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Review of Electrical
Fundamentals
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Electric Current
Definition of Current: Current is charge in motion.
Average Current
Consider a medium with cross-section of A
m2 in which positive charges are moving with a
velocity v from left to right, as pictured in Figure
1.1. If in a period of time t, q coulombs cross
A in the indicated direction, we define the
average current I generated by the charge flow
as
q
t
(1.1)
cross section A
velocity v
current I
Figure 1.1
Notes
1. The physical dimension of current is coulomb per second (C/s).
2. The SI unit for current is the ampere (A).
3. The direction of the current I is the same as the direction of the
charge motion
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Electric Current
Instantaneous current
If the time t gets smaller and smaller,
then, in the limit t goes to zero, the ratio
q/t approaches the slope of the curve at
point t; that is,
q dq
lim
i
t 0 t
dt
dq
dt
Slope = dq/dt
i (t )
q(t)
t
time
t
Figure 1.2
(1.2)
Note
A dc ammeter measures the instantaneous current i, rather than the average
current I.
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Electric Current
Ammeter
Circuit
element
(a)
Circuit
element
Figure 1.3
Electric Current
Reference direction for current (continued)
Ammeter
Notes
Circuit
element
(a)
Circuit
element
(b)
Figure 1.4
Electric Current
Reference direction for current (continued)
Ammeter 1
Circuit
element
(a)
I1 = - I2
(b)
Ammeter 2
Circuit
element
Figure 1.5
Electric Current
Relationship between current and charge
We can determine the total amount of charge that passes through the
cross-section A of the medium in Figure 1.6 in the time interval - to t by
integrating current with respect to time; that is,
cross section A
q (t )
i ( ) d
(1.3)
where
current i
Figure 1.6
Electric Current
Relationship between current and charge
By breaking the integration into two time segments, namely, from to 0,
and from 0 to t, we can write Eq.(1.3) as
t
q(t ) i ( )d i ( )d q(0)
(1.4)
where
0
q (0)
cross section A
i ( ) d
current i
Figure 1.7
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Electric Current
Charge transferred by a constant current flow
If the current flow is constant, that is if the current i(t) = I for times
between t = 0 and t = T, then the total amount of charge transferred up to
time T is given by
T
q (T ) i ( )d 0 d Id
IT
If we write q(T) Q, then we obtain
Q IT
(1.5)
v AB
q
amount of charge moved
I =q/t
A
vAB
B
Figure 1.8
10
A
Circuit
element
Voltmeter
B
(a)
A
Circuit
element
B
(b)
Figure 1.9
11
v1
#1
#2
v1
#1
v2
#2
v2
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.10
12
v1
A
#1
v2
B
#2
-10 V
#3
5V
-15 V
+ 15 V
0V
Figure 1.11
By using the arrow notation, we can treat the voltages as vectors; hence the
rules for vector addition and vector subtraction can be applied for the
voltages.
13
#1
v2
B
#2
#3
Answer
vA = + 15 V ; vB = - 10 V
vC = + 5 V ; vD = - 15 V
v1= vB vA
-10 V
5V
-15 V
+ 15 V
= (-10 V) (15 V)
= - 25 V
0V
v2 = vC vD
= ( 5 V) (- 15 V)
= 20 V
Figure 1.12
14
VM1
#1
#2
VM1
(a)
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
vAB
#1
#2
vCB
(b)
Figure 1.13
15
Answer
vAB = + 10 V
vBA = - 10 V
Figure 1.14
16
#1
#2
#3
#4
or
vAE = vAB + vBD + vDE
Figure 1.15
17
#1 vAB = 10 V
Figure 1.16
#2 vCB = -5 V
18
Answer
= vAB + (-vCB)
#2 vCB = -5 V
= vAB - vCB
C
Hence,
vAC = (10 V) (- 5 V) = 15 V
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Figure 1.16
19
w v q
If the time involved is t, then the rate at
which work is being done is given by the
ratio w/t. Thus, dividing both sides of the
above equation by t, we obtain
q
w v q
v
t
t
t
i = dq/dt
Figure 1.17
20
w
q
lim v
lim
t 0 t
t 0
t
or
dw
dq
v
dt
dt
i = dq/dt
Figure 1.18
dw
dq
p
v vi
dt
dt
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
21
22
Ammeter
Voltmeter
(a)
i
(b)
Figure 1.19
23
p vi
Figure 1.20
By using power formula of this form, we can deduce that the element is
consuming power if p is positive and is generating power if p is negative.
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
24
p vi
Figure 1.21
25
p = vi
Using power formula of this form, we can deduce that the
element is generating power if p is positive and is consuming
power if p is negative.
Figure 1.22
26
2A
1A
-4V
10 V
6V
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.22
27
Figure 1.22(a)
2A
If we use the passive sign conventions formula for computing the power
delivered by the element (to the rest of the circuit), we obtain
p = - vi = - (6)(2) = - 12 W
The negative power means that the element is generating power.
28
10 V
Figure 1.22(b)
29
1A
p = vi = (-4)(1) = - 4 W
-4V
Figure 1.22(c)
30
dw vidt
The total energy delivered from time - to t is obtained
by integrating the energy over the time interval. Thus,
t
i = dq/dt
dw vid
31
w( ) 0
Breaking the integration into two time segments, we can write
t
Writing
w(0)
32
W PT
whose units are watt-seconds or joules.
Utility bills are commonly expressed in terms of the kilowatthour (kWh),
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
which equals the total energy delivered in one hour when P = 1000 W.
33
v (volts)
300
(b)
2 s
t (s)
i (A)
150
(c)
(a)
0
2 s
t (s)
34
v(t )
i (t )
7.5 10 t
7
0 t 2 s
otherwise
v (volts)
300
0 t 2 s
otherwise
2 s
t (s)
i (A)
150
2 s
Figure 1.24 35
t (s)
Solution (continued)
v
p(t ) v(t )i (t )
v (volts)
p( t )
1.5 10
1.13 10
300
2 s
t (s)
7500
i (A)
3750
0 5 10 1 10 1.5 10 2 10
t
150
2 s
Figure 1.2436
t (s)
w(t ) p ( )d
0
v (volts)
300
0.015
0.0113
e( t)
2 s
t (s)
0.0075
i (A)
0.0037
0 5 10
1 10 1.5 10 2 10
t
6
150
Figure 1.25
2 s
t (s)
Figure 1.24 37
Circuit Elements
i
Resistor
A resistor is a passive circuit element
whose terminal voltage is some
function of the terminal current.
Mathematically, a resistor is a circuit
element that satisfies the equation
Circuit
element
(a)
v
a
v = f(i)
b
i
(b)
Figure 1.26. (a) Reference directions,
(b) i-v characteristics
38
Circuit Elements
Linear Resistor
A linear resistor is a circuit element whose
terminal voltage is directly proportional to
the terminal current. For the reference
directions shown in Figure 1.27(a), we can
write a terminal equation of the form
(a)
i
v = iR
where R is a constant of proportionality
called the resistance of the circuit element.
This proportionality relationship is referred
to as Ohms law.
R has the dimension of volt per ampere,
or ohm ().
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Circuit
element
v
i
i
v
v
(b)
Figure 1.27. v-i characteristics of a linear
resistor.
39
Circuit Elements
Linear Resistance Symbol
The schematic symbol for a resistor is shown in Figure 1.28.
A
40
Circuit Elements
Ohms Law
There two ways of expressing Ohms law, depending on the sign convention
used.
Ohms law according to the passive sign convention
The passive sign convention is said to be used when the terminal voltage
and terminal current reference directions are as shown in Figure1.29. The
measured volt-ampere characteristic shown in Figure1.27(b) can then be
expressed in the form
v = iR
41
Circuit Elements
i
Circuit
element
(a)
v
v
i
v = - iR
(b)
Figure 1.30
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
42
Circuit Elements
Short Circuit
A circuit element with resistance
approaching zero is called a short
circuit. Formally, a short circuit is
defined as a circuit element across
which the voltage is zero, regardless
of the current flowing through it. Figure
1.31 depicts the circuit symbol for an
ideal short circuit and its i-v
characteristic.
For a short circuit, v = 0 for all values
of i.
i
v = 0 for all i
Figure 1.31
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
43
Circuit Elements
Open Circuit
An open circuit is defined as a circuit
element through which the current flow
is zero, regardless of the voltage
across it. Figure 1.32 depicts the
circuit symbol for an ideal open circuit
and its i-v characteristic.
i=0
v
i = 0 for all v
Figure 1.32
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
44
Circuit Elements
A
Ideal Diode
An ideal diode is a circuit element that
allows current to flow through it in one
direction only.
i
v
B
(a)
i
v = 0 for i > 0
i = 0 for v < 0
(b)
Figure 1.33. (a) Symbol and conventional
reference directions of an ideal diode; (b) i-v
characteristics of an ideal diode
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
45
Circuit Elements
Constant Voltage Source
The ideal constant voltage source is a
two-terminal element which supplies its
specified current to the circuit it is placed
independently of the value and direction of
the voltage appearing across its terminals.
v(t) = V
(a)
i2
i1
v(t) = V
(b)
Figure 1.34
46
Circuit Elements
Constant Voltage Source (continued)
The internal resistance of the voltage source is
v
i
v(t) = V
v
0
0
i i 2 - i1
(a)
i
i2
i1
V
(b)
Figure 1.34
47
Circuit Elements
Constant Current Source
The ideal constant current source is a
two-terminal element which supplies its
specified current to the circuit it is
placed, independently of the value and
direction of the voltage appearing
across its terminals.
To complete specify an ideal constant
current source one must include the
value of the supplied current and its
reference direction, as shown in Figure
1.35.
i(t) = I
48
Circuit Elements
Constant Current Source (continued)
The i-v characteristic of an ideal constant current source is a horizontal line
on the i-v plane.
i
I
v2
i(t) = I
v1
49
Circuit Elements
Constant Current Source (continued)
The internal resistance of the current
source is
i(t) = I
V v 2 - v1
I
0
(a)
i
v2
v1
(b)
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
Figure 1.37
50
Circuit Elements
Example
In the circuit of Figure 1.38, determine which element is generating
power and which element is consuming power, and how much?
2A
10 V
Figure 1.38
51
Circuit Elements
Solution
The current reference direction of the
voltage source is defined by that of the
current source, which in this case follows
the passive sign convention.
Hence, power consumed by the source is
2A
10 V
p vi (10)(2) 20 W
Since p is positive, the voltage source IS
consuming power.
Figure 1.39
52
Circuit Elements
Solution (continued)
The voltage reference direction of the
current source is defined by that of the
voltage source, which in this case follows
the active sign convention.
2A
10 V
p vi (10)(2) 20 W
Figure 1.40
53
Waveform Components
Terms such as average value, rms value, dc component, ac component,
and harmonics are frequently used to give a quantitative description of a
voltage or current waveform and so requires a correct understanding of
their meanings. Knowledge and understanding of the basic components of
voltage and current waveforms allows proper evaluation of the performance
of a converter.
54
Waveform Components
Average Value of a Voltage or Current
Conceptually, the average value of any variable f(t) is obtained
from a plot of the variable versus time by dividing the area under
the curve by the length of the curve.
f(t)
F
Time, t
Figure 1.41
Thus. if F is the average height of the variable f(t) and A is the
area under the curve over the period T, then the time-averaged
value of f(t) is
A
F
T
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
55
Waveform Components
Average Value of a Voltage or Current (continued)
In calculus form, we can express the average value, v(av), of a
periodic voltage v(t) by the integral equation
T
v( av )
1
v( )d
T 0
v(t)
vav
Time, t
Figure 1.42
Customarily, the average value of a variable is also called its dc
value. Hence, the average value v(av) is often written as Vdc.
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
56
Waveform Components
Effective Value of a Constant Voltage or Current
In analyzing circuits we sometimes encounter circuits containing both dc
and ac sources. For average power calculations we need to know how to
find the effective values of the voltages and currents of these dc and ac
sources.
Effective value of a dc voltage
Consider a constant dc voltage of value V, as shown in Figure 1.43.
Mathematically, we can express the voltage as a time function in the form
v(t) = V
v(t)
V
0
Figure 1.43
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
57
Waveform Components
Effective value of a dc voltage (continued)
The instantaneous power delivered by voltage v(t) to a resistor R is given
by Ohms law as
2
p (t )
v(t )
R
1
1 v(t )
P p (t )dt
dt
T 0
T 0 R
T
58
Waveform Components
Effective value of a dc voltage (continued)
Furthermore, if Veff is the effective value of the voltage v(t) = V, then,
by definition, we also have
Veff2
R
P
or
Veff2
R
V2
R
Veff V
This results shows that the effective value of a dc voltage is given by the
modulus of its dc value.
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
59
Waveform Components
Effective value of a sinusoidal voltage
Consider a sinusoidal voltage source v(t) of amplitude Vm and angular
frequency . If, for simplicity, we assume a zero phase angle for v(t), then
we can express v(t) mathematically as the function
v(t) = Vm sin t
v(t)
Vm
t
Vm
Figure 1.44
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
60
Waveform Components
Effective value of a sinusoidal voltage (continued)
The average power P absorbed by R over the period T is given by the
expression
1
1 v(t )
1 V sin t
P p(t )dt
dt m
dt
T 0
T 0 R
T 0
R
T
Vm2
RT
Hence,
1 cos 2t dt
2
Vm2
2 RT
sin 2t
t 2
0
Vm2
P
2R
If Veff is the effective value of the sinusoidal voltage v(t), then, by definition of
effective voltage, we can write the average power P as
P
Veff2
R
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
61
Waveform Components
Effective value of a sinusoidal voltage (continued)
Hence, for a sinusoidal voltage v(t) = Vmsint, its effective value is related
to its amplitude Vm via the relation
Veff
Vm
2
62
Waveform Components
Effective value of a voltage due to a number of voltage sources
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.45. For generality, assume that the
amplitudes and frequencies of the sources are different from one another.
vn(t)
v3(t)
v2(t)
v1(t)
i(t)
vR(t)
Figure 1.45
If Vieff is the effective value of the ith voltage source and Veff the effective
value of the resultant voltage across R, then superposition principle gives
2
Veff V12eff V22eff V32eff Vneff
63
Waveform Components
Effective value of a sinusoidal voltage (continued)
We note that unlike instantaneous voltages, effective voltages do not add
up algebraically but as sum of squares.
Exercise
Calculate the average power dissipated in the 20 resistor in the following
circuit.
20
vS(t) = 10sin(1000t)
5V
Figure 1.46
64
Waveform Components
Effective value of current due to a number of current sources
Consider the case where a total of n currents are flowing through a
resistor, as shown in Figure 1.47. If Iieff is the effective value of the
ith current source and Ieff the effective value of current flowing
through R, then superposition principle gives
I eff
I I I
2
1eff
2 eff
3eff
...... I neff
Figure 1.47
We note that effective currents do not add up algebraically but as sum of
squares.
Dr. ZAH, UTHM
65