CHAPTER TWO

SOFT SOIL

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The term clay soil it is used to refer both to a size and to a mineral type. As the term of size, it
refers to all constituents of a soil smaller that a particular size. The size is usually 0.002 mm
for engineering applications. As a mineral term, it refers to specific clay minerals, which are
distinguished small particle size, a net negative charge, plasticity when mixed with water, and
high weathering resistance.
Clay soil is plastic over a range of water content. It means that the soil can be
remolded or deformed without causing cracking, breaking, or change in volume, and will
retain the remolded shape. When the clay is dried, it possesses very high strength. Moreover,
the clay soils have very low permeabilities. The small size of the clay particles, the flat and
platy shape of the particles, and the affinity for adsorbing water inhibit the flow of water
through the soil.

2.2 PROPERTIES OF THE SOFT SOIL

2.2.1 Natural Moisture Content
The moisture content of soil is an indicator of the amount of water present in soil.
However, by definition, moisture content is the ratio of the mass of water in a sample to the
mass of water in a sample to the mass of solids in the sample, expressed as percentage.
Moisture content is directly proportional to the mass of water present. This characteristic
makes moisture content one of the most useful and important soil parameters (Cheng and
Jack, 2003). According to Sobri (1993), natural moisture content in Malaysia typically is in
the range of 73% - 104%.
2.2.2 Specific Gravity
The term specific gravity (GS) is defines as the ratio of the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of material to the mass of an equal volume of water. It also tells how much the
material is heavier or lighter than water. The geotechnical term specific gravity of soil
actually denotes the specific gravity of the solid matter of the soil and refers to the ratio of the
mass of solid matter of a given soil sample to the mass of an equal volume.
The specific gravities of different minerals vary widely. Therefore, the specific gravity
of the majority of soil particles is ranging between 2.6 and 2.8. Soils with high organic
content will have lower values. The value commonly used for the specific gravity of soil
particles is 2.7 (Cernica, 1995).

2.2.3 Atterberg Limit

The Atterberg or consistency limits of cohesive soils are founded on the concept that
such soils can exist in any four states depending on their moisture content. These limits are
influenced by the amount and character of clay mineral content. In other words, a cohesive
soil is solid when dry but as water is added, it first turns to a semi-solid, then to a plastic and
finally to a liquid state.
The moisture content at the boundaries between these states is referred to as the
shrinkage limit (wS), the plastic limit (wP) and the liquid limit (wL), respectively (Bell, 2000).
In this study, focus was on the soil plastic limit and liquid limit. Therefore, the liquid limit
value is in the range of 37.0%-78% and the plastic limit value is in the range of 20%-35%.
2.2.4 Compression Index (CC)
The compression index is the slope of the normal compression line (NCL). The
compression index for a given soil may be taken as constant in settlement computations,
providing the range of effective stress involved lies within the limits of the NCL. The
compression index for field settlement caused by consolidation can be determined after
obtaining laboratory test results for the void ratio and pressure (Whitlow, 2001).
Compression Index (CC) values ranges from 2.4 to 0.4. Bo, et. al, (2003) used
hydraulic consolidation cell to test Ultra-soft soil. From the research, the result of the
compression index is 0.846. The Compression Index is found related to the Liquid Limits as
well as the void ratio of the soil.

2.2.5 SOFT CLAY BY DIFFERENT RESEARCHER IN MALAYSIA

Researcher

Studies Locations

Unit Weight
(kN/m3)
Specific Gravity
Moisture Content
(%)
Atterberg Limit (%)
a) wL
b) wp
c) Ip
Undrained Shear
Strength (kPa)
Effective friction
angle,
Void ratio, eo
Compression
Index, CC
Preconsolidation
Pressure, PC
(kN/m2)
Coefficient of
Consolidation, cv
(m2/year)
Particle
Distribution, %
Gravel
Sediment
Silt
Clay

Mohd
Hatta
(2004)
Muar,
Johor.

Saiful Azhar (2004)

Tanjung Karang
Selangor, Air Putih
Kemaman,Terengga
nu, Kg Mat Lagam,
Kemaman,Terengga
nu and Muara
Sungai,Kuantan.
13.2 20.5

Chen
and Tan
(2003)
Klang,
Selangor.

Aziz
(1993)
West Coast
of the
Peninsular
Malaysia.

Nor
Suzana
(2003)
KUiTTH
O, Batu
Pahat,
Johor.

14 16

14.0 15.5

2.63
2.74
41 87

2.42 2.65

2.60

2.58

54 139

50 100

73 104

52.9

50 91
21 45
28 52
7.02
44.64
-

31 142
14 42
42 101
02

50 150
20 80
-

78 98
31 38
47 60
7 60

36
20
16
46

17 - 31

18.84

1.00
2.23
0.36
1.36
70 120

0.659 3.442

1.67 2.62

1.38

0.09 1.36

1.10 2.15

0.775

0.30
2.50
-

77.5

0.50
1.14

1.24 8.72

0.5 14

6.512

0 38
35 60
27 55

2 35
36 69
16 49

15.7
84.3

CHAPTER THREE
FLY ASH

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues generated in combustion, and
comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. Ash which does not rise is
termed bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash usually refers to ash produced during
combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other
particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power
plants, and together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the furnace is in this case
jointly known as coal ash. Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned,
the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts
of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide(CaO), both
being endemic ingredients in many coal-bearing rock strata.
Toxic constituents depend upon the specific coal bed makeup, but may include one or
more of the following elements or substances found in trace
quantities arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, hexavalent
chromium, cobalt, lead,manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium,
and vanadium, along with dioxins and PAH compounds. In the past, fly ash was generally
released into the atmosphere, but pollution control equipment mandated in recent decades
now require that it be captured prior to release. In the US, fly ash is generally stored at coal
power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled,[3] often used as a pozzolan to
produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster or a partial replacement for Portland cementin
concrete production.

In some cases, such as the burning of solid waste to create electricity ("resource
recovery" facilities a.k.a. waste-to-energy facilities), the fly ash may contain higher levels of
contaminants than the bottom ash and mixing the fly and bottom ash together brings the
proportional levels of contaminants within the range to qualify as non-hazardous waste in a
given state, whereas, unmixed, the fly ash would be within the range to qualify as hazardous
waste.
Instead of volcanoes, today's fly ash comes primarily from coal-fired electricity
generating power plants. These power plants grind coal to a powder fineness before it is

burned. Fly ash - the mineral residue produced by burning coal - is captured from the power
plant's exhaust gases and collected for use.

Fly ash is a fine, glass powder recovered from the gases of burning coal during the
production of electricity. These micron-sized earth elements consist primarily of silica,
alumina and iron.
The difference between fly ash and portland cement becomes apparent under a
microscope. Fly ash particles are almost totally spherical in shape, allowing them to flow and
blend freely in mixtures. That capability is one of the properties making fly ash a desirable
admixture for concrete.

3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION

Component Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite

SiO2 (%)

20-60

40-60

15-45

Al2O3 (%)

5-35

20-30

20-25

Fe2O3 (%)

10-40

4-10

4-15

CaO (%)

1-12

5-30

15-40

LOI (%)

0-15

0-3

0-5

Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the
application, this may not be necessary. Ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict
construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been established in
the United States. 75% of the ash must have a fineness of 45 m or less, and have
acarbon content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the U.S., LOI

needs to be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash is very often fluctuating
constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler performance. This
makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to replace cement in concrete
production, it needs to be processed using beneficiation methods like mechanical air
classification. But if fly ash is used also as a filler to replace sand in concrete production,
unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used. Especially important is the ongoing
quality verification. This is mainly expressed by quality control seals like the Bureau of
Indian Standards mark or the DCL mark of the Dubai Municipality.

Class F fly ash

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F
fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 20% lime (CaO).
Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a
cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of
water in order to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, the addition of a
chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can lead to the
formation of a geopolymer.

Class C fly ash

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous coal, in
addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the
presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash
generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash
does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class
C fly ashes.At least one US manufacturer has announced a fly ash brick containing up to 50%
Class C fly ash. Testing shows the bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed
inASTM C 216 for conventional clay brick; it is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for
concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is
estimated that the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy
of masonry construction by up to 90%.[9] Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in
commercial quantities before the end of 2009

3.3 PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH

3.2.1 Fineness
The fineness of fly ash is important because it affects the rate of pozzolanic activity
and the workability of the concrete. Specifications require a minimum of 66 percent passing
the 0.044 mm (No. 325) sieve.

3.2.2 Specific gravity

Although specific gravity does not directly affect concrete quality, it has value in
identifying changes in other fly ash characteristics. It should be checked regularly as a quality
control measure, and correlated to other characteristics of fly ash that may be fluctuating.

3.2.3 Chemical composition

The reactive aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate components of fly ash are
routinely represented in their oxide nomenclatures such as silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide
and calcium oxide. The variability of the chemical composition is checked regularly as a
quality control measure. The aluminosilicate components react with calcium hydroxide to
produce additional cementitious materials. Fly ashes tend to contribute to concrete strength at
a faster rate when these components are present in finer fractions of the fly ash. Sulfur
trioxide content is limited to five percent, as greater amounts have been shown to increase
mortar bar expansion.
Available alkalis in most ashes are less than the specification limit of 1.5 percent. Contents
greater than this may contribute to alkali-aggregate expansion problems.

Carbon content. LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon remaining in the ash. It can
range up to five percent per AASHTO and six percent per ASTM. The unburned carbon can
absorb air entraining admixtures (AEAs) and increase water requirements. Also, some of the
carbon in fly ash may be encapsulated in glass or otherwise be less active and, therefore, not
affect the mix. Conversely, some fly ash with low LOI values may have a type of carbon with
a very high surface area, which will increase the AEA dosages. Variations in LOI can
contribute to fluctuations in air content and call for more careful field monitoring of entrained
air in the concrete. Further, if the fly ash has a very high carbon content, the carbon particles

may float to the top during the concrete finishing process and may produce dark-colored
surface streaks.

3.2.4 Compaction Characteristics

Compaction characteristics of soil-fly ash mixes were studied by several investigators
since they are very important in the construction of embankments, roads, and backfilling of
retaining walls. Several investigators reported that the maximum dry unit weight increases
and the optimum moisture content decreases due to addition of fly ash (Basavanna and Ravi
Kumar 1990, Choudhary 1994, Pandian 2004, Prabakar 2004)
The compaction tests were performed to get the optimum water content and maximum
dry unit weight of fly ash sample

CHAPTER FOUR
STABILIZATION OF SOFT SOIL WITH
FLY ASH

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering projects located in areas with soft soil have traditionally
incorporated improvement of soil properties by using cement and lime. Use of fly ash as a
ground improvement soil admixture, when found viable will be effective in terms of cost and
a good approach to the environment to preserve and minimize accumulation of stabilization of
soft soil. The geotechnical properties of fly ash will be evaluated with various laboratory test
to investigate many parts of the world. The typical approach to soil stabilization is to remove
the soft soil, and substitute it with a stronger material of crushed rock. Due to substantial cost
of replacement, alternative methods to the problems are assessed.

The study of using coal combustion residues, fly ash, is carried out to observe the
effectiveness of its addition on stabilization of soft soil. This is one of the approaches to
overcome the increasing amount of solid waste generated by the population. As land is a very
valuable commodity and landfills are fast diminishing, the disposal of the ash generated from
solid waste incineration poses increasingly difficult problems for the municipalities. A
practicable solution to the disposal problems would be the reuse of solid waste ash for civil
engineering applications. A research study of the geotechnical properties of the incinerator
fly ash derived from solid waste incineration is investigated. The objectives of the study are to
determine the geotechnical properties of fly ash and to investigate the effects of fly ash
addition for strength of stabilized soft soil. Scope of this study is to analyze the consequences
of the application of fly ash in soft soil stabilization. It covers methods for determining the
geotechnical properties of fly ash to assess its suitability for soft soil stabilization. The fly ash
is taken from Sejingkat Thermal Plant, Kuching.

4.2 PROPERTIES

4.2.1 Atterberg limits

Soil containing fines display the properties of plasticity and cohesiveness where a
lump of soil can have its shape changed or remolded without the soil changing in volume or
breaking up. This property depends on the amount and mineralogy of the fines and the
amounts of water present, or generally known as moisture content. As the moisture content
increases clayey soil will become softer and sticker until it cannot retain its shape when it is
described as being in a liquid state. If the moisture content is decreased, the soil becomes
stiffer until there is insufficient moisture to provide cohesiveness when the soil become friable
and cracks or breaks up easily if remolded. This is described as semi plastic solid or semi
solid. If the moisture content decreased further there is a stage where the forces between the
soil particles will not permit them to move closer and now the soil described as a solid. It is
very useful to define the moisture content at these transitions between above
states. They are determined as liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. A Swedish soil
scientist named Atterberg, thus the tests now known as Atterberg Limits devised the tests for
liquid and plastic limit. Both tests are carried out on the portion
of a soil finer than 425 m.

4.2.2 Specific Gravity

The variation of specific gravity of fly ash is the result of a combination of many
factors such as gradation, particle shape and chemical composition. This low specific gravity
of fly ash results In low dry density. This is because of micro bubble of air entrapped in ash
particle. The trapping of air increases the surface area hence the volume of fly ash. The
breaking of fly ash particles increases specific gravity that may be because of release of
entrapped gas when ash grounded by mortar and pestle. According to Pandiian et al, (1998)
the low specific gravity could be either the presence of more hollow cenosphere from which
the entrapped air cannot be removed or the variation in the chemical composition (in
particular, iron content) or both.

4.2.3 Compaction Characteristic

Compaction characteristic of soil fly ash mixes were studied by several investigator
since they are very important in the construction of embankment, roads, and backfilling of
retaining wall. Several investigator reported that the maximum dry unit weight increases and
the optimum moisture content decreases due to addition of fly ash. The compaction tests were
performed to get the optimum water content and maximum dry unit weight of fly ash sample.

4.2.4 Compressive Strength

Based on Reyes and Pando (2207), the compressive strength of tested plain fly ash for
7 days curing period gives 4754 kN/m2. The compressive strength values indicate that all
admixture treatment types resulted in strength gains and that most of the gain occurred within
the first seven days of curing. The fast strength gain is believed to be related to the initial
rapid hydration that takes place with the admixture. The strength gain due to stabilization
depends mainly upon three factors : ash content, molding water content and compaction
delay. Fly ash has been used successfully in many projects to improve the strength
characteristics of soils. Fly ash can be used to stabilize bases or subgrades, to stabilize backfill
to reduce lateral earth pressure and to stabilize embankment to improve slope stability.
Typical stabilized soil depths are 15 to 46 centimeters (6 to 18 inches). The primary reason fly
ash is used In soil stabilization applications is to improve the compressive and shearing
strength of soils. The compressive strength of fly ash treated soils is dependent on:
In-place soil properties
Delay time
Moisture content at time of compaction
Fly ash addition ratio

Figure 2 show the particle size distribution of clay sample and fly ash . It show that the Clay
sample fall under the silt category and is gap graded i.e the particle size is a combination of 2
or more uniformly graded fraction. While Fly ash is of a poorly graded fine particle i.e the
particle of fly ash is of same size.

From table 4 it can be seen that the liquid limit of the sample is decreasing with the increasing
amount of fly ash with percentage of 0%, 5%, 15%, and 20%.

The sample of clay and Fly ash mixes 0%, 60%, 80% and 100% were cured for seven days.
Figure 3 shows the stress strain characteristic of the sample observed in Unconfined
Compressive Strength test. The 60% fly ash by weight of clay results iss the highest value of
compressive strength, while fly ash alone is not a very strong material.

Figure 4 shows the shear stress with respect to percentage if fly ash in clay sample. From
figure 4, the declined line show that when there is too much amount of fly ash added, the
shear stress is decreased as the sample was not able to stand the amount of stress applied. 60%
of fly ash by weight of clay in the clay mixture gave the highest value of axial stress exerted.
The fly ash alone is not very strong material. The shear strength of cured sample was within
the limitation based on the dry density and optimum moisture content of fly ash which is 1.51
kg/m3.

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION

5.1 CONCLUSION
We had referred to a research study that had been done by a group of researchers from
Sejingkat Thermal Plant, Kuching.
From this study, we have found that soft soil is not suitable for construction since it
has low shear strength and high compressibility. Both physical engineering properties of the
soft soil such as compressibility and strength show a significant variation due to sedimentary
process on different environment. The design requirement for designing foundation on soft
soil are the factors of safe against shear failure should exceed the minimum design
requirements and the amount of total settlement should be acceptable. It is necessary to study
the total loaded depth of the footings and the consolidation characteristic of the soft soil to
evaluate the total settlement of soft soil layer.
Clay soil or soft soil have both advantages and disadvantages. The most common
complaint about soft soil is that it has poor drainage. Soil drainage refers to movement of
water down through the soil, not how fast the water runs off the surface. Because soft soil
have poor drainage, the soil tends to stay wet and soggy after the rain or irrigation. While it is
wet, it can easily compacted. When it finally dries out, it crack into hard, unworkable clods.
Soft soil also have poor aeration, compared to sandier soil. Because the soil particles are small
and closely spaced, it is very difficult for air to enter or leave the soil. Soft soil are also
naturally alkaline. During the construction process, topsoil is often stripped away, leaving the
new homeowner with mucky, compacted, yellow soft soil. Fortunately, there have a ways that
can be taken to improve the soil with added fly ash in soft soil.
This paper briefly describes the suitability of the local fly ash to be used in the local
construction industry in a way to minimize the amount of waste to be disposed to the
environment causing environmental pollution. Several civil engineering laboratory tests are
conducted to study the geotechnical properties of fly ash and strength gain when mixed with
local clay sample. A different proportion of fly ash and soil sample cured for 7 days results in
a strength gain. A better understanding of the properties of fly ash is gained from the study
and the tests indicates an improved strength and better properties of soft soil sample when
stabilized.

Fly ash is a byproduct of coal fired electric power generation facilities, it has little
cementations properties compared to lime and cement. Most of the fly ashes belong to
secondary binders. These binders cannot produce the desired effect on their own. However,
the present of small amount of activator, it can react chemically to form cementation
compound that contributes to improve strength of soil. Fly ashes are readily available, cheaper
and environmental friendly.

ABSTRACT

Soil stabilization has become the major issue in construction engineering and the
researches regarding the effectiveness of using industrial wastes as a stabilizer are rapidly
increasing. This paper briefly describes the suitability of the local fly ash to be used in the
local construction industry in a way to minimize the amount of waste to be disposed to the
environment causing environmental pollution. Several civil engineering laboratory tests are
conducted to study the geotechnical properties of fly ash and strength gain when mixed with
local clay sample. A different proportion of fly ash and soil sample cured for 7 days results in
a strength gain. A better understanding of the properties of fly ash is gained from the study
and the tests indicates an improved strength and better properties of soft soil sample when
stabilized.
Fly ash is one of the most plentiful and industrial by-products. It is generated in vast
quantities as a by-product of burning coal at electric power plants (Senol et al., 2006). Electric
utility companies in many parts of the world generate electricity by burning coal which
generate an amount of fly and bottom ash. Fly ash generated by coal combustion based power
plants typically fall within the ASTM fly ash classes C and F (Reyes and Pando, 2007). Fly
ash consists of inorganic matter present in the coal that has been fused during coal
combustion. This material is solidified while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected
from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators. Since the particles solidify while
suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape (Ferguson et.
al., 1999). Fly ash particles those are collected in electrostatic precipitators are usually silt size
(0.074 - 0.005 mm). Making a more productive use of fly ash would have considerable
environmental benefits, reducing air and water pollution. Increased use as a partial cement or
lime replacement would also represent savings in energy because fly ash has been called a
high-energy-based material (Hausmann, 1990). Fly ash utilization, especially in concrete, has
significant environmental benefits.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the general sense of engineering, soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral
grain sand decayed organic matter along with the liquid and gas that occupy the empty spaced
between the solid particles. Soil are primarily formed by the natural cycle of weathering of
earths crust by mechanical agents of erosion, transportation, deposition and compressibility
by later sediments. Such phenomena have been recognized by geologists for a long period.
Soils are generally classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay, in the basis of the particle size.
Usually natural soil consists of particles from more than one size group.
In Peninsular Malaysia, 20% of the land area is underlined by soft deposits. The soils
occur mainly in the coastal plains. The organic content of these clayey soils influence their
engineering characteristics such as atterberg limits, shear strength and the compressibility.
The soft soils is Malaysia were formed by simple deposition during high sea level and remain
very much at the same elevation.
The Malaysian soft soils are commonly grey to dark grey in colour and the presence of
shell fragments in some horizons suggest salt or brackish water sediments. Peat and decayed
matter are present in some horizons and are the remains of vegetation that once grew in the
swampy areas close to the coast line. As the sea level rose clayey sediments formed under a
brackish water environment.
The existing soft soil at a construction site normally is not suitable for engineering
structures such as building, bridges, highways, and dams. Usually a large consolidation
settlement may occur on the clay layers when structural load are applied. To overcome this
problem, engineering properties of soft soil must be known such as its compressibility
characteristics before deciding an area to be constructed.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The aim of the study is to investigate the properties of soft soil and fly ash. By carry out this
study, the following objectives will be achieved:
1. To determine the properties of soft soil and fly ash.
2. To compare the strength, chemical composition and compression between fly ash and
soft soil.

3. To determine the condition of soil before using fly ash and after using fly ash.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

The main purpose of this research is to determine the effectiveness of fly ash as a stabilizer to
develop strength of soft soil. The scope of this research includes:
1. The soil selected is clay soil meanwhile the stabilizer is fly ash.
2. Physical and chemical properties of the soil before and after the addition of fly ash
from previous research.
3. This research study about the advantages and disadvantages of soft soil and fly ash.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

Literature Review

Sample collection and Preparation

Physical Tests

Mechanical Test

Results Analysis

Results Comparison

Conclusion and Recommendations