Wear 260 (2006) 12481255

Effect of reinforcement volume fraction and size distribution on the

tribological behavior of Al-composite/brake pad tribo-couple
R.K. Uyyuru a, , M.K. Surappa a , S. Brusethaug b
a

Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India

b Hydro Aluminium, Sunndalsra, Norway

Received 27 February 2005; received in revised form 12 August 2005; accepted 23 August 2005
Available online 7 October 2005

Abstract
Tribological behavior of aluminium matrix composite (AMC)/brake pad tribo-couple under dry sliding conditions was studied using Pin-on-Disc
machine. Brake pad material was used as pins while the AMC formed the rotating disc. Series of experiments were performed to characterize
the tribological nature of the tribo-couple. Load and sliding speeds were varied over a range to represent actual braking conditions in passenger
cars. Effect of volume fraction and size distribution of reinforcement on wear and friction coefficient has been studied. It was observed that a
heterogeneous tribo-layer was formed over the worn surfaces during the wear tests. Presence of tribo-layer was believed to cause two effects:
acting as a lubricant layer and acting as a source of wear debris. Morphology and topography of worn surfaces and debris were studied using
scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron probe micro analyzer (EPMA), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. When the reinforcement
in the matrix has wide size distribution, wear rate and friction coefficients are found to be higher compared to composite containing mono-size
reinforcement.
2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: AMC; Brake pad; Dry sliding wear; Tribo-layer; Solid lubricant; Pin-on-Disc (PoD) machine

1. Introduction
Tribological behavior of materials depend on many factors
such as properties of material combination (chemical, physical,
mechanical); experimental conditions (load, speed, surrounding
atmosphere); and type of wear tester (type of contact configuration). During the last couple of decades, metal matrix composites
(MMCs) are much sought after materials for a variety of industrial applications owing to their improved mechanical properties
over the monolithic materials. Al-based MMCs are well known
for their high specific strength, hardness and wear resistance. In
sliding against metals and abrasives, MMCs exhibit better wear
resistance compared to the un-reinforced alloys [17]. However,
in these tests MMCs were tested against steel counterface.

Corresponding author. Present address: Department of Engineering Design

and Materials (IPM), Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway. Tel.: +47 73 59 31 10;
fax: +47 73 59 41 29.
E-mail address: uyyuru@yahoo.com (R.K. Uyyuru).
0043-1648/$ see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wear.2005.08.011

Large efforts are being made in the recent past around the
world by different automobile manufacturers on the possibility
of using AMC brake discs in place of conventional cast iron
brake discs. Fig. 1 shows schematic view of a brake system.
However, available literature resources are scarce. Moreover,
efforts are spread in many directions, namely: development of
aluminium brake components [8], testing and characterization
[917], mathematical analysis of brake system [18], and comparative study with cast iron brake components [13,19,20] apart
from optimization of brake material formulation [21]. All these
efforts were undertaken with prime aim of utilizing favorable
characteristics of AMCs such as high thermal conductivity and
low density when compared with cast irons. Thermal conductivity and expansion of AMC brake components can be tailored
easily by adjusting the level and distribution of particulate reinforcement [22,23].
In addition to the thermal properties of the composites, high
cost of the composites has been attributed mainly to the expensive SiCp reinforcement. Larger the volume fraction and finer the
size of the reinforcement, more expensive are the AMCs. In an
effort to reduce the SiCp cost component of AMC, experiments

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1249

cation of brake to stop or slow-down a moving automobile.

Thus the friction pad is subjected to very high pressures. Consequently, it must possess:
low compressibility;
good resistance to severe temperatures;
good resistance to abrasion.

Fig. 1. Schematic view of real size brake system (brake disc and brake pads)
[24].

need to be done by varying SiCp volume fraction and its size

distribution. Nevertheless, available literature on the tribological behavior of AMC/brake pad tribo-couple in this direction is
not available, whereas excellent results and reviews are available for wear of AMCs against steel counter-faces. In addition,
the friction processes in a disc brake are rather complex and not
yet understood in detail [25]. This is mainly due to the complexity of the brake pad material, which consists of a wide variety
of components, and the complexity of the chemical reactions
occurring at the sliding interface between brake disc and brake
pad.
In the present investigation, tribological behavior of
AMC/brake pad tribo-couple under dry sliding conditions was
studied to understand both the effect of reinforcement volume
fraction and size distribution on the wear characteristics of the
tribo-couple.
2. Materials and experimentation
2.1. Disc material
Discs are made of AMCs with varying SiC particle reinforcement. Details of the composite formulations are presented in
Table 1.
2.2. Pin material
Pins are made of the brake pad material, a polymer matrix
composite (PMC), because of low scratch resistance of the brake
pad material. Automobile brake system consists of metallic
brake disc and brake pads in order to maintain a steady friction
coefficient. Brake pad (also known as friction pad) primarily
helps in transferring kinetic energy into heat during the appliTable 1
Formulations of different MMCs used in the study
Code

C2
C3

Matrix material

Al9% Si0.6% Mg
Al9% Si0.6% Mg

Reinforcement
Volume fraction (%)

Size distribution
(m)

20
15

13
Mixture of 13, 17,
and 23

Usually a brake pad material consists of many components in

order to derive above mentioned properties. Constituent members of a typical brake pad are: resin binder, reinforcing elements,
fibers, abrasive elements (SiO2 , Al2 O3 ), filers (BaSO4 , CaCO3 ,
Al2 O3 ), solid lubricants (MoS3 , Sb2 S3 , as well as sulfides of
Cu, Sn, Sb and brass), fireproofing substances (Sb2 O3 , and aluminum hydroxides to protect the pad from fire).
2.3. Preparation of discs
AMC ingots with trapezoidal cross-section, weighing about
2 kg each were obtained from Hydro-Aluminum (Norway). The
AMC stock materials were re-melted, stirred, and cast at 720 C
into cylindrical ingots of 15 cm 7.5 cm. After surface machining of those cylindrical ingots, they were sliced into discs of
6.57 mm thick with help of Buehler abrasive cut-off machine
using diamond wheel. Discs were then faced using diamond
tipped tool to a thickness of around 6 mm, and a central hole of
8 mm diameter was drilled into each disc so that it can be fixed
onto the Pin-on-Disc wear testing machine.
2.4. Preparation of pins
In the present study, conventional brake pad material intended
to use against cast iron brake discs has been used. Pins were
prepared using low speed diamond saw such that each pin is of
5 mm 5 mm square in cross-section and a height of 1518 mm.
The square cross-section was chosen for two reasons: first, it was
preferable over circular cross-section since the use of rectangular cross-section results in less scatter in friction and wear data
[26], and secondly it is difficult to machine pin of circular crosssection from fibrous brake pad material.
2.5. Pin-on-Disc tests
In this study, Pin-on-Disc (asymmetric, conformal) testing
method was used for tribological characterization. Test procedure is as follows:
First stage: Pin surface was made flat such that it will support
load over its entire cross-section. This was achieved by running the test for about 1520 min with relatively small load
and at lower speeds on 600 grit emery paper fixed over the
disc surface.
Second stage: Run-in-wear was performed in the next stage.
This stage minimizes/avoids initial turbulence associated with
initial part of friction and wear curve.
Third stage: Final stage is the actual testing. Before and after
the test, both the pin and disc were cleaned with ethanol

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R.K. Uyyuru et al. / Wear 260 (2006) 12481255

Fig. 2. Schematic Pin-on-Disc test set-up.

soaked cotton. Weight losses of the pin and disc were measured using a high precision electronic balance.
Before the start of each experiment, precautionary steps were
taken to make sure that the load applied acts in normal direction. Friction force and LVDT recorders are initialized. During
the test, data (values of traction/friction force and pin height)
was acquired by a personal computer. Pin-on-Disc wear tester
was used for evaluating sliding wear characteristics in the stress
range 14 MPa, and sliding speed in the range of 14 m/s. Test
conditions were chosen such that they resemble real life conditions [9,27,28]. Fig. 2 presents a schematic view of Pin-on-Disc
tester. Tests were performed in ambient atmosphere, with special
provision made for collection of wear debris.
2.6. Characterization of worn surfaces and wear debris
Worn surfaces of both the disc and pin, and wear debris were
characterized for their morphology and topography using SEM.
Chemical characterization of worn surfaces and wear debris was
performed using EPMA, XRD techniques. Non-conductive pin
surfaces were made conductive by carbon sputtering.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Re-melting of MMCs

Fig. 3. Optical micrograph of AMC after re-melting.

average of three experiments. It was observed that wear rate

first decreases from 1 MPa load to 2 MPa load, which later-on
increases with increase in load. In addition it was also observed
that for the disc with wider reinforcement size and lower relative
amount of reinforcement (C3), wear rate is higher than that of
disc with mono-sized reinforcement (C2) at all levels of load.
Higher wear rate can be attributed to insufficient amount of reinforcement in C3 disc where larger areas of matrix material were
involved in wear process.
3.3. Effect of load on friction coefcient
Fig. 5 presents the effect of load on the average friction coefficient for all sliding speeds. Friction coefficient was observed
to be hovering around 0.30. It was observed that with increase
in normal load, friction coefficient decreases, i.e. inverse proportionality exists between the applied normal load and the
measured friction coefficient. It was also observed that the load
effect on friction coefficient was less intense than that on the
wear rate. Again the effect of reinforcement size distribution
shows a marked effect as higher friction was recorded for disc
with wider range of reinforcement (C3). This marginally higher
friction coefficient can be attributed to the more number of reinforcement particles present in the disc C3 as compared to disc
with mono-sized reinforcement particles (C2).

Cylindrical billets were made from stock ingots using stircast technique. This facilitates ease of slicing discs with minimal
material wastage. No recognizable differences were observed
between microstructures of samples both before and after remelting of the AMC stock billets. Casting defects like micropores, interfacial reactions were not observed, but clustering of
particles to some extent was observed. It was also noted that the
distribution of reinforcement (SiC particles) is fairly uniform.
In other words integrity of microstructure was not affected due
to re-melting (see Fig. 3).
3.2. Effect of normal load on wear rate
Test results corresponding to the normal load versus the wear
rate are presented in Fig. 4. Wear rate values presented are

Fig. 4. Effect of the normal load on the wear rate.

R.K. Uyyuru et al. / Wear 260 (2006) 12481255

Fig. 5. Effect of the normal load on the friction coefficient.

Fig. 6. Effect of the sliding speed on the wear rate.

3.4. Effect of sliding speed on wear rate

Results of sliding speed versus wear rate are shown in Fig. 6.
Although trend is not consistent, however, lower wear rates are
observed at higher sliding speeds.
3.5. Effect of sliding speed on friction coefcient
Effect of sliding speed on the friction coefficient is shown in
Fig. 7. Up to 3 m/s sliding speed, friction coefficient is independent of sliding speeds. At higher sliding speeds friction
coefficient decreases with sliding speed.

Fig. 7. Effect of the sliding speed on the friction coefficient.

1251

It is to be observed that effect of sliding speed and also that

of normal load over the friction coefficient are of same nature,
i.e. inversely proportional. On the other hand, their effects on
wear rates are of opposite in nature.
From Figs. 4 and 6, it was observed that composite with wide
range of reinforcement size (C3) exhibits higher wear rates than
the composite with mono-sized reinforcement (C2). The difference between wear rates of these two materials decreases with
increase in sliding speed (Fig. 6), and increases with increase in
load (Fig. 4).
From Figs. 5 and 7, it is clear that higher the volume fraction of reinforcement, higher was the friction coefficient. There
was almost no effect of load on friction coefficient. The difference in friction coefficients of these materials was small and
the magnitude of difference decreases with increase in load
and speed. It can also be observed that wider the size distribution of reinforcement, higher is the friction coefficient.
Thus it can be concluded that wider the size range and higher
the volume fraction of reinforcement, higher is the friction
coefficient.
The observations made above could be explained based in
the following wear mechanism: wear during the test could be
of three kinds. During the initial stages, tribo-layer formed contributes towards overcoming the roughness of machine marks on
the disc. Next stage could be the formation of tribo-layer. Once
the layer reaches some critical thickness, dynamic competition
between material transfer processes (transfer of material from
pin onto disc and formation of wear debris and their subsequent
removal) must be prevailed. It is true that all these stages are
not clearly distinguishable from each other and moreover, either
one of is predominant at any instant. Lower wear rate and friction coefficient at higher speeds could be due to domination of
build-up of tribo-layer as there will be less time for removal of
wear debris. On the other hand, higher friction coefficient and
wear rates for disc with wider size range of reinforcement could
be due to higher number of reinforcement particles, i.e. higher
real area of contact.
3.6. Tribo-layer characterization
A dark adherent tribo-layer (or friction lm) was observed to
form over the worn surfaces. These tribo-layers are characterized
for their composition and topography.
Fig. 8 presents SEM micrographs of a machined surface and
worn disc surfaces at a magnification of 200. Comparison of
photographs of as-machined surface with worn surfaces reveals
that the worn surfaces are relatively smoother. This was also
confirmed by surface roughness measurements. Roughness (Ra )
of worn surfaces was measured, using RankTaylorHobson
profilometer, in terms of Ra of worn surfaces, and found to
be decrease with increase in either load or sliding speed. Ra
values were decreased from 0.4 m to 0.12 m with increase
in load from 1 MPa to 4 MPa. This is in agreement with the
results from the literature [14]. Probable reason for the smoother
worn surface could be the filling of machined grooves with
the tribo-layer formed during the course of the wear test. In
addition, it was observed that at a given load, higher the slid-

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Fig. 8. SEM micrographs of disc worn surfaces (a) machined surface, (b) at 1 MPa load and speed of 4 m/s, (c) at 4 MPa load and speed of 1.5 m/s, and (d) at 2 MPa
load and speed of 4 m/s.

ing speed, smoother was the wear track. These results are in
agreement with the published results [3]. At higher speeds and
low normal loads, it was observed that the density of scratches
observable is more and amount of loose particles is less (see
Fig. 8(b) and (c)). At a given speed, load effect is not so significant (see Fig. 8(b) and (d)) on the topography of worn
surface.

From micrographs of higher magnification (Fig. 9), it was

observed that numerous craters are present across the entire
wear track, indicating that the tribo-layer formed is not uniform over entire track on the worn surface. With increase in
load and/or sliding speed or both, more uniform was the layer
formation, i.e. less number of craters was observed. Thus it can
be stated that the tribo-layer is heterogeneous in nature. Presence

Fig. 9. SEM micrographs, at 1000, of worn disc surfaces (a) at 4 MPa load and 1.5 m/s speed, (b) at 4 MPa load and 2 m/s speed, and (c) at 3 MPa load and 1.5 m/s
speed.

R.K. Uyyuru et al. / Wear 260 (2006) 12481255

1253

Fig. 10. Compositional spectrums of (a) disc material, (b) wear track at 5 kV at location-1, (c) wear track at 5 kV at location-2, and (d) wear track at 10 kV at
location-1.

of craters in the tribo-layer are believed to be due to cracking

and breaking of delaminated layers into fragments resulting in
generation of high aspect ratio wear debris or third body abrasives.
Tribo-layers were characterized for their chemical composition using EPMA. It was observed that the composition of
tribo-layer varied from region to region along the length and
width of wear track. Thus, it was concluded that the tribolayers are chemically heterogeneous along their length as well as
through their thickness. Compositional variations of wear tracks
are presented in Fig. 10. Higher oxygen content of tribo-layer
might be due to presence of oxides and hydroxides of elements
(like Al, Si, Ca, Ba, K, Mg and Fe) present in the test materials.
Thus it is believed that both tribo-oxidation and compositional
mixing takes place at the interface during typical wear test consisting AMC and brake pad materials as counter bodies. These
results are again in agreement with results from the literature
[9,29].
Based upon the observation made, tribo-layer of the
AMC/brake pad system could be a compact and complex mixture of oxides of Ca, Al, Ba, K, Fe and Mg generated at the sliding
interface during testing in the form of a thin adherent layer,
which is heterogeneous in nature. Tribo-layer, thus, is composed
of various oxides and hydroxides of elements from test materials, is stratified and fragmented, and it does not have a uniform
thickness. It is also observed that the tribo-layer is harder than
the matrix. Sub-surface layers were characterized by hardness
measurement beneath the wear track. Vickers micro-hardness
was measured at a load of 100 gm. Variation of hardness with
depth is shown in Fig. 11. Hardness of the matrix material was
92.5 HV.

3.7. Wear debris characterization

Characterization of wear debris is of interest from several
points of view including understanding the wear process, assessing the environmental and health aspects of brake dust as a
vehicle emission [13]. Wear debris were characterized for their
composition, shape and size distribution. Compositional spectrum of debris was obtained using XRD technique, and SEM was
used to study the nature and size distribution of wear debris.
Compositional characterization done using XRD reveals that
debris is nothing but a complex mixture of derivative compounds
of elements present in test material. It was found that debris
consist of oxides and hydroxides of Al, Si, Ca, Ba, Mg and Fe
and Fe3 Al, Al2 Mg3 and CaSi2 . From one observation of wear
debris in Fig. 12(a), it was evident that the debris is of different
shapes and sizes. On the basis of then platelet morphology (see

Fig. 11. Variation of sub-surface layer hardness with the depth.

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Fig. 12. SEM micrographs of wear debris.

Fig. 12(b)), debris formation could be attributed to delamination

and fatigue wear of tribo-layers. Other sources of debris formation were identified as pin failure, and formation of third body
abrasive particles during the test.
4. Conclusions
Friction and wear behavior of AlSiSiCp composites
(AMCs) have been studied against automobile brake pads.
Results of the study indicate the following.
Both the wear rate and friction coefficient vary with both the
applied normal load and the sliding speed. However, the variations of either wear rate or friction coefficient against applied
normal load and/or sliding speed are of different nature. Trends
of these variations are as follows:

wear rate increases with increase in the normal load;

wear rate decreases with increase in the sliding speed;
friction coefficient decreases with increase in the normal load;
friction coefficient decreases with increase in the sliding
speed.

Applied normal load was most important parameter on wear

performance. Influence of speed, on the wear rate appears to
be less prominent compared to load. Higher friction coefficient
and wear rates for disc with wider size range of reinforcement
could be due to higher number of reinforcement particles contributing to increase in real contact area. The difference observed
between wear rates of composites with different ranges of reinforcement size decreases with increase in load and decrease in
sliding speed.
Compositional characterization of tribo-layers reveals that
they are heterogeneous and are formed as a result of mechanically induced chemical interaction between pin and disc materials in ambient atmosphere at high temperatures generated
during the course of the wear test. The harder tribo-layers
can act as protective layer for the matrix material. Hence, the
formation of tribo-layer could play a significant role in wear
behavior of AMC and brake pad tribological couple during the
service.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Hydro-Aluminum (Norway), Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Trondheim,
Norway) for their generous provision of finance and technical
assistance under the ALTECH program, a collaborative research
understanding between IISc, NTNU, and Hydro-Aluminium.

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