Journal of Research in Music

Education
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Intonational Performance and Perception of Ascending Scales

John M. Geringer
Journal of Research in Music Education 1978 26: 32
DOI: 10.2307/3344787
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32/JRME

INTONATIONAL
AND
PERFORMANCE
PERCEPTION OF
ASCENDING SCALES
John M.Geringer
The purposeof the studywasto investigatethe relationshipbetweenthe performanceof intonationandthe perceptionof intonationregardingascending
scalar patterns.Ninety-six undergraduateand graduate music students
fromfourinstrumentalgroupswereplacedin one of fourexperimentalconditions. Followingdifferentialverbal feedback, subjects either performeda
secondtime or listened to their individualperformancesand retunedthem
using a variable-speedtape recorder.Results indicateda tendencytoward
sharpintonationthroughoutthe study,relativeto the standardof equaltemperament.Differencesbetweenperformanceand perceptionwere not independent of accompanimentand scale degree. Intonationalperceptionof
unaccompaniedscales was less accuratethan both accompaniedscale perception and performanceconditionsof unaccompaniedand accompanied
scales.
instrumentability,musicachievement,perKeyWords:auraldiscrimination,
formanceability,psychomotor
ability,vocalability.
One of the primary and continuing areas of investigation in experimental music research concerns the performance and perception of
intonation. The actual relationship between pitch discrimination and
the satisfactory performance of intonation has remained chiefly inferential. It has been speculated, however, that a degree of aural
discrimination ability would seem to be an important prerequisite to
performanceproficiency (Madsen and Geringer, 1976).
Research has repeatedly indicated that the perception of sharpness
is less accurate than flatness discrimination, particularly for older,
more musically experienced subjects (Martin and Ward, 1961; Madsen, Edmonson, and Madsen, 1969; Madsen and Geringer, 1976).
Geringer (1976) used recorded orchestralmusic as stimuli and subjects
demonstrated a marked tendency to tune excerpts in the direction of

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Geringer/33
sharpness relative to the recorded pitch level.
This directional difference regarding discrimination ability has not been
found to be peculiar to intonation. Kuhn (1974) manipulated beat tempos
and found that tempos that slowed were correctly identified more often and
significantly sooner than those that increased their speed. Kuhn and Gates
(1975) extended this finding and investigated the performance of beat
tempo. Subjects drawn from six age groups evidenced a tendency to increase
tempo during clapped performances of rhythmic examples.
Investigations of instrumental performances in musical contexts have
noted a similar sharpness propensity (Small, 1937; Papich and Rainbow,
1974). Research in other isolated music situations has further substantiated
this pattern (Madsen, 1966; Forsythe, 1967; Madsen, 1974).
One investigation of particular relevance utilized the subjects' performances as the test items for the trials that used the same instrument timbre
in pitch matching (Greer, 1970). The least deviation was obtained when
subjects matched the tones of their own instrument and piano tones, compared to matching organ and oscillator tones.
The present study attempted to utilize identical stimulus materials in the
assessment of intonational perception and performance ability. Investigation
of patterns of performed and perceived intonational deviation with regard to
the direction (sharpness versus flatness) and magnitude of deviation, unaccompanied versus accompanied performances and perceptions, instrumental groups of performers, the effects of a priori verbal inducement, and
the eight pitches of the scale are integrated in this research.

Procedures
Ninety-six undergraduate and graduate students from the Florida State
University School of Music served as subjects. Twenty-four subjects were
randomly selected from each of the following four groups based on current
enrollment in applied lessons: string instrumentalists; wind instrumentalists;
keyboard instrumentalists; and vocalists. String and wind players performed on their instruments and vocalists and keyboardistsused their voices.
In the perception tasks of the study subjects retuned their own performances
only. Subjects in each instrument group were assigned in block random
fashion to one of four experimental conditions.
All subjects performed first. They performed both an unaccompanied and
accompanied (by piano) ascending scalar pattern constructed with the fifth
note of the major scale (sol) written first. The additional notes were arranged
stepwise in an ascending direction until the octave of the fifth was attained
(sol, la, ti, do, re, mi, fa, sol). This pattern forms a major scale with a minor
seventh (Mixolydian mode). Order of performance (and perception) of these
two scales was counterbalanced within each of the four conditions, although
pilot investigation indicated a low probability of differential order bias
(F < 1).

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34/JRME
Tape recordings of performanceswere made individually.' Subjects were
given written instructionsdescribing the recording procedure, a three-minute
warm-up period, and the notated scales to be performed. A prerecorded
piano tuning note (A1 = 440) was presented monaurally concurrent with
prerecorded metronome beats ( J = 60). The beats sounded for eight seconds, or eight times. Subjects began to play on the ninth beat. In the case of
the accompanied scale, the prerecordedpiano accompaniment2also began on
the ninth beat, enabling the subjectsto easily synchronizetheir performances
with the onset of the accompaniment. Performanceswere recorded in an
adjacent room by a trained assistant. The recording microphone was repositioned for each of the performers in order to facilitate constant input
voltages, a high signal-to-noise ratio, and to prevent unwanted portions of
the accompaniment from being recorded. Between performance trials subjects heard fifteen seconds of orchestral music in an unrelated key, intended
to block tonal memory and prohibit greater pitch acuity that could conceivably be influenced from the preceding scale pattern.
Immediately after the performance tasks subjects received differential
inducement according to prior random assignment. One-half of the subjects
received a written inducement stating that trained musicians perceive
sharpness less accurately than flatness, and tend to perform in the sharp
direction. The statement urged subjects to try to perform the scales as
accurately as possible. After carefully reading the inducement, the subject
was told, "You're consistent with everyone else, you were also sharp." It
should be remembered that this statement was a result of a prioriassignment
and was given regardlessof direction or magnitude of the actual performance.
The other forty-eight subjects served as a control group for the above
inducement. These subjects again read a portion of the same instructions
that all subjects had received prior to their performance, "Please try to
perform (adjust) these scalar patterns as accurately as possible." Following
written or verbal inducement, subjects (N = 48) either performed the unaccompanied and accompanied scales again, or (N = 48) retuned the intonation of their initial performance in accordance with the perception
procedures.
The subjects'scale performancesserved as their own stimuli for the perception aspect of the study. The subject and the master tape of the performances
were transferred to the perception room. The identical prerecorded tape

1 The following equipment was used in the study: tape recorder/players, Ampex
model 652, Sony model TC630, modified Sony TC152SD; band-pass filters (2), Krohnheit
model 3550; frequency counter, General Radio model 1192; and chromatic stoboscope,
Conn model 6T5.
2 The prerecorded accompaniment consisted of broken-chord eighth-note patterns with
the fifth omitted and was based on an ascending major scale (A-flat). Thus, subjects playing
an ascending Mixolydian mode (E-flat) in whole notes were providing the fifth completing
the ascending triads. Accompaniment was recorded in octaves other than that of a subject's performance.

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Geringer/35
of piano accompaniment for the accompanied scale, piano tuning tone,
and the beats of the metronome were again used. Between each task subjects
heard the same orchestral music in an unrelated key. Order of presentation
was in accordance with prior assignment.
Each subject received written instructions to retune any, all, or none of
the individual notes of their own performances. Each subject was shown
how to manipulate the tuning dial and received as much time as desired to
practice adjusting the control knob (using a prerecorded piano tone).
This external dial was built into the tape speed control circuit of the tape
player and had a linear range of ?43 semitones. The performance tape and
the prerecorded reference tape were presented monaurally from a speaker
placed four feet from the subject. The investigator used a prerecorded audible
tap to synchronize the beginning of the accompanied performance with the
beginning of the prerecorded accompaniment. The accompaniment, starting
tone, and metronome beats were made audible to the subject. During the
performance presentation, the subjects manipulated the speed control dial
according to their perceptual preferences. It should be remembered that
each note had a duration of approximately four seconds, which allowed sufficient time to effect any desired changes in each of the pitches. A tape
recorder connected to the output circuit of the variable-speed tape machine
recorded the subjects' tuning adjustments.

Table1
Analysisof VarianceforAbsoluteDeviation8
Source of Variation
Performance-Perception
Verbal Inducement
InstrumentGroups
Subjectswithin Groups
Pretest-Posttest
Accompaniment
Scale Degree
SignificantInteractions
Performance-PerceptionX
Pretest-Posttest
Performance-PerceptionX
Accompaniment
Accompaniment X Scale Degree
Performance-PerceptionX PretestPosttest X Accompaniment

Sum of
Squares

df

Mean
Square

22528
1437
45611
34486
18393
14889
18344

1
1
3
20
1
1
7

22528
1437
15204
1724
18393
14889
2621

15.41*
<1
8.82*

26738

26738

24.80*

5910

5910

12.12*

11405

1629

10.71*

3050

3050

5.53*

19.51*
32.13*
9.48*

* Significantat the .01 level

All other interactionswere not significant,p > .05.
3

Tables 1 and 2 include main effects and significant (p < .01) interactions only.

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36/JRME
Results
Analysis was accomplished in both performance and perception tasks by
connecting the output circuit of the tape that had recorded the responses,
passing through two band-pass filters, to a frequency counter. The investigator and an independent observerrecorded three frequency counts for each
note of the performances and the perceptual readjustments. All frequency
analyses were then converted to cent deviation scores. The three cent deviation scores for each note were averaged so that each subject received a
single cent deviation score for each note of the performance or perceptions.
These scores, expressed as cents flat or sharp relative to equal temperament,
constituted the raw data for statistical analysis. Interobserver reliability
was .92 (agreements within 43 cents divided by the total number of observations).
Results indicated that the tendency toward sharp intonation was consistent throughout the study. The overall deviation was 55,841 cents, of
which 38,610 cents were deviations in the sharp direction. Thus the ratio
of total cents sharp to total cents flat was 2.24 to 1. Similarly, the overall
mean for notes performed and perceived in the direction of sharpness was
(+)12.57 cents, while flat notes had a mean deviation of (-)5.61.
The main area of experimental interest was the comparisonof intonational
performance with intonational perception. Analysis of variance and appropriate Newman-Keuls multiple-comparison tests provided the basis for

Table 2
Analysisof Variancefor DirectionalDeviation
Source of Variation
Performance-Perception
Verbal Inducement
Instrument Groups
Subjects within Groups
Pretest-Posttest
Accompaniment
Scale Degree
Significant Interactions
Performance-Perception X
Pretest-Posttest
Pretest-Posttest X Accompaniment
Pretest-Posttest X Scale Degree
Accompaniment X Scale Degree
Performance-Perception X PretestPosttest X Scale Degree

Sum of
Squares

df

Mean
Square

44256
8897
46639
126099
72560
3750
15851

1
1
3
20
1
1
7

44256
8897
15546
6305
72560
3750
2264

59.24*
1.80
3.53*

85746
3888
5242
6793

1
1
7
7

85746
3888
749
970

56.85*
8.17*
3.73*
2.93*

5320

760

3.30*

* Significant at the .01 level

All other interactions were not significant, p>.05.

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F
17.88*
2.38
2.47

Geringer/37
interpretation. It should be noted that two separate analyses were computed;
one that utilized absolute deviation from equal temperament standard
(Table 1), and a second that considered the sharp or flat direction of the
deviation (Table 2).
The null hypothesis that there would not be a consistent pattern of difference was rejected in both directional and absolute deviation analysis.
Cell means indicated that intonational perception was significantly sharper
and less accurate than performed intonation. It should be remembered that
all subjects performed on the pretest, whereas on the posttest, only half of
the subjects performed again and the other 48 readjusted their own performances. The null hypothesis regarding pre-posttest differences was also
rejected.
The interaction between performance-perception and pre-posttest is a
more direct comparison of the differences between performance and perception. Table 3 indicates that the performance means were essentially the
same, whereas the perception task deviation was nearly twice as large in the
absolute analysis, and even larger regarding directional deviation. These
differences were significant beyond the .01 level.
There were other significant interactions however, indicating that the
apparent performance-perception differences are not independent of other
factors. Analyses of cell means indicated that with regard to absolute deviation, perceptual intonation of subjects'unaccompanied scales was significantly
less accurate than their perceptual intonation of accompanied scales, and
their performed intonation of both unaccompanied and accompanied scales.
This relatively inaccurate perceptual intonation of unaccompanied scales
was not significantly different regarding the direction of deviation.
The interaction of performance-perception, pre-posttest, and degree of
the scale was significant (p < .01) in the directional analysis. Cell means
indicated that not only were the scale degrees sharper in the perception task,
but that scale degrees changed differentially in relative magnitude of sharpness for perception compared to performance on the pre- and posttest.

Table3
MeanAbsoluteand Directional
CentDeviation
X
for Performance-PerceptionPretest-PosttestInteraction
Pretest

Posttest

Performance 15.9

Performance 14.9

Performance 15.5

Perception

Performance +3.6

Performance +2.7

Absolute Deviation
26.3

Directional Deviation
Performance +

.6

Perception +20.9

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38/JRME
The referencetuning tone, sol, remained relatively sharp in performanceand
was the least sharp in the perception task.
To briefly summarize the performance-perceptiondifferences, both directional and absolute deviation analyses revealed significant differences
between perception and performance and pretest versus posttest. These differences, however, do not appear to be independent of each other, since the
perceptual task only occurred on the posttest. Accompaniment is not independent of performance-perceptiondifferencesnor of the pretest and posttest
since intonational perception of unaccompanied scales showed significantly
more deviation than perception of accompanied scales and both performed
scales. Similarly, the degrees of the scales in the directional analysis were
not independent of performance-perceptiondifferences nor of the pretest
and posttest since relative magnitude of sharpness changed differentially
for perception across the eight pitches of the scale.
It was hypothesized that subjectswould performand perceive with greater
pitch acuity when accompanied rather than when unaccompanied. This was
assumed since since the unaccompanied sol-sol scale might be conceptualized
as a major scale starting on do rather than on sol. Analyses indicated that
accompanied scales were performed and perceived with significantly less
absolute deviation and a tendency (though nonsignificant) to be less sharp
than unaccompanied scales. This comparison was not independent of performance as opposed to perception, as indicated by the significantinteraction.
The perceptual intonation of the unaccompanied scale was significantly less
accurate than perceptual intonation of accompanied scales and intonation
of both the performed scales.
Both analyses showed an interaction between accompaniment and scale
degree. There was a note-by-note increase in absolute cent deviation across
unaccompanied performanceand perception. Sol2had almost twice the mean
deviation as soll, and scale degree fa was significantly more sharp in the
unaccompanied scale.
The absolute deviation between instrument groups was significant at the
.01 level. Table 4 presents means for the groups, as well as the results of the
subsequent Newman-Keuls multiple-comparison procedure. String musi-

Table 4
MeanAbsoluteand DirectionalCent Deviation
of InstrumentGroups
Group
Absolute Deviation
Directional Deviation

String

Wind

Voice

12.4

17.1

21.6

+2.7

+3.5

+11.0

Keyboard
21.8
+10.7

Underline indicates no significant difference. All other comparisons were significantly

different according to the Newman-Keuls procedure, p <.05.

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Geringer/39
cians performed and perceived with significantly less cent deviation than the
other groups. Although vocal and keyboard groups tended to be more sharp
than string and wind groups, the overall comparison with regard to direction of deviation was not significant and there were no significant interactions
between instrument groups and any other experimental factors.
The verbal inducement that was given regardless of actual performance
did not significantly affect performance or perception in either analysis.
There were no significant interactions between inducement and any other
variables.
In both analyses the relationship among the scale degrees differed significantly. These differences were dependent upon both accompaniment and
perception, and as the analyses indicated, scale degrees increased in deviation and relative magnitude of sharpnessfor the unaccompanied perceptions
compared to performances and accompanied perceptions.

DiscussionandConclusions
This study was not designed as a pre-posttest study isolating treatment effects, but rather it attempted to determine extant patterns of intonational
performance and perception. A comparison was made between groups of
subjects performing on their own instrument and subjects listening to their
performances and making desired adjustments on a variable-speed tape
player. It might be reasoned that the former group attempted to attain
accurate intonation using their instrument and their perceptual and neuromuscular skills, whereas the perception group had only their perceptual
skills as a frame of reference.
Results of the study indicate that intonational perception of unaccompanied scales appears to be less accurate than the performance of unaccompanied scales. The direction of deviation was not consistently more sharp or
flat in the perception of unaccompanied scales; these scales were simply less
accurate. Performance and perception of accompanied scales were not significantly different.
The propensity toward sharpnesswas consistent throughout the study, and
corroborates previous research. Literature references indicate that trained
musicians demonstrate a sharpness tendency more than untrained subjects
(Madsen, 1969; Madsen, 1974). If increased training in musical performance
increases this probability, techniques of improvement should be investigated.
If there are contributing physiological factors, these might also be investigated. Another area that might be examined is the role of bone-conduction
in the hearing process. This phenomenon may cause some performers to
perceive a degree of flatness to which auditors are not aware.
That the verbal inducement did not significantly reduce the sharpness
propensity was anticipated. Results of the inducement procedure were consistent with previous research (Madsen, 1974). Only two of the 48 subjects
made any verbal report expressing surprise or disagreement. One subject
commented that such feedback would please his applied instructor. There
has been little indication that verbal feedback alone improves intonation,

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40/JRME
making the implication in applied settings considerable. The desirability
for the development of effective feedback techniques that are not economically
or musically restrictive is clearly indicated for both individual and group
performance settings.
Although it would seem that voice principals might have some advantage
in investigations involving vocal performance, data from this study and
other related investigations (Madsen, 1966; Madsen, 1974) do not support
this proposition. In the present study comparisons between voice and keyboard principals were not significantly different regarding performance or
perception of vocalized scales. The data did indicate that vocalizing subjects
performed and perceived less accurately, and tended to be more sharp than
instrumental subjects. This study used an unusual ascending scale arrangement (sol-sol). Individual and group patterns of intonation on this scale indicated no differences when compared to the major and minor scales used in
previous research.

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Intervals." Unpublished master's thesis (Florida State University, 1967).
Geringer, J. M. "Tuning Preferences in Recorded Orchestral Music," Journalof
Researchin MusicEducation,Vol. 24, No. 4 (Winter 1976), pp. 169-176.
Greer, R. D. "The Effect of Timbre on Brass-Wind Intonation," Experimental
Researchin Music: Studiesin thePsychology
of Music, Vol. 6 (1970), pp. 65-94.
Kuhn, T. L. "Discriminationof Modulated Beat Tempo by ProfessionalMusicians,"
Journalof Researchin MusicEducation,Vol. 22, No. 4 (Winter 1974), pp. 270-277.
Kuhn, T. L. and E. E. Gates. "Effect of Notational Values, Age, and Example
Length on Tempo PerformanceAccuracy," Journalof Researchin Music Education,
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Madsen, C. K. "The Effect of Scale Direction on Pitch Acuity in Solo Vocal
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Madsen, C. K., F. A. Edmonson, and C. H. Madsen. "Modulated Frequency Discrimination in Relationship to Age and Musical Training," Journalof theAcoustical
Societyof America,Vol. 46, No. 6 (1969), pp. 1468-1472.
Madsen, C. K. and J. M. Geringer. "Preferencesfor Trumpet Tone Quality Versus
Intonation," Councilfor Researchin MusicEducationBulletin,Vol. 46 (Spring 1976),
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Martin, D. W. and W. D. Ward. "PsychophysicalComparisonof Just Tuning and
Equal Temperament in Sequences of Individual Tones," Journalof the Acoustical
Societyof America,Vol. 33, No. 5 (1961), pp. 586-588.
Papich, G. and E. Rainbow. "A Pilot Study of PerformancePracticesof TwentiethCentury Musicians," Journalof Researchin MusicEducation,Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring
1974), pp. 24-34.
Small, A. M. "An Objective Analysis of Artistic Violin Performance,"Experimental
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University of Texas at Austin

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