Denudation: process of wearing away earth causes general lowering & leveling out surface. Denudation in 4 phases: Weathering, Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition. This depends on relief, rocks, climate & human activities. Weathering i.) CHEMICAL: slow & gradual decomposition. Granite (quartz, feldspar & mica) but feldspar is quickly weathered than quartz. Regolith is decomposed remains of rocks. Soil cover enhances chemical weathering as soil absorbs rainwater as organic acids. Main forms of chemical weathering are: a) Solution: minerals are dissolved, like calcium carbonate. Joints & cracks help. Solution rate depends on type of rocks like sedimentary are porous. The water when slightly acidic can carve out whole caves & passages in regions of limestone. The regolith has corestone i.e solid rock that have resisted weathering while the surrounding rock has weathered. b) Oxidation: iron changes to brown rust on oxidation or green when reduction c) Organic Acids: acids by bacterial action; lichens on rocks ii.) MECHANICAL: actual forces in play. Faster if chemical weathering also in play. a) Temp. change: continuous expansion & contraction & its faster at outer layer than inner layer and causes rock to crack & split. Jointed rocks crack along joints (form rect. blocks), shale & slate form platy fragments. The corners of rock slabs are worn out. When surface layers of rounded boulders are split off it is like onion peeling & is called exfoliation. It happens in deserts b) Repeated wetting & drying: in happens in tropical & coastal region. On wetting the outer layer absorbs moisture & expands & on drying it shrinks causing outer layer to split c) Frost action: in temperate region water enter cracks/pores of rocks freezes during night & causes expansion & subsequent contraction causes breakdown. In mountain regions it creates sharp pinnacles & angular peaks caused frost-shattered peaks. When these angular peaks pries from mountain cliffs & deposit at slopes they accumulate to form screes. d) Biotic: Plant/tress roots break rocks; rodents, human activities like mining Mass Movement: Soil falls down slope by gravity. Move may be sudden or gradual. Some of the methods are: i.) Soil creep: slow, gradual but continuous movement down the slope. It isnt noticeable specially when slope is less or due to vegetation cover. Happens in damp regions as water acts as lubricant; grazing also a factor. This movement is visible in form of tilting of tress & poles. ii.) Soil flow (Solifluction): Soil is saturated of water (suspended in water) soil/mud flow occurs. In arid regions cause by sudden rains, in temperate & tundra region due to melting of frozen thaw ground. It peat soil, peat absorbs much moisture but if it exceeds saturation point its causes downward flow. In Ireland its called bog bursts. iii.) Landslides (Slumping/Sliding): Rapid motion of large mass of soil/rock. Caused by steep slopes, undercut by water, earthquake & volcanic activities, water may act as
lubricant, steepening due to human activities etc. Slumping is caused when
permeable debris overlies impermeable strata (like clay). Clearing of vegetation is also a reason Groundwater: Circulation of water between land, sea & atmosphere. Rainwater that falls is either evaporated immediately; absorbed by plants, which is given back by transpiration; flows into rivers which again reaches sea (run-off) or is absorbed by ground. Groundwater depends on climate, relief features & rocks. Porous rocks are those that have pores & absorb water (sandstone) while Permeable rocks allow water to pass through. Most porous rocks are permeable. Clay is porous but not permeable & granite in permeable but not porous Water table: Water moves down till it reaches impermeable strata. The permeable rock in which water is stored is called aquifer. Surface of saturated area is called water table. Excess of water causes waterlogging. Spring: It is simply an outlet of water (gradual or like a fountain) at place where water table reaches surface. Types of springs are: i.) In areas of tilted strata, (permeable & impermeable layers alternate) water emerges at base of permeable layers ii.) In well-jointed rocks, it emerges through a joint iii.) Where dyke/sill of impermeable rock intrudes thru permeable rock water issues out at that place iv.) In limestone/chalk escarpments where permeable rock lie b/w impermeable strata water emerges at foot of scarp as scarp-foot spring or near foot of dip-slope as dipslope spring. v.) In karst region, water goes underground & may re-emerge when limestone replaces some impermeable rock. Its called vauclusian or resurgence Wells: Hole bored thru earth till water table reached. Depth is that of permanent water table to ensure uniform water level. Mech pumping is req to draw water. Artesian well known for its structure. Rock layers are down folded into basin & permeable layer is sandwiched b/w 2 impermeable layer. Thus water can neither move down nor escape up (see fig). This type of well has high water pressure present. Very useful in deserts. Boring wells depletes groundwater