A Look at the

Academic Research
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Introduction to the Academic Research

Equity and Accessing Language

Student Dispositions

Activating Prior Knowledge

Representations

Estimation and Mental Math

Alternative Algorithms

Differentiating Instruction

Instructional Games and Technology

11

Response to Intervention

12

The Teaching of Fractions

13

Questions for Teacher Reflection

19

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education community for some time.
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STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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ZULWWHQ LQ DQ XQGHUVWDQGDEOH VW\OH WKDW VKRXOG HQDEOH WKH The Standards for Mathematical Content are
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Common Core State Standards for Mathematics
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(National Governors Association Center for Best
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Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers,
2010, p. 8)
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teaching; we need to keep our eyes and ears
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patterns!
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The Equity Principle

EQUITY AND ACCESSING LANGUAGE

Excellence in mathematics education requires

equityhigh expectations and strong
support for all students.

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NCTM (2000a, p. 12)

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

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address these words during the lesson.
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STUDENT DISPOSITIONS
Students who have developed a productive
disposition are confident in their knowledge
and ability. They see that mathematics is both
reasonable and intelligible and believe that,
with appropriate effort and experience, they
can learn.
Kilpatrick, Swafford,
and Bradford (2001, p. 133)

When a child gives an incorrect answer, it is

especially important for the teacher to assume
that the child was engaged in meaningful
activity. Thus, it is possible that the child will
reflect on his or her solution attempt and
evaluate it.
Yackel, Cobb, Wood, Wheatley,
and Merkel (1990, p. 17)

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STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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If the student is misbehaving out of
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frustration with an activity, assisting the child
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with the activity will be more effective than
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Leslie, and Smith (2007, p. 339)
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ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

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One of the most reliable findings from

research is that students learn when they are
given opportunities to learn. Providing an
opportunity to learn means setting up the
conditions for learning that take into account
students entry knowledge, the nature and
purpose of the tasks and activities, and so on.
Hiebert (2003, p. 10)

The Representation Standard

Instructional programs from prekindergarten
through grade 12 should enable all students to
x create and use representations to
organize, record, and communicate
mathematical ideas;
x select, apply, and translate among
mathematical representations to solve
problems;
x use representations to model and
interpret physical, social, and
mathematical phenomena.

REPRESENTATIONS
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NCTM (2000a, p. 67)

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

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Research: Hands-On Activities; Manipulatives; Diagrams

In a study of over 7,000 students, Wenglinsky (2000) found that students whose
teachers conduct hands-on learning activities outperform their peers by more than
70% of a grade level in math on the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP).
In a meta-analysis of 60 research studies, Sowell (1989) found that for students of
all ages, math achievement is increased and students attitudes toward math are
improved with the long-term use of manipulative materials.
Ferrucci, Yeap, and Carter (2003) found, from their observations of Singapore
schools and curricula, that modeling with diagrams is a powerful tool for children
to use to enhance their problem-solving and algebraic reasoning skills.
Petit, Laird, and Marsden (2010), citing the research of others, point out that students need to interact with multiple models that differ in perceptual features, which
causes them to rethink and ultimately generalize the mathematical concepts being
investigated with the models (p. 5).

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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1
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Estimation involves a process of obtaining an

approximate answer (rather than an exact
answer).
Mental math involves a process of obtaining
an exact answer in your head.

When students have regular opportunities to

estimate, share orally, evaluate, compare their
approaches, and transfer strategies to new
settings, they feel challenged and, ultimately,
empowered.
Rubenstein (2001, p. 443)

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Using Benchmarks to Estimate the

Sum of Mixed Numbers
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Research Item (Reys & Yang, 1998)

Without calculating an exact answer, circle the
best estimate for
A. 1

B. 2

12
13

7
.
8

C. 19 D. 21 E. I dont know

Results: Percents of Students Who

Selected Each Choice
A. 1
B. 2*
C. 19
D. 21
E. DK

6th Grade
10%
25%
36%
16%
13%

8th Grade
20%
38%
14%
12%
16%

(*) denotes the correct response.

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

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Although exact answers are important, it is

even more important that students develop a
sense of reasonableness when working with
numbers.

Research: Asking Children to Compare Estimation Strategies

Star, Kenyon, Joiner, and Rittle-Johnson (2010), citing several research studies, concluded that a promising approach that has emerged from research in mathematics
education and cognitive psychology emphasizes the role of comparisoncomparing
and contrasting multiple solution methodsin helping students learn to estimate
(p. 557).

Research: Childrens Thinking on Mental Math

Many students think that mental math is nothing more than doing a traditional
algorithm in your head. Reys and Barger (1994) found that teaching and practicing
the written algorithms before doing any mental math actually increases the likelihood that children will think that way.

ALTERNATIVE ALGORITHMS
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al-Khwarizmi wrote Book on Addition and
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Subtraction After the Method of the Indians (title
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translated from the Arabic). In his book,
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solutions to problems are given in steps, or
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recipes. The word for these recipes, algorithm,
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is derived from the Latin that begins with Dixit
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Algorismi, or al-Khwarizmi says.
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STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION

The depressing thing about arithmetic badly

taught is that it destroys a childs intellect and,
to some extent, his integrity. Before they are
taught arithmetic, children will not give their
assent to utter nonsense; afterwards they will.
Instead of looking at things and thinking
about them, they will make wild guesses in
the hopes of pleasing the teacher.
Sawyer (1943)

The standard algorithms used in the United

States are not universal. . . . As our schools
become more and more diverse, it is
important that students knowledge from their
home cultures is valued within the classroom.
Having students share alternative methods
for doing arithmetic is one way to do so and
honors the knowledge of their parents and
community elders.
Ellis and Yeh (2008, p. 368)

More Than One Way to

Perform an Operation

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Most people have been taught only one way,

so they quite naturally assume that there is
only one way. The realization that there are
many possible procedures to follow when
operating on numbers can change the way
that people think of mathematics.
Sgroi (1998, p. 81)

Scaffolding
Scaffolding refers to assistance provided to
students (temporary supports that are
gradually removed) to allow them to engage
at a higher level than they would be able to
without the assistance. Kilpatrick et al. (2001)
concluded that by offering a subtle hint,
posing a similar problem, or asking for ideas,
students are assisted in their ability to reason.

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

One Size Doesnt Fit All

The idea of differentiating instruction to
accommodate the different ways that students
learn involves a hefty dose of common sense,
as well as sturdy support in the theory and
research of education.
Tomlinson and Allan (2000)

Gardners Multiple Intelligences

x Verbal/Linguistic
x Mathematical/Logical
x Visual/Spatial
x Musical/Rhythmic
x Bodily/Kinesthetic
x Interpersonal
x Intrapersonal
x Naturalistic

Student Writing
By writing we find out what we know, what
we think. Writing is an extremely efficient way
of gaining access to that knowledge that we
cannot explore directly.
Smith (1982, p. 33)

Interactive Instruments
at the LdPride Web Site
x Find out your dominant intelligence.
x Find out your learning style.
(See www.LdPride.net; there may be a fee to obtain the
test results.)

10

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INSTRUCTIONAL GAMES
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games, both student learning and motivation
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are strengthened. . . . Mathematics games can
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and should be used before, during, and after
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instruction to help students develop higherFRQFHSWVZKLOHHQVXULQJWKDWHYHU\FKLOGKDVDQRSSRUWX
level thinking skills. . . . Games can stimulate
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children to be alert, curious, and critical, and to
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see themselves as problem solvers.
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Thornton and Wilson (1993, pp. 288289)
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mathematical communication as students
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explain and justify their moves to one
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another. In addition, games can motivate
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students and engage them in thinking about
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a positive impact on student motivation and
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Research: Instructional Games in Mathematics

Klein and Freitag (1991) found that the use of instructional games increases student
interest, satisfaction, and continuing motivation.

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

11

Research: Use of Technology

Sivin-Kachala and Bialo (2000) reviewed 311 research studies and concluded that
technology-rich environments promote increased achievement in preschool through
high school for both regular and special-needs students in all subject areas, improved
attitudes toward learning, and increased student self-esteem.

RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION
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additional interventions to Tier 1 instruction
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for at-risk students who demonstrate a
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specific need; they involve frequent
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assessment.
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Tier 3: Intensive, Individual (or Small
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interventions are administered; they are
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assessment based, of high intensity, and of
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longer duration.
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Adapted from Batsche et al. (2005)
HQGRIHDFKXQLWSURYLGHDQDGGLWLRQDOSURJUHVVPRQLWRULQJ

12

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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GDWDWRPHHWWKHQHHGVRILQGLYLGXDOVWXGHQWV

Web Sites That Provide Information

and Resources About RTI
x National Center on Response to
Intervention: www.rti4success.org
x RTI Action Network: www.rtinetwork.org

Without information about [their] students

skills, understanding, and individual
approaches to mathematics, teachers have
nothing to guide their work.
Mokros, Russell, and Economopoulos
(1995, p. 84)

We teach children to look for patterns in dealing with numbers; these patterns help children discover
the structure of our number system. Similarly, teachers must look for patterns in the data they collect
from children who are experiencing problems in computational skills. Recognizing patterns in the
errors a child is makingthat the child is, in other words, making a systematic erroris the initial
step toward remediation of the error.
Cox (1975, p. 156)

THE TEACHING OF FRACTIONS

$FFRUGLQJ WR 9DQ GH :DOOH  )UDFWLRQV KDYH DOZD\V
UHSUHVHQWHGDFRQVLGHUDEOHFKDOOHQJHIRUVWXGHQWVHYHQLQWR One of the most well established facts in all
WKH PLGGOH JUDGHV S  6WXGLHV KDYH FRQFOXGHG WKDW mathematics education literature is that
VWXGHQWV ILQG IUDFWLRQ FRQFHSWV WR EH PXFK PRUH GLIILFXOW performance on fractions is undesirably low.
WKDQZKROHQXPEHUFRQFHSWV)RUH[DPSOHFRPSDULQJDQG
Hope and Owens (1987, p. 37)
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Using fractions did not come naturally to the
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students.
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Johanning (2008, p. 304), research
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conclusion drawn about middle school
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students fraction literacy
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A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

13

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Symbolic operations can become the focus of
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instruction once students have developed
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coherent and stable meanings that they may
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express symbolically.
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Thompson and Saldanha (2003, p. 109)
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It is important that they [children] be able to
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translate . . . between symbolic representations
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and the number line or pictorial representations.
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1
Kilpatrick, Swafford,
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3
and Bradford (2001, p. 102)
WKURXJKRXWWKLVERRN

Part-Whole
Circle Model

Length Model

Parts of a
Collection

Location on a
Number Line

Quotients of
Integers

Set Model

Measurement

Symbolic
1
3




Of 3 equal parts,
1 is shaded.

Of 6 equal parts,
2 are shaded. This is
equivalent to
of 3 equal parts,
1 is shaded.





Of 9 objects, 3 are
shaded. This is
equivalent to
of 3 rows,
1 is shaded.

 0

3
9

 0

1' 3

0.3

3' 9

0.3

1
2
and show the
3
6

same location, or
distance from 0,
along the number
line.

3
1
and name the
3
9

same number.

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14

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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Some students may erroneously conclude
that

5
8

is shaded rather than

1
4

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It is unlikely that any other interpretation of

rational number comes close to the power of
the number line for building number sense.
Lamon (2005, p. 173)

Common Core State

Standards (Grade 3)
Understand a fraction as a number on the
number line; represent fractions on a number
line diagram.
Represent a fraction 1/b on a number line
diagram by defining the interval from 0 to 1
as the whole and partitioning it into b equal
parts. Recognize that each part has size 1/b
and that the endpoint of the part based at 0
locates the number 1/b on the number line.
National Governors Association
Center for Best Practices and Council of
Chief State School Officers (2010, p. 24)

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

15

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The realization that fractions represent
division and constitute the most common way
in which division is represented in algebra has
caused a demand for increasing competence
with fractions by all those for whom algebra
skills are important.

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The evidence shows that learners use

different cognitive skills in dealing with the
various interpretations of rational numbers.
Driscoll (1984, p. 34)

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In a guided-discovery lesson, students

sequentially uncover layers of mathematical
information one step at a time and learn new
mathematics. . . . We cannot expect students
to have a sustained interest in mathematics if
formulas are served up like fast food.

16

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS

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Research Conducted by Prediger

(2008)*
Item 2
Which statement is correct?
When I multiply two fractions,
a. the solution is always bigger than the
two fractions.
b. the solution is always smaller than the
two fractions.
c. the solution is sometimes bigger,
sometimes smaller than the two
fractions.**
Item 9
How can we calculate
a. 36 

2
3

2
3

of 36?
2

b. 36 '
3
d. none of these, but this:

c.

2
3

: 36 **

*The 269 students in this study attended German

grammar schools with a student body representing the
highest achieving 40% of students in Germany.
**correct answer

Problem writing provides an easy-to-implement

assessment that readily reveals students
understandings and misunderstandings.
Barlow and Drake (2008, p. 331)

Common Core State Standards

Standards for Mathematical Practice
Make sense of problems and
persevere in solving them.
Mathematically proficient students start by
explaining to themselves the meaning of a
problem and looking for entry points to its
solution.
National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and Council of
Chief State School Officers (2010, p. 6)

A LOOK AT THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH

17

Probability
Instructional programs from prekindergarten
through grade 12 should enable all
students to
x understand and apply basic concepts
of probability.
NCTM (2000, p. 48)

Connections to Probability

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3
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4

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A subject in its own right, probability is

connected to other areas of mathematics,
especially number and geometry.
NCTM (2000, p. 51)

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The CBMS (Conference Board of Mathematical Sciences) specifically notes that strengthening
rational number knowledge and rational number sense is absolutely essential in the preparation of
middle grade mathematics teachers. It further indicates that besides being able to explain procedures,
these future teachers need a sufficient depth of understanding to be able to write problems that
require specific arithmetic operations. Prospective teachers who obtain this deep understanding of
rational numbers will be more prepared to help their future students to develop their own
understandings.
Carbone and Eaton (2008, p. 39)

18

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