Braking System

The function of the braking system is to retard the speed of the moving vehicle or bring
it to rest in a shortest possible distance whenever required. The vehicle can be held on
an inclined surface against the pull of gravity by the application of brake. Brakes are
mechanical devices for increasing the frictional resistance that retards the turning
motion of the vehicle wheels. It absorbs either kinetic energy or potential energy or both
while remaining in action and this absorbed energy appears in the form of heat. While
moving down a steep gradient the vehicle is controlled by the application of brakes. In
this case brakes remain in action for a longer period making it imperative to dissipate
the braking heat to atmosphere as rapidly as possible.
Automobiles are fitted with two brakes; the service or foot brake and the emergency or
hand brake. The foot brake is used to control the speed of the vehicle and to stop it,
when and where desired, by the application of force on the brake pedal. The hand brake,
applied by a lever, is used to keep the vehicle from moving when parked. Hand brakes
are called emergency brakes because they are applied when the service brake fails.
Virtually all vehicles are now equipment with 4-wheel brakes. The front brakes must
operate without interfering with the steering action.
The brakes must be capable of decelerating a vehicle at a faster rate than the engine is
able to accelerate it. Normally brakes have to absorb three times the amount of engine
horsepower energy in its equivalent form.
28.1.

Braking Fundamentals
Energy of Motion.
Kinetic energy is the force that keeps the vehicle moving. This energy is provided by
the engine in order to accelerate the vehicle from a standstill to desired speed. Kinetic
energy is dissipated as heat by the brakes during application of breaks (Fig. 28.1). The
kinetic energy of a vehicle during braking is given by

Thus, the kinetic energy doubles as the weight doubles, but it increases four times as
speed doubles.

Fig. 28.1. Illustration of braking.

Coefficient of Friction.
Frictional force opposes the motion of the vehicle. Consequently it consumes power and
produces heat. Frictional force occurs between the sliding tire and the road surface when
wheel rotation is locked by brakes. The ability of a vehicle to stop depends on the
coefficient of friction between the contacting surfaces. Maximum useable coefficient of
friction occurs between the tyre and road surface. Passenger car brakes have coefficient
of friction 0.3 to 0.5.
The amount of energy that can be absorbed by the brakes depends upon the coefficient
of friction of the brake materials, brake diameter, brake surface area, shoe geometry,
and the pressure used to actuate the brake. Stopping a car suddenly means very high
friction, resulting in high brake temperature.
28.1.1.

Brake Balance
The braking of a vehicle occurs at ground level, so affective braking force acts on the
ground. Vehicle weight and kinetic energy of the vehicle act through center of gravity,
which are above ground level. This causes the vehicle to pitch forward as the brakes are
applied. As a result of this action some of the vehicle weight is effectively transferred
from the rear wheels to the front wheels. Consequently, the front brakes must absorb
more kinetic energy than the rear brakes. The maximum transfer of weight amounts to

This weight is added to the static weight on the front wheels and subtracted from the
static weight on the rear wheels. The front wheel static weight is normally 55% of the
vehicle weight. Front brakes are designed to absorb this extra brake effort by selecting
shoe-drum or shoe-disc
combination type, brake size, lining coefficient of friction, wheel cylinder size and
differential hydraulic actuating pressures. With full braking it is desirable to have the
front brakes lock up slightly ahead of the rear brakes. This causes the car to go straight
ahead and to not spin out.
Example 28.1. A vehicle has its wheel base equal to 3 times the height of its CG above
the ground. If the vehicle is braked on all four wheels over a road whose adhesion factor
is 0.6, determine the weight transferred from the rear to front wheels.

28.1.2.

Stopping Distance
Stopping distance is extremely important for emergency braking. The stopping distance
is 1 based on the deceleration rate. Also, it is affected by the tyre deflection, air
resistance, braking efforts and the inertia of the driveline. Distance travelled by the
vehicle during application of brake can be obtained from the following equations of
motion assuming the brake efficiency as 100%.

If the vehicle comes to stand still due to application of brake, the final velocity, V = 0 in
the above equations, then stopping distance, S is given by the relations, S = U /2f.
The stopping distance remains same with the same tyre and road conditions, when the
wheels are locked and skidding, regardless of the weight, number of wheels or vehicle
load. Maximum braking force occurs when the wheels are braked just before the locking
point or point of impending skid. Non-skid brake systems are designed to operate at or
below this point. Any changes in load on a wheel changes the point of impending skid.
Example 28.2. Calculate the minimum stopping distances for a vehicle travelling at 60
kmlhr with a deceleration equal to the acceleration due to gravity.

28.1.3.

Brake Fade

Since brake lining material is a poor conductor of heat, most of the heat goes into the
brake drum or disc during braking. Under severe use, brake drums may reach 590 K
temperatures. The coefficient of friction between the drum and lining is much lower at
these high temperatures so that additional pedal pressure is required. After a number of
severe stops or after holding the brakes on a long down hill grade, a point is eventually
reached when the coefficient of friction drops so low that little braking effect is
available. This condition is called brake fade.
In drum brakes, the lining covers a large portion of the internal drum surface so that a
little cooling space is available. Therefore, drum brakes are more susceptible to fade
than disc brakes. As the vehicle moves, cooling air is directed around the drum and disc
to remove brake heat. The maximum brake torque that can be absorbed by the lining or
pad depends on the size and type of brake, gross vehicle weight, axle loading, the front
to rear braking ratio and maximum attainable speed.
The drum and disc expansion due to brake temperature is another factor for brake fade.
The diameter of the drum increases as it gets hot. The shoe no longer matches the drum
and hence lining-to-drum contact surface becomes smaller. The same stopping force
requires higher pedal pressure and this is turn increases the temperature on the smaller
contact surface. Continued braking increases the problem until the braking becomes
ineffective, regardless of the pedal force. On the other hand, expansion of disc has little
effect on braking because the pads apply braking force on the side of the disc and hence
braking surface area remains constant. Leading shoes are more susceptible to fade than
trailing shoes.
Fade-resistant drum brakes must limit brake shoe arc to 110 degrees and power
absorption
to 28370 kW/m* of lining. The power absorbed by the brakes during a stop can be
calculated as,

Brake Torque.
The braking torque is the twisting action caused by the drum or disc on the shoes or
caliper anchors during the application of brakes. The amount of torque is determined by
the effective axle height and stopping force between the tyre and road surface.
Brake torque on the front wheels is absorbed by the knuckle and suspension control
arm. In rear, it is absorbed by the axle housing and the leaf spring or control arm.
Braking torque during an emergency stop is much higher than accelerating torque at full
throttle. Brake supporting and anchoring members must, therefore, have sufficient
strength to withstand these high braking loads.

Brake Safety.
All automobiles are equipped with an emergency brake that would operate
independently from the service brakes. Safety standard require the emergency brake to
hold the automobile on a 30% slope indefinitely after the brake has been applied until

the operator releases it.

28.1.4.

Work Done in Braking

The kinetic energy possessed by a moving vehicle depends on the weight and speed of
the vehicle. This energy must be partially or totally dissipated when the vehicle is
slowed down or brought to a standstill. The brake converts the kinetic energy possessed
by the vehicle at any one time into heat energy by means of friction.

Example 28.3. A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 36 kmph. Determine (a) the kinetic
energy it possesses, and
(6) the average braking force to bring it to rest in 20 meters.

28.1.5.

Braking Efficiency
The force applied during braking of a vehicle opposes the motion of the wheels, as a
result reduces the vehicle speed or brings it to a standstill. Therefore the braking force is
the force of resistance applied to stop a vehicle or reduce its speed. The braking
efficiency of a vehicle is defined as the braking force produced as a percentage of the
total weight of the vehicle. Thus,

The braking efficiency is generally less than 100% because of insufficient road
adhesion, the vehicle is on a down gradient or ineffective brake system. The brake
efficiency is similar to the coefficient of friction, which is the ratio of the frictional force
to the normal load between the rubbing surfaces.

Example 28.4. Determine the braking efficiency of a vehicle if the brakes bring the
vehicle to rest from 60 kmph in a distance of 15 meters.

28.1.6.

Tyre Adhesion
The amount of the force applied on a shoe against a drum controls the resistance to
rotation of a road wheel. Simultaneously the road surface has to drive the wheel around.
This driving force attains its limit when the resistance offered by the brake equals the
maximum frictional force generated between the tyre and road which is known as the
adhesive force. This force can be determined from the expression :
Adhesive force = Load on wheel x Coefficient of friction
When the limit is reached, the wheel starts to skid, and any extra force on the brake shoe
does not increase in the rate of slowing down the vehicle, no matter how good is the
braking system. This means that the adhesion between the tyre and road is the
governing factor for the minimum stopping distance.
Road adhesion depends on :
Type of road surface.
Conditions of surface e.g. wet, dry, icy, greasy, etc.
Designs of tire tread, composition of tread material and depth of tread.
The stopping distance of a wheel is greatly affected by the interaction of the rotating
tyre tread and the road surface. The relationship between the decelerating force and the
vertical load on a wheel is known as the adhesion factor, \ia. This factor is very similar
to the coefficient of friction, \i, that occurs when one surface slides over the other. In the
ideal situation of braking, the wheel should always rotate right up to the point of
stopping to obtain the greatest retarding resistance. Typical adhesion factors for various
road surfaces are presented in Table 28.1.

Table 28.1. Adhesion factors for various road surfaces.

No.
i
2
3
4
5
6

Road Surface
Concrete, coarse asphalt dry
Tarmac, gritted bitumen dry
Concrete, coarse asphalt wet
Tarmac wet
Gritted bitumen tarmac wet
Gritted bitumen tarmac greasy

Adhesion Factor
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.25

7
8
9

Gritted bitumen, snow compressed dry 0.2

Gritted bitumen, snow compressed wet 0.15
Ice wet
0.1

It is a common thinking that the shortest stopping distance is achieved when the wheel
is locked to produce a skid. This idea is incorrect because experiments have confirmed
that the force required to unstick a tyre is greater than the force required to skid it over
the surface. A wheel held on the verge of skidding not only provides the shortest
distance, but also allows the driver to maintain directional control of the vehicle.
28.1.7.

Braking of Vehicle
Figure 28.2 shows the vehicle moving down a gradient inclined at an angle, G, to the
horizontal. Retardation takes place when brakes are applied. To bring the whole system
in equilibrium the inertia force, which is also known as reverse effective force, is
included with the system of forces actually existing.

Fig. 28.2. Forces acting on a vehicle during braking while moving down on an
inclined path.
Brakes may be applied (a) to the rear wheels only, (6) to the front wheels, and (c) to all
the four wheels. All the three cases are discussed separately.

(a) Brakes Applied to the Rear Wheels.

Referring Fig. 28.2 let Fr be the braking force produced at the rear wheels. The limiting
value of Fr is \lRr. The whole system is in equilibrium under the influence of coplanar
forces. Therefore,

(6) Brakes Applied to the Front Wheels.

The Fig. 28.2 can be referred, but in this case Fr is replaced by Ff acting at the front
wheels. The limiting value of Ff is n Rf- Therefore as before,

(c) Brakes Applied to all the Four Wheels.

In this case both Fr and Ff act at the rear and front wheels respectively giving maximum
possible braking force as

Example 28.5. A motor car has a wheel base of 2.64 m, the height of its C. G. above the
ground is 0.61 m and it is 1.12 m in front of the rear axle. If the car is travelling at 40
kmlhr on a level track, determine the minimum distance in which the car may be
stopped, when
(a) the rear wheels are braked,
(b) the front wheels are braked,
(c) all wheels are braked.
The coefficient of friction between tyre and road may be taken as 0.6. Prove any
formula if assumed.

Example 28.6. A motorcar weights 13341.5 N and has a wheelbase of 2.65 m. The C.G.
is 1.27 m behind the front axle and 0.76 m above the ground lever. Maximum braking
on all four wheels on level ground will bring the vehicle uniformly to rest from a speed
of 64 km Ihr in a distance of 25.9 m. Calculate the value of an adhesion between the
tyre and the road.
Under the same road condition, the vehicle descends a hill of gradient 1 in 20 and is
braked on the front wheels only. Determine the load distribution between the front and
rear wheels and the distance required to bring the car to rest.

28.1.8.

Braking of Vehicle Moving in a Curved Path

While moving along a curved path a vehicle comes under the influence of centrifugal
force, which tries to move it outward. This action of centrifugal force is made futile by
side forces acting at the tyres in the direction reverse to that of centrifugal force. When
the vehicle is braked while moving along a curved path, the frictional forces between
the tyres and the road become more complex (Fig. 28.3).
Referring to Fig. 28.3A,
Let W = weight of the vehicle, N
C = radius of curved path, m

Fig. 28.3. Forces acting on a vehicle during braking while moving on a curved path
(plan view).
As the radius of the curved path is very large compared to the dimensions of the vehicle,
P and Q are assumed to be parallel. Similarly braking force Ff and Fr are also parallel.
For simplification, it is assumed that the forces at the vehicle wheels are compressed
into a single force on a single plane passing through the centre of gravity neglecting the
rolling effect on the wheel reactions due to centrifugal action and turning tendency
during braking caused by unequal forces at inner and outer wheels. Hence Fig. 28.3A is
replaced by Fig. 28.3B.
Referring Fig. 28.3C let R is the vertical load on the wheel and \i is the coefficient of
adhesion. A part of the frictional force ui? resists the side-slip and the rest is utilized for
braking as shown in the figure. It is quite clear from this that the braking capacity of a
vehicle is reduced while moving along a curved path. Finally it can be concluded from
this figure that if the value of n is very high then vehicle moving above a certain speed
may overturn before it slides sideways.
Example 28.7 (MKS Unit). A motor cycle has wheel base 1.44 mapart. The centre of
gravity of the cycle and rider is 0.76 m above ground level and 0.61 m in front of the
rear axle. The coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is 0.75. If the rear
wheel is braked, find the greatest deceleration that can be obtained.
(a) if the cycle is moving in a straight path.
(b) if it is going round a curve of 45.7 m radius at 48 kmlhr.
Assume a level road and neglect air resistance. Neglect rotational inertia and obliquity
when turning.
Solution.

(a) Refer section 28.1.7. If rear wheels of the motor cycle are braked, then