ch09 Final 9.1-9.5

PART
Linear Algebra.
Vector Calculus
Part B p1
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER
Vector Differential Calculus.

Grad, Div, Curl
Chapter 9 p2

9.1
Section 9.1 p3
Vectors in 2-Space and

3-Space

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space
Inengineering,physics,mathematics,andotherareaswe
encountertwokindsofquantities.
Scalar quantitydeterminedbyitsmagnitudeonly.It
takesonanumericalvalue,i.e.,anumber.Examples:
time,temperature,length,distance,speed,density,
energy,andvoltage.
Vector quantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.
Itcanberepresentedbyanarroworadirectedline
segment.Example:avelocityvectorhaslengthor
magnitude,whichisspeed,anddirection,which
indicatesthedirectionofmotion.
Section 9.1 p4

Denotevectorsbylowercaseboldfacelettersa,b,
v,etc.Inhandwritingyoumayusearrows,for
instance, a (inplaceofa ),b ,etc.

Typicalexamplesofvectors:
velocity,andforce(Fig.164).
Comparedtoscalarform
M
dv
F
dt
vectorformfullyexpresses
NewtonsLaw
M
dv
F
dt
Fig. 164. Force and velocity
Section 9.1 p5

Example:thetranslationvector(displacementwithout
rotation)ofthetriangleinFig.165,wheretheinitialpoint
Pofthevectoraistheoriginalpositionofapoint,and
theterminalpointQistheterminalpositionofthatpoint,
itspositionafterthetranslation.
Fig. 165. Translation
Section 9.1 p6

Geometric Representation
Avector(arrow)hasatail,calleditsinitialpoint,anda
tip,calleditsterminalpoint.
Thelength ofthearrowequalsthedistancebetween
initialpointPandterminalpointQ.
Thelength(ormagnitude)ofthevectoraandisdenoted
by|a|.Anothernameforlengthisnorm(orEuclidean
norm).
Avectoroflength1iscalledaunitvector.

Equality of Vectors
Vectorisdefinedbyitslength(i.e.,magnitude)anddirection
only.Hence,
twovectorsaandbareequal,writtena=b,iftheyhavethe
samelengthandsamedirection.
avectorcanbearbitrarilytranslated;i.e.,itsinitialpointcan
bechosenarbitrarily.
Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)(D) Different vectors

Section 9.1 p8

Vectors in 2D-Coordinate Frame

GivenanxyCartesiancoordinatesystem inspace.
LetabeagivenvectorwithinitialpointP:(x1,y1)and
terminalpointQ:(x2,y2).
Letanothervectorhasthesamelengthanddirectionasa
butwithinitialpointatoriginO:(0,0)andhenceterminal
pointatA:(a1,a2),witha1 =x2 x1 anda2 =y2 y1
Bydefinition,thissecondvectorisequaltoa. Wewrite
simplya=[a1,a2].
a1 anda2 arecalledthecomponentsofthevectorawith
respecttothecoordinatesystem
Thelength|a|ofacanbereadilyexpressedas
a a12 a22
Section 9.1 p9
Vector in 2D-Coordinate Frame (Contd)

y
Q:(x2,y2)
a2 =y2 y1
P:(x1,y1)
a1 =x2 x1
a2
O:(0,0)
a1
A:(a1,a2)
x
Only thecoordinatedifferencesmatterindefiningvector
Vector in 3D-Coordinate Frame

GivenanxyzCartesiancoordinatesystem inspace(Fig.
167).
LetabeagivenvectorwithinitialpointP:(x1,y1,z1)and
terminalpointQ:(x2,y2,z2).
Bythesamereasoning,wecanmovethevectoratohave
initialpointattheorigin.
Thethreecoordinatedifferences
(1)
a1 =x2 x1,a2 =y2 y1,a3 =z2 z1
arecalledthecomponentsofthevectorawithrespect
tothecoordinatesystem
Wewritesimplya=[a1,a2,a3].SeeFig.168.
a3
a
a
a1
a2
Fig. 167. Cartesian

coordinate system
Fig. 168. Components

of a vector
The same vector with

initial point at origin
Thelength|a|ofacanbereadilyexpressedas
2
2
2
a
a
.
(2)
1
2
3
Section 9.1 p12

Theorem 1
VectorsasOrdered TriplesofRealNumbers
GivenafixedCartesiancoordinatesystem,eachvectoris
uniquelydeterminedbyitsorderedtripleofcorresponding
components.Conversely,toeachorderedtripleofrealnumbers
(a1,a2,a3)therecorrespondspreciselyonevectora=[a1,a2,a3].
Note:
(0,0,0)correspondingtothezerovector0,whichhaslength0
andnodirection.
Avectorequationa=bisequivalenttothethreeequations
a1 =b1,a2 =b2,a3 =b3
forthecomponents.
Section 9.1 p13

Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication
Definition
Addition of Vectors
Thesuma+boftwovectorsa=[a1,a2,a3]andb=[b1,b2,b3]is
obtainedbyaddingthecorrespondingcomponents,
(3)
a+b=[a1 +b1,a2 +b2,a3 +b3].
Geometrically,placinginitialpointofb attheterminalpoint
ofa, thena+b isthevectordrawnfromtheinitialpointofa
totheterminalpointofb.
Fig. 170. Vector addition

Section 9.1 p14

Equation(3)amountstoAlgebraicwayofvector
addition:
Fig. 172. Vector addition
AlgebraicwayandtheGeometricwayofvector
additiongivethesamevector.
Thisisalsocalledtheparallelogramlawofvector
addition
PositionvectorrofapointA:(x,y,z)isthevectorwiththe
origin(0,0,0)astheinitialpointandAastheterminal
point,i.e.,r=[x,y,z].
Note:givenpositionvectorp andq,
paqaqp
withp=[x1,y1,z1]
and q=[x2,y2,z2],
a=[a1,a2,a3],
thena1 =x2 x1,
a2 =y2 y1,
P
p
x
q
y
a3 =z2 z1, sameasbeforein(1).
Fig. 169. Position vector r

of a point A: (x, y, z)

Forforces,additionbyparallelogramlawyieldsthe
resultantoftwoforcesandreadilysolvesthepulley
probleminFig.171.
M1
M2
M3
Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Section 9.1 p17

BasicPropertiesofVectorAddition.Familiarlawsforreal
numbersgiveimmediately
(a) a b b a (Commutativity)
(b)( u v ) w u ( v w) (Associativity )
(4)
(c)a 0 0 a a
(d) a ( a ) 0.
Remarks:
Properties(a)and(b)areverifiedgeometricallyinFigs.173
and174.
In(4b)wemaysimplywriteu+v+w,andsimilarlyfor
sumsofmorethanthreevectors.
Here,adenotesthevectorwiththesamelengthasa butin
oppositedirection.(SeeScalarMultiplicationlater)
Section 9.1 p18

Fig. 173. Cummutativity

of vector addition
Section 9.1 p19
Fig. 174. Associativity

of vector addition

Definition
Scalar Multiplication (Multiplication by a Number)
Theproductcaofanyvectora=[a1,a2,a3]andanyscalarc
(realnumberc)isthevectorobtainedbymultiplyingeach
componentofabyc,
(5)
ca=[ca1,ca2,ca3]
Geometrically(SeeFig.175.),ifa0,
Vector cahassamedirectionasawithc>0and
oppositedirectiontoawithc<0
Thelengthofvectorcais|ca| = |c||a|
Also,
Ifa=0 orc =0(orboth),thenvector
ca = 0.
Fig. 175. Scalar multiplication
Section 9.1 p20

BasicPropertiesofScalarMultiplication.Fromthe
definitionsweobtaindirectly
(a)c(a b) ca cb
(b)(c k )a ca ka
(6)
(c)c( ka ) ( ck )a (writtencka )
(d) 1a a.
Section 9.1 p21

UnitVectorsi,j,k.
Upondefinitionofvectoradditionandscalarmultiplication,
anotherwayofexpressingavectora=[a1,a2,a3]is
(8)
a=a1i+a2j+a3k.
Here,i,j,kareunitvectorsinthepositivedirectionsofthe
axesofaCartesiancoordinatesystem(Fig.177):
(9)
i =[1,0,0],
j=[0,1,0],
k=[0,0,1]
(Therightsideof(8)isasumofthreevectorsparalleltothe
threeaxes.)
Section 9.1 p22
Fig. 177. The unitAdvanced

vectors
i, j, k Mathematics,
and the 10/e
representation
Engineering
by Edwin Kreyszig (8)
Vector Space R3
Allthevectorsa=[a1,a2,a3]=a1i+a2j+a3k(withreal
numbersascomponents)formtherealvectorspaceR3
withthetwoalgebraicoperationsofvectoradditionand
scalarmultiplicationjustdefined.
R3 hasdimension3.
Thetripleofvectorsi,j,kiscalledastandardbasisof
R3.GivenaCartesiancoordinatesystem,the
representation(8)ofagivenvectorisunique.
(YouwilllearnalltheseunderthetopicsofLinearAlgebra)
Section 9.1 p23

9.2
Section 9.2 p24
Inner Product (Dot Product)

9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)
General Properties
Theinnerproductordotproduct:
amultiplicationoftwovectorssuchthattheoutcomeis
ascalar.Itishencealsocalledscalarproduct.
motivatedbycalculatingworkdonebyaconstant
force,determiningcomponentsofforces,andother
applications.
Section 9.2 p25

Definition
Inner Product (Dot Product) of Vectors
Theinnerproductordotproducta b (readadotb)of
twovectorsaandbistheproductoftheirlengthstimesthe
cosineoftheirangle(seeFig.178),
(1)
a b a b cos ifa 0 , b 0
a b 0 ifa 0 ,or
b
0.
b=0.
Theangle,0 ,betweenaandbismeasuredwhen
theinitialpointsofthevectorscoincide,asinFig.178.
Expressedincomponents,a=[a1,a2,a3],b=[b1,b2,b3],
(2)
a b =a1b1 +a2b2 +a3b3.

Section 9.2 p26

Thesecondlinein(1)isneededbecause isundefined
whena=0orb=0.
Fig. 178. Angle between vectors and value of inner product
Section 9.2 p27

y
Equivalentofequations(1)and (2)
Use2Dvectorforillustration:letu
andv bevectorsinxycoordinate
frame,then
u v u v cos
u v cos( )
u v (cos cos sin sin )
( u cos )( v cos ) ( u sin )( v sin )
u1v1 u2v2
Hence, u v u1v1 u2 v2
Similarprooffor3D vectors: u v u1v1 u2 v2 u3v3
Orthogonality.
Avectoraiscalledorthogonaltoavectorbifa b =0.
Vector aorthogonal tob meansthatbisalsoorthogonal
toa,andaandbare orthogonalvectors.
Thishappensfornonzerovectorsiff cos =0;or = /2
(90).
Theorem 1
Orthogonality Criterion
Theinnerproductoftwononzerovectorsis0ifandonlyifthese
vectorsareperpendicular.
Section 9.2 p29

LengthandAngle.
Equation(1)withb=a givesa b =|a|2.Hence
a a a
(3)
From(3)and(1)weobtainfortheanglebetweentwo
nonzerovectors
(4)
a b
a b
cos
.
a b
a a b b
Note: 0
a b a b
Question:isalwaysso
canalwaysbe
obtained?
Answer:yes.ThisistheCauchySchwarzInequality
Section 9.2 p30

PropertiesoftheInnerProduct.
Foranyvectorsa,b,candscalarsq1,q2,
(a)(q1a q1b) c q1a c q2 b c ( Linearity )
(5) (b)a b b a (Symmetry )

a a 0
(c)
( Positive definiteness).
a a 0ifandonlyifa 0
Note:
(5b) innerproductiscommutative.
(5a*) Withq1 =1andq2 =1,(a+ b) c=a c+ b c
innerproductisdistributivewithrespecttothevector
addition.
Section 9.2 p31

Equality/InequalityforInnerProduct.
With|cos|1,
|a b||a||b|
(6)
(CauchySchwarzinequality)
Usingthisand(3),onemayprove
(7)
|a+b||a| +|b|
(Triangleinequality)
(onesideofatrianglemustbeshorterthansumoftheothertwosides)
Simpledirectcalculationwithinnerproductsyields
(8)|a+b|2 +|ab|2 =2(|a|2 +|b|2)
a+b
Section 9.2 p32
(Parallelogramequality)
a+b
b
ab
a

Component orProjection ofavectorinthedirection

ofanother vector
Givennonzerovectorsu andv:
p u cos isthelengthofthecomponentofu
alongthedirectionofv
p canbeobtainedfromdotproductas
v
uv
p u cos
v
Canalwaysdefineaunitvector
v
alongdirectionofvas,with
v
v 1
v
p u cos u v
Then,
Furthermore,ifwearetodecomposethevectoru as
twocomponents,onealongv andoneperpendicular
tov,asshown:
v
u u // u
Then
u // pv
u u u //
u //
Dotproductcanbeusedtocalculatethecomponent
orprojection ofavectoralongacertaindirection
Applications of Inner Products

EXAMPLE 2 Work Done by a Force
Abodyactedonbyconstantforcep,underwenta
displacementofd (Fig.179).
Workdonebypinthedisplacementdis
(9)
W=|p||d|cos =p d,
If <90,thenW>0.
Ifpanddareorthogonal,thenworkiszero.
If >90,thenW<0,whichmeansthatinthe
displacementonehastodoworkagainsttheforce(e.g.,
swimmingacrossariveratsomeangle againstthecurrent).
Fig. 179. Work done by a force

Section 9.2 p35

EXAMPLE 3
Component of a Force in a Given Direction
WhatforceintheropeinFig.180willholdacarof5000lb
inequilibriumiftherampmakesanangleof25 withthe
horizontal?
Fig. 180. Example 3
Solution.Introducingcoordinatesasshown,theweightis
a=[0,5000]becausethisforcepointsdownward,inthe
negativeydirection.
Section 9.2 p36

EXAMPLE 3 (continued)
Solution.(continued1)
Representaasasum(resultant)oftwoforces,a=c+p
cistheforcethecarexertsontheramp
pparalleltotherope
Avectorinthedirectionoftheropeis(seeFig.180)
b=[1,tan25]=[1,0.46631],|b|=1.10338,
Unitvector u oppositetothedirectionoftherope:
u
Section 9.2 p37
1
b [0.90631, 0.42262].
b
Solution.(continued2)
p isthecomponentofa lyinginthedirectionofu,i.e.,
a b 5000 0.46631
p ( a cos ) u a u
2113 lb .
b
1.10338
Geometrically,canalsousethefactthatanglebetweena
andpis =90 25 =65 sothat
p a cos 5000 cos 65 2113 lb .

Thisistheforceintheropeholdingthecarinequilibrium.
Note:shouldwebeinterestedinthecomponentofa lying
inthedirectionofu:p=|p|u.
Section 9.2 p38

EXAMPLE 4 Orthonormal Basis
Abasis for3space(R3)isasetofvector{a,b,c}such
thatanyvectorinR3canberepresentedasalinear
combinationofvectorsa,b,andc ,i.e.,givenany
vectorv,wecanfindscalarsl1, l2,andl3 suchthat
v=l1a+l2b+l3c
Thereareconditionsthata,b,andc mustsatisfyso
that{a,b,c}canbequalifiedasabasis.
Additionally,ifvectorsa,b,andc areorthogonalunit
vectors(i.e.,|a|=|b|=|c|=1,anda b =0,a c =0and
b c=0),then{a,b,c}isanorthonormalbasisfor3
space(R3),
Section 9.2 p39

Advantageoforthonormalbasis:torepresentanygiven
vectorv inR3 intermsof{a,b,c},
v=l1a+l2b+l3c,
thecoefficientscanbesimplyobtainedusinginner
product:l1 =a v,l2 =b v,l3 =c v.
Asoneexample,theunitvectorsi,j,kpreviously
introducedassociatedwithaCartesiancoordinate
systemformanorthonormalbasis(calledstandard
basis):anyvectorv=[v1,v2,v3]canbeexpressedas
v=v1i+v2j+v3k,where v1= i v,v2= j v,and v3= k v.

Example:{a,b,c}with
a 1 2 3
b 2 1 1
c 1 1 1
isabasis.Thevector,say,canbeexpressed
v 0 1 2
asv=l1a+l2b+l3c.
Inthiscase,thecoefficientsarel1=1,l2 =0,l3 =1.
Toobtainthecoefficients,weneedtosolveasetoflinear
algebraicequations.

Example:{d,e,f}with
1
1 1 1
d
3
1
1 1 0
e
2
1
1 1 2
f
6
isanorthonormal basis.Thevectorcanbe
v 0 1 2
expressedasv=l1d+l2e+l3f.
Inthiscase,thecoefficientsaresimplyobtainedby:
1
3
l1 d v 3 , l2 e v
, l3 f v
2
2
REPRESENTING STRAIGHT LINE BY INNER PRODUCT
UsingR2 forillustration
With r=[x,y]isanypositionvector,a =[a1,a2]isaspecific
unit(directional)vector,thena r=c representastraight
lineL,i.e.,anyvectorr=[x,y]satisfyingtheequation
a r=c liesonastraightline.
y
r
Idea:allpositionvectorr on
a
c
x
lineL willhaveprojection
alongdirectiona ofconstant
L: a r=c
lengthc.
c isdistanceofstraightlineL fromorigin
Differentc valuesina r=c meansparallellinesat
differentdistancesawayfromorigin
EXAMPLE 5 Orthogonal Straight Lines in R2
FindstraightlineL1 throughthepointP:(1,3)and
perpendiculartothestraightlineL2:x2y+2=0.
1
1 2
StraightlineL2:x2y+2=0 b r=c2 with b
5
2
c
and.
2
5
: b r=c
Note: c2 vebecauseb is
pointingawayfromL2
LetstraightlineL1 be
representedas
L1: a r=c1
b
L1 perpendicularL2 a perpendicularb=0
a b=0
1
2 1
5
PointP:(1,3)onlineL1 P:(1,3)satisfiesa r=c1

c1 5
x
1
2 1 5 2 x y 5.
Hence,L1 isgivenby,or
5
y

EXAMPLE 6 Normal vector to a plane in R3
Findunitvectorperpendiculartotheplane4x+2y+4z=7.
LikestraightlineinR2,aplaneinR3 canberepresented
byn r=c with naunitdirectionalvector
Allpositionvectorsrontheplanewillhaveconstant
projectionofvaluecalongdirectionn.
z
Theplane4x+2y+4z=7is
givenby:n r=c,where
7
1
c
and
n 4 2 4
6
6
Inthiscase,c ve becausehere
x
planeisonve directionofn
atadistanceof7/6fromorigin
. r.
n
c
.
y

EXTENSION TO EXAMPLE 6
Distance from a point to a plane in R3
FindperpendiculardistancefromP:(1,1,2)totheplane
4x+2y+4z=7.
Twomethods:
1. DenoteQasthepointontheplanesuchthatPQis
perpendiculartoplane,wehaveQ:.With
(1,1,2) n
Qontheplane,itsatisfies
7
17
(1,1,2) n n
6
6
Hence,distancefromQtoplaneis17/6.

2.ShifttheoriginofCartesiancoordinateframetoQ
byx=x1,y=y+1,z=z2.
Theplane4x+2y+4z=7thusbecomes4x+2y+4z=17,
whichcanbeexpressedasn r=c,where
1
17
r x ' y ' z '
n 4 2 4 ,and.
c
6
6
distancefromneworigin(i.e.,pointQ)toplane
is17/6.

9.3
Section 9.3 p49
Vector Product
(Cross Product)

9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)
Definition
Vector Product (Cross Product, Outer Product) of Vectors
Thevectorproducta b (readacrossb)oftwovectorsa
andbisanothervectorvdenotedby
v=a b
I.Ifa=0orb=0,thenwedefinev=a b =0.
II.Ifbothvectorsarenonzero,thenvectorvhasthelength
(1)
|v| =|a b| = |a||b|sin ,
where istheanglebetweenaandbasinSec.9.2.
b
a
Section 9.3 p50

III.Ifaandblieinthesamestraightline,i.e.,aandbhave
thesameoroppositedirections,then is0 or180 sothat
sin =0.Inthatcase|v| =0 sothatv=a b =0.
IV.IfcasesIandIIIdonotoccur,thenvisanonzerovector.
Thedirectionofv=a b isperpendiculartobothaandb
suchthata,b,vinthisorderformarighthandedtriple.
(a,b,v)formsright
handedtriple
Section 9.3 p51
=v
Moreillustrationofright
handedtripleinFigs186187

Note:IandIIIofDefinitioncompletelycharacterizethe
exceptionalcasewhenthevectorproductisequaltothe
zerovector,andIIandIVtheregularcasewherethecross
productisperpendiculartotwovectors.
Note: Ifaandbformthesidesofaparallelogram(Fig.185).
Areaofparallelogramis|a||b|sin = |v| =|a b| .
Lengthofvectorproductofa bequalstheareaofthe
parallelogramformedbyaandb.
Fig. 185. Vector product

IllustrationsofRightHandedTriple.
Atripleofvectorsa,b,visrighthandedifthevectorsinthegivenorder
assumethesamesortoforientationasthethumb,indexfinger,and
middlefingeroftherighthandasinFig.186.
ifaisrotatedintothedirectionofbthroughtheangle(<),thenv
advancesinthesamedirectionasarighthandedscrewwouldif
turnedinthesameway(Fig.187).
Section 9.3 p53
Fig. 186. Right-handed

triple of vectors a, b, v
Fig. 187. Right-handed

screw
RightHandedCartesianCoordinateSystem.
Asystemiscalledrighthandedifthecorresponding
unitvectorsi,j,kinthepositivedirectionsoftheaxes
formarighthandedtripleasinFig.188a.
Asystemiscalledlefthandedifthesenseofkis
reversed,asinFig.188b.
Here,weuserighthanded CartesianCoordinatesystems
Fig. 188. The two types of Cartesian coordinate systems

Section 9.3 p54

EXAMPLE 2
Vector Products of the Standard Basis Vectors
GivenarighthandedCartesianCoordinatesystemsand
standardbasisunitvectorsi,j,kinthepositivedirections
oftheaxes,thedefinitionofthevectorproductyields:
(3)
i j k , j k i , k i j
j i k , k j i , i k j.
Section 9.3 p55

Expressingthevectorproductincomponents.
Leta=[a1,a2,a3],b=[b1,b2,b3]andv=[v1,v2,v3]=a b.
With
a b=(a1 i+ a2 j+ a3k) (b1 i+ b2 j+ b3k)
Using(3),wehave
a b= (a2b3 a3b2) i+(a3b1 a1b3) j+(a1b2 a2b1) k
Hence,componentsofv are
(2)v1 =a2b3 a3b2,v2 =a3b1 a1b3,
Section 9.3 p56
v3 =a1b2 a2b1.

Review of Determinant
Thirdorderdeterminant
a11
a12
a13
a21 a22
a23
a31 a32
a33
a22
a11
a32
a21 a22
a21 a23
a23
a12
a13
a31 a32
a31 a33
a33
Secondorderdeterminant
a11
a12
a21 a22
a11a22 a12a21

HowtoMemorize(2).
Bysecond andthirdorderdeterminants,(2)canbewritten
a2 a2a3 a3
a1 aa13 a3 a3 a1
a1 a2a1 a2
,
v3 ,v3
, v2 v2
(2*) v1 v1 b b ,
b1 bb13 b3 b3 b1
b1 b2b1 b2
2 b2 3 b3
andv=[v1,v2,v3]=v1i+v2 j+v3kistheexpansionofthe
followingsymbolic determinantbyitsfirstrow.(symbolic
becausethefirstrowconsistsofvectorsratherthanof
numbers.)
i j k
a 2 a3
a1 a3
a1 a2
i
j
k.
(2**) v a b a1 a2 a3
b2 b3
b1 b3
b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Section 9.3 p58

EXAMPLE 2 Vector Product
Leta=[1,1,0],b=[3,0,0],findv=a b.
v=[0,0,3]
z
b
3
v=a b
-3

Theorem 1
General Properties of Vector Products
(a)Foreveryscalarl,
(4)
(la) b=l(a b)=a (lb).
(b)Vectorproductisdistributivewithrespecttovector
addition;thatis,
(5)
Section 9.3 p60
( )a ( b c) (a b) (a c),
( )(a b) c (a c) ( b c).

(c)Vectorproductisnotcommutativebutanti
commutative;thatis,
(6)
b a= (a b)
Fig. 189. Anti-commutativity of

vector product
(d)Vectorproductisnotassociative;thatis,ingeneral,
(7)
a (b c)(a b) c
sothattheparenthesescannotbeomitted.
Section 9.3 p61

EXAMPLE 3 Moment of a Force
ForcepacingonpointAalonglineofactionL
ThemomentmofpaboutpointQisdefinedasm=
|p|d,wheredisthe(perpendicular)distancebetweenQ
andthelineL.
LetrbethevectorfromQtopointAonL,thend=|r|
sin andthusm=|r||p| sin =|r p|.
Themomentvectororvectormomentm =r p ofp
aboutQ.Itsdirection(perpendiculartobothrandp)is
theaxisoftherotationabout
Qthatptendstoproduce.
Fig. 190. Moment of a force p
Section 9.3 p62

EXAMPLE 4 Moment of a Force
Findthemomentmofthe1000lb forcepaboutthecenter
Qofawheel.
p=[1000cos30o,1000sin30o,0]=[866,500,0]
Positionvectorto A:r=[0,1.5,0]
Momentvector:m =r p=[0,0,1299]
(m isalongve zaxis)
30o
1.5 ft
Section 9.3 p63

EXAMPLE 5 Velocity of a Rotating Body
ArotationofarigidbodyBinspacecanbesimplyand
uniquelydescribedbyavectorw.
Directionofwisthatoftheaxisofrotationandsuch
thattherotationappearsclockwiseifonelooksfrom
theinitialpointofwtoitsterminalpoint.
Thelengthofwistheangularspeed (>0)ofthe
rotation.
B
LetPbeanypointofBanddits
w
Corresponding
distancefromtheaxis.Then
angular rotation
d
Phasthespeedd.
velocity
vector v
r
speedP
d
Section 9.3 p64

LetrbethepositionvectorofPreferredtoa
coordinatesystemwithorigin0ontheaxisof
rotation.
Thend=|r| sin,where istheanglebetweenw
andr.Therefore,d=|w||r| sin =|w r|.
Withdefinitionofvectorproduct,thevelocityvector
vofPcanberepresentedas(Fig.192)
(9)
v=w r.
Formula(9)isusefulfordeterminingvatanypoint
P.
Section 9.3 p65

Velocity of a Rotating Body
(continued2)
Fig. 192. Rotation of a rigid body

Section 9.3 p66

EXAMPLE Velocity due to Earths rotation
Earthradius= 6371km.HongKongsattitude=22.25o
z
PositionvectorofHongKong:
r=[6371cos22.25o,0,6371sin30o]
AngularrotationofEarth:
. rv=wr
Hong Kong
w=[0,0,2/24]rad/hr
VelocityvectorofHongKong:
v=w r
22.25o
=[0,6371x2/24xcos22.25o,0]
=[0,1543.7,0]km/hr
Scalar Triple Product

Sscalartripleproductormixedproductofthreevectorsa,
b,andc denotedby(abc),with
(10*)
(abc)=a (b c).
Thescalartripleproductisascalarsince(10*)involvesa
dotproduct,whichinturnisascalar.
Leta=[a1,a2,a3],b=[b1,b2,b3],andc=[c1,c2,c3].Alsoset
(b c)=v=[v1,v2,v3].Then
a (b c)=a v = a1v1 +a2v2 +a3v3
b2 b3
b3 b1
b1
a1
a2
a3
c2 c3
c3 c1
c1
Section 9.3 p68
b2
c2

Moreover,with
i j
v b c b1 b2
c1 c2
wecanexpress
(10)
k
b3 v1i v2 j v3k
c3
a1
a bc a ( b c) b1
c1
a2
b2
c2
a3
b3 .
c3
Example:a=[1,1,0],b=[3,0,0],c=[0,1,3].
1 1 0
(a b c) 3 0 0 9.
0 1 3
Section 9.3 p69

Theorem 2
Properties and Applications of Scalar Triple Products
(a)Thescalartripleproduct(abc)satisfies
(11)(abc)=a (b c)= c (a b) = b (c a)
=(a b) c = (c a) b = (b c) a
(Orwecansaythedotandvectorproductcanbeinterchanged)
a1 a2 a3 c1 c2 c3 b1 b2 b3
Proof:
(a b c) b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 a3 c1 c2 c3
c1 c2 c3 b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 a3
Eachoftheabovematricescanbeobtainedfromotherby
twointerchangingsofrows,whichdoesnotchangethe
determinantvaluebecauseeachinterchangeproducesa
factor1,and(1)(1)=1. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Section 9.3 p70
(b)Geometricinterpretation.Theabsolute value|(abc)|
of(10)isthevolumeoftheparallelepiped(obliquebox)with
a,b,casedgevectors.
Proof: Parallelepipedvolumeequalstheheighth=|a||cos|
timestheareaofthebase,whichisthearea|b c| ofthe
parallelogramwithsidesbandc.Hencethevolumeis
|a||b c||cos|=|a (b c)|=|(abc)|
Volume= |(abc)|
Fig. 193. Geometric interpretation of a scalar triple product

Section 9.3 p71

(c)Linearindependence.ThreevectorsinR3 arelinearly
independentifandonlyiftheirscalartripleproductisnot
zero.
Proof:Threenonzerovectors,whoseinitialpoints
coincide,arelinearlyindependentifandonlyiftheydo
notlieinthesameplanenorlieonthesamestraightline.
Thishappensifandonlyifthevolumeoftheresulting
parallelepipedformed)witha,b,casedgevectorsis
nonzero.

EXAMPLE 6 Tetrahedron
Volume of
Tetrahedron
is 1/6 of that of
Parallelepiped

z
3
Tetrahedron
5
4
c
The left-handed tetrahedron of Example 6
9.4
Vector and Scalar Functions

and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives
Section 9.4 p75

9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.

LetPbeanypointinadomainofinterest,whichcanbe
athreedimensionalspace,orasurfaceoracurvein
space.
ThenwecandefinetwotypesoffunctionsatpointP.
Scalarfunctionf: f=f(P)thatdependsonP.
Vectorfunctionv:
v=v(P)=[v1(P),v2(P),v3(P)]
withallitscomponentsbeingfunctionsofpointsP.
Section 9.4 p76


ScalarfunctiondefinesavalueateverypointP inthe
domainofdefinition.
TypicalexamplesofScalarfunctionf arethe
temperaturefieldofabodyandthepressurefieldof
theairinEarthsatmosphere.
Scalarfunctionsmayalsodependonsomeparameters,
suchastimet,aswell.
Section 9.4 p77


VectorfunctiondefinesavectorateverypointP inthe
domainofdefinition.
Wecalledthesevectorsdefinedbythevectorfunctionas
VectorField.
ExamplesofvectorfieldinR2:
v( P) x
Section 9.4 p78
y
v ( P) 2
2
x y
x
x 2 y 2

Moreexamplesofvectorfields:
thefieldoftangentvectorsonacurve(Fig.195)
normalvectorsofasurface(Fig.196)
velocityfieldofarotatingbody(Fig.197)
k
Fig. 195. Field of tangent

vectors of a curve
Fig. 196. Field of normal

vectors of a surface
Fig. 197. Velocity field

of a rotating body
Note: Vectorfunctionsmayalsodependontimetoron
someotherparametersotherthanitslocationP.
Section 9.4 p79


EXAMPLE 1
Scalar Function (Euclidean Distance in Space)
Thedistancef(P)ofanypointPfromafixedpointP0 inR3
isascalarfunction.
GivenaCartesiancoordinatesystemandP0hasthe
coordinatesx0,y0,z0,thenfisgivenbythewellknown
formula
f ( P ) f ( x , y , z) ( x x0 )2 ( y y0 )2 ( z z0 )2
wherex,y,zarethecoordinatesofP.
Note:f(P)isascalarfunction changingtoanother
Cartesiancoordinatesystembytranslatingandrotating
theoriginalonewithnotchangef(P) thoughthe
coordinatesofPandP0 willingeneralchange.
Section 9.4 p80

EXAMPLE 2
Vector Function (velocity field)

r ( x xo )i ( y yo ) j ( z zo )k
r r ( x xo ) 2 ( y yo ) 2 ( z zo ) 2
r
Unit direction of p:
r
r
rP
Hence
rPo
P0
c r
c
r
2
3
r r
r
c
c
c
3 ( x xo )i 3 ( y yo ) j 3 ( z zo )k
r
r
r


Vector Calculus
Continuity.Avectorfunctionv(t)issaidtobecontinuous
att=t0 ifitisdefinedinsomeneighborhoodoft0
(includingatt0 itself!)and
lim v(t ) v(t0 ).
(8)
t t0
IfweintroduceaCartesiancoordinatesystem,wemay
write
v(t ) v1 (t ), v2 (t ), v3 (t ) v1 (t )i v2 (t )j v3 (t )k.
Thenv(t)iscontinuousatt0 ifandonlyifitsthree
componentsarecontinuousatt0.
Section 9.4 p83


Definition
Derivative of a Vector Function
Avectorfunctionv(t)issaidtobedifferentiableatapointt
ifthefollowinglimitexists:
v(t t ) v(t )
.
t 0
t
Thisvectorv(t)iscalledthederivativeofv(t).
(9)
v(t ) lim
Fig. 199. Derivative of a vector function

Section 9.4 p84


IncomponentswithrespecttoagivenCartesiancoordinate
system,
(10)
v(t ) v1 (t ), v2 (t ), v3 (t ) .
Hence,thederivativev(t)isobtainedbydifferentiatingeach
componentseparately.
Forinstance,ifv=[t,t2,0],thenv =[1,2t,0].
Section 9.4 p85


Familiardifferentiationrulesholdfordifferentiating
vectorfunctions:
(cv ) cv
(cconstant),
( u v ) u v
(11)
( u v ) u v u v
(12)
( u v ) u v u v
(13)
Section 9.4 p86
( u v w) ( uv w) ( u vw) ( u v w).


Partial Derivatives of a Vector Function

Supposethatthecomponentsofavectorfunction
v v1 , v2 , v3 v1i v2 j v3 k
aredifferentiablefunctionsofnvariablest1,,tn.Then
thepartialderivativeofvwithrespecttotm isdenotedby
v/tm andisdefinedasthevectorfunction
v3
v2
v v1
i
j
k.
tm tm
tm
tm
Similarly,secondpartialderivativesareandsoon.
2 v3
2 v1
2 v2
2v
i
j
k.
tl tm tl tm
tl tm
tl tm
Section 9.4 p87

9.5
Curves. Arc Length.

Curvature. Torsion
Section 9.5 p88

9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion
Applicationofvectorcalculustogeometryisafieldknown
asdifferentialgeometry.
GivenacurveC inR3
CurveC arecomposedofmanymany many points
goingfromPi ,fori=0,1,2,,N.
Parametricrepresentationswithrespecttoparametert:
Constructfunctionx(t),y(t)and z(t)suchthatastgoes
from to to T,thepositionvector[x(t),y(t),z(t)]willpass
throughallthepointsPi ,fori=0,1,2,.,N.
P2
PN
P3
P1
P0
Section 9.5 p89

Illustration:Giventhefollowingcurve(whichactuallyisa
straightline)inR2
(1,1)
Parametricrepresentation#1:
x(t ) t , y (t ) t , to t T , with to 0, T 1
(0,0)
x(t ) 2t , y (t ) 2t , to t T , with to 0, T 0.5

x(t ) t 2 , y (t ) t 2 , to t T , with to 0, T 1
x(t ) t , y (t ) t 2 , to t T , with to 0, T 1
Section 9.5 p90
Not valid as
x(t ) y (t )

AdvantagesofParametricrepresentation
ThecurveCcanbecharacterizedbythepositionvector
r(t)=[x(t),y(t),z(t)]
Furthermore,vectorfunctionv(P)definedforpointson
curveC cannowberegardedasv(r(t))=v(t)and
differentiationcanbeappliedtothevectorfunction.
v(P)
v(t)
P2
PN
P3
t2
P1
P0
T=tN
t3
t1
t0
r(t)

Parametrization Example1:Thecircle
x2 y2 a2 , z 0
inthexyplanecanberepresented
parametricallyby
P3
P0
r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t ,0]
with(negativesense):
0 t 2
2
2
2
(Note: x(t) and y(t) satisfy x y a )
P1
CaseA: r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t ,0]
CaseB:
with(positivesense):
0 t 2
(Note: x(t) and y(t) satisfy
x2 y2 a2 )
OR
P2
t 3
t 2
t 0
z
t
t 0
t 2
t 3 2
y

Or
CaseC: pickanotherstartingpointatt=0:
r (t ) [a sin t ,a cos t ,0]

0 t 2
with.
x2 y2 a2 )
z
t 2
t 3 2
t 0
Or
CaseD: Useanonlineartimescalepick:
r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t ,0]

with.
0 t 2
2
2
2
(Note: x(t) and y(t) satisfy x y a )
2
t 3
t 2
t 0
t
t

ParametrizationExample2:TheEllipse
x2 y2
2 1, z 0
2
a
b
inthexyplanecanberepresented
parametricallyby
r (t ) [a cos t , b sin t ,0]
0 t 2
with(positivesense).
0 t 2
x2 y2
2 1)
2
a
b
Fig. 202. Ellipse in Example 2
Section 9.5 p94

EXAMPLE 3 Straight Line

AstraightlineLthroughapointAwithpositionvectora
inthedirectionofaconstantvectorb(seeFig.203)
canberepresentedparametricallyintheform
(4)
r(t)=a+tb=[a1 +tb1,a2 +tb2,a3 +tb3].
Fig. 203. Parametric representation of a straight line

Section 9.5 p95

Example4:TheCircularHelix
x 2 y 2 a 2 , z ct
canberepresentedparametricallyby
r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t , ct ]
with(positivesense)for
0 t 2
c>0andc<0

Aplanecurveisacurvethatliesinaplaneinspace.
Circleandellipseandstraightlineareplanecurves.
Acurvethatisnotplaneiscalledatwistedcurve.A
helixistwistedcurves.
Asimplecurveisacurvewithoutmultiplepoints,that
is,withoutpointsatwhichthecurveintersectsor
touchesitself.Circleandhelixaresimplecurves.
Figure206showscurvesthatarenotsimple.
Fig. 206. Curves with multiple points
Section 9.5 p97

Tangent to a Curve
Tangentsarestraightlinestouchingasimplecurve.
ThetangenttoasimplecurveCatapointPofCisthe
limitingpositionofastraightlineLthroughPanda
pointQofCasQapproachesPalongC.SeeFig.207.
LetCbegivenbyr(t),andPandQcorrespondtotand
t+ t,thenavectorinthedirectionofLis
1
r(t t ) r(t ) .
t
Inthelimitwehavethederivative
1
r
t
(
)
lim
r(t t ) r(t ) ,
(7)
t 0 t
(6)
r(t)istangentvectorofCatP.
Section 9.5 p98
Fig. 207. Tangent to a curve

Correspondingunitvectoralongr(t)istheunit
tangentvector(seeFig.207)
1
u r .
(8)
r
Notethatbothr andupointinthedirectionof
increasingt.
ThetangenttoCatPisgivenby
(9)
q(w)=r+wr'
Here, wisafreescalarparameter.
Fig. 208. Formula (9) for the tangent to a curve

Section 9.5 p99

Example:Findthetangenttothecirclex2+y2=22 at
(1, 3 ,0)
P:.
(4,0,0)
CaseAParametrization:
r (t ) [2 cos t ,2 sin t ,0]

0 t 2
2
Poccursat: t
3
t 0
(1, 3,0)
y
(0,
Tangent q(w)
4
,0)
3
2
q(w)=r+wr' [2 cos t ,2 sin t ,0] [ 2 sin t ,2 cos t ,0] at t
3
[1 3, 3 ,0]

Summary
Problem:givenacurveC,findthe
tangentlineatpointP
Parametricrepresentation
r (t ), to t T
r(t)
PointP occursatt=tP
P
TangentlineL:
q( w) r (tP ) w r ' (tP ),
Solution:
Derivative r ' (t )
Tangent
Line L
r(tP)
Tangent
Line L
r(tP)
with w any free scalar parameter

Length of a Curve
IfcurveC isparametrized byr(t)andr(t)hasacontinuous
derivativer.
SubdivideC intomanymany smallsegmentsl1,l2,
LengthofcurveC issumofallsegmentsl1,l2,and
lm1 r(tm1) r(tm ) r' (tm )(tm1 tm ) r' (tm ) tm
tm (tm 1 tm )
with.
Summingoverallsegments
yieldstheintegral
tm
lm+1
tm 1
. r(t
.
b
m) r(tm+1)
t1 . .
dr
l
(10)
l r r dt
r .
a=t0
dt
a
liscalledthelengthofC.
FinitelengthCiscalledrectifiable.
Section 9.5 p102
b=tN
lN

ExampleCircle:Findthecircumferenceofthecircle
x2+y2=a2.
Parametrization A: r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t ,0]
2
0 t 2
r ' (t ) r ' (t )dt a dt 2a
ExampleCircularHelix:Findthelengthofcircularhelix
x 2 y 2 a 2 , z ct .
Parametrization: r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t , ct ]
2
r 'r 'dt
0 t 2
a 2 c 2 dt 2 a 2 c 2
0
Arc Length s of a Curve

Replacethefixedbin(10)withavariablet,theintegral
becomesafunctionoft,denotedbys(t)andcalledthearc
lengthfunctionorsimplythearclengthofC.Thus
t
s(t ) r ' ( ) r ' ( )d
(11)
Herethevariableofintegrationischangeto becausetis
nowusedintheupperlimit.
Parametrization withrespecttos
Theuseofsin(1)insteadofanarbitrarytsimplifies
variousformulas.Hence,givenr(t)andr(s):
r ' (t ) r ' ( s )
ds
r ' ( s ) r ' (t ) r ' (t ) r ' ( s ) r ' (t )
dt
1
Henceand=r
(s)isunittangentvector.
r' ( s)
r ' (t )
r ' (t )
Section 9.5 p104

ExampleCircle:Findthearclengthfunctions(t)ofthecircle
x2+y2=a2.
Parametrization A: r (t ) [a cos t , a sin t ,0]
t
s(t ) r ' ( ) r ' ( )d a d at
0 t 2
ds
a
dt
r ' (t ) [ a sin t , a cos t ,0]

s
s
r ( s ) [ a sin , a cos ,0]
a
a
dr ( s )
s
s
r' ( s)
[ sin , cos ,0] Unit length
ds
a
a
ds
r ' (t ) r ' ( s )
dt
Curves in Mechanics. Velocity. Acceleration

Inmechanics,curvesoftenusedtodescribepathsof
movingbodies.Parametricrepresentationneedto
conformwithphysicalbehavior
ForcurveCrepresentedbyaparametricrepresentation
r(t)withtimetasparameter,thetangentvectorr(t)of
Cisthevelocityvectorvanditslengthgivesthespeed
v r ' r 'r '

Thesecondderivativeofr(t)iscalledtheacceleration
vectorandisdenotedbya.
(16)
v(t)=r(t),
a(t)=v(t)=r(t).
Thelength|a| iscalledtheaccelerationofthemotion.
Section 9.5 p106

TangentialandNormalAcceleration.
Whereasthevelocityvectorisalwaystangenttothepath
ofmotion,theaccelerationvectorwillgenerallyhave
anotherdirection.
Wecansplittheaccelerationvectorintotwodirectional
components,
(17)
a =atan +anorm,
wherethetangentialaccelerationvectoratan istangentto
thepathandthenormalaccelerationvectoranorm is
normal(perpendicular)tothepath.
Section 9.5 p107

Thedirectionofthepathisgivenby=v
UsingtheprojectionequationofSec.9.2,wehaveinthis
caseatan isjustthecomponentofaccelerationa along
directionofv,hence
|atan|=|a v|/|v|.
Henceatan is|atan|timestheunitvector(1/|v|)v inthe
directionofv,wehave,
(18*)
a tan
Section 9.5 p108
av
v.Also,a norm a a tan .

v v

EXAMPLE 7 Centripetal Acceleration.
Letthevectorfunction
r(t)=[Rcost,Rsint]=Rcosti +Rsintj
(withfixedi andj)describesthemotionofasmallbodyB
rotating in counterclockwisedirectionalongacircleCof
radiusRwithcenterattheoriginofthexyplane
Differentiationgivesthevelocityvector
v =r =[R sint,R cost]
=R sinti +R costj
vistangentto C.
Thespeedis v r r r R .
istheangularspeed.
Section 9.5 p109
Fig. 210. Centripetal acceleration a

Centripetal Acceleration.
Differentiatingthevelocityvector,wegettheacceleration
vector
(19)
a =v =[R2 cos t,R2 sint]
=R2 cos ti R2 sintj.
Hence,a= 2r accelerationistowardthecenter.
Inthiscase,theaccelerationvectorisnormal
(perpendicular)toC.Thereisnotangentialacceleration.
MultiplyingabythemassmofB,wegetthecentripetal
forcema,whichequalsthegravitationalforcep exerted
onB byfixedbodyA inExample3ofSection9.4.
Section 9.5 p110

EXAMPLE 8
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
Aprojectileismovingwithconstantspeedalongameridian
oftherotatingEarthinFig.211.Finditsacceleration.
Fig. 211. Example 8. Superposition of two rotations

Section 9.5 p111

Letx,y,zbeafixedCartesiancoordinatesysteminspace,
withunitvectorsi,j,kinthedirectionsoftheaxes.
LettheEarth,togetherwithaunitvectorb,berotating
aboutthezaxiswithangularspeed >0(seeExample7).
SincebisrotatingtogetherwiththeEarth,itisoftheform
b(t)=cos ti +sintj.
Lettheprojectilebemovingonthemeridianwhoseplaneis
spannedbybandk(Fig.211)withconstantangular
>0.Thenitspositionvectorintermsofbandkis
speed
r(t)=Rcos tb(t)+Rsintk
(R=RadiusoftheEarth).
Section 9.5 p112

Thefirstandsecondderivativesofbwithrespecttotare
b(t ) sin ti cos tj
(20)
b(t ) 2 cos ti 2 sin tj 2 b(t ).
Thefirstderivativeofr(t)withrespecttotgivesthevelocity
vector:
v r (t ) R cos tb R sin tb R cos tk
Thesecondderivativesofr(t)givestheaccelerationvector
a v(t )
(21)
R cos tb 2 R sin tb 2 R cos tb 2 R sin tk
R cos tb 2 R sin tb 2 r.
Section 9.5 p113

ByanalogywithExample7andbecauseofb =2b in(20)

weconcludethatthefirsttermina(involving inb!)is
thecentripetalaccelerationduetotherotationoftheEarth.
Similarly,thethirdterminthelastline(involving!)isthe
centripetalaccelerationduetothemotionoftheprojectile
onthemeridianMoftherotatingEarth.
Thesecond,unexpectedterm2Rsintb inaiscalledthe
Coriolis acceleration(Fig.211)andisduetotheinteraction
ofthetworotations.TheeffectsofCoriolis acceleration
havebeenobservedformissiles,rockets,shells,and
atmosphericairflow.
Section 9.5 p114


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PART

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Vector Differential Calculus.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Vectors in 2-Space and

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

instance, a (inplaceofa ),b ,etc.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 165. Translation

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)(D) Different vectors

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Vectors in 2D-Coordinate Frame

Vector in 2D-Coordinate Frame (Contd)

Vector in 3D-Coordinate Frame

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 167. Cartesian

Fig. 168. Components

The same vector with

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

a+b=[a1 +b1,a2 +b2,a3 +b3].

Fig. 170. Vector addition

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 172. Vector addition

a3 =z2 z1, sameasbeforein(1).

Fig. 169. Position vector r

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 173. Cummutativity

Section 9.1 p19

Fig. 174. Associativity

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Section 9.1 p21

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Section 9.1 p22

Fig. 177. The unitAdvanced

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Section 9.1 p23

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p24

Inner Product (Dot Product)

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)