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INTRODUCTION
Pharmaceutical industries particularly the bulk drug manufacturing units produce a lot of
effluents, which may affect the health, and safety of people. The pharmaceutical industries
should therefore be situated far away from housing colonies so as to avoid causing pollution and
environmental hazards. Toxic and harmful effluents cause a hazardous effect on the human
health. It is for this reason that Government of India has enacted the Environmental Protection
Act in 1986. The term environment includes land, water and air. Environmental pollution may
be in the form of solid, liquid or gas. Noise and radiation pollution is also environmental hazards.
Environmental pollution is caused by manufacturing, processing, chemical reaction and
treatment.
With liquid wastes, it may be possible to dispose of untreated effluents to a municipal
sewage plant. This will however depend on the composition, strength and volume of the effluent.
In some locations, municipal sewers are not available or the effluent may be of such a
composition, that it requires some form of pretreatment before being discharged into the sewage
plant. In these cases effluent treatment plant has to be installed at the factory. The industrial
waste may be containing inorganic, organic, synthetic or natural materials. It may be an acidic or
alkaline. Pharmaceutical wastes may be from fermentation industry during manufacture of
antibiotics, inorganic solids, and washings of floor, equipment, machinery, instruments,
glassware, chemical wastes, gases and solvent vapors. The type and extent of contamination
could be quantitated with the help of the BOD (Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand). BOD is the
measure of the quantity of oxygen required for the oxidation of organic matter in water, by
microorganisms present, in a given time internal at a given temperature. Since oxygen is
essential for the survival of most macro-organisms, it is important to ensure that there are
adequate levels of dissolved oxygen in rivers, lakes etc, if they have to be maintained
satisfactorily. Ideally the oxygen concentration should be at least 90% of the saturation
concentration at the ambient temperature and salinity. It is important to know how effluents
containing soluble and particulate organic matter can influence the dissolved oxygen
concentration. Hence the dissolved oxygen concentration is assessed by BOD.
Effluent testing is also done to find out
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pollution load.
Presence of toxic ingredients like Cyanide, Cadmium, Mercury etc.
Color, turbidity, odor and quality of water.
Temperature
pH and acidity / alkalinity.
Suspended solids and dissolved solids.
Volatile materials and oily materials,
Phendic compounds.
Color
Turbidity
Odor
Solids (mg/ltr) by gravimetric method.
2. Turbidity
3. Suspended solids their nature
4. BOD
5. COD
6. pH range
7. Temperature range
8. Presence of toxic materials, metals, free chlorides, sulphides, cyanides, phenols, etc.
9. Odors, tastes
10. Color
11. Hardness
12. Detergents
13. Radio activity
The survey of the above factors may indicate a need for better control of water usage. It
should be possible to identify sources of uncontaminated and contaminated water that might be
reused in the factory. Concentrated waste streams should be kept separate if they contain
materials that can be profitably recovered. It is also economical to treat a concentrate rather than
a large volume of a dilute effluent because of the saving on pumps and settling tank capacities.
The various wastes may be tested in a lab and on a pilot scale to assess the best potential
methods of chemical and biological treatment. Once the pH of the effluents is known, samples
may be mixed to see if a neutral pH is reached. A variety of tests may be used to establish
methods for reducing salt concentrations, coagulating suspended particles and colloidal materials
and for breaking emulsions.
If the above survey is comprehensive it should be possible to plan an overall treatment
programme for a factory site and establish:
1. Water sources which can be combined for reuse.
2. Concentrated waste streams, which contain valuable wastes, to be recovered as food, animal
feed, fertilizer or fuel.
3. Toxic effluents needing special treatment or acids or alkalis needing neutralizing.
4. The effluents which might be discharged directly without treatment, to rivers or the sea and
not cause any pollution.
5. The effluent loading expected under maximum production conditions.
6. The effluents which might be discharged into municipal servers.
When all the relevant information has been obtained one can predict the size and type of
factory effluent treatment plant, its operational costs, the cost of water used and sewage works
charges.
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF EFFLUENTS
The effluent disposal procedure which is finally adopted by a particular manufacturer is
determined by several factors. The most important is the control exercised by the relevant
authorities on the quantity and quality of the waste discharge and the way in which it might be
done.
THE DIFFERENT EFFLUENT DISPOSAL METHODS ARE
1. The effluent is discharged to a river / sea in an untreated state.
2. The effluent is discharged to the ground, a lagoon, an unused well or mine.
3. Part of the effluent is untreated and discharged as in 1 or 2; the remainder is treated at the
sewage works.
4. All the effluent is sent to the sewage works for treatment and discharge.
5. All the effluent is treated at the factory before discharge.
EFFLUENT TESTING
Physico chemical measurement of effluents
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
It is the amounts of oxygen required by micro organisms to bio chemically oxidize
carbonaceous organic matter at 20o C in 5 days. It will quantify organic material which can serve
as food for micro organisms for energy and reproduction. Excess BOD will make water toxic.
Normal water contains less than or equal to 10 mg. / ltr of dissolved oxygen. Before analysis
effluents may be diluted to the required extent. The oxygen is determined by Winkler titration or
Electro metrically by membrane electrode instruments.
Winkler titration
Oxygen in the sample is absorbed on freshly precipitated manganese hydroxide formed
by adding manganese sulphate and potassium hydroxide to the sample. Acidification in presence
of excess of iodide, iodine is liberated in a quantity equivalent to the dissolved oxygen present in
the sample. The liberated Iodine is then titrated with standard thiosulphate solution.
Dissolved oxygen in ppm. (mg. / ltr) = N(V) (8) (1000)
V
V
N
V
=
=
=
2. Secondary treatment
3. Tertiary treatment.
Primary treatment is employed to remove solid particles, color, and odor and to adjust the pH
to the neutral range. This step includes screening, equalization neutralization, coagulation,
sedimentation etc. Specific toxic substances like cyanide etc are given special treatment.
Secondary treatment is biological process applied to reduce BOD and COD. It includes
trickling filtration, activated sludge process, oxidation ditch and oxidation pond. Other methods
are dispersed growth aeration, biodisc system and spray irrigation.
Tertiary treatment is done for further purification of water i.e., for final polishing, reduction of
dissolved solid contents, disinfection of effluents etc.
PRIMARY TREATMENT
Screening
In this process large suspended particles, like fibres, glass pieces, wooden pieces and hard
material are removed. Coarse screen of metal bars or heavy wires spaced 25-50 mm apart may be
used for screening. Finer materials are separated by screening through 0.8-6 mm meshes.
Sedimentation
In this process, the substances are settled by gravity. This method is the cheapest. The
supernatant liquid can be removed for further purification.
Equalization
The effluent can be collected in a holding tank at different intervals. The pH of the total
effluent is adjusted. Solids are allowed to settle. The mixing of the effluent may be done with the
help of a baffling arrangement and by mechanical agitation or aeration. The collection tanks are
rectangular. Neutrelization may be done using acid/alkali.
`
All the acid wastes are collected in a single tank and passed through bed of lime stone
either from the top or through the bottom. It forms calcium sulphate, calcium chloride or calcium
nitrate. The effluent is further diluted with water. Periodically the lime stone can be replaced.
Lime slurry treatment has high neutralizing power. Calcium sulphate interference is completely
eliminated by this method. Caustic soda treatment of acidic effluent is highly effective and the
products formed due to neutrelization are water soluble. It is quite expensive. This method of
caustic soda treatment can be done for small volume of wastes.
Trickling Filteration
A simple trickling filter usually consists of a cylindrical concrete tank 2 to 3 m in depth
and 8 to 16m in diameter, or it may be in a rectangular shape. The tank is packed with a porous
bed of slag, clinker or stone, the bed being under laid with drains. The effluent is fed
intermittently on to the upper surface of the bed by spray nozzles/rotary sprinklers. The effluent
gradually trickles through the bed and a slime layer of biologically active material (bacteria,
fungi, algae, worms, flies etc.) forms on the surface of the support material. The large surface
area created in the bed permits close contact between the air flowing upwards through the bed,
the descending effluent and the biologically active growth. The bacteria in the biological film
remove the majority of the organic loading. Complex organic materials are broken down and
utilized. Nitrogenous matter and ammonia are slowly oxidized to nitrates and sulphides and other
compounds are similarly oxidized. The higher organisms, particularly the worms and larvae,
control the accumulation of the biological film to improve the settling characteristics of the
solids (humus) discharged with the filter effluent. The active slime takes time to develop and can
be poisoned by the addition of toxic chemicals.
The outer jacket of the trickling filter is provided with slots at the bottom for the air
intake. For removing the entrained activated sludge, a secondary settling basin is installed as in
the case of activated sludge process. For avoiding coagulation (blocking) of trickling filter, beds
of filters are made up of tubular or honeycombed plastic shapes. Ventilation ducts are necessary
in this system. These filters produce effluents of better consistent quality, they remove the sludge
quickly and is also economical. The temperature of the effluent, the size of stone or media,
microbial surface area, organic concentration, filter depth, oxygen transfer and retention time
affect the treatment. 75% of BOD is reduced by this method.
Activated Sludge Process
The basic sludge process consists of aerating and agitating the effluent in the presence of
a flocculated suspension of micro-organisms on particulate organic matter. The raw effluent
enters a primary sedimentation tank where coarse solids are removed. The partially clarified
effluent passes to a second vessel, which can be of a variety of designs, into which air or oxygen
is injected by bubble diffusers, paddles, stirrers etc. Vigorous agitation is used to ensure that the
effluent is in contact with the activated sludge. After a predetermined residence time of several
hours, the effluent passes to a sedimentation tank to remove the flocculated solids. Part of the
sludge from the settlement tank is recycled to the aeration tank to maintain the biological
activity. A clear water overflow is obtained from the settlement tank which then can be used in
the factory or discharged to a river without further treatment. The excess sludge is dewatered or
dried, to be sold as a fertilizer, burnt or dumped. Old sludge should be periodically replaced with
new sludge material. Oxygen supply of 0.5 mg/ltr is given along with other nutrients. Nitrogen
(10%), Phosphorous (2%), Urea, mono or di-ammonium hydrogen phosphate are also supplied.
Deficiency of any nutrient result in the growth of filamentous bacteria which prevent settling to
cause tubidity. Other elements required include K, Ca, Mg and traces of Fe, Cobalt etc. The pH
of the effluent should be 6.5 to 9.0. Below pH 6.5 fungi grow and above 9.0 metabolism rate
decreases. Low temperature results in decrease in metabolism and high temperature causes
anaerobic condition, due to increase in oxygen utility and metabolism rates.
Oxidation Ditch
This process is a modification of the conventional activated sludge process. The oxidation
ditch is a long continuous channel lined with butyl rubber, plastic or tar. Oval in shape having 12 meters depth. The effluent after primary treatment is allowed to pass through the channels with
retention time of 12 24 hours. About 75% of the sludge is recycled and overall sludge product
is reduced. The sludge is formed in small quantities and this can be de-aerated and dried on sand
drying beds. Oxygen supply is done by cage roofs kept across the channel. The solid velocity in
the suspension is 0.3 0.4 m/sec. Concentration range is 3000 5000 mg/ltr. If it exceeds this
range, the return sludge flow is diverted to the sludge drying bed for a short period.
Oxidation Ponds
Oxidation ponds should be shallow. In the larger shallow ponds water is added at one end
and effluent is removed from the other end. The carbon-di-oxide released is used by the algae for
photosynthesis, and the Oxygen which is released is used for oxidation of the organic material.
Maximum natural aeration is required. The purification is carried out by aerobic, facultative and
unaerobic processes. Solids in the waste settle at the bottom and thin solid layer acts as anaerobic
phase and anaerobic bacteria converts organic matter to methane, carbon-di-oxide and ammonia.
In the top liquid layer aerobic oxidation takes place and the products are carbon-di-oxide and
water. The facultative organisms are near the anaerobic phase. More the amount of algae more
amount of oxygen is released and the rate of purification is also increased. During night time
extra amount of oxygen has to be arranged by mechanical means. If the pond is devoid of
oxygen, anaerobic condition is built up leading to purification of the effluent and release of foul
odors. In the oxidation ponds organism like bacteria, algae having high nutrition capacity,
filamentous algae like spirogyra can be used.
The depth of the pond should be 1 2 metres. The pond bottom and side should be made
up of polythelene. The side corrosion of the tank can be prevented by concrete slabs. For the
anaerobic process ponds should be deeper. The inflow and outflow arrangements are necessary.
The operation is simple and economic having less maintenance cost. The high pH of the pond
aids precipitation of many metals as hydroxides which settle as sludge. A large plant area is
required for this process. The final discharge should be separately disinfected to avoid pollution
due to micro organisms.
Anaerobic Digestion
The reasons for using anaerobic processes for waste treatment are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. Low levels of microbial growth will decrease the possible need for supplementary nutrients
with nutritionally unbalanced wastes.
Anaerobic Digestion
Large volumes of wet sludge are produced in physics, chemistry and biology treatment
processes which may have to be reduced in volume before disposed. This volume of the sludge
can be reduced by sludge digestion in an anaerobic digester, which leads to the conversion of a
large proportion of the organic matter in methane and carbon dioxide by anaerobic and
facultatively anaerobic bacteria. The digester tanks used for this process may be up to 12,000 m3
volume and equipped with heating coils for accurate temperature control (30 370) to increase
the rate of digestion, which can also be improved by mechanical agitation. The residual solids,
after 10 to 30 days digestion, can be disposed of by dewatering, drying, incinerating, dumping
etc.
TERTIARY TREATMENT
This is the final process of effluent treatment for the removal of:
1. Dissolved inorganic solids
2. Bacteria
3. Final traces of organic compounds.
Bacterial removal is achieved by keeping the effluent from secondary biological treatment in
maturation ponds for specified periods. If the final effluent still contains bacteria, effluent is
further chlorinated in high doses for one or two hours.
For removal of the dissolved inorganic materials treatments mentioned below are carried out.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Evaporation
Reverse Osmosis
Dialysis
Ion exchange
Chemical Precipitation
Removal of algae
Dilution of effluents sufficiently to reduce the amount of inorganic materials (provided
sufficient quantity of water is available.)
Evaporation
It is a simple process of vaporizing the water phase and concentrating the effluent.
Radioactive waste and other hazardous materials are concentrated to a smaller volume by this
process. Chrome, Nickel, Copper etc., can be reused after concentration. It is costly process. In
tropical places the solar evaporation reduces the cost of this process.
Reverse Osmosis
It can be used to remove dissolved solids in the effluent. The liquid effluent is passed
over a surface of a semi-permeable membrane at a high proportion. Water passes through the
membrane leaving a concentrated liquid with dissolved solids on the surface. Cellulose acetate
and polyamide hydroxide are most effective membranes. The process design may be flat or
tubular. This operation is costly and tedious but it is quite effective.
Dialysis
This is a method of separation of solids from the effluents on the basis of difference in the
diffusion. The sulphuric acids can be recovered from this process. The effluent is passed
upwards, counter current to a dow stream of water supply, both the phases are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane. The material permeates the membrane at a faster rate than impurities
and combined with the water yielding a dilute solution, while dissolved solid content in effluent
is reduced. The permentation can be further enhanced by applying electrical energy. Commonly
used membranes are cellulose nitrate or cellulose membranes. This process is simple and is
applicable to a small volume.
Ion Exchange Method
This is useful for softening of water. It is simple and economical.
Chemical Precipitation
By this method the dissolved solids can be precipitated and can be easily removed. Most
of the heavy metals are precipitated as hydroxides at elevated pH. Lime is the cheapest and an
effective precipating agent.
Removal of Algae
By this process the dissolved solids can be removed. Algae require carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorous sulphur, platinum, calcium and magnesium for their growth. They also need Fe,
manganese, zinc, boron, cobalt, copper, molybdenum and silicon in traces. Uptake of these
elements by the algae reduces the dissolved solids of the effluent. The algae must be removed
prior to final disposal into a public sewage system.
Activated Carbon Treatment
This is used to remove final traces of organic substances which cannot be removed by
other methods. Materials like DDT and other toxic materials can be absorbed by activated
carbon.
Surface
Water
Public
Irrigation
Marine
Coastal Area
1.
PH
5.5 9
5.5 9
5.5 9
5.5 9
2.
Suspended
solids mg/ltr
100
600
200
100
3.
BOD
30
350
100
100
4.
COD
250
250
5.
Oils and
grease
10
20
10
20
6.
Ammonia
(Nitrogen)
50
50
50
7.
Cyanide
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2