Artificial Intelligence

Course Code: ECE434

UNIT -VI

Sonit SukhRaj Singh

Assistant Professor
UID: 15840
Email ID: sonit.15840@lpu.co.in
Domain: Robotics & Automation(D6)
School of Electronics & Engineering(SEE)
Discipline of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Syllabus
UNIT
1.

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

2.

Problem Solving : state-space Search And Control Strategies

3.

Problem Reduction And Game Playing

4.

Logic Concept And Logic Programming

5.

Prolog Programming Language

MID TERM

1.

Knowledge Representations

2.

Expert Systems And Applications

3.

Uncertainty Measure: Probability Theory And Fuzzy Logic

4.

Machine Learning, Ann And Evolutionary Computation

5.

Introduction To Intelligent Agents And Natural Language

Processing

References
Text

1. Artificial Intelligence Saroj Kaushik 1st Edition

Cengage Learning 2011
Reference Books

2. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Expert

Systems Dan. W. Patterson 1st Edition 1990 PHI
(Pretice Hall India).
3. Artificial Intelligence- A Modern Approach
Stuart Russel Peter Norvig 3rd Edition Pearson, 2009 .
4. Artificial Intelligence Elaine Rich Kevin Knight
3rd Edition 2008 Tata McGraw Hill, India

Topics to be covered in Unit VI

Introduction to Knowledge Representation
Approaches to KR
KR using Semantic Networks
Extended Semantic Networks for KR
KR using Frames

Introduction to Knowledge
Representation
Knowledge Representation (KR) is an important
issue both in cognitive science as well in AI.
In Cognitive Science, KR deals with how information
is stored and processed by humans.
In AI, the main focus is on storing knowledge or
information in such a manner that programs can
process it and achieve human intelligence.
In AI, KR is an important area because intelligent
problem solving can be achieved and simplified
using appropriate KR techniques.

Introduction to Knowledge
Representation
Since, knowledge needs to be utilized to
achieve intelligent behavior, the fundamental
goal of KR is to represent knowledge in a
manner that facilitates the process of
inferencing (i.e drawing conclusions) from it.

Programming Languages for KR

Several programming languages oriented to KR
have been developed till date.
KL- ONE (1980) aimed at knowledge representation
itself.
Languages such as SGML, XML, RDF were used for
handling electronic documents in web systems.
PROLOG(1972) knowledge is represented in the
form of rules and facts.
These languages facilitate processes such as
information retrieval, data mining, etc.

Desirable Properties of KR
LEARNING: Refers to capability to acquire new
knowledge, behaviors, understanding, etc. By
learning, it should avoid redundancy and ensure
replication to storage to enable easy retrieval. By
learning, Knowledge may be gained by reasoning
and logic, by experience, by observation,
mathematical proofs and by scientific methods
EFFICIENCY IN ACQUISITION: Instead of using
human intervention it acquires knowledge using
automatic methods.

Desirable Properties of KR
REPRESENTATIONAL ADEQUACY: Refers the
ability to represent required knowledge.
INFERENTIAL
ADEQUACY:
Manipulating
knowledge to produce new knowledge from
existing one.

Importance of KR
KR is a core component of a number of
applications such as Expert Systems, Machine
Translation
Systems,
Computer-Aided
Maintenance systems, Information Retrieval
Systems, Database Systems, etc.

Approaches to KR
AI programs use knowledge structures to represent
objects, facts, relationships and procedures.
The main function of these knowledge structures is
to provide expertise and information so that a
program can operate in an intelligent way.
Knowledge structures are semantic networks,
Frames, scripts, conceptual dependency structures.

Basic Knowledge Representation

schemes
RELATIONAL
KNOWLEDGE:
Comprises
objects
consisting of attributes and associated values.
In this method, each fact is stored in a row of a
relational table ie RDBMS.
Table Columns-Represent Attribute names; RowsRepresent Values of the attribute. i.e ova
Name

AGE

GENDER

QUALIFICATION

SALARY

JOHN

38

Male

Graduate

20,000

MIKE

25

Male

Under Graduate

15,000

MARY

30

Female

Ph D

30,000

JAMES

29

Male

Graduate

18,000

Basic knowledge representation

schemes
Name

AGE

GENDER

QUALIFICATION

SALARY

JOHN

38

Male

Graduate

20,000

MIKE

25

Male

Under Graduate

15,000

MARY

30

Female

Ph D

30,000

JAMES

29

Male

Graduate

18,000

Question - What is the age of John?

How much does Mary earn?
What is the qualification of Mike?
Inferencing
new knowledge is not possible from these
structures.
For eg Does a person having Ph D qualification earn more?

Knowledge Representation as
Logic
Inferential capability can be achieved if
knowledge is represented in the form of formal
logic.
Uses predicate logic.
(x)human(x)

Mortal(x)

Given a fact John is human, we can easily

infer to John is mortal.
The advantage of this approach is that we can
represent a set of rules, derive more facts,
truths, and verify the correctness of sentences.

Procedural Knowledge as KR
Procedural knowledge is encoded in the form of
procedures which carry out specific tasks based on
relevant knowledge.
Example Interpreter for a programming language
interprets the program using the semantics and
syntax of the language.
This method suffers from two disadvantages:
Completeness and consistency.
By Procedural Knowledge, all cases may not be
represented. Secondly, all deductions may not be
correct.

Knowledge Representation using

Semantic Network
The basic idea behind using Semantic Network is that
meaning of concept is derived from its relationship with
other concepts, and information is stored by
interconnecting nodes with labelled arcs.
Represented in graphical notation where nodes
represent concepts or objects and arcs represent
relation between two concepts
Isa- This relation connects two classes. For eg- Man is a
human.
Inst- This relation relates specific members of a class.
For eg- John is instance of Man.

Knowledge Representation using

Semantic Network
Every human and animal are living things who
can breathe and eat. All birds are animals and
can fly. Every man and woman are humans
who have two legs. A cat has fur and is an
animal. All animals have skin and can move. A
giraffe is an animal and has long legs and is tall.
A parrot is bird and is green in color.

Knowledge Representation using

Semantic Network
PROPERTY RELATIONS
Relations such as can, has, color, height
Represented by dotted lines pointing from the
concept to its property.
Does a parrot breathe? Can be easily answered
as yes.

Knowledge Representation using

Semantic Network

Knowledge Representation using

Semantic Network

Inheritance in Semantic Networks

Hierarchical structures of KR allows knowledge
to be stored at the highest possible level of
abstraction which reduces the size of the
knowledge base.

Inheritance in Semantic Networks.

Property Inheritance Algorithm
Input: Object and property to be found from Semantic Net.
Output: return yes, if the object has the desired property else returns false.
Procedure:

Find an object in the semantic net;

Found=False;
while[(object=root) or Found] Do
{
If there is an attribute attached with an object then Found=true;
Else (object=isa(object,class) or object=inst(object,class)
};

If Found=true, then report yes else report no;

Inheritance in Semantic Networks

Prolog language is very convenient for
representing an entire semantic structure in
the form of facts (relation as predicate and
nodes as arguments) and inheritance rules.

Inheritance of Semantic Nets in Prolog can be

easily achieved by unification of appropriate
arguments in Prolog.

Inheritance in Semantic Networks

Inheritance Rules in PROLOG

In class hierarchy structure, a member subclass
of a class is also member of all super classes
connected with a isa link.
For example- If man is member of sub class
human, then man is also member of living
class.

Inheritance Rules in PROLOG

Queries for inheritance

Extended Semantic Networks for

Knowledge Representation
Logic and Semantic Networks are two different
formalisms that can be used for KR.
Simple Semantic Net is represented as directed
graph whose nodes represent concepts or
objects and arcs represent relationships
between concepts or objects.

For example- John gives an apple to Mike and

John and Mike are human.

Extended Semantic Networks for

KR (ESNet)

E represents an event which is an act of giving

Actor John, Object Apple, Recipient - Mike

Relations in clausal form for

Semantic Net
object(E, apple)
Action(E, give)
Actor(E, john)
Recipient(E, mike)
Isa(john, human)

Isa(mike, human)

Advantages of semantic networks

Predicate relations corresponding to labels on the arcs
of semantic networks always have two arguments.
The entire semantic network can be coded using binary
representation (two argument representation).
It is easy to additional information to the facts.
For example- John gives an apple to Mike in the kitchen.
It is easy to add location(E, kitchen) to the set of
facts.
John gives an apple to everyone he likes
Give(john,X,apple)
likes(john,X)

Advantages of Predicate logic

Every logic can be converted into clausal form.

By the help of Backward chaining, we can

prove any sort of query.

Disadvantages of predicate Logic

Give( john, X, apple)

likes( john, X)

Not convenient to add new information in an

n-ary representation of predicate logic.

3-ary relationship give(john, mike, apple)

To add location we have to change it into 4-ary
relationship. give(john, mike, apple, kitchen).

Extended Semantic Network

In 1979, R. Kowalski proposed an Extended
Semantic Network (ESNet) that combines the
advantages of both logic and Semantic
Networks.
ESNet have the same expressive power as that
of predicate logic with well defined semantics,
inference rules, and procedural interpretation.
ESNet is more powerful representation as
compared to logic and semantic network.

Extended Semantic Network

Predicate symbols in clausal form are represented by
labels on arcs of ESNet
John

Love

mary

Denial links are denoted by thick dotted lines.

These arcs denote negative atoms.
Grandfather(X,Y)

father(X,Z),parent(Z,Y)

Inference rules
The inference rule that an actor who performs a
taking action is also the recipient of this action
Recipient(E,X)

action(E, take),actor(E,X)

ESNet Example
Recipient(E,X)

action(E, take), actor(E,X)

Object(e, apple)
Action(e, take)

Actor(e, john)
E variable for some event

e - actual event

ESNet Example

Deduction in ESNet
Forward reasoning inference mechanism
Backward reasoning inference mechanism

Forward reasoning Inference

Uses Modus ponen rule
Example- isa(X, human)
isa(john, man)

isa(X, man)

Forward reasoning Inference

Backward reasoning Inference

Uses resolution refutation.
Example- isa(X, human)
isa(john, man)

isa(X, man)

Backward reasoning Inference

Forward reasoning Inference

(by Students)
Example- isa(X, living_thing)
isa(X, animate)
isa(X, human)

isa(X, animate)

isa(X, human)
isa(X, man)

isa(john, man)
Query john is a animate.

Forward reasoning Inference

Forward reasoning Inference

Forward reasoning Inference

Backward Reasoning Inference

Query isa(john, living_thing)

Backward Reasoning Inference

Inheritance
Example- isa(X, living_thing)
isa(X, animate)
isa(X, human)

isa(X, animate)

isa(X, human)
isa(X, man)

isa(john, man)
Part_of(human, two_legs)

Inheritance

Inheritance

Addition of a denial link to a network

Inheritance

Obtaining a contradiction

Knowledge Representation using

Frames
The idea regarding Frames was first given by
Marvin Minsky in 1975.
Frames are regarded as Extension of semantic
Nets. ie each node of semantic net is
represented by frame.
Frame is a collection of attributes describing
real world entity.

Frames are considered to organize and package

knowledge in more structured form.

Links in Frames
Frames in a network of frames are connected
using following links:
Ako: This link connects two class frames, one of which is a kind
of the other class. Eg the class child_hospital is a kind of the
class hospital. A class defines its own slots and also inherits
slot-value pairs from its super class.
Inst: This link connects a particular instance frame to a class
frame. Eg. AIIMS is an instance of the class frame hospital. An
instance class possesses the same structure as its class frame.
Part_of: This link connects two class frames one of which is
contained in the other class. eg. Ward is Part_of the class
hospital.

Frame Description of Hospital

Hospital Frame (Root of the Network)
F_name: hospital
Country: (value-India)

Phone_No: (default-2564799)
Address: (default-New Delhi)
Director: (default-XYZ)
Labs: lab (Lab Frame)
Wards: ward (Ward Frame)

Doctors: doctor (Doctor Frame)

Frame Description of Hospital

Child Hospital Frame

F_name: child_hospital
Ako: hospital (Hospital Frame)
Age: (range-[0-10])