What is Heat?

What is Heat?

Heat is energy in transit.

2

Units of Heat

The SI unit is the joule (J),

which is equal to Newton-metre (Nm).

Historically, heat was measured in terms of the ability

to raise the temperature of water.
The calorie (cal): amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gramme of water by 1 C0 (from
14.50C to 15.50C)
In industry, the British thermal unit (Btu) is still used:
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb
of water by 1 F0 (from 630F to 640F)
3

Conversion between different

units of heat:
1 J = 0.2388 cal = 0.239x10-3 kcal = 60.189 Btu
1 cal = 4.186 J = 3.969 x 10-3 Btu

Sensible Heat
What is 'sensible heat?

Sensible heat is associated

with a temperature change

Specific Heat Capacity

To raise the temperature by 1 K, different
substances need different amount of energy
because substances have different molecular
configurations and bonding (eg: copper, water,
wood)
The amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K is
known as the specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is denoted by c
6

Calculation of Sensible Heat

Q = m c dT
Q is the heat lost or gained by a substance
m is the mass of substance

c is the specific heat of substance which changes with temperature

T is the temperature

When temperature changes causes negligible changes in c,

Q = m c dT = m c T
where T is the temperature change in the substance
7

Calculation of Sensible Heat

When temperature changes causes significant changes in c,

Q = m c T cannot be used.
Instead, we use the following equation:

Q = H = m h
where H is the enthalpy change in the substance
and h is the specific enthalpy change in the substance.

To apply the above equation, the system should

remain at constant pressure and the associated
volume change must be negligibly small.
8

Calculation of Sensible Heat

Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 300 g Al from 25oC to 70oC.
Data: c = 0.896 J/g oC for Al

Q = m c T (since c is taken as a constant)

= (300 g) (0.896 J/g oC)(70 - 25)oC
= 12,096 J

= 13.1 kJ

Exchange of Heat
Calculate the final temperature (tf), when 100 g iron at 80oC is
tossed into 53.5g of water at 25oC.
Data: c = 0.452 J/g oC for iron and 4.186 J/g oC for water

Heat lost by iron = Heat gained by water

(m c T)iron = (m c T)water
(100 g) (0.452 J/g oC)(80 - tf)oC
= (53.5 g) (4.186 J/g oC)(tf - 25)oC
80 - tf = 4.955 (tf -25)
tf = 34.2oC
10

Latent Heat
What is latent heat?

Latent heat is associated with

phase change of matter

11

Phases of Matter

12

Phase Change
Heat required for phase changes:
Melting: solid liquid
Vaporization: liquid vapour
Sublimation: solid vapour

Heat released by phase changes:

Condensation: vapour liquid
Fusion: liquid solid
Deposition: vapour solid

Prof. R. Shanthini
5 & 12 March 2012

13

Phase Diagram: Water

14

Phase Diagram: Water

Compressed liquid
Saturated liquid

Superheated
steam

Saturated steam

15

Phase Diagram: Water

Explain why water is at liquid
state at atm pressure

16

Phase Diagram: Carbon Dioxide

Explain why CO2 is at gas
state at atm pressure

Explain why CO2

cannot be made a
liquid at atm
pressure

17

Latent Heat
Latent heat is the amount of heat added per unit mass of
substance during a phase change
Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat added to melt
a unit mass of ice OR it is the amount of heat removed
to freeze a unit mass of water.
Latent heat of vapourization is the amount of heat added
to vaporize a unit mass of water OR it is the amount of
heat removed to condense a unit mass of steam.

18

Water:
Specific Heat Capacities and Latent Heats
Specific heat of ice 2.06 J/g K (assumed constant)

Heat of fusion for ice/water 334 J/g (assumed constant)

Specific heat of water 4.18 J/g K (assumed constant)

Latent heat of vaporization cannot be assumed a

constant since it changes significantly with the pressure,
and could be found from the Steam Table
How to evaluate the sensible heat gained (or lost) by
superheated steam?
19

Water:
Specific Heat Capacities and Latent Heats
How to evaluate the sensible heat gained (or lost) by
superheated steam?

Q = m c T
cannot be used since changes in c with changing
temperature is NOT negligible.
Instead, we use the following equation:

Q = H = m h
provided the system is at constant pressure and the
associated volume change is negligible.
Enthalpies could be referred from the Steam 20
Table

Properties of Steam
Learnt to refer to Steam Table to find properties of
steam such as saturated (or boiling point) temperature
and latent heat of vapourization at give pressures, and
enthalpies of superheated steam at various pressures and
temperatures.
)

21

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?

-20oC

ice
22

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?

0oC
-20oC

melting point of ice

ice
23

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?

120.2oC

boiling point of water at 2 bar

Boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure is
100oC.
Boiling point of water at 2 bar is 120.2oC.
[Refer the Steam Table.]

0oC
-20oC

melting point of ice

ice
24

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
150oC
120.2oC

superheated steam
Specific heat
boiling point of water at 2 bar

Latent heat

Specific heat

0oC
-20oC

melting point of ice

Specific heat
ice

Latent heat

25

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
Specific heat required to raise the temperature of ice from -20oCto 0oC
= (2 kg) (2.06 kJ/kg oC) [0 - (-20)]oC = 82.4 kJ
Latent heat required to turn ice into water at 0oC
= (2 kg) (334 kJ/kg) = 668 kJ
Specific heat required to raise the temperature of water from 0oC to
120.2oC
= (2 kg) (4.18 kJ/kg oC) [120.2 - 0)]oC = 1004.9 kJ
26

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
Latent heat required to turn water into steam at 120.2oC and at 2 bar
= (2 kg) (2202 kJ/kg) = 4404 kJ
[Latent heat of vapourization at 2 bar is 2202 kJ/kg as could be
referred to from the Steam Table]

Specific heat required to raise the temperature of steam from 120.2oC

to 150oC
= (2 kg) (2770 2707) kJ/kg = 126 kJ
[Enthalpy at 120.2oC and 2 bar is the saturated steam enthalpy of
2707 kJ/kg and the enthalpy at 150oC and 2 bar is 2770 kJ/kg as
could be referred to from the Steam Table]
27

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
Total amount of heat required
= 82.4 kJ + 668 kJ + 1004.9 kJ + 4404 kJ + 126 kJ
= 6285.3 kJ

28

Application: Heat Exchanger

It is an industrial equipment in which heat is transferred from a hot
fluid (a liquid or a gas) to a cold fluid (another liquid or gas) without
the two fluids having to mix together or come into direct contact.
Cold fluid
at TC,out

Hot fluid
at TH,in

Cold fluid
at TC,in

Heat lost by the hot fluid

= Heat gained by the cold fluid

Hot fluid
at TH,out
29

Application: Heat Exchanger

30

Heat Exchanger
Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid

.m

hot

.
)=m

chot (TH,in TH,out

mass flow rate

of hot fluid

cold

ccold (TC,out TC,in)

mass flow rate

of cold fluid

Specific heat
of hot fluid
Temperature
decrease in the
hot fluid

Specific heat
of cold fluid
Temperature
increase in the
cold fluid31

Heat Exchanger
Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid

.m

hot

.
)=m

chot (TH,in TH,out

cold

ccold (TC,out TC,in)

The above is true only under the following conditions:

(1) Heat exchanger is well insulated so that no heat is lost to the
environment
(2) There are no phase changes occurring within the heat
exchanger.

32

Heat Exchanger
If the heat exchanger is NOT well insulated, then

Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid

+ Heat lost to the environment

33

Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger

High pressure liquid water at 10 MPa (100 bar) and
30oC enters a series of heating tubes. Superheated
steam at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) and 200oC is sprayed over
the tubes and allowed to condense. The condensed
steam turns into saturated water which leaves the
heat exchanger. The high pressure water is to be
heated up to 170oC. What is the mass of steam
required per unit mass of incoming liquid water?
The heat exchanger is assumed to be well insulated
(adiabatic).
34

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger

35

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

High pressure (100 bar) water enters at 30oC and leaves at 198.3oC.
Boiling point of water at 100 bar is 311.0oC. Therefore, no phase
changes in the high pressure water that is getting heated up in the
heater.
Heat gained by high pressure water
= ccold (TC,out TC,in)
= (4.18 kJ/kg oC) x (170-30)oC
= 585.2 kJ/kg
[You could calculate the above by taking the difference in enthalpies at
the 2 given states from tables available.]

36

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

Superheated steam at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) and 200oC is sprayed over
the tubes and allowed to condense. The condensed steam turns into
saturated water which leaves the heat exchanger.
Heat lost by steam
= heat lost by superheated steam to become saturated steam
+ latent heat of steam lost for saturated steam to turn into
saturated water
= Enthalpy of superheated steam at 15 bar and 200oC
Enthalpy of saturated steam at 15 bar
+ Latent heat of vapourization at 15 bar
= (2796 kJ/kg 2792 kJ/kg) + 1947 kJ/kg = 1951 kJ/kg
37

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

Since there is no heat loss from the heater,
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by high pressure water
Mass flow rate of steam x 1951 kJ/kg
= Mass flow rate of water x 585.2 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate of steam / Mass flow rate of water
= 585.2 / 1951
= 0.30 kg stream / kg of water

38

Assignment
Give the design of a heat exchanger
which has the most effective heat
transfer properties.
Learning objectives:
1) To be able to appreciate heat transfer applications in pharmaceutical
industry
2) To become familiar with the working principles of various heat
exchangers
3) To get a mental picture of different heat exchangers so that solving
heat transfer problems in class becomes more interesting
39

Worked Example 2 in Heat Exchanger

Steam enters a heat exchanger at 10 bar and 200oC and
leaves it as saturated water at the same pressure. Feedwater enters the heat exchanger at 25 bar and 80oC and
leaves at the same pressure and at a temperature 20oC
less than the exit temperature of the steam. Determine the
ratio of the mass flow rate of the steam to that of the
feed-water, neglecting heat losses from the heat
exchanger.
If the feed-water leaving the heat exchanger is fed
directly to a boiler to be converted to steam at 25 bar and
300oC, find the heat required by the boiler per kg of feedwater.
40

Solution to Worked Example 2 in Heat Exchanger

- Steam enters at 10 bar and 200oC and leaves it as saturated water at
the same pressure.
- Saturation temperature of water at 10 bar is 179.9oC.
- Feed-water enters the heat exchanger at 25 bar and 80oC and leaves
at the same pressure and at a temperature 20oC less than the exit
temperature of the steam, which is 179.9oC.
- Boiling point of water at 25 bar is (221.8+226.0)/2 = 223.9oC.
- Therefore, no phase changes in the feed-water that is being heated.
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by feed-water (with no heat losses)
Mass flow rate of steam x [2829 2778 + 2015] kJ/kg
= Mass flow rate of feed-water x [4.18 x (179.9-20-80) ] kJ/kg
Mass flow of steam / Mass flow of feed-water
= 333.98 / 2066
= 0.1617 kg stream / kg of water
41

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

If the feed-water leaving the heat exchanger is fed directly to a
boiler to be converted to steam at 25 bar and 300oC, find the heat
required by the boiler per kg of feed-water.
- Temperature of feed-water leaving the heat exchanger is 159.9oC
- Boiling point of water at 25 bar is (221.8+226.0)/2 = 223.9oC
- The feed-water is converted to superheated steam at 300oC
Heat required by the boiler per kg of feed-water
= {4.18 x (223.9-159.9) + (1850+1831)/2
+ [(3138+3117)/2 (2802+2803)/2]} kJ/kg
= {267.52 + 1840.5 + [3127.5 2802.5]} kJ/kg
= 2433 kJ/kg of feed-water
42

Use of Steam Tables

Saturated Vapor or Liquid
Liquid at Bubble-Point
Vapor at Dew-Point
Liquid and Vapor Co-existing

Superheated Vapor or Sub-Cooled Liquid

Vapor Above Dew-Point Temperature or Below DewPoint Pressure
Liquid Below Bubble-Point Temperature or Above
Bubble-Point Pressure

Vaporize 1kg Water at 20 C and Bubble Point Pressure

Q W

m U
Q

Q P V

Q mP V

P V

P V

1kg 2403.0 83.9 kJ

kg
3
57.8
0.001002
m
1kg 0.0234 bar
1 105 N
kJ
kg
m 2bar 1, 000 N m

2454.3 kJ

PV
P V

Definitions
Degrees of Superheat
Difference between actual temperature and
saturation temperature at the same pressure

Degrees of Sub-Cooling
Difference between actual temperature and the
saturation temperature at the same pressure.

Vapor

Liquid

Water Vapor Heating

1 kg from 100 oC, 1 Bar to 200 oC, 1 Bar

Q W

m U
Q

Q P V
Q mP V
U

P V

m H

Water Vapor Heating

1 kg from 100 oC, 1 Bar to 200 oC, 1 Bar

P V

m H

1kg 2875 2676 kJ

kg

199kJ

Constant Volume Water Vapor Heating

1 kg from 100 oC, 1 Bar to 200 oC, P=?

V
U
m U

0
Q
Q

Ideal Gas Law Estimation

P2

T2
P1
T1

473.15
1 bar
373.15

1.73 bar

Interpolation for Pressure

6

Pressure

5
4
3
2
1
0
0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

1.3

1.5

Specific Volume

1.7

1.9

2.1

2.3

Interpolation for Internal Energy

Internal Energy

2660
2655
2650
2645
2640
0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

1.3

1.5

Specific Volume

1.7

1.9

2.1

2.3

Linear Interpolation

mx b

y1

mx1 b

y2

y1

y2

m x2

y2

y1

x2

x1

x1

y1 mx1

mx

y1 m x x1

y1

mx2 b

y1 mx1
y2

y1

x2

x1

x x1

P1

P2 P1
V2 V1

VDesired V1

5 1
P 1
1.69 2.17
0.425 2.17
U 2 U1
U U1
VDesired V1
V2 V1

2.1 bar

2643 2658
2658
1.69 2.17
0.425 2.17

m U

kJ
1 kg 2654 2507
kg

kJ
2654
kg
147 kJ