and At, the coefficients A and B being dependent
upon different parameters such as the permeability k.
26
v> = AAV,
t D - BAt,
A - f (kh,...)
(2.1)
B - g ( k , C, S,...)
On log-log scales, the shape of the response curve is characteristic: the product of one
of the variables by a constant term is changed into a displacement on the logarithmic
axes. If the flow rate is doubled, for example, the amplitude of the response Ap is
doubled also, but the graph of log (Ap) is only shifted by log (2) along the pressure axis.
log pD =log A + log Ap
(2.2)
The shape of the global log-log data plot is used for the diagnosis of the interpretation
model(s). It should be noted that the scale expands the response at early time, and
compresses the late time data.
2.2
2.2.1 Example of pressure type-curve: "Well with wellbore starage and skin in a
homogeneous reservoir"
Log-log analysis technique is illustrated with the basic interpretation model "Well with
wellbore storage and skin in a homogeneous reservoir". The corresponding set of
dimensionless theoretical curves (called .type curves), presented by Gringarten et al. in
1979, is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
10 3
O0
s
v
<
d
03
c"
m
tO
10 2
...--
./..f
101
O0
O0
L_
10 -a
10 -2
10 -1
101
10 2
27
1 02
.."
Approximate start of
semi-log straight line
d~
Q_
~O
~O
1 0 60
1 0 40
.,
.,,-"
..
1 0 20
~ 1
. ~ ~
~ 1
~ 1
10
rl
0
0
0
lo
10 8
4
2
O.3
~o
1 0 50
10 30
1015
10 6
10 3
10
1
CD e2s
co
9
1 0 -1
0";'/
10 -1
10
10 2
10 3
,,
10 4
Figure 2.2. Pressure type-curve: Well with wellbore storage and skin, homogeneous reservoir.
Log-log scales, PD versus tD/CD. CD e 2s= 1060 tO 0.3.
Dimensionless terms
PD =
tD =
kh
141.2qB/~
0.000264k
Ap
(2.3)
At
(2.4)
CD
0.8936C
= ~
(2.5)
Several type curve presentations have been proposed for this interpretation model. For
practical reasons, Gringarten et al. (1979) proposed using a dimensionless time group
defined as"
t D = 0.000295kh____At
CD
/~ C
(2.6)
28
CDe 2S =--e0'8936C 2S
~cth,-,,2
(2.7)
The curve label Cj)e 2s defines the well condition. It ranges from Cz)e2s =0.3 for
stimulated wells, up to 1060 for very damaged wells.
Two characteristic flow regimes can be present in the response of a well with wellbore
storage and skin in a homogeneous reservoir:
1. At early time, during the pure we/lbore regime, the relationship Equation 1.9 can be
expressed as:
qB
(2.8)
On log-log scales, the data curve follows a unit slope straight line as described by the
early time 45 ~ asymptote on the type curve Figure 2.2.
2. When the infinite acting radial flow regime is reached, the pressure response
follows the semi-log relationship of Equation 1.15 that does not produce a characteristic
shape on log-log coordinates. The limit "Approximate start of the semi-log straight line"
has been introduced on the type curve Figure 2.2 for the identification of the radial flow
regime.
Between the two flow regimes, shown by the initial wellbore storage unit slope straight
line and the start of the radial flow regime in Figure 2.2, the response describes a
transitional behavior when the sand face rate changes, as describes in Section 1.2.2.
29
1 02
1 0 60
10 5~
10 40
10 3o
""
10 2 0
1015
1010
/1R::::~=i~::E~~
10 8
10 6
~ 1 0
4
10 3
10
1
.
rh
Q.
~j
r
10
0.3
oo
9
CD
e2s
o
r.9
E
Eb
10-1
~'7/
10
....
-1
,...t
10
iO 2
10 3
10 4
(2.9)
The time match TM = (t D/C D )/At gives the wellbore storage coefficient with Equation
2.6"
(2.10)
The skin factor is evaluated from the Co e2s label of the selected curve (the curve
match). From Equation 2.5,
S - 0.51n
CDe2SMatch
(2.11)
CD
2.2.2
Shut-in periods
Drawdown periods are in general not suitable for analysis because it is difficult to
ascertain a constant flow rate. The response is distorted, especially with the log-log
scales that expand the response at early time. Preferably, build-up periods are used
where the flow rate is zero, therefore the well is controlled.
Build-up responses do not show the same behavior as the first drawdown in a virgin
reservoir at initial pressure. After a flow period of duration tp, the well shows a pressure
30
drop of Ap(tp). In the case of an infinite reservoir, after shut-in it takes an infinite time to
reach the initial pressure during build-up, and to produce a pressure change ADBu(t=oo)
of magnitude Ap(t/j). As described on Figure 2.4, the shape of pressure build-up curves
depends upon the previous rate history.
The diffusivity equation used to generate the well test analysis solutions is linear. It is
possible to add several pressure responses, and therefore to describe the well behavior
after any rate change.
This is the superposition principle (van Everdingen and Hurst, 1949). For a build-up
after a single drawdown period at rate q during t/,, the rate history is changed by
superposing an injection period at rate -q from time fp, to the flow period from time t=0
extended into the shut-in times tp + At (see Figure 2.5).
z~PBu(At)
oO
oO
BU
r'~
q[J
tp+At
tp
Time, t
Figure 2.4. Test history dra\vdown - shut-in.
(&P (tp+At)- Ap
(At))
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :_ _-7__:. ~. . . . I. . . .V. . . .
........................
Q.
ds,_
o3
oo
(tp+At)
Ap (tp)
...........................
13"
d
n,"
-q
tp~
> At
Time, t
Figure 2.5. Equivalent flow history extended drawdown (dashed line) + injection (plain line).
31
10 2
{3_
r~
CDe2s drawdwon
type _______<?
curve
PD(tpD)
oo
ID
10
iii,
m im in Im m ,
m la m imlo m m Im 1 I
n lu IO In I I m I
m m I
9 9m
9 9I
9I
'-O
ff)
t(1)
E
_
10-1
i
10 -1
.......
10
10 2
10 3
10 4
Po(tp)D 9
PBuD(At)D -- pD(At)D --pD(tp +At) D +PD(tp)D
(2.12)
Equation 2.12 shows that the build-up type curves differ from the original drawdown
curve by p D(tr) > -pD(tp +At)>. On a log-log scales, build-up type curves are
below the original drawdown type curve and, when At is large compared to the
production time tp, they tend to flatten at p> (tp) >. As shown in Figure 2.6, the data is
compressed on the y-axis, especially when At >> tp, thus reducing the definition of the
diagnostic plot.
Semi-log analysis: superposition time
When the pressure response is in radial flow at times tp, At and tp + At (at time of shutin, during the build-up period and during the extrapolated drawdown), the three p>
terms of Equation 2.12 can be changed into the semi-log approximation. Using the real
pressure Equation 1.15 and grouping the three logarithm functions, the resulting buildup Equation 2.13 shows that a semi-log plot of shut-in pressure also display a straight
line of slope m when the time is changed into the superposition time (also called
effective Agarwal time, 1980).
32
o
O_
o0
t._
CL
o0
10
CDe2s drawdwon
type c ~ / <
P D ( t p D ) ~
........
~;
c
O
c
(1.)
E
rq
, ,(~ t~,~
10-1
10
102
103
104
t At
kh
t ~ + At
+ log
~/tc, r,7,
3.23 +0.87S 1
(2.13)
With the superposition time, the build-up correction method compresses the time scale.
Horner method
With the Homer method (1951), a simplified superposition time is used: the constant tI,
is ignored, and the shut-in pressure is plotted as a function of log[(t v + zXt)/AtJ. On the
Homer scale, the shape of the build-up response is symmetrical to that of the
superposition plot Figure 2.7, early time data is on the right side of the plot (large
Homer time) and, at infinite shut-in time, (t v + At)/At - 1.
4000
p
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3750
X\
c~
d
Or)
9
13_
3500
slope m
3250
~176149 ~t, ~9 9 9 9
3000
1
101
10 ~
103
10 4
33
t + At
Pw.~. = P,-162.6 qB/~ log p
kh
(2.14)
At
On a Homer plot of build-up data, the straight line slope m, the pressure at 1 hour on the
straight line Ap(At = l hr), and the extrapolated straight line pressure p* at infinite shutin time (At = oo) are estimated. The results of analysis are:
k h - 162.6 qB/u
(1.16)
~bpct rw
(2.15)
tv
In an infinite system, the straight line extrapolates to the initial pressure and p*=p~.
When the production time is large compared to the shut-in time tp>>At, the Homer time
can be simplified with:
tp +At
log~
~ log t - log At
At
P
(2.16)
The compression of the time scale becomes negligible, the Homer straight-line slope m
is independent of the production time and the build-up data can be analyzed on a MDH.
semi-log scale such as in Figure 1.9.
Multiple-rate superposition
In the case of a multiple-rate test sequence such as on Figure 2.9, a new flow period is
created for all rate changes (defined with the time at start t; and the rate q,), and the
complete rate history prior to the analyzed period is used. Each previous period is
superposed with the same principle as on the basic example of Figure 2.5.
At time At of flow period # n, the multi-rate type curve is:
n-1
(2.17)
i=1 q n - I -- q n
+ k t - t i )+(qn -qn-1)l~
(2.18)
34
0..
u-
At
k_
0..
Period #
1,2 ..... 5,
eq
6 ............ 10,
>
11
qll =0
Time, t
Figure 2.9. Multiple- rate history,. Example with 10 periods before shut-in.
example
In the example of Figure 2.10, the well is produced 60 hours and shut-in for a pressure
build-up. A sealing fault is present near the well and, at 80 hours (20 hours after shutin), the infinite acting radial flow regime ends to change slowly to the hemi-radial flow
geometry.
During the 20 initial hours of the shut-in period (cumulative time 60 to 80 hours), both
the extended drawdown and the injection periods are in radial flow regime. The
superposition time of Equations 2.13 or 2.14 is applicable, and the Homer method is
accurate.
At intermediate shut-in times, from 20 to 80 hours (cumulative time 80 to 140 hours),
the extended drawdown follows a semi-log straight line of slope 2m while the injection
is still in radial flow (slope m). It is not possible to group the different logarithm
functions and, theoretically, the semi-log approximation of Equation 2.12 with Equation
2.13 is not correct.
Ultimately, the fault influence is also felt during the injection and the two periods
follow the same semi-log straight line of slope 2m (shut-in time >> 80 hours,
cumulative time >> 140 hours). The semi-log superposition time is again applicable.
In practice, when the flow regime deviates from radial flow in the course of the
the error introduced by the Homer or multiple-rate time superposition method
is negligible on pressure curve analysis results. It is more sensitive when the derivative
of the pressure is considered (see Section 2.3.5).
response,
35
5000
4500
4000
3500
Hemi-radial
Radial
r e sInfi
e nr itveo i ~ ' ~
I
Sealing fault --~ I
........
5O
100
150
200
Time, hours
250
300
(2.19)
(2.20)
The Homer time corresponding to spherical flow (Equation 1.29) is sometimes used for
the analysis of wireline formation testers pressure data.
36
For the radial flow analysis of a build-up period, the semi-log superposition time is
used. The slope rn of the Homer / superposition straight line defines the final pressure
match of the log-log analysis:
P M - p~-----L~= __1151
Ap
(2.22)
III
Once the pressure match is defined, the C~ e 2s c u r v e is known accurately. Results from
log-log and specialized analyses must be consistent.
2.3
PRESSURE DERIVATIVE
2.3.1
Definition
With the derivative approach, the time rate of change of pressure during a test period is
considered for analysis. In order to emphasize the radial flow regime, the derivative is
taken with respect to the logarithm of time (Bourdet et al., 1983 a). By using the natural
logarithm, the derivative can be expressed as the time derivative, multiplied by the
elapsed time At since the beginning of the period.
Ap'=
dp
d In At
=At dp
(2.23)
dt
"Well
with
wellbore
storage
and
skin
in
Radialflow
When the infinite acting radial flow regime is established, the derivative becomes
constant. This regime does not produce a characteristic log-log shape on the pressure
curve, but it can be identified when the derivative of the pressure is considered.
(1.15)
Pressure derivative
37
:~:~.~:..:~.:~:.:::;:.:~..*.:~.:~...::?.:.~.~:::~:~:...:.::::`:::..:..`..:~:
;.,?:.:;.-~:::'::.':::":::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::'~:.':::'.:~:4-":~:':
,,
Log Ap'
Ap' - const~ nt
N-
~ ~ 2 2 2 2 :
/ 2 2 : : 227.:~.-~-~:2.~ 22 : . 2 ~ 2 2 2 2 2
Log At
Figure 2.11. Pressure and derivative responses on log-log scales. Radial flow.
qB~
Ap'- 7 0 . 6 ~
kh
(2.24)
(2.25)
Wellbore storage
Ap-
qB At
24C
(1.9)
Ba
Ap'= -~___2_At
24C
(2.26)
During the pure wellbore storage regime, the pressure change Ap and the pressure
derivative Ap' are identical. On log-log scales, the pressure and the derivative curves
follow a single straight line of slope equal to unity (Equation 2.8).
4:"':!:".::?':!.'":::"~i":i:~:
i:'i:!' *"
,.:~ ~:
i!..C!:!.]..:'
:-..C
...
01)
@
i 9
Log Ap'
Slope 1
9149
Log At
Figure 2.12. Pressure and derivative responses on log-log scales. Wellbore storage
38
O9
O_
v
-o_
<t
d>
.J
10 2
.-"
rU
>
L,_
(D
"O
",,
0.5 line
01
L..
cl
10 .3
10 .2
10 -1
101
10 2
Derivative type-curve
10 2
-o_
(1)
Coe2S
10
g_
1
i:5 10-1
10 -1
10
10 2
10 3
10 4
Figure 2.14. "Well with wellbore storage and skin, homogeneous reservoir" Derivative of typecurve Figure 2.2. Log-log scales, pD versus tD/CD. CDe2s= 10 60 to 0.3.
Pressure derivative
-Q.
39
1 0 2
>
._
>
,_
!,_.
ca
10
(D
23
if)
(D
oo
~0
(1)
(-.
. _O
~o
r'(1)
E
C3
._
10 -1 ~ / - , / /
10 -1
,
1
,
10
Dimensionless
,
10 2
,
10 3
10 4
time, tD/C D
Figure 2.15. Derivative match of example Figure 2.3. Log-log scales, PD versus tD/CD.
In the derivative type-curve of Figure 2.14 for a well with wellbore storage and skin in a
homogeneous reservoir (Bourdet et al., 1983 a), the two basic flow regimes are
characterized by a unique behavior:
1. At early time, all curves merge on a unit slope log-log straight line,
2. During radial flow, the derivative responses stabilize at 0.5.
During the transition between the pure wellbore storage effect and the infinite acting
radial flow regime, the derivative hump can be used to identify the CD e 2s group.
Derivative match
The match point is defined with the unit slope pressure and derivative straight line, and
the 0.5 derivative stabilization.
2.3.3
Except for the radial flow regime, during different flow geometries presented in Section
1.2, the pressure changes with the elapsed time power 1/n"
Ap - A (At) 1/n + B
(2.27)
With:
9
1/n
1/n
=1
=1/2
during the pure wellbore storage and the pseudo steady state regimes,
in the case of linear flow,
40
9
1/n
1/n
=1/4
=-1/2
Taking the logarithm derivative (Equation 2.23) of the general Equation 2.27 yields
dp
Ap'=
= A (At)l/n
din At
(2.28)
Ap
06 qB ( / , &,
(1.25)
Ap'=2.03 vB I v &'
(2.29)
9 hr/+
........""'""
....-""
o,~176176176
Slope 1/2
ooooeoe,oo ~176176176176176176176
ooeeo eeO~
Log Ap'
:. --,,+ 4~o4 4r
9
41,~i, 4p
9 611'
Log zxt
Figure 2.16. Pressure and derivative responses on log-log scales. Infinite conductivity fracture.
Pressure derivative
41
......
Slope 1/4
I iilll
l. . . . .
,... . . .
,.-"
g:
,~-I' ::"
Log Ap'
_,llllll#l#
llltlill
lttll till
itlttltl lillllt
IIIII
t1+-
Log At
Figure 2. ] 7. Pressure and derivative responses on log-log scales. Finite conductivity fracture.
Ap = 44.11
qB/a
4~At
(1.27)
Ap'= 11.03
qBlx
4~
(2.30)
Ap = 70.6
qB/a - 2 4 5 2 . 9 qB/a/qk/ac,
Slope -1/2
*%'%,.%,.
Log Ap'
(1.29)
"-**********,
Log At
Figure 2.18. Pressure and derivative responses on log-log scales. Well in partial penetration.
42
qB/a~/r ct
k3/2
.fAt
s
Ap'= 1226.4
(2.31)
Oe
Log Ap'
o0
4o
oo ~
l
l
/
/'
Slope 1
/l
eo ~
4M~ee4be~
.I
**~
Log At
Figure 2.19. Pressure and derivative responses on log-log scales. Closed system (drawdown).
(bcfhAqBAt+162.6qB/aIlog
I k h r,,
Ap-0.234
Ap'= 0.234
qB
r
1~
At
(1.35)
(2.32)
@'
=
dln
@
tpAt
tp +At
tp
=~ A t
dt
t p +At
For a complex rate history, the multiple-rate superposition time is used.
(2.33)
43
Pressure derivative
In all cases, the derivative is plotted versus the usual elapsed time At and matched
against a drawdown derivative type-curve, such as in Figure 2.14 for example. It should
be noted that a log-log build-up derivative curve is dependent upon the rate history
introduced in the time superposition calculations, both the elapsed time and the
superposition time are used in this plot. The derivative response is not a raw data plot.
Errors may be introduced in the case of poor data preparation (see discussion next of the
data differentiation, and the rate history definition in Section 10.1.1).
1 04
Q.
d~
C
oq
Q.
.m
10 3
"c-
r-r'h
0
L._
co~
if)
~a_
10 2
101
10-1
10
,.
10 2
10 3
Figure 2.20. Log-log plot of the build-up example of Figure 2.10. Well near a sealing fault.
44
In some cases, the distortion can produce a temporary decline in the build-up derivative
response, and produce a valley shape before the late time response (with heterogeneous
reservoirs or boundary effects for example, see Chapters 4 and 5). When recorded test
data stops at the time corresponding to the downturn in the derivative, and the upturn of
the valley is not seen, interpretation of the late time trend can be difficult. Extrapolation
of a small late time downward trend of the derivative response can be hazardous, it can
simply correspond to the temporary distortion produced by the build-up derivative
calculation or, as discussed next, to the effect produced by smoothing.
2.3.5
Data differentiation
As depicted in Figure 2.21, the data differentiation algorithm uses three points: one
point before (left = 1) and one after (right = 2) the point i of interest. It estimates the left
and right slopes, and attributes their weighted mean to the point i (Bourdet et al., 1983
a). On a p vs. x semi-log plot,
dp _
dr
kx 1 + A,c2
(2.34)
Pressure derivative
45
<~
a;
rco
L..
L_
rl
>
ko9 (superposition)
Figure 2.21. Differentiation of a set of pressure data. Semi-log scales.
2.3.6
Derivative responses
As discussed in Section 1.2.1, well responses are made up of several flow regimes,
whose chronology defines, from early times to late times, the near wellbore conditions
to the reservoir limits in the case of a long test. The derivative response exhibits a
characteristic shape during all basic flow geometries. By reading the shape of the
derivative response, the sequence of regimes can be established. Frequently only
transitional behaviors between pure regimes are available on the log-log derivative
curve, the diagnosis is not unique and several interpretation models have to be
considered.
2.4
The log-log analysis is made with a simultaneous plot of the pressure and derivative
responses of the interpretation period. Time and pressure matches are defined with the
derivative, using respectively the unit slope straight line and the derivative stabilization.
The curve match on pressure and derivative data give access to additional well and
reservoir parameters. In the example for a well with wellbore storage and skin in a
homogeneous reservoir Figure 2.22 (Bourdet et al., 1983 a), the CDe 2s group is
identified by the shape of the derivative hump, and by the pressure curve match.
The double log-log match is confirmed with a match of the pressure type-curve on semilog scales to accurately adjust the skin factor and the initial pressure. A simulation of
the complete test history is presented on linear scale in order to check the rates any
changes in the well behavior or the average pressure.
46
1 02
10 60
1 0 40
[3
O_
-~-O_
oO
102o
t_
or)
oO
10 30
1015
101o
108
104
10
1 0 s~
106
103
10
o.3
CD e2s
C1:3
0
(D
C3
10 -1
~'(."" /
10-1
.
1
.
10
I
10 2
10 3
10 4
D i m e n s i o n l e s s time, tD/C D
Figure 2.22. Pressure and derivative type-curve for a well with wellbore storage and skin,
homogeneous reservoir. Log-log scales, pj) v e r s u s t:)/Cj).
The analysis procedure with the type curve shown in Figure 2.22 is discussed further in
Section 3.1.3. The complete interpretation methodology is presented in detail in Section
10.2 from the diagnosis to the consistency check. Two examples are used to illustrate
that the test history plot is an efficient check of the interpretation model applicability,
over a large time range.