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-An Introduction
2014-November
My ASNT Level III Pre-Exam
Preparatory Self Study Notes
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/DifferentialvsAbsoluteAnim.swf
Fion Zhang
2014/November
http://meilishouxihu.blog.163.com/
Shanghai
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Shanghai
Shanghai
Greek letter
YouTube.
,
http://v.qq.com/cover/u/ujnamwpqg1xg8qm/y0012j6s11e.html
Offshore Installations
Offshore Installations
ET Expert at Works
http://ropax.co.uk/eddy-current-inspection.html
Expert at Works
ET Expert at Works
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction
The Physics
Instrumentation
Probes (Coils)
Procedures Issues
Applications
Advanced Techniques
Quizzes
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection
Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal
of electromagnetism as the basis for conducting examinations. Several
other methods such as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and
Barkhausen Noise also use this principle.
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.
When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a
magnetic field develops in and around the conductor.
This magnetic field expands as the alternating current
rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced
to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current
will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents
are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path.
They get their name from eddies that are formed when a
liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles
when conditions are right.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
http://criterionndt.com/eddy-current-testing/eddy-current-theory
http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=197
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/EddyCurrentAnim.swf
One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of
inspections and measurements that can be performed. In the proper
circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Crack detection
Material thickness measurements
Coating thickness measurements
Conductivity measurements for:
Material identification
Heat damage detection
Case depth determination
Heat treatment monitoring
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable.
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable.
Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be used
to sort materials and to tell if a material has seen high temperatures or been
heat treated, which changes the conductivity of some materials.
Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of
configurations. Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very
small and battery operated units for easy portability. Computer based
systems are also available that provide easy data manipulation features for
the laboratory. Signal processing software has also been developed for trend
removal, background subtraction, and noise reduction. Impedance analyzers
are also sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-current
measurements. Some laboratories have multidimensional scanning
capabilities that are used to produce images of the scan regions. A few
portable scanning systems also exist for special applications, such as
scanning regions of aircraft fuselages.
Photo-inductive Imaging
http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/13/12/16146/htm
Photoinductive Imaging
http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/13/12/16146/htm
http://radio.rphf.spbstu.ru/a263/eddy.htm
http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt02/251/251.htm
Discussion
Topic: What is Pulse Eddy Current
2.1.2 Amperage
The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short.
An amp is the amount of electrical current that exists when a number of
electrons, having one coulomb of charge, move past a given point in one
second. A coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25 x 1018 electrons or
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
2.1.3 Electromotive Force
The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is called
the electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of EMF
as electrical pressure. In other words, it is the force that makes electrons
move in a certain direction within a conductor. There are many sources of
EMF, the most common being batteries and electrical generators.
http://www.askmrtan.com/physics/17currentofelectricity/image032.gif
Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is
proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R).
Therefore, if the voltage is increased, the current will increase provided the
resistance of the circuit does not change. Similarly, increasing the resistance
of the circuit will lower the current flow if the voltage is not changed. The
formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily be seen for all
of the three variables.
The Java applet below allows the user to vary each of these three parameters
in Ohm's Law and see the effect on the other two parameters. Values may be
input into the dialog boxes, or the resistance and voltage may also be varied
by moving the arrows in the applet. Current and voltage are shown as they
would be displayed on an oscilloscope with the X-axis being time and the Yaxis being the amplitude of the current or voltage. Ohm's Law is valid for both
direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Note that in AC circuits
consisting of purely resistive elements, the current and voltage are always in
phase with each other.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Physics/PopUps/applet1/applet1.htm
Where:
VL = the induced voltage in volts
d/dt = the rate of change of magnetic flux in webers/second
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/farlaw.html
Faraday Law
www.youtube.com/embed/vwIdZjjd8fo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwIdZjjd8fo
2.3.2 Inductance
When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity
it is called inductance, L. Self-inductance, or simply inductance, is the
property of a circuit whereby a change in current causes a change in voltage
in the same circuit. When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby
circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance. The image below shows an example
of mutual-inductance.
The alternating current running through the coil creates a magnetic field in
and around the coil that is increasing and decreasing as the current changes.
The magnetic field forms concentric loops that surround the wire and join to
form larger loops that surround the coil as shown in the image below. When
the current increases in one loop the expanding magnetic field will cut across
some or all of the neighboring loops of wire, inducing a voltage in these loops.
This causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when the current is changing.
By studying this image of a coil, it can be seen that the number of turns in the
coil will have an effect on the amount of voltage that is induced into the circuit.
Increasing the number of turns or the rate of change of magnetic flux
increases the amount of induced voltage. Therefore, Faraday's Law must be
modified for a coil of wire and becomes the following.
Where:
VL = induced voltage in volts
N = number of turns in the coil
d/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux in webers/second
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UpO6t00bPb8
The equation simply states that the amount of induced voltage (VL) is
proportional to the number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the
magnetic flux (d/dt). In other words, when the frequency of the flux is
increased or the number of turns in the coil is increased, the amount of
induced voltage will also increase.
In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure
magnetic flux, so the following equation can be used to determine the
induced voltage if the inductance and frequency of the current are known.
This equation can also be reorganized to allow the inductance to be
calculated when the amount of inducted voltage can be determined and the
current frequency is known.
Where:
VL = the induced voltage in volts
L = the value of inductance in Henries
di/dt = the rate of change of current in amperes per second
Lenz's Law
Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz developed a
rule for determining the direction of the induced current in a loop. Basically,
Lenz's law states that an induced current has a direction such that its
magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic field that induced the current.
This means that the current induced in a conductor will oppose the change in
current that is causing the flux to change. Lenz's law is important in
understanding the property of inductive reactance, which is one of the
properties measured in eddy current testing.
Lenzs Law:
Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (12
February 1804 10 February 1865)
was a Russian physicist of Baltic
German ethnicity. He is most noted for
formulating Lenz's law in
electrodynamics in 1833. The symbol L,
conventionally representing inductance,
is chosen in his honor. This was during
the reigns of Alexander II the Liberator
1804-1865
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_rulers
Inductive Reactance
The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive
reactance. By taking a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it
can be seen how inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. In the
image below, the direction of the primary current is shown in red, and the
magnetic field generated by the current is shown in blue. The direction of the
magnetic field can be determined by taking your right hand and pointing your
thumb in the direction of the current. Your fingers will then point in the
direction of the magnetic field. It can be seen that the magnetic field from one
loop of the wire will cut across the other loops in the coil and this will induce
current flow (shown in green) in the circuit. According to Lenz's law, the
induced current must flow in the opposite direction of the primary current. The
induced current working against the primary current results in a reduction of
current flow in the circuit.
It should be noted that the inductive reactance will increase if the number of
winds in the coil is increased since the magnetic field from one coil will have
more coils to interact with.
Inductive Reactance
The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and
create current flow. The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own
magnetic field which will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some
point P, the magnetic field consists of a part due to i1 and a part due to i2.
These fields are proportional to the currents producing them.
The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the
self inductance of each of the coils. The values of L1 and L2 depend on the
geometrical arrangement of the circuit (i.e. number of turns in the coil) and the
conductivity of the material. The constant M, called the mutual inductance of
the two circuits, is dependent on the geometrical arrangement of both circuits.
In particular, if the circuits are far apart, the magnetic flux through circuit 2
due to the current i1 will be small and the mutual inductance will be small. L2
and M are constants.
We can write the flux, B through circuit 2 as the sum of two parts.
B2 = L2i2 + i1M
An equation similar to the one above can be written for the flux through circuit
1.
B1 = L1i1 + i2M
Though it is certainly not obvious, it can be shown that the mutual inductance
is the same for both circuits. Therefore, it can be written as follows:
M1,2 = M2,1
Eddy current
Eddy current
Eddy Current
Eddy Current
Eddy Current
Eddyscope- PC Interface
http://www.mkckorea.com/catalog/Eddyscope/Eddyscope-2020.htm
The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that interact with the
primary magnetic field of the coil. By measuring changes in the resistance
and inductive reactance of the coil, information can be gathered about the test
material. This information includes the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of the material, the amount of material cutting through the coils
magnetic field, and the condition of the material (i.e. whether it contains
cracks or other defects.) The distance that the coil is from the conductive
material is called liftoff, and this distance affects the mutual-inductance of the
circuits. Liftoff can be used to make measurements of the thickness of
nonconductive coatings, such as paint, that hold the probe a certain distance
from the surface of the conductive material.
Keywords:
Electrical conductivity
Magnetic permeability
Lift-off
In the applet below, the probe and the sample are shown in cross-section.
The boxes represent the cross-sectional area of a group of turns in the coil.
The liftoff distance and the drive current of the probe can be varied to see the
effects of the shared magnetic field. The liftoff value can be set to 0.1 or less
and the current value can be varied from 0.01 to 1.0. The strength of the
magnetic field is shown by the darkness of the lines.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Physics/PopUps/applet5/applet5.htm
In the circuit below, the resistive component has been replaced with an
inductor. When inductance is introduced into a circuit, the voltage and the
current will be "out-of-phase," meaning that the voltage and current do not
cross zero, or reach their peaks and valleys at the same time. When a circuit
has an inductive component, the current (iL) will lag the voltage by one
quarter of a cycle. One cycle is often referred to as 360o, so it can be said that
the current lags the voltage by 90o.
This phase shift occurs because the inductive reactance changes with
changing current. Recall that it is the changing magnetic field caused by a
changing current that produces inductive reactance. When the change in
current is greatest, inductive reactance will be the greatest, and the voltage
across the inductor will be the highest.
When the change in current is zero, the inductive reactance will be zero and
the voltage across the inductor will be zero. Be careful not to confuse the
amount of current with the amount of change in the current. Consider the
points where the current reaches it peak amplitude and changes direction in
the graph below (0o, 180o, and 360o). As the current is changing directions,
there is a split second when the change in current is zero. Since the change
in current is zero, no magnetic field is generated to produce the inductive
reactance. When the inductive reactance is zero, the voltage across the
inductor is zero.
The resistive and inductive components are of primary interest in eddy current
testing since the test probe is basically a coil of wire, which will have both
resistance and inductive reactance. However, there is a small amount of
capacitance in the circuits so a mention is appropriate. This simple circuit
below consists of an alternating current voltage source and a capacitor.
Capacitance in a circuit caused the current (ic) to lead the voltage by one
quarter of a cycle (90o current lead ).
Keyword:
In capacitor circuit, the current ic is
leading the voltage Vc by 90o.
In inductor circuit, the current iL is
lagging the voltage VL by 90o.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ykgmKOVkyW0
2.7 Impedance
Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to
alternating current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may include
resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC).
However, the total impedance is not simply the algebraic sum of the
resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance. Since the inductive
reactance and capacitive reactance are 90o out of phase with the resistance
and, therefore, their maximum values occur at different times, vector addition
must be used to calculate impedance.
Keywords:
Vector addition
Current lead
voltage by 90o
Current lagging
voltage by 90o
http://www.geocities.ws/raobpc/EC-Def.html
The phase angle of the circuit can also be calculated using some
trigonometry. The phase angle is equal to the ratio between the inductance
and the resistance in the circuit. With the probes and circuits used in
nondestructive testing, capacitance can usually be ignored so only inductive
reactance needs to be accounted for in the calculation. The phase angle can
be calculated using the equation below. If capacitive reactance was present
in the circuit, its value would simply be subtracted from the inductive
reactance term.
or
The applet below can be used to see how the variables in the above equation
are related on the vector diagram (or the impedance plane display). Values
can be entered into the dialog boxes or the arrow head on the vector diagram
can be dragged to a point representing the desired values. Note that the
capacitive reactance term has been included in the applet but as mentioned
before, in eddy current testing this value is small and can be ignored.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Physics/PopUps/applet2_6/applet2_6.htm
The applet below can be used to see how the current and voltage of a circuit
are affected by impedance. The applet allows the user to vary the inductance
(L), resistance (R), voltage (V) and current (I). Voltage and current are shown
as they would be displayed on an oscilloscope. Note that the resistance
and/or the inductive reactance values must be changed to change the
impedance in the circuit.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Physics/PopUps/applet3/applet3.htm
Also note that when there is inductance in the circuit, the voltage and current
are out of phase. This is because the voltage across the inductor will be a
maximum when the rate of change of the current is greatest. For a sinusoidal
wave form like AC, this is at the point where the actual current is zero. Thus
the voltage applied to an inductor reaches its maximum value a quarter-cycle
before the current does, and the voltage is said to lead the current by 90o.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEERuJlwBxE
Impedance
www.youtube.com/embed/Pj4Rq1ZIeDI
www.youtube.com/embed/FEERuJlwBxE
www.youtube.com/watch?v=xyMH8wKK-Ag
www.youtube.com/embed/y1ES6WrALzI
http://www.suragus.com/en/company/eddy-current-testing-technology
The skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any
depth produce magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing
the net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as the depth
increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as
shielding the coil's magnetic field, thereby weakening the magnetic field at
greater depths and reducing induced currents.
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8016
The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the
frequency of the excitation current and the electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability of the specimen. The depth of penetration decreases
with increasing frequency and increasing conductivity and magnetic
permeability.
The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37%
of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration (d).
The word 'standard' denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation
within the test sample (conditions which are rarely achieved in practice).
Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of
penetration, they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of
penetration (2d), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5%
of the surface density. At three depths (3d), the eddy current density is down
to only (1/e)3 5% of the surface density.
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/faa-casr/engineers/Supporting%20Info/Supporting%20Info%20Pages/Eddy%20Pages/Eddy-uses.html
1/e or 37% of
surface density at
target
Defect Detection
(1/e)3 or 5% of
surface density at
material interface
The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semiinfinite conductor. The applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of
penetration. The equation for this calculation is:
Where:
= Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
= 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
= Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
= Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)
(Note: The applet has an input box for relative permeability since this is often
the more readily available value. The applet multiplies the relative
permeability of the material by the permeability of free space to get to H/mm
units.) The applet also indicates graphically the phase lag at one and two
standard depths of penetration. Phase lag will be discussed on the following
page.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Physics/PopUps/applet7/applet7.htm
http://fatheata.blogspot.com/2009/05/eddy-current-non-destructive-testing.html
In Radian
In Degree
At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is one radian or 57o. This
means that the eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration (d)
below the surface, lag the surface currents by 57o. At two standard depths of
penetration (2d), they lag the surface currents by 114o. Therefore, by
measuring the phase lag of a signal the depth of a defect can be estimated.
On the impedance plane, the liftoff signal serves as the reference phase
direction.
The angle between the liftoff and defect signals is about twice the phase
lag calculated with the above equation.
As mentioned above, discontinuities that have a significant dimension normal
to the surface, will produce an angle that is based on the weighted average of
the disruption to the eddy currents at the various depths along its length.
3.0 Instruments
3.1 Eddy Current Instruments
Eddy current instruments can be purchased in a large variety of
configurations. Both analog and digital instruments are available. Instruments
are commonly classified by the type of display used to present the data. The
common display types are analog meter, digital readout, impedance plane
and time versus signal amplitude. Some instruments are capable of
presenting data in several display formats.
The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating
current source, a coil of wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to
measure the voltage change across the coil. An ammeter could also be used
to measure the current change in the circuit instead of using the voltmeter.
While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this
type of equipment, most eddy current instruments are a bit more
sophisticated. In the following pages, a few of the more important aspects of
eddy current instrumentation will be discussed.
Resonant Circuits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqhV50852jA
Current lead
voltage by 90o
Current lagging
voltage by 90o
Phase angle
Current lagging
voltage by angle
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/rlcser.html
Resonant Frequency
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lWRTzmvk2lU
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
A good explanation
on resonant
frequency at this
portion of this length
video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEERuJlwBxE
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/serres.html
Resonant Frequency
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/parallel-resonance.html
Resonant Frequency
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/parallel-resonance.html
http://www.kshitij-school.com/Study-Material/Class-12/Physics/Alternating-current-circuits/Resonance-in-a-series-RLC-circuit.aspx
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Instrumentation/Popups/applet1/applet1.htm
Exercise 1: Using your mouse, adjust the resistance by sliding the slide bar.
Does the frequency change?
Exercise 2: Note that changing the inductance and/or the capacitance
changes the resonant frequency of this resonant circuit. Can you find several
combinations of capacitance and inductance that resonate at 1.0 kHz?
3.3 Bridges
The bridge circuit shown in the applet below is known as the Maxwell-Wien
bridge (often called the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown
inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. Calibrationgrade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar
precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical" inductance bridge is not
always practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are
exactly opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can balance out an
inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as they
are here.
Unlike this straight Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is
independent of the source frequency. In some cases, this bridge can be made
to balance in the presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source,
the limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide frequency range.
Maxwell-Wien bridge
Maxwell-Wien bridge
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Instrumentation/Popups/applet2/applet2.htm
Exercise: Using the equations within the applet, calculate appropriate values
for C and R2 for a set of probe values. Then, using your calculated values,
balance the bridge. The oscilloscope trace representing current (brightest
green) across the top and bottom of the bridge should be minimized (straight
line).
In the simplest implementation, the standard capacitor (C) and the resistor in
parallel with it are made variable, and both must be adjusted to achieve
balance. However, the bridge can be made to work if the capacitor is fixed
(non-variable) and more than one resistor is made variable (at least the
resistor in parallel with the capacitor, and one of the other two). However, in
the latter configuration it takes more trial-and-error adjustment to achieve
balance as the different variable resistors interact in balancing magnitude and
phase.
Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather
than a symmetrical inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error
due to the mutual inductance between the two inductors. Magnetic fields
can be difficult to shield, and even a small amount of coupling between coils
in a bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no
second inductor to react within the Maxwell bridge, this problem is eliminated.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance
can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance
when put in the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential
difference across the detector and hence no current flowing through it. The
unknown inductance then becomes known in terms of this capacitance.
With reference to the picture, in a typical application R1 and R4 are known
fixed entities, and R2 and C2 are known variable entities. R2 and C2 are
adjusted until the bridge is balanced.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_bridge
R4
C2
R2
R1
L3
R3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_bridge
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_6/6.html
Reactance
You will recall that this can be graphically displayed using the impedance
plane diagram as seen above. Impedance also has an associated angle,
called the phase angle of the circuit, which can be calculated by the following
equation.
The impedance plane diagram is a very useful way of displaying eddy current
data. As shown in the figure below, the strength of the eddy currents and the
magnetic permeability of the test material cause the eddy current signal on
the impedance plane to react in a variety of different ways.
Keywords:
Impedance plane diagram
Phasor Diagram
Steel
Al
Discussion
Topic: Discuss on Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal
to change in a different way.
Answer: Increase in conductivity will increase the intensity of eddy current on
the surface of material, the strong eddy current generated will reduce the
current of the coil, show-up as R &XL
Magnetic Materials
The eddy currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which
shows up as an increase in the coils resistance.
The reactance increases. This is because the magnetic permeability
of the steel concentrates the coil's magnetic field.
This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows
the effects magnetic field of the eddy currents on decreasing the
inductive reactance.
In the applet below, liftoff curves can be generated for several nonconductive
materials with various electrical conductivities. With the probe held away from
the metal surface, zero and clear the graph. Then slowly move the probe to
the surface of the material. Lift the probe back up, select a different material
and touch it back to the sample surface.
Fe
Al
Cu
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Instrumentation/Popups/applet3/applet3.htm
Experiment
Generate a family of liftoff curves for the different materials available in the
applet using a frequency of 10kHz. Note the relative position of each of the
curves. Repeat at 500kHz and 2MHz. (Note: it might be helpful to capture
an image of the complete set of curves for each frequency for comparison.)
1) Which frequency would be best if you needed to distinguish between two
high conductivity materials?
2) Which frequency would be best if you needed to distinguish between two
low conductivity materials?
The impedance calculations in the above applet are based on codes by Jack Blitz from "Electrical
and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing," 2nd ed., Chapman and Hill
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_reactance
Hurray
Analog meters such as the D'Arsonval design pictured in the applet below,
must "rectify" the AC into DC. This is most easily accomplished through the
use of devices called diodes. Without going into elaborate detail over how
and why diodes work as they do, remember that they each act like a one-way
valve for electrons to flow. They act as a conductor for one polarity and an
insulator for another. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes will serve to steer AC
through the meter movement in a constant direction.
An analog meter can easily measure just a few microamperes of current and
is well suited for use in balancing bridges.
Exercise: Using the equations within the applet, calculate appropriate values
for C and R2 for a set of probe values. Then balance the bridge using your
calculated values. The analog meter should swing close to the left end if its
scale indicates little or no current across the bridge. Across the bridge should
be minimized (straight line).
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Instrumentation/Popups/applet4/applet4.htm
Movie Time
http://www.giniko.com/watch.php?id=216
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djFvnFy3rJc
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-IW6cFIt9E
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2Yh7tZpKbo
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bojm5F_4ay4
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S34yt8-zgns
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Conductivity Measurement -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvTUomSYEt8
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Crack Detections -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YUSn___VxQ
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Although the Maxwell inductance bridge forms the basis of most eddy current
instruments, there are several reasons why it cannot be used in its simplest
form (i.e. Hague, 1934), including the creation of stray capacitances, such as
those formed by the leads and leakages to earth. These unwanted
impedances can be eliminated by earthing devices and the addition of
suitable impedances to produce one or more wide-band frequency (i.e. low Q)
resonance circuits. Instruments having a wide frequency range (i.e. from 1
kHz to 2 MHz) may possess around five of these bands to cover the range.
The value of the impedance of the probe is therefore an important
consideration in achieving proper matching and, as a result, it may be
necessary to change the probe when switching from one frequency band to
another.
http://community.calrec.com/q-in-60-seconds/
http://www.eeweb.com/blog/rodney_green_2/a-history-of-hf-radio-receivers-part-2
The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a
solid material or just air. When the core is air or a nonconductive material,
the probe is often referred to as an air-core probe. Some coils are wound
around a ferrite core which concentrates the coil's magnetic field into a
smaller area. These coils are referred to as "loaded" coils.
The wire used in an eddy current probe is typically made from copper or other
nonferrous metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The winding usually
has more than one layer so as to increase the value of inductance for a given
length of coil. The higher the inductance (L) of a coil, at a given
frequency, the greater the sensitivity of eddy current testing.
Keywords:
Air core
Loaded core
Magnetic hysteresis effects
It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high
a current may produce:
a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the
value of L.
magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is
used.
The simplest type of probe is the single-coil probe, which is in widespread
use. The following applet may be used to calculate the effect of the inner and
outer diameters, length, number of turns and wire diameter of a simple probe
design on the probe's self inductance. Dimensional units are in millimeters.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/ProbesCoilDesign/Popups/applet1/applet1.htm
http://www.vegastel.eu/index.php/en/sukuriniu-sroviu-metodas-en/eddy-current-probes/693-eddy-current-probe-selection-information
Keywords:
Configurations of probes
(1) Bobbin probes,
(2) Encircling probes,
Mode of operation
(1) absolute, (2) differential, (3) reflection and (4) hybrid.
Balancing coil
The Principle:
The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this
appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy
currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of
the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil.
Variations:
The change in inductive reactance could be increasing or decreasing
depending on the magnetic permeability of material.
Commons:
Irrespective of magnetic permeability, the resistance always increase.
Reflection Probes
Bridge type probes used to give a limited frequency span in the older
instruments, as these had to balance an electrical bridge using its other arms
(X and R controls). In modern instruments, the bridge is normally formed with
fixed precision resistors, or a fixed transformer inside it. The signals detected
in this manner are electronically processed without any "mechanical"
adjustments, and this means a greater ability to balance over a wider
frequency range.
Drift: Probe drift is mostly caused by temperature change in the coils. This
may be caused by varying
ambient temperature, or the heat produced by the oscillator current, or both.
There are design parameters that can be optimized to reduce drift, such as
wire diameter and ferrite selection, but reflection probes are normally a good
choice to avoid this problem even more.
In a reflection probe, the driver current does not flow through the pickup coils;
in fact, the magnetic field received back from the specimen is normally much
smaller and, consequently, the current flowing in the pickups is also reduced.
Most probe types (pencil, spot, ring, bolt hole, etc.) can be made as bridge or
reflection. Keep in mind that a reflection probe is almost invariably more
difficult to manufacture and therefore more expensive.
Fig. 5
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-metal
Shielding has several advantages: first, it allows the probe to be used near
geometry changes, such as edges, without giving false indications; next, it
allows the probe to touch ferrous fastener heads with minimal interference;
last, it allows the detection of smaller defects due to the stronger magnetic
field concentrated in a smaller area.
On the other hand, unshielded probes allow somewhat deeper penetration
due to the larger magnetic field. They are also slightly more tolerant to lift-off.
Unshielded probes are recommended for the inspection of ferrous materials
(steel) for surface cracks, and in particular with meter instruments. The
reason for this is that the meter response is too slow to allow the signal from a
shielded probe to be displayed at normal scanning speeds due to the smaller
sensitive area.
4.3.8 Adapters
To connect a probe with a connector different from the type used on the
instrument, it is necessary to use an adapter. An adapter consists of two
different connectors joined and wired to match the inputs and outputs as
necessary. It is normally housed in a short body that can be positioned at the
instrument's input. Sometimes, it is also possible to have a "cable adapter,"
which is made to match a connector located at the probe body. Depending on
the instrument's wiring, it may be possible to have a single adapter for both
bridge and reflection probes. In other cases, it is necessary to have two
separate adapters or use a switchable type.
http://www.vegastel.eu/index.php/en/sukuriniu-sroviu-metodas-en/eddy-current-probes/693-eddy-current-probe-selection-information
http://www.ibgndt.com/eddyliner-s-eddy-current-testers-hardness-case-depth-structure.php
http://idea-ndt.en.alibaba.com/product/488266329-212374104/Automatic_ERW_pipes_eddy_current_and_ultrasonic_testing_systems_and_equipments.html
Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large
defects. They sample a relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration.
Since they do sample a large area, they are often used for conductivity tests
to get more of a bulk material measurement. However, their large sampling
area limits their ability to detect small discontinuities.
Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender
housing to permit inspection in restricted spaces. They are available with a
straight shaft or with a bent shaft, which facilitates easier handling and use in
applications such as the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes
are prone to wobble due to their small base and sleeves are sometimes used
to provide a wider base.
Keywords:
Wide surface- deeper penetration
Narrow probe detect smaller discontinuities
Narrow probe prone to wobble
Surface Probe
http://advantech.my/Products%20-%20ET.htm
Surface Probe
Surface Probe
Surface Probe
http://www.phtool.com/pages/eddy.asp
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/eddy-current-probes-guide/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4yqOLUYrBs
Configuration:
Bobbin Probe
http://www.tudou.com/programs/view/html5embed.action?type=0&code=tCK2R4PRoGk&lcode=&resourceId=30911220_06_05_99" allowtransparency=
Keywords:
reduce the interaction non-relevant features
reduce edge effects with step or an edge.
reduce the effects of conductive or magnetic fasteners nearby.
Shielded using magnetic shielding or eddy current shielding.
Magnetically shielded probes surrounded the coil by a ring of ferrite or
other material with high magnetic permeability and low conductivity.
Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic
material, usually copper, to surround the coil.
Discussion
Topic 1: What is plus point for not shielding?
Topic 2: discuss this sentence
The higher the frequency of the current used to drive the probe, the more
effective the shielding will be due to the skin effect in the shielding material.
The reference
Standards
http://radio.rphf.spbstu.ru/a263/eddy.htm
The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If
this is not possible or practical, it should be of material that has the same
electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. Component features
(material thickness, geometry, etc.) should be the same in the reference
standard as those in the test region of interest. If the reference standard is the
type with intentional defects, these defects should be as representative of
actual defects in the test component as possible. The closer the reference
standard is to the actual test component, the better. However, since cracks
and corrosion damage are often difficult and costly to produce, artificial
defects are commonly used. Narrow notches produced with electron
discharge machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to represent
cracks, and drilled holes are often used to simulate corrosion pitting.
Conductivity standards.
Flat plate discontinuity standards.
Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).
Tube discontinuity standards.
Tube metal thinning standards.
Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards.
Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, is not directly related
to the probe drive frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a
time versus signal amplitude display. With this display mode, it is easy to see
that the signal shape is dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil
is sensing something. For example, if a surface probe is placed on the
surface of conductor and rocked back and forth, it will produce a wave like
signal. When the probe is rocked fast, the signal will have a higher frequency
than when the probe is rocked slowly back and forth.
The signal does not need a wavelike appearance to have frequency content
and most eddy current signals will be composed of a large number of
frequencies. Consider a probe that senses a notch for 1/60th of a second. In
a period of one second the probe could (in theory) go over the notch 60 times,
resulting in the notch signal having a frequency of 60 Hz. But, imposed on this
same signal, could be the signal resulting from probe wobble, electronic noise,
a conductivity shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.
Signal filtering
Filter signal
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered
out with a HPF and then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a
LPF to leave a clearly visible flaw indication. It should also be noted that since
flaw indication signals are comprised of multiple frequencies, both filters have
a tendency to reduce the indication signal strength. Additionally, scan speed
must be controlled when using filters. Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF
might filter out the flaw indication. Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF
might eliminate the flaw indication.
Keywords:
Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF might filter out the flaw indication.
Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF might eliminate the flaw indication.
Signal Reduction
Original Signal
Filtered Signal
Low pass filter employed to
remove high frequency noise
Rejected by LPF
Rejected by HPF
To create a window of acceptance for the signals, the filters need to overlap.
In the image to the right, the LPF has been adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to
10Hz. The area shown in gray is where the two frequencies overlap and the
signal is passed. A signal of 30Hz will get through at full amplitude, while a
signal of 15Hz will be attenuated by approximately 50%. All frequencies
above or below the gray area (the pass band) will be rejected by one of the
two filters.
Signal Filtering
Unfiltered signals
The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow
changes, such as conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an
edge while scanning parallel to it, or out-of-round holes in fastener hole
inspection. The HPF is useful when performing automated or semiautomatic
scans to keep the signal from wandering too far from the null (balance) point.
The most common application for the HPF is the inspection of fastener holes
using a rotating scanner. As the scanner rotates at a constant RPM, the HPF
can be adjusted to achieve the desired effect.
The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manually
scanning, provided the operator can largely control the scan speed and
becomes familiar with the indication signal changes as scan speed is varied
slightly. An good example of such an application would be the manual scan of
the radius of a wheel that is rotated by hand, but the speed of rotation can be
kept relatively constant.
6.0 Applications
6.1 Surface Breaking Cracks
Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of applications such as the
detection of cracks (discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness,
detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and erosion, determination of
coating thickness, and the measurement of electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability. Eddy current inspection is an excellent method for
detecting surface and near surface defects when the probable defect location
and orientation is well known.
http://www.assda.asn.au/component/rsblog/category/13?start=20
Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface finish and condition of
the material, the design of the probe, and many other factors can affect the
sensitivity of the inspection. Successful detection of surface breaking and
near surface cracks requires:
1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.
2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the
part and the coil must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the
flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the
frequency should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high
sensitivity. For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary to get
the required depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity.
Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even
lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration.
4. Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being
inspected and with features that are representative of the defect or
condition being inspected for.
The basic steps in performing an inspection with a surface probe are the
following:
1. Select and setup the instrument and probe.
2. Select a frequency to produce the desired depth of penetration.
3. Adjust the instrument to obtain an easily recognizable defect response
using a calibration standard or setup specimen.
4. Place the inspection probe (coil) on the component surface and null the
instrument.
5. Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide
complete coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to
maintain the same probe-to-surface orientation as probe wobble can affect
interpretation of the signal. In some cases, fixtures to help maintain
orientation or automated scanners may be required.
6. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance (R, XL) that will occur
as the probe moves over a discontinuity.
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_5/1.html
The applet below depicts a simple eddy current probe near the surface of a
calibration specimen. Move the probe over the surface of the specimen and
compare the signal responses from a surface breaking crack with the signals
from the calibration notches. The inspection can be made at a couple of
different frequencies to get a feel for the effect that frequency has on
sensitivity in this application.
Keywords:
Surface breaking crack
Calibration notches
Effect of frequency on sensitivity
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/surfaceBreakingCracks.swf
www.youtube.com/embed/1YUSn___VxQ?feature=player_detailpage
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YUSn___VxQ
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
www.youtube.com/embed/9A5fQtOwnzw
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of
fastener holes. They are capable of detecting surface and subsurface
discontinuities, but they can only detect defects in one direction. The probes
are marked with a detection line to indicate the direction of inspection. In
order to make a complete inspection there must be two scans that are
orthogonal (90 degrees) to each other.
Aircraft applications
Aircraft applications
Reference Standards
Reference Standards
http://www.phtool.com/asntpics.htm
www.youtube.com/embed/1YUSn___VxQ?feature=player_detailpage
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YUSn___VxQ
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/eddy-current-probes-guide
Normal scan direction is as shown (Figure 6), giving the typical display
presentation. The double indication is, in fact helpful, as it doubles the size of
the defect in the screen (Figure 7).
Figure 6
Trailing
signal
Figure 7
Leading
signal
Figure 6
Signal Interpretation
Discussion
Topic: Reasons on the different in phase angles for different notch depths
3
1
Discussion
Topic: Why the impedance change on traversing toward the crack and
leaving the cracking does not match perfectly on top of each others?
3
1
A technique that is often used involves feeding a differential bobbin probe into
the individual tube of the heat exchanger. With the differential probe, no
signal will be seen on the eddy current instrument as long as no metal
thinning is present. When metal thinning is present, a loop will be seen on the
impedance plane as one coil of the differential probe passes over the flawed
area and a second loop will be produced when the second coil passes over
the damage. When the corrosion is on the outside surface of the tube, the
depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the phase lag. The size of the
indication provides an indication of the total extent of the corrosion damage.
A tube inspection using a bobbin probe is simulated below. Click the "null"
button and then drag either the absolute or the differential probe through the
tube. Note the different signal responses provided by the two probes. Also
note that the absolute probe is much more sensitive to dings and the build up
of magnetite on the outside of the tube than the differential probe is.
Tube Inspection
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/DifferentialvsAbsoluteAnim.swf
Tube Inspection
http://www.nde.com/ect.htm
Tube Inspection
http://www.titanmf.com/photo-gallery/heat-exchangers/
Heat Damage
Heat Treatment
The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing
the probe in contact with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the
change in impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity
of the material.
The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from
nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects
from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are
limited to nonmagnetic materials. It is important to control factors that can
affect the results such as the inspection temperature and the part geometry.
Conductivity changes with temperature so measurements should be made at
a constant temperature and adjustments made for temperature variations
when necessary.
The thickness of the specimen should generally be greater than three
standard depths of penetration. This is so the eddy currents at the back
surface of the sample are sufficiently weaker than the variations in the
specimen thickness that are not seen in the measurements.
Heat Treatment
Discuss on:
The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from
nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects
from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are
limited to nonmagnetic materials
Generally large pancake type, surface probes are used to get a value for a
relatively large sample area. The instrument is usually setup such that a
ferromagnetic material produces a response that is nearly vertical. Then, all
conductive but nonmagnetic materials will produce a trace that moves down
and to the right as the probe is moved toward the surface. Think back to the
discussion on the impedance plane and these type of responses make sense.
Remember that inductive reactance changes are plotted along the y-axis and
resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis. Since ferromagnetic materials
will concentrate the magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive reactance
of the coil will increase. The effects on the signal from the magnetic
permeability overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much
stronger.
As the conductivity of
the materials being
tested increases, the
resistance losses will
be less and the
inductive reactance
changes will be
greater.
Most conductive material
When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the
coil's inductive reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy
currents opposes the magnetic field of the coil. The resistance in the coil
increases since it takes some of the coil's energy to generate the eddy
currents and this appears as additional resistance in the circuit. As the
conductivity of the materials being tested increases, the resistance
losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be greater.
Therefore, the signals will be come more vertical as the conductivity
increases, as shown in the image above.
To sort materials using an impedance plane device, the signal from the
unknown sample must be compared to a signal from a variety of reference
standards. However, there are devices available that can be calibrated to
produce a value for electrical conductivity which can then be compared to
published values of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent IACS
(International Annealed Copper Standard). Please be aware that the
conductivity of a particular material can vary significantly with slight variations
in the chemical composition and, thus, a conductivity range is generally
provided for a material. The conductivity range for one material may overlap
with the range of a second material of interest, so conductivity alone can
not always be used to sort materials. The electrical conductivity values for
a variety of materials can be found in the material properties reference tables.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Applications/Popups/applet2/applet2.htm
Lead
Aluminum
Copper
Quoted from text: As the conductivity of the materials being tested increases,
the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be
greater.
Discussion: With increase conductivity the resistance component of reactant
was decrease. However the inductive reactance component was not increase
as compared with that of Aluminum (X1>X2).
X2
X1
The formation of the precipitates can be controlled for many alloys by heating
and holding the material at an elevated temperature for a period of time
(artificial aging). As the alloying elements precipitate out of solid solution, the
conductivity of the material gradually increases. By controlling the amount of
precipitated particles within the aluminum, the properties can be controlled to
produce peak strength or some combinations of strength and corrosion
resistance. Sometimes, the material must be annealed or put into the softest,
most ductile condition possible in order to perform forming operations.
Annealing allows all of the alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to
form a coarse, widely spaced precipitate. The electrical conductivity is
greatest when the material is in the annealed condition.
Keywords:
Annealed condition: Electrical conductivity
Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components can
be made using less material. A lighter or more compact design is often of
great importance to the designer and well worth the cost of the heat treating
process. However, think of the consequences that could arise if a component
that was supposed to be solution heat-treated and aged somehow left the
manufacturing facility and was put into service un-heat-treated or annealed.
This is a real possibility since heat-treated aluminum parts look exactly like
unheat-treated parts. Consider 2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile
properties and its electrical conductivity for various heat treatment conditions
are given in the following table.
Ultimate Strength
Yield Strength
Electrical
Conductivity
Annealed (O)
50 % IACS
Solution Heat
64 ksi (440 MPa)
Treated and
Naturally Aged (T42)
30 % IACS
Solution Heat
Treated, Cold
worked and
Artificially Aged
(T861)
30 % IACS
It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilopounds/square
inch (ksi) (290 MPa) in the solution heat-treated and naturally aged condition
(T42 condition). The yield strength can be increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa)
when cold worked and artificially aged (T861 condition). But in the annealed
condition, the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi (75 MPa). If an annealed part
were accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it
would likely fail prematurely. However, a quick check of the conductivity using
an eddy current instrument of all parts prior to shipping would prevent this
from occurring.
Thickness Measurements
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/thinningMeasurement1.swf
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/thinningMeasurement2.swf
When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth
of penetration of the eddy currents must cover the entire range of thicknesses
being measured. Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one
standard depth of penetration at the maximum thickness. Unfortunately, at
lower frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary penetration,
the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity.
Thus, the effects of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is
important to verify that any variations of conductivity over the region of
interest are at a sufficiently low level.
Keywords:
Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one standard
depth of penetration at the maximum thickness.
at lower frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary
penetration, the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in
electrical conductivity.
Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw
detector and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the
direction of the lift-off signal is established. The location of the signal is
marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in
areas of decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the test
surface, the position of the signal will move from the air null position to a point
that can be correlated to the calibration markings.
Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and
are often pocket-sized with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are
usually operated by a small battery and provide a digital read-out in the
appropriate units. Calibration adjustments, some of which are laid down by
standards such as BS EN 2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376, may be
assisted by the use of an inbuilt microprocessor.
http://www.inspectech.ca/products/OnLine_Eddy_Current
Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case
where interest is confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in
geometry, a differential probe can be used to eliminate unwanted factors,
providing they vary in a gradual manner. For example, variations in electrical
conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a differential probe
simultaneously. However, if unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are
affecting the measurements, they can sometimes be negated by mixing
signals collected at several frequencies.
An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in
heat exchanger tube inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a
collection of tubing that have support brackets on the outside. When
attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal from the
mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collecting a signal at the frequency
necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a second
signal collected at a lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to the
bracket but less sensitive to features in the tubing), the effects of the bracket
can be reduced.
Discussion
Subject: Discuss and reasoning on the following sentences;
When attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal
from the mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collecting a signal at the
frequency necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a
second signal collected at a lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to
the bracket but less sensitive to features in the tubing), the effects of the
bracket can be reduced.
2.2 MHz
When comparing the pulsed method with the conventional eddy current
technique, the conventional technique must be regarded as a continuous
wave method for which propagation takes place at a single frequency or,
more correctly, over a very narrow frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods,
the frequencies are excited over a wide band, the extent of which varies
inversely with the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. As
found with ultrasonic testing, the total amount of energy dissipated within a
given period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than for continuous
waves having the same intensity. For example, with pulses containing only
one or two wavelengths and generated 1000 times per second, the energy
produced is only about 0.002 of that for continuous waves having the same
amplitude. Thus, considerably higher input voltages can be applied to the
exciting coil for pulsed operation than for continuous wave operation.
The frequency content of the pulses depends on their lengths, and in the
extreme, contains continuous spectra ranging from less than 100 Hz to 1 or 2
kHz. By performing a Fourier transformation, the pulse obtained by the
receiving probe can be displayed in the form of the variation of amplitude (or
phase) with frequency. By sampling different delay times within a pulse,
different parts of the spectrum can be evaluated (Sather, 1981). If both
amplitude and phase are measured, two parameters (i.e. presence of defects,
variations in tube thickness, and changes in fill-factor or liftoff) can be
evaluated for each frequency selected in the same way as with the multifrequency method, although, at present, with a lower degree of precision.
Dodd et al.(1988) has designed and developed a pulsed magnetic saturation
method for the eddy current testing of ferromagnetic metals. The DC field
pulses are generated by passing a high-current pulse through an
electromagnet so as to produce saturation in the metal object; the pulse
length is made equal to the thickness of the object, thus ensuring complete
eddy current penetration where feasible. The DC pulse, on the order of 1 ms
duration, simultaneously produces an eddy current pulse, which is detected
by a probe; the output of the probe is characteristic of the material being
tested.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
This technique has the advantage of producing high magnetic peak powers
with low average powers, thus keeping any heating of the test sample down
to an acceptable level. It has been applied successfully to the internal testing
of the walls of steel steam generator tubes, and tubes of diameter 10.9 mm
and wall thickness 5 mm have been examined with peak powers of 500 kW.
Small defects close to the external surfaces can be detected, and by taking
advantage of the multi-frequency properties of pulsed eddy currents, their
indications can be resolved from those that originate from other
characteristics of the tubes.
More recent work on the use of pulsed eddy currents has been reported by
Gibbs and Campbell (1991), who inspected cracks under fasteners in
aluminum aircraft structures. Here, a Hall element was used as a receiver.
Radial position, approximate depth, and relative size of defects hidden under
fastener heads could be determined in countersunk areas for defect depths of
up to 7 mm for nonferrous fasteners and 14 mm for ferrous fasteners.
For more information on Remote Field Testing can be found in the Next
separate section.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Corroded Pipe
Exciting
coils
Exciting
coils
These eddy currents, in turn, produce their own magnetic field, which
opposes the magnetic field from the exciter coil. Due to resistance in the tube
wall and imperfect inductive coupling, the magnetic field from the eddy
currents does not fully counterbalance the magnetic exciting field. However,
since the eddy current field is more spread out than the exciter field, the
magnetic field from the eddy currents extends farther along the tube axis. The
interaction between the two fields is fairly complex but the simple fact is
that the exciter field is dominant near the exciter coil and the eddy
current field becomes dominant at some distance away from the exciter
coil.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Receiving
coils
Exciting
coils
The receiving coils are positioned at a distance where the magnetic field from
the eddy currents is dominant. In other words, they are placed at a distance
where they are unaffected by the magnetic field from the exciter coil but can
still adequately measure the field strength from the secondary magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction occurs as the changing magnetic field cuts across
the pick-up coil array. By monitoring the consistency of the voltage induced in
the pick-up coils one can monitor changes in the test specimen. The strength
of the magnetic field at this distance from the excitation coil is fairly weak but
it is sensitive to changes in the pipe wall from the I.D. to the O.D.
Exciting
coils
RFT Instrumentation
Good Luck!
Good Luck!