D

Measure Phase Step 2&3

M
L1 Version 3.2

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DMAIC Steps
Step 0
Step 1

Establish CTQ Characteristics

Define a Project

Step 2
Step 3

Establish Performance Parameters

Validate Measurement System for Y

Step 4
Step 5
Step 6

Establish Process Baseline

Define Performance Goals
Identify Variation Sources

Step 7
Step 8
Step 9

Explore Potential Causes

Establish Variable Relationship
Design Operating Limits

Step 10
Step 11
Step 12

Validate Measurement System for X

Verify Process Improvement
Institutionalize New Capability

I
C

DMAIC Road-Map

Introduction - MEASURE

A robust measurement system forms the basis of any Six Sigma project

A measurement system has two characteristics

Step 2 of DMAIC
Design of the measurement system

Precision of the measurement system

Step 3 of DMAIC

SIPOC

Tool

P
Process

Suppliers

Inputs

Process Boundary

Outputs

Customers

SIPOC

Baton Changes

Process 1

Process

Suppliers

Inputs

11

22

Outputs

Customers

55

Process Boundary

Process 2

Process

Suppliers

Inputs

11

22

55

Process Boundary

Outputs

Customers

Benefits of Process Mapping

Tremendous value in having teams just discuss the process

Simple & visible structure for thinking through a complex process

Enables seeing the entire process as a team

Enables seeing that changes are not made in a vacuum and will carry through,
affecting the entire process down the line

Creates a framework for designing performance standards for your project

Magnifies non value-added areas or steps

Identifies cycle times of each step in the process

Helps re-examine (if needed) the scope and charter of your project

Points to Look For

The pain areas (identified at the time of project selection) must be within the
selected scope

Between the Start and End of the process, there should be logical flow of units
leading towards creating an output

Walk-through the process

Guard against analyzing the process at this stage, just map as-it-is

Do not map the process as you would like it to be

What is a Unit?

A unit is the tangible & measurable characteristic of a process output

Defects are observed / counted in the output characteristic of a unit (denoted as Y)

P
Process

Suppliers

Inputs

Process Boundary

Outputs

Customers

Examples

In ticket booking example, each ticket booked could be a unit

In the above example, can each filled requisition given be a unit?

In a bug fix example , each bug that comes in can be considered as a Unit

2.3

Define Specifications and Defect

Key Concepts

Recall that customers are better off telling you what they do not want

A defect is an imperfection or deficiency in the output unit with respect to specifications

defined by the customer

Quality is absence of defects in the unit identified

Quality goes up as defects come down

Quality is inversely proportional to defects

Defects are defined by customers (VOC table can be used here, however, focus here is
to collect project CTQs)

A unit may have multiple defects depending upon customer CTQs

Defect is on a unit

A unit which has defects is called a Defective( Even one defect in a unit will make the unit defective)

What is a Specification?

A specification is a customer-defined tolerance for the output unit characteristics

Specifications can be one sided or two sided

Specifications form the basis of any defect measurement exercise

LSL

Target

USL:

Upper Specification Limit for Y,

anything above this is a defect.

LSL:

Lower Specification Limit for Y,

anything below this is a defect.

Target:

Ideally the middle point of USL & LSL.

USL

Specification example: Bug fix productivity should be at least 3 bugs / pw ( only LSL one sided spec).

What is Six Sigma?

Lower
Specification Limit

Mean / Target

Upper
Specification Limit

High
Probability
of Failure

66807 Defects
Per Million
Opportunities

3 1s
Higher
Higherthese
this
numbers,
number,
Lower the
chance of
producing a
defect

3 1s

Much Lower
Probability
of Failure

6 2s

6 2s

3.4 Defects
Per Million
Opportunities

2.4

Understand Data Characteristics

Why Collect Data?

Successful organizations have a common language to communicate

Common language promotes objectivity in decision-making process

Dont come up with great solutions for problems that dont exist

A measure of where we are is critical to determining where we should be

Have you reached where you intended to? -- only data answers that question

A good data collection simplifies the problem solving effort

If the solution costs more than the problem, its not worth it. A good data collection
should concentrate as much on measuring problems as it does on measuring solutions

Key Concepts

Improvement can only occur if we understand where we are & where to go, supported
by a measurement system that validates both situations

If the tool, by which we measure a characteristic, is not appropriate, able, or accurate,

effective improvement will not occur

One must understand and quantify the measurement system

Examples

Discrete data - (Is Countable)

Data that can take a limited number of values (Pass / Fail, OK / Not OK, Win / Loss)

Examples

Number of Days in a week

Number of yes responses to a satisfaction survey

Number of bugs fixed

Number of test cases passed or number of test cases failed

Continuous Data - ( Is Measurable and can take on fractional Values)

Data that be expressed in either fractions or whole numbers

Examples

Time taken to fix a bug

Time taken to close a call

Productivity

Defect Density

Yield of a process

Temperature in the room

Height of a person

Discrete Data Characteristics

Usually illustrated in tables & graphs

Continuous Data Characteristics

Usually illustrated in tables & histograms / frequency polygons

A histogram or frequency distribution shows the number of data points in a data set that fall

into each of the frequency classes

A frequency polygon is constructed by connecting the mid-points of each of the vertical bar

in the Histogram

90

95

100

115

120

125

130

Continuous Data Characteristics

Location / Central Tendency

It is a measure of the center point of any data set

Spread / Dispersion
It is a measure of the spread of any data set around its center

Shape
It is a measure of symmetry of any data set around its center

Measuring the Location

Mean
Mean is the arithmetic average of all data points in a data set

Y=

Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + . + Yn
n

Where n = number of data points

Mode
Mode is the most frequently occurring data point in a data set

Median
Median is the middle data point of a data set arranged in an ascending / descending order

Odd number of data points

Even number of data points

Average

Measuring the Spread

Range
Range is the difference between the maximum & minimum data point

Variance / Standard Deviation

Variance & standard deviation measure how individual data points are spread around mean

Variance = s2 =

( Y1 - Y )2 + ( Y2 Y )2 + . + ( Yn Y )2

Standard Deviation =

(n1)

s2

Importance of Spread

B
A

Mean of Curve A is more representative of its data set as compared to Curves B & C

Spread outside the specifications may result in defects; this information is not
provided by mean

From a process perspective, individual customers are subject to different behaviors

of the process

Normal Distribution

Introduction to Normal Distribution

Normal Distribution with

Figure 3.01

Mean =100
Standard Deviation = 10

70

1 unit
of
standard
deviation

80

90

100

110

120

130

Its a Probability Distribution, illustrated as N ( , )

Simply put, a probability distribution is a theoretical frequency distribution

Higher frequency of values around the mean & lesser & lesser at values away from mean

Continuous & symmetrical

Tails asymptotic to X-axis

Bell shaped

Total area under the Normal curve = 1

Standard Normal Distribution

2 3

+
-3

-2

-1

+1

+2

+3

Instead of dealing with a family of normal distributions with varying means & standard
deviations, a standard normal curve standardizes all the distributions with a single curve
that has a mean of 0 & standard deviation of 1

Its illustrated as N ~ ( 0,1 ), i.e. mean = 0 & standard deviation = 1

Normal Distribution Property

Figure 3.02

- 1

+ 1
68.26%

- 2

+ 2
95.46%

- 3
- 4

99.73%
99.9937%

- 5

+ 3
+ 4
+ 5

99.99943%
- 6

99.999998%

+ 6

Concept of Z Value

To standardize different measurement units; such as, inches, meters, grams; a

standard Z variable is used.

Z=

Where

Y -

Y=

Value of the data point we are concerned with

Mean of the data points

Standard Deviation of the data points

Z=

Number of standard deviations between Y & the mean ()

Z value is unique for each probability within the normal distribution

It helps in finding probabilities of data points anywhere within the distribution

It is dimensionless

Example

Its found that time taken for resolution of customer complaints follow a normal distribution with
mean of 250 hours and standard deviation of 23 hrs. What is the probability that a complaint
resolution will take more than 300 hrs?

250

Z=

300 - 250
23

300

= 2.17

Looking up Appendix 1 for Normal Distribution Table,

we find that Z value of 2.17 covers an area of 0.98499 under itself

Thus, the probability that a complaint resolution may take between 0 & 300 hrs is 98.5%
& thus, chance of problem resolution taking more than 300 hrs is 1.5%

Example

For the same data, what is the probability that problem resolution will take between
216 & 273 hrs?

Z2

Z1

216

Z1 =

273 - 250
23

=1

250

273

Z2 =

216 - 250

= - 1.47

23

From Appendix 1:
Total area covered by Z1
Total area covered by Z2
Intercepted area between Z1 & Z2

= 0.841344740
= 1 - 0.929219087 = 0.0707
= 0.7705

Thus, probability that a problem resolution may take between 216 & 273 hrs is 77.05%

Measuring the Shape

Symmetric Data set

Its a data set in which spread of the data set around its mean is identical

For such a data set -

Mean,
Mode,
Median

mean = mode = median

Asymmetric Data set

Positive / Right skewed

Negative / Left skewed

- high spread on the right side of the mean

Mode

- high spread on the left side of the mean

Mean

Mean

Median

Median
Measure Phase Step 2&3

Mode

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The Complete Picture

On Center
Large Spread

LSL

Off Center
Large Spread

USL

LSL

Off Center
Small Spread

LSL

USL

On Center
Small Spread

USL

LSL

USL

Which Type of Data is Preferable?

Continuous data helps you to understand process variation

Sample size required is less

Discrete data does not allow to understand the process variation. It does not tell you
how bad is bad

You need larger samples with Discrete data

Class Exercise
Given below is the sample data on Customer complaint closure time in hrs.
Compute the Mean & Standard Deviation for each quarter.
Quarter 1

Quarter 2

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
Sample 7
Sample 8
Sample 9
Sample 10

204
202
205
196
198
190
196
205
200
199

145
150
140
165
134
130
170
132
145
164

Mean

199.5

147.5

Standard
Deviation

14

2.5

Find Opportunities for Error

Opportunities for Error (OFE)

Opportunities for error in a process is the number of steps / tasks / actions in the
process, where there is a possibility of committing an error, that may result in a defect

OFEs are opportunities inside the process that can contribute to a defect

OFE enables to compare the output quality of dissimilar processes

Concept of OFE is applicable only when defect measurement is discrete

This is because data, on whether or not a defect is created, is discrete type (yes / no)

2.6

Design Sampling Plan for

Establishing Process Baseline

What is Baseline?

After the team has understood the unit & defect definition, it would need to analyze
the current performance level

Baseline refers to a reference point from where the improvement would be

measured

Sampling plan for baselining attempts to define the data collection approach only

Introduction to Sampling

We do sampling all the time

Populations & Samples

Practical aspects Cost & Time

Sampling is done to study a representative portion of population

Any term describing the characteristics of a sample is called statistic

Any term describing the characteristics of a population is called parameter

Tool

Population

Sampling

Sample

Populations & Samples

Table 1.60

Population

Sample

Definition

Collection of items
being considered

Portion of the
population chosen for
study

Parameter

Statistic

Population Size = N

Sample Size = n

Population Mean =

Sample Mean = Y

Population Standard
Deviation =

Sample Standard
Deviation = s

Characteri
stics

Types of Sampling

Random Sampling

or

Probability Sampling

All items in the population have an equal chance of being chosen in the sample
Example:

A customer satisfaction survey team picking the customers to be contacted at random

Non-random Sampling

or

Judgment Sampling

Personal knowledge & opinion are used to identify items for the sample
It is also used to decide upon how to take a random sample later
Example:

A forest ranger may decide on a sample of north-west area to cut lumber

Collect Fresh Data

Fresh data should be collected to ensure that the latest process trend is studied

Historical data may have measurement errors which would be validated in next step of
DMAIC

Sometimes, process may generically improve as compared to the Define phase

due to increased attention from the owners / error in sampling

In such cases, Champion & BB may review the project, address the discipline issues &
decide whether project needs to collect another sample or gets abandoned here

How Big a Sample?

Business criteria to select a sample size include cost, time & effort

Statistical criteria include the accuracy of the sample representing the population

Higher the sample size, better the accuracy of the information about the population
parameters ( & )
Z1 with n = 25
Z2 with n = 16
Z3 with n = 4

There must be a balance between the business & statistical criteria

Determinants of Sample Size - Continuous Data

The sample size is determined by answering 3 questions

()

How much variation is present in the population?

In what interval does the true population mean need to be estimated?

()

How much representation error is allowed in the sample?

Sample size formula for Continuous Data:

n=

Z 1 ( / 2) *

Estimating Population Parameter

What population parameters we want to estimate

Cost of sampling (importance of information)

How much is already known

Spread (variability) of the population

Practicality: how hard is it to collect data

How precise we want the final estimates to be

Example 1 - Continuous Data

Lets take the weight of fertilizer bags whose std packaging is 7 Kgs with a std
deviation of 3.78. Now if I want to take a sample of few bags & want their mean to be
within 2, i.e. 5 & 9, how many bags should I sample ?

3.78

Assume

0.05

n=

Z 97.5 * 3.78
2

From Appendix 1,

Z 97.5

1.96

So, sample size

[ (1.96 * 3.78) / 2 ] 2

14

That means 95% of the samples with size 14 will have its mean between 5 & 9

Standard Sample Size Formula - Continuous Data

Usually, value of is taken as 5%

Z 97.5 = 1.96

Thus, standardized sample size formula can be written as

1.96 *
n=

for Continuous Data

Standard Sample Size Formula - Discrete Data

Extending the same logic, we can find out the sample size required while dealing with
discrete population

If the average population proportion non-defective is at p, population standard

deviation can be calculated as
p ( 1 p)
=

1.96
n=

Where

p ( 1 p)

for Discrete Data

Tolerance allowed on either side of the population proportion average in %

MAIC
Step 3
Validate
Measurement System
for Y

Measure Phase Step 2&3

L1 Version 3.2

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Introduction - MEASURE

A robust measurement system forms the basis of any Six Sigma project

A measurement system has two characteristics

Step 2 of DMAIC
Design of the measurement system

Precision of the measurement system

Step 3 of DMAIC

Measurement system for Y indicates that this step deals with the accuracy of defect
measurement & must be completed before proceeding to establish the process baseline

Deliverables of Step 3
3.1

Perform GRR study

3.2

Analyze results

3.1

Perform GRR Study

Count the Occurrence of letter I in the Paragraph

A country preacher was walking the back-road near a church. He became thirsty so
decided to stop at a little cottage and ask for something to drink. The lady of the house
invited him in and in addition to something to drink, she served him a bowl of soup by the
fire. There was a small pig running around the kitchen. The pig was constantly running up
to the visitor and giving him a great deal of attention. The visiting pastor commented that
he had never seen a pig this friendly. The housewife replied: "Ah, he's not that friendly.

Actually, that's his bowl you're using!"

Purpose of G R & R

A performance critical system was delivered and the customer complained that the performance
criteria is not met

What is this problem due to?

This could again be due to how one measures performance and whether the
customer sees performance the same way

GR & R prevents the following mistake:

Claiming that we delivered quality when we did not OR Claiming that

quality is bad when it is not. We are eliminating the influence of
measurement error from the performance

Not doing GR & R will cause you to tamper with the process when in fact
the process is fine but only measurement is the issue.

Objectives of a Measurement Study

Obtain information about the type of measurement variation associated with the
measurement system

Establish criteria to accept and release new measuring equipment

Compare measuring one method against another

Form basis for evaluating a method suspected of being deficient

Resolve measurement system variation in order to arrive at the correct baseline

Types of Measurement Errors

Measurement System Bias

total

Measurement System Variation

2 total =

- Calibration Study

process +/- measurement

- GRR Study

2 process + 2 measurement

Sources of Variation
Observed Process Variation

Actual
Process
Variation

Long-term
Process
Variation

Short-term
Process
Variation

Measurement
Variation

Variation
within a
Sample

Variation
due to
Operators

Variation
due to
Gage

Reproducibility

Accuracy

Repeatability

Stability

Linearity

Gage Repeatability

Gage Repeatability is the variation in measurements obtained when one operator uses
the same gage for measuring the identical characteristics of the same part

Repeatability

Gage Reproducibility

Gage Reproducibility is the variation in the average of measurements made by different

operators using the same gage when measuring identical characteristics of the same
part

Operator 2

Operator 1

Reproducibility

Component of GRR Study

Difference leads
to Reproducibility

Trial
Reading
#1

Difference leads to

Six Parts / Conditions

Repeatability

Trial
Reading
#2

Operator
A

Operator
B

Operator
C

Measurement Resolution

What is measurement resolution?

Capability of the measurement system to detect the smallest tolerable changes
Number of increments in the measurement system at full range

Example Using a truck weighing scale for measuring the weight of a tea pack

As a pre-requisite to GRR, ascertain that your gage has acceptable resolution

Data Collection

Usually 3 operators

Usually 10 units to measure

General sampling techniques should be used to represent the population

Each unit is to be measured 2-3 times by each operator (Number of trials)

Gage should have been calibrated properly

Resolution should have been ensured

First operator should measure all units in random order

Same order should be maintained for all other operators

Repeat for each trial

Methods of Performing GRR Studies

ANOVA Method
Measures operator & equipment variability separately with combined effect as well that better

defines causality
More effective when extreme values are present

ANOVA Method

ANOVA not only separates the equipment & operator variation, but also elaborates
on combined effect of operator & part

Tool

ANOVA uses the standard deviation instead of range, & hence gives a better

ANOVA also may not need the tolerance value as an input

However, time, resource & cost constraints may need to be looked into

Lets see an example

GRR ANOVA Method

estimate of the measurement system variation

GRR Example
Part

Operator

Trial

Response

1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3

1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3

1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2

475
442
489
479
462
463
369
326
302
368
328
318
398
405
410
415
402
421

Entering Data in Minitab

STAT > Quality Tools > Gage R&R Study (Crossed)

Measure Phase Step 2&3

L1 Version 3.2

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Entering Data in Minitab

STAT > Quality Tools > Gage R&R Study (Crossed) > Options

Input USL-LSL for

two-sided specifications
on Y

Measure Phase Step 2&3

L1 Version 3.2

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ANOVA Method
Minitab

gives the following output:

Source
Total Gage R&R
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Operator
Operator*Part
Part-To-Part
Total Variation

%Contribution
VarComp (of VarComp)
430.9
98.4
332.4
24.2
308.2
4329.4
4760.3

9.05
2.07
6.98
0.51
6.47
90.95
100.00

Source

StdDev
(SD)

Study Var %Study Var

(5.15*SD)
(%SV)

Total Gage R&R

Repeatability
Reproducibility
Operator
Operator*Part
Part-To-Part
Total Variation

20.7572
9.9219
18.2323
4.9216
17.5555
65.7981
68.9946

106.900
51.098
93.896
25.346
90.411
338.860
355.322

Number of Distinct Categories = 4

30.09
14.38
26.43
7.13
25.44
95.37
100.00

%Tolerance
(SV/Toler)
42.76
20.44
37.56
10.14
36.16
135.54
142.13

Here, Reproducibility is broken into two parts

If Tolerance
value is input
(say 250 in
this case),
this column
will appear

ANOVA Method
Ga g e n a m e :
Da te o f s tu d y :

Gage R&R (ANOVA) for Response

Re p o rte d b y :
To l e ran c e :
M is c :

Components of Variation

By Part
500

Percent

100

%Co n tri b u ti o n
%Stu d y Va r
400

50

300

0
Ga g e R&R

Re p e a t

Re p rod

Part

Pa rt-to -Pa rt

R Chart by Operator
40

By Operator
500

Sample Range

UCL =3 6 .3 0
30
20

400

10

R=1 1 .1 1

L CL =0
0

300

Operator

Xbar Chart by Operator

1

Operator*Part Interaction
Operator

500

1
2
UCL =4 2 4 .9
M e a n =4 0 4
L CL =3 8 3 .1

400

300

Average

Sample Mean

500

3
400

300
0

Measure Phase Step 2&3

Part

L1 Version 3.2

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GRR Example - Software

Suppose effort for developing 3 different modules are estimated by 2 different people, each estimating
twice and data is tabulated as below.

Module Estimator
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1

Trial

Effort

1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2

276
240
278
262
169
126
168
128
198
205
215

Entering Data in Minitab Software Example

STAT > Quality Tools > Gage R&R Study (Crossed)

Measure Phase Step 2&3

L1 Version 3.2

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Entering Data in Minitab Software Example

STAT > Quality Tools > Gage R&R Study (Crossed) > Options

Input USL-LSL for

two-sided specifications
on Y

Measure Phase Step 2&3

L1 Version 3.2

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ANOVA Method Software Example

Minitab gives the following output:

Source
Total Gage R&R
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Est
Est*Module
Part-To-Part
Total Variation

%Contribution
VarComp (of VarComp)
434.2
65.9
368.3
213.6
154.7
3285.0
3719.1

11.67
1.77
9.90
5.74
4.16
88.33
100.00

Source

StdDev
(SD)

Study Var
(5.15*SD)

%Study Var
(%SV)

Total Gage R&R

Repeatability
Reproducibility
Est
Est*Module
Part-To-Part
Total Variation

20.8367
8.1189
19.1898
14.6145
12.4365
57.3146
60.9846

107.309
41.812
98.828
75.265
64.048
295.170
314.071

34.17
13.31
31.47
23.96
20.39
93.98
100.00

Number of Distinct Categories = 4

Key Concepts

Minitab output under %Contribution, illustrates the percent contribution

from part-to-part as compared to GRR. If former is significantly higher than latter,
it tells you that most of the variation is due to differences between parts; very little is due
to measurement system error

Number of distinct categories in the Minitab output illustrates the number of groups
within your process data that your measurement system can discern
A value of 4 or more denotes a good measurement system

Continuous Data

GRR as a % of Contribution to Variation and

Number of Distinct Categories

If GRR as % of contribution is about 10% of the total variation

- acceptable

If number of distinct categories is >= 4

- acceptable

If none of the above criteria is met, do not proceed to the next step

If tolerance was known, GRR as a % of Tolerance should be used for decision as

explained in the previous slide

Continuous Data

GRR as a % of Tolerance( study var/Tolerance *100)

Study Var = SD * 5.15

If GRR as % of tolerance is less than 10%

- excellent measurement system

If GRR as % of tolerance is between 10% to 30%

- acceptable measurement system

However, discretion may be needed depending upon application of the process / equipment

If GRR as % of tolerance is above 30%

- unacceptable measurement system

You should not proceed to next DMAIC step. Simplify process / explore root cause

GRR for Discrete Data

ANOVA methods apply to continuous data only

For discrete data, a relatively higher accuracy is desired

Usually, discrete data GRR is measured against the true value

Worksheet for Discrete Data

Data to be filled only in YELLOW cells

Tool

GRR Discrete Data

Key Concepts

Operator Consistency

(Trial Match)

% of times an operator repeats his observation in trial 2 as compared to trial 1

Mutual Consistency

(Operator Agreement)

% of times both operators are in complete sync

Operator Efficiency

(True Match)

% of times an operator has both his observations matched with true value

Measurement Efficiency

(True Agreement)

% of times both operators are in complete sync with the true value

Class Exercise
Data is given on past matches played by Indian cricket team. Classify each match into LOST
or WON, as applicable to Indian team.

Once this is done, put the values in the GRR Discrete Data worksheet given &
compute all the six measurements.

Discrete Data

Discrete data measurement system has to be perfect because of sample size limitations

Measurements for operator consistency & efficiency should be targeted at minimum 90%
failing which team may want to discuss with Champion & Black Belt for proceeding further

Key Concepts

Once the GRR has been found to be reduced to acceptable level, project team can
start collecting data

Using this data to arrive the Sigma multiple of the process shall be discussed in
Analyze phase

GRR Applicability for software

GRR Can be used to Calibrate

The Estimation process
the review effectiveness at start of project
Testing Effectiveness at start of project

In areas where measurement of repeatability and reproducibility is not applicable

The operational definition of measures, Units of measure, Data collection mechanism
Needs to be defined

Tollgate - Measure

Detailed As-is Process

Units, Specifications & Defects

Number of OFEs, if discrete data

GRR of the Measurement System

Action plan, if GRR is not acceptable

Reduction of GRR to acceptable level

Quiz

All the Best

for
the

Quiz!!!!!!!!!

MEASURE Q1

Process Mapping helps in

a) Visualizing the activities

b) Understanding the big picture

c) Identifying bottlenecks

d) All of the above

MEASURE Q2

S in SIPOC stands for

a) Sales

b) Supplier

c) Shop floor

d) Specifications

MEASURE Q3

A unit is
a) Where we observe defects

b) Measurable characteristics of process output

c) Measurable characteristics of process input

d) a & b

MEASURE Q4

GRR study is done on

a) Two gages

b) More than two gages

c) Only one gage

d) Any number is OK

MEASURE Q5

Quality
a) Goes up as defects come down

b) Is absence of defects in the unit

c) Is defined by the customer

d) All of the above

MEASURE Q6

Which are the characteristics of discrete data

a) Location

b) Spread

c) OFE

d) Shape

Appendix 1 Normal Distribution Table

Area Below +ZLT

Appendix 1 Normal Distribution Table (contd.)

Area Below +ZLT