Heat Exchangers

Table of Contents
Heat Transfer
1.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
1.2 Factors Affecting Heat Transfer
1.3 Basic Conduction / Convection Equations

Types of Heat Exchangers

2.1 Type of Service
2.2 Type of Equipment

Shell and Tube Exchangers

3.1 Floating Tube sheet Exchanger
3.2 Tube Arrangement
3.3 Fluid Placement

Double pipe Exchangers

4.1 Indirect Heaters

Air Cooled Exchangers

5.1 Heat Transfer Calculations
5.2 Fans
5.3 Combination Coolers
5.4 Choice of Heat Exchangers

Heat Exchanger Operations

6.1 Procedure to Take a Heat Exchanger Out of Service.
6.2 Procedure to Place heat Exchanger in Service.
6.3 Testing Heat Exchanger for Leaks.

Heat Exchanger Problems

7.1 Heat Exchanger Fouling and Corrosion.
7.2 Vibration in Heat Exchangers.
7.3 Cleaning of Heat Exchangers.

Heat Exchangers

1. Heat Transfer
The transfer of heat is necessary for control of:
(1) A fluid temperature and/or its composition and phase;
(2) The rate of mass transfer between phases;
(3) The rate of chemical reactions and
Suitable temperatures to prevent failure or reduced service life of the equipment.
Provision for heat transfer is incorporated into most equipment.
Heat transfer equipment can be divided into the following basic types.
Heaters:
Fluid-Fluid:

Direct and Indirect

Pipe-in-Pipe, Shell-and-Tube, Plate, Coil and Special Types

for Specific Services

Coolers Utilizing Air: Straight Aerial, Cooling Towers, Combination Air-Water

1.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

By definition, heat is that energy transferred solely as a result of a temperature
difference, that is independent of mass transfer. There are three mechanisms of heat
transfer - conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction of heat occurs by the excitation of adjacent molecules where said
molecules have little or no movement. Conduction thus is the primary mechanism in
solids and may be an important component mechanism with some liquids at low flow
rates.
Convection is that mechanism where heat energy is transferred by the physical
movement of molecules from place to place. Any factor which enhances or hinders
this movement affects the rate of heat transfer by convection. In most commercial
fluid-fluid exchangers, convection is the most important mechanism.
The usual heat transfer process is governed by a group of resistances in series. There
are two fluid films governed primarily by convection, the solid separating the fluid
governed by conduction and possibly some other corrosion, scale or deposition films
also governed by conduction.

Heat Exchangers
Radiation is the process whereby a body emits heat waves that may be absorbed,
reflected or transmitted through a colder body. The sun heats the earth by means of
electromagnetic waves. A hot body emits a whole spectrum of wave lengths.
Radiation which affects the eye as light extends roughly from 0.00004-0.00008 cm in
wave length. To the right of this visual spectrum is the infrared region; to the left is
the ultraviolet region. Heat is transferred throughout the full wave length range. As
temperature increases the predominant wave lengths become shorter. A detailed
understanding of radiation is provided by the quantum theory of physics.

1.2 Factors Affecting Heat Transfer

(a) Temperature difference - the greater the temperature difference
between two materials the greater the driving force causing heat transfer.
(b) Thermal conductivity - every substance has a definite thermal
conductivity which affects the amount of heat transferred. Metals are
good conductors while wood and carbon are very poor conductors.
(c) Area - the cross-sectional area affects the heat transfer. The larger the
area, the more heat can be transferred.
(d) Velocity of the fluids in the tube affects the amount of heat transfer.
The velocity also affects the fouling with higher velocities reducing the
possibility of scale or dirt deposits on the tubes. An increase in the
velocity of the fluids increases the heat transfer rate.
(e) Direction of flow of the liquids exchanging heat influences the rate of
heat transfer. It is seen from the diagrams that when using identical
equipment with equal rates of flow, the one with counter-current flow and
the other with parallel flow, the final temperature will be higher with
counter current flow.
Therefore, in the design of this equipment, countercurrent flow is usually
preferred to parallel flow due to the fact that the cooler medium can be
raised to a higher temperature and that in general, a smaller area is needed
for the same amount of heat transfer. As can be seen from the diagrams,
countercurrent flow occurs when hot and cold fluids travel through the
exchanger in opposite directions; while in parallel flow, both hot and cold
fluids travel through the apparatus in the same direction.

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1.3 Basic Conduction/Convection Equations
In most fluid-fluid exchangers the temperatures are not high enough for radiation to
be a significant mechanism. Since the coefficients used to calculate performance are
empirical, they incorporate any radiant effects that might have been present in the test
system.
one may calculate the heat transfer process by the equation:
Q = Q1 = Qw = Q2 = h1 A1 t1 = (k/L) Aw tw = h2 A2 t2

(1)

The values of "h" are proportionality constants used to characterize the liquid film
resistance determined from experimental data or general correlations. The value "k" is
the thermal conductivity of the solid separating the two fluids - a measurable property
of that solid.
It is convenient to show total heat transfer per unit time in terms of an overall heat
transfer coefficient
Q = U1 A1 tm = U2A2 tm

(2)

The overall coefficient "U" is related to the film coefficients and thermal conductivity
by the equations:
U1 =

U2 =

(3)

1
AL
A1
1
Ff
h1 KAw h 2 A 2
1
A2
AL
1
2
Ff
h1A1 KAw h 2

(4)

Where: h1 = film coefficient for fluid 1

H2 = film coefficient for fluid 2
k = thermal conductivity of solid wall
A1 = surface area of pipe for film h1
A2 = surface area of pipe for film h2
Aw = average wall area of pipe or tubing
L = wall thickness of pipe or tubing
Ff = fouling factor
The fouling factor (Ff) accounts for scale, rust, and the like which form on the surface
with use and in effect provide an additional resistance to heat flow. The fouling factor
will vary widely with conditions.

Heat Exchangers
Values of the overall coefficient "U" may be predicted from Equations 3 or 4 or from
actual performance. Most heat exchanger quotations show the overall "U" used in
preparing them. These, plus plant operating data, are a valuable source of information
for future planning. Equations 3 and 4 differ only in the surface area used for
reference. They assume one fluid is flowing inside of the exchanger tubing and one is
flowing along the outside surface. "U" will vary with area so that U1 A1 = U2A2. In
shell-and-tube exchangers the heat transfer area "A" is almost always based on
outside tube wall area.
1.3.1 Effective T
Equation 2 is the basic equation used for design. It contains the term tm. This is the
mean t because the t across the wall surface varies with location as shown below.
(A) Two fluids flowing countercurrent, no phase change.
(B) Two fluids flowing concurrent, no phase change.
(C) One fluid flowing and one boiling (or condensing).
(D) Superheated vapor being cooled to saturation (a) condensing (b) and being
subcooled as liquid. The other fluid is boiling or condensing.

(C)

(D)

The only temperatures that we can measure conveniently are at the inlet and outlet
ends of the exchanger. Thus, we can measure two ts. The larger we will call t1,
the smaller t2. t2 is also called the approach. It designates how close the
temperatures of the two fluids approach each other in the exchanger.
In concurrent flow the fluids flow in the same direction. In countercurrent flow they
flow in opposite directions. Most exchangers use countercurrent flow, or as close to it
as possible, since it is more efficient.

Heat Exchangers
The basic equation for estimating tm is:
tm = (F)

t 1 t 2
Ln ( t1 / t 2 )

(5)

Where tm = log mean temperature difference (LMTD)

F = factor for heat exchanger
t1 = largest At (at one end of the heat exchanger)
t2= smallest At (at one end of the heat exchanger)
In= logarithm to the base e
The value of F depends on the geometry of the fluid flow in the exchanger and will be
discussed later for each type. F = 1.0 for a concentric pipe-in-pipe exchanger.
Equation 5 can be derived from the calculus for this situation.

1.3.2 Approach
The approach t2, is an economic choice. Its specification governs heat exchanger
cost. As t2 gets smaller, LMTD becomes smaller and area required becomes larger.
As LMTD approaches zero, area approaches infinity. Since the cost of the heat
exchanger is a direct function of area, specification of approach has a direct effect on
cost. In order to have the optimum cost installation, a series of exchangers in series
may be used.
The approach used often will be in the following range:
Aerial coolers, 10-25C [18-45F]
Water cooling of hydrocarbon liquids and gases, 8-12C [14-22F]
Liquid-liquid heat exchange, 11-25C [20-45F]
Refrigeration chillers on gas-liquid streams, 4-6C [7-11F]

When specifying heat exchangers it often is desirable to specify a

maximum or minimum approach to the vendor. This does not fix the
actual approach. It merely establishes an upper or lower limit, below or
above which the actual approach must occur.

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Figure 1 Nomograph for LMTD

1.3.3 Vaporizing (Boiling) Liquids
There is a special concern when one of the heat exchanger fluids is vaporizing. This
occurs in refrigeration chillers and fractionation reboilers, as two examples.

Heat Exchangers

From Equation 2, you would expect a plot of Q/A versus t to yield a line like the
straight line at left. It does except for boiling liquids. The solid curve at right is what
really occurs with boiling liquids. At some value of t the curve changes direction
and Q/A decreases rapidly to a minimum, after which it begins to rise again. Why?
As shown in the sketch above, a layer of gas bubbles can build up around a tube if
vaporization occurs at the tube wall faster than the vapor can disengage and rise
through the liquid. This layer of bubbles forms an extra resistance in series and is a
type of fouling factor.
When t across the tube reaches a critical point, the bubble layer forms and Q/A
decreases. If t continues to increase, the layer resistance stabilizes and Q/A begins
to increase again.
The critical t depends on the liquid and the character of the tube surface. The
critical t may occur as low as 20-35C. Special tube surfaces are marketed which
are designed to minimize bubble layer formation.
There are two basic mechanical factors which affect vapor disengagement - spacing
and arrangement of the exchanger, and the area available between the liquid and
vapor phases. As vapor forms it must get away from the surface quickly. There also
must be enough surface area so that the resistance at the vapor-liquid interface does
not limit vapor disengagement.

Heat Exchangers
In the figure below are shown two tube configurations among the many available.
This is known as triangular layout since the tubes in adjacent rows are not directly
above or below each other. To improve vapor disengagement between tubes, the tube
pitch is typically 1.5 to 2 rimes the tube diameter.

Another alternative is the square layout where tubes in adjacent rows are directly
above or below each other. Although not as common as triangular layout, square
layout has been used in corrosive service such as amine regeneration.

Heat Exchangers

Figure 2 Typical Exchanger Tube Layout Patterns

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Notice in the previous figure that there is room above the tubes for vapor. The
arrangement shown is typical for chillers and reboilers where the liquid covers all
tubes. The area of the liquid surface must be sufficient, which means that the shell
diameter must be larger than that needed to merely hold the tubes. The arrangement
at the right might be used for a condenser to allow good vapor distribution. We have
not shown baffles which might also be needed for good distribution.
As the tubes are farther apart there is more room for vapor to rise. But, the cost of the
exchanger increases. Be sure the low bid on your reboiler or chiller has enough vapor
space.
Also, be sure the vapor outlet flanges and piping have sufficient area.. If not, vapor
can back up, "choke" the exchanger, and limit capacity even though the tube area is
adequate.
1.3.4 Flow Path

Fluids flowing through a heat exchanger can take one or a combination of

these paths: parallel flow, counter flow, or cross-flow.
a- Parallel Flow. in parallel flow, fluid flowing inside the tubes flows in the
same direction as the fluid flowing outside the tubes. This flow pattern yields
the least amount of heat transfer because it does not maintain a high
temperature difference between the fluids.

Suppose the hotter fluid is flowing inside the tubes and the colder fluid
outside the tubes. At the inlets the temperature difference is the greatest,
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Heat Exchangers
but at the outlets the colder fluid has absorbed enough heat from the
hotter fluid that the temperature difference is relatively small. Therefore,
heat transfer at the outlets drops off considerably.
b. Counter Flow: In counter flow, sometimes called reverse flow, fluid inside the
tubes flows in one direction while the fluid outside the tubes flows in the other
direction. This flow pattern yields the most heat transfer because temperature
difference remains relatively high all the way through the heat exchanger.

Suppose the hotter fluid is flowing inside the tubes and the colder fluid
outside the tubes. Although the colder fluid picks up heat along its path, it
will exit the heat exchanger at the point where the hotter fluid is entering
at its highest temperature. At the point here the hotter fluid has been
cooled and is existing the heat exchanger, the colder fluid is entering at its
lowest temperature. Therefore, the temperature difference between the
fluids remains higher throughout the heat exchanger.

Cross-Flow: In cross-flow, fluid outside the tubes flows at right angles to fluid inside
the tubes. This flow pattern creates more turbulence in the fluid outside the tubes
which increase the amount of heat transfer. Cross-flow is commonly used in
conjunction, with parallel flow and/or counter flow fluid paths.

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Heat Exchangers
1.3.5 Fouling Factors
The fouling factor (Ff) shown in Equations 3 and 4 must be estimated from
experience. The figure at right shows a temperature gradient across a wall, including
the possible corrosion or depositional scales. If scale forms, how fast will it form?
This is a question that requires a detailed analysis.
Some erroneously use a fouling factor as an arbitrary safety factor. Use of a fouling
factor is all right so long as the number used is a realistic one compatible with
expected performance. If large a number is used it controls U and invalidates the
calculation.

In Equations 3 and 4 the units of Ff are the reciprocal of those for "U" or
"h." It is customary to talk about a fouling factor by quoting a whole
number. The number quoted must be inserted in these equations with two
zeros in front of it. For example, a fouling factor of 5 would be written as
0.005.
We hesitate to quote any fouling factor for fear it will be misused. The ones shown
below are ones that we often note. We offer them without comment.

Units 2of "h"

Btu/hr-ft -F
W/(m2. C)

Ff
0.001-0.0015
0.006-0.009

These numbers are used often for nonscale forming liquids, free of suspended solids.

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Heat Exchangers

2. Types of Heat Exchangers

The kinds of exchangers commonly found in oil or gas processing are now described
and references given for further study. Type of service is discussed first, followed by
a description of the various equipment types and their application.

2.1 Type of Service

The functions of heat exchangers are manifold. The following are typical
of gas processing.
2.1.1 Heating. At the wellhead natural gas is often passed through a choke to regulate
the flow. In some instances advantage can be taken of this to deliberately lower the
gas temperature, as in the LTS process. In other cases, the gas from the choke is
delivered directly into gathering lines. In this latter case, the gas must be kept above
the hydrate temperature at all times. The temperature-lowering effect of the choke or
Joule-Thomson expansion valve may have to be offset by heating the gas upstream of
the choke.
Another instance is long gathering lines. Again the gas may be passed through heaters
at various points along the line to maintain the temperature above the hydrate point.
2.1.2 Gas-to-Gas Exchange. This important service is often found in NGL recovery.
Here the goal is to allow the cold residue gas to approach as closely as possible the
temperature of the inlet gas, thus either maximizing the savings in refrigeration or
allowing a lower processing temperature.
2.1.3 Chilling. Recovery of NGL from natural gas can be increased by cooling the
gas in an exchanger with a refrigerant scream, such as liquid propane. The cold
propane removes heat from the gas, vaporizing in the process.
2.1.4 Reboiling. This service is very similar to chilling, except that the vaporizing
fluid is now the process stream and the energy source is the heating medium, which
can be hot gas, hot water, steam, hot oil or hot combustion gases.
Reboiling is required in such services as condensate stabilizers or fractionators and
amine and glycol solution regenerators. Boiling also occurs in the refrigerant side of a
chiller.

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Heat Exchangers
2.1.5 Inter- and After-Cooling. When gas is compressed it is healed and must be
cooled prior to further compression to avoid excessive temperatures or to reduce
horsepower. Hot gas must be cooled also before injection into a pipeline to avoid
higher pressure drop and thus higher compression cost.
Cooling is accomplished by three media: cooling air, cooling-tower water, or
tempered cooling water (Brown and Benkly, 1974). Air cooling is accomplished by
fintubed heat exchangers, discussed below. Cooling towers are beyond the present
scope; cooling towers cool recirculated water by evaporating a portion of it.
Tempered cooling water is usually an ethylene glycol solution in water. which, in turn
is cooled using seawater.
2.1.6 Desuperheating and Condensing. After a refrigerant is vaporized in the chiller,
it is compressed to a pressure and temperature at which it can be condensed by
rejecting heat to the surroundings. This condensation occurs in a cooling-water or aircooled exchanger.
2.1.7 Condensing. Conventional distillation columns require overhead product
condensation to provide the necessary reflux and to supply the distillate product in
convenient liquid form. A coolant (air, water) or refrigerant is used for this purpose.
Exchanger Materials. Like most process equipment, heat exchangers are fabricated
from carbon steel where possible. Exceptions are made for low temperatures and
corrosive materials.
Carbon steel becomes brittle at approximately 20F. Charpy-impact-tested carbon
steel can be used to 40F. Between -40 to - 150T, 3.5% Ni steel is used and below 150F stainless steel is used. Stainless steel (300 series) may be more readily
available or more economical than low Ni steel. In plate-fin heat exchangers one
exception is aluminum, which can be used at any cryogenic processing temperature.
Gas containing hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide can cause severe corrosion.
Stainless steel is often required for this service. Carbon steel and a type of brass called
Admiralty metal are sometimes used for cooling water.

2.2 Type of Equipment

The exchangers used in gas processing are of several different basic geometrical
configurations or types. The more important types and their appropriate services are
now reviewed.

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Heat Exchangers

3. Shell-and-Tube Exchangers
The name describes the geometrya bundle of tubes mounted within a cylindrical
shell. The "tube-side" fluid flows inside the tubes and the "shell-side" fluid passes
inside the shell but outside the tubes. The two fluids exchange heat through the tube
walls. Shell-and-tube exchangers are by far the most common type in gas processing.
Shell-and-tube exchangers are named by the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association TEMA (1988) as shown in Figure 5. Letters are given to indicate the
style of head (or front) end. shell, and rear end. Selection guidelines may be
summarized as follows (McGlynn. 1989).
Head. Type B. the bonnet (integral cover) is often used for hazardous (H2 or HF)
gasses in refineries, for high pressure service in gas plants, and for clean fluids.
Removable covers. type A or N, are used when cleaning is required. Bonnets are
cheaper than removable covers and reduce leaks by eliminating one gasket.
Shell. The one-pass shell, type E. is most common. A close temperature approach or
pinch or a temperature cross can require two or more shells in series to achieve an
acceptably high LMTD (or F factor). A two-pass shell, type F, has a much higher
LMTD F factor but has a much higher pressure drop. Fluid leakage past a longitudinal
baffle (unless welded to the shell) can reduce heat transfer dramatically. Less than
0.01 in. clearance between the baffle and the shell can reduce heat transfer by 30% or
more. Divided flow shells (type J) reduce shell-side pressure drop to about one-eighth
of a comparable E shell. Kettle (type K) shells are used for reboiling or vaporizing, as
in a chiller.
Rear. There are three types: first is the fixed-tube-sheet exchanger, shown in Figure 8.
This figure also shows the standard TEMA nomenclature. Fixed-tube sheets are
relatively hard to remove or replace; therefore, they are used for clean streams and
low temperature differences.
The second rear-end type is the floating-head exchanger, depicted in Figures 3 & 4 &
6. Floating-head exchangers are used in a variety of services. Manufacture is more
expensive than for the fixed-tube sheet, but the channel head permits easier access for
maintenance. Also, the floating head allows large temperature difference between
ambient and operating conditions without excessive thermal stress on the equipment.

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Heat Exchangers
The third type is the U-tube (Fig. 8A). Like the floating-head, the U-tube is a
removable bundle and has similar advantages. However, cleaning inside the tubes is
extremely difficult.
In gas processing three kinds of shell-and-tube exchangers predominatefixed
tubesheet (Fig. 7 A & B), floating head (Fig. 6), and kettle (Fig 8 A). Figure 7 C
shows exchanger type BEM, for bonnet front end, one-pass shell, with fixed tube
sheet. Similarly, the Figure 6 exchanger is an AES for the channel head, one-pass
shell, and floating head. The Figure 8 A exchanger is an AKT to designate the
channel head, kettle shell, and "pull-through" floating head (needed here for
maintenance purposes). Kettles are also built with U-tube rear heads (e.g., AKU).
Exchanger size is indicated by two numbers, the inside diameter (ID) of the shell and
the tube length, both in inches. For example, a 29-in. ID shell with 16-ft long tubes is
referred to as size 29-192. A kettle with 23-in. ID front-end flange, a 37-in. ID kettle
shell, and 16-ft long tubes is 23/37-192.
Common tube diameters are 0.75 and 1.0 in. outside diameter (OD) with varying
thickness (usually 12 to 16 BWG). Standard lengths are 8. 10. 12. 16, and 20 ft.
Figures 6 show the basic characteristics of shell-and-tube exchangers. The major
manufacturers of such equipment have a trade association (TEMA) which has a set of
standards. They are not a code but are used commonly in bid specifications. Class R
exchangers are used most commonly in the petroleum industry.
The choice of configuration depends on a number of considerations - fluids involved,
corrosion potential, problems of cleaning, pressure drop, heat transfer efficiency. Heat
exchanger selection is not routine.
Do you need removable or nonremovable tube bundles? The latter are relatively
inexpensive and provide maximum protection against shell-side leakage but they are
not accessible for mechanical shell-side cleaning. A type of expansion joint is
sometimes needed to relieve differential thermal expansion stresses.
Removable tube bundles consist of U tubes (hairpin type) or straight tubes with a
floating head. The former is the least expensive, can be used with very high pressures
on the tube-side and no shell-side impingement plates are necessary but, mechanical
cleaning is difficult and it is very difficult to replace tubes.

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Heat Exchangers
The floating head exchanger is the most versatile and most expensive. Obtaining a
positive seal between tube-side and shell-side fluids is critical in many cases. The
pressure differential between shell- and tube-sides is limited by the seal.
Although there are exceptions, most tubes used are 1.5-2.5 cm [5/8-1.0 in.] diameter,
1.9 cm [3/4 in.] is the most common. The larger size normally is used when fouling is
anticipated, to facilitate mechanical cleaning. The tube length may be as large as 12 m
[40 ft] but tubes about half this length are more commonly employed.
The tube bundle can be arrayed in a triangular, square or rotated-square layout.
Triangular usually gives better shell-side "h" values and more heat transfer area for a
given shell diameter. However, the other arrangements are easier to clean and have a
lower pressure drop.

3.1 Floating Tube Sheet Exchangers

This type of exchanger is the most common type used in refinery operation. Note the
flow arrows through the different tube passes and how the floating head has room to
move inside the shell cover.
The shell side flow is single pass but the liquid path is controlled by the baffles.

Without baffles, the tubes would sag and the flow would be
parallel to the tubes and give poor heat transfer. Each exchanger is
designed for a specific heat duty with baffles at set distances.
Details of a Floating Head
At one time, the floating head was bolted directly to the floating tubesheet and could
be left on the tubesheet when it was removed from the shell this assembly however
left a large dead space between the outside row of tubes and the shell.
The split backing ring makes full use of the shell but has to be removed before the
bundle can be pulled. Note the gaskets and how internal gasket failure can cause
contamination of the liquids between shell and tube.

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19
Floating Tubesheet Exchanger

Figure 3 Cross Sectional View of

Heat Exchangers

Figure 4 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Detail of a Floating Head

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3.2 Tube Arrangement
Heat exchangers are built so fluids will have one pass, two passes, or multiple passes
through the exchanger, depending on the arrangement of the tubes. They may also
have a combination of flow paths.
The tubes in heat exchangers have either straight tube arrangements or U-tube
arrangements. In straight tube heat exchangers, fluid enters one end of the tubes,
flows straight through and exits the other end. This is called a single pass heat
exchanger.

In U-tube heat exchangers, fluid enters one end of the tubes and flows to
the other end. However, instead of exiting, the tubes bend back in the
shape of a U. Fluid flows around the bend and back to the first end, then
exits the heat exchanger. This is called a double pass heat exchanger
Heat exchangers can also be designed for multiple passes. Tubes are
built to change the direction of flow through the heat exchanger several
times before the fluid exits. The more passes between the fluids, the more
heat can be transferred.

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Figure 5 Basic Mechanical TEMA Characteristics

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Figure 6

1-Pass Shell, 2-Pass Tube Exchanger

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A- 1- Pass Shell and Tube with Expansion Joint on Shell Side

B- 1- Pass Shell and 2-Pass Tube

C- Hairpin
Figure 7 Three Other Examples of Tubular
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Exchangers

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A- Kettle Reboiler

B- Thermosiphone Reboiler
Figure 8 Two Common Types of Reboilers
Figures 10 l5 provide a means to estimate the factor F shown on the left ordinate.
Values of P and R on these figures are found by the equations
P=

t2 t1
,
T1 t1

R=

T1 T2
t 2 t1

For a given value of P and R, find the corresponding value of F. If the values of P and
R do not intersect within the grid, simply record F as less than 0.5.
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Heat Exchangers
As shown on each figure, T1 and T2 represent the shell-side fluid and t1 and t2 the
tube-side fluid.
This correlation is a modified version that has been in use for a long time. An
alternate calculation to that shown has been developed. The net results are essentially
the same.

3.3 Fluid Placement

This obviously affects the value of F in the LMTD calculation. But, the major
consideration may be the character of the fluid itself. The following general
guidelines are useful.
A. Shell-Side
1. Viscous fluid to increase (generally) the value of "U"
2. Fluid having the lowest flow rate
3. Condensing or boiling fluid
B. Tube-Side
1. Toxic and lethal fluids to minimize leakage
2. Corrosive fluids
3. Fouling fluids; increased velocity minimizes fouling but enhances erosion
4. High temperature fluids requiring alloy materials
5. High pressure fluids to minimize cost
6. Fluid on which pressure drop is most critical
These are not mutually exclusive considerations. Some priorities must be established;
some compromises are necessary. For example, condensing may be done on the tube
side when special metallurgy is required. In this case, vertical tubes normally are a
better choice than horizontal tubes.
In some cases a series of exchangers (train) is required. One then must divide the total
heat transfer duty to optimize the number and size of each unit
Estimation of Mechanical Design
As part of the early planning function, it may be desirable to estimate the physical size
of the exchanger being considered. Figure 16 provides an easy method to accomplish
this. The equation for use with this figure is
A=AoF1F2F3

(6)

Where:

A = area on left-hand ordinate of figure

A0 = area calculated from heat transfer equation
F1,F2,F3 = correction factors

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Heat Exchangers
F1, F2 and F3 are equal to unity for 3/4-in. tubes on a 15/16-in. triangular pitch, one
tube pass and a fixed tube sheet exchanger, respectively.
For a given value of A, various diameter/length combinations are suitable. These
would need to be checked for fluid velocities. L/D ratios less than 3:1 may suffer from
poor fluid distribution. Ratios in range 6:1-10:1 generally are a good compromise.
These L/D ratios are shown as dashed lines in Figure 16.
4. Double-Pipe Exchangers
Figure 9 shows a double-pipe, or hairpin, exchanger. One fluid passes through the
inside of the inner pipe and the second fluid flows through the annulus between
the outside of the inner pipe and the inside of the outer pipe. The flow is
countercurrent, so that the F factor is 1.0 for this type of exchanger.
Double-pipe exchangers have limited area and are used for services with small
heat duties (UA < 100,000 Btu/hr F). If one of the fluids shows a very low heat
transfer coefficient, that fluid can be placed in the annulus and longitudinal fins
used on the outside of the inside pipe. The extended surface of the fins provides
better heat transfer for the fluid with higher resistance. These exchangers are used
primarily for heating and cooling of gas streams. McDonough (1987) reviews
design procedures and areas of application. Manufacturers, e.g.,

Figure 9 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger (GPSA, 1987)

Brown Fintube (1989), present detailed information on fin efficiency,
heat resistances, and pressure drops.

28

Heat Exchangers
4.1 Indirect Heaters
The indirect heater is similar to a shell and tube exchanger, being composed of a large
cylindrical shell with a tube bank mounted in the upper portion for heating the process
fluid (Fig. 10). A U-shaped fire tube is located in the bottom, and the shell is filled
with a heat transfer medium that transmits heat from the fire tube to the tube bank.
Heat is provided by burning gas or oil in the burner. The naming combustion gas
passes through the first section of the fire tube, giving up mainly radiant heat with a
lesser amount of convective heat. The hot gases then turn and pass through the return
section, in which the heat transfer is mainly by convection. The gases then flow up the
stack to the atmosphere. Indirect heaters are akin to fire-tube boilers.
Water has an unequaled ability to transfer heat and so is almost always used as the
heat transfer fluid for applications between 35 and 190F. Adding ethylene glycol
extends the range from 50 to 250F. Special heating oils are used for higher
temperature service, say up to 650F; these oils have a low vapor pressure and high
specific heat. Molten salt is used for high-temperature applications from 500 to
900F. Molten salt will not decompose, as will oils, and has good heat transfer
properties. Ballard and Manning (1989) discuss the design and operation of heattransfer-fluid systems and also discuss in detail the evaluation of heat-transfer fluids.

Figure 10 Water Bath Indirect Heater (GPSA, 1987)

29

Heat Exchangers
The conventional glycol regenerator is essentially an indirect heater converted to
direct-heat service by placing the glycol outside the fire tubes. The regenerator has a
small packed column mounted atop it to furnish a bit of reflux for the outgoing
vapors, and thus prevent glycol vapor loss with the discharged water vapor.
In gas processing, indirect heaters are used primarily for hearing gas streams,
including regeneration gas in small solid-desiccant dehydration units.

5. Air-Cooled Exchangers
Air-cooled exchangers have the process fluid inside the tubes and ambient air on the
outside, either moving by natural convection or blown by a fan. Because of the low
heat-transfer coefficient for atmospheric air, fins are used on the outside of the pipes
(Fig. 11).
Both induced and forced draft fans are used (Fig. 12). The latter are specified in most
applications. When recircularion of cooling air is a problem, induced draft fans are
used to provide positive outflow of the air.

Figure 11 Details of Finned Tubes and Exchanger Bundle (Cook,

1964, Vol. 95 No. 10,22-26, 1988)

30

Heat Exchangers
Special precautions are needed for cold climates (API, 1988; Shipes, 1974; Brown
and Benkly, 1974; Franklin and Munn, 1974). Wind skirts or housing may be
necessary, as well as air recirculation.
The flow pattern in air-cooled exchangers is cross flow, with either an odd or even
number of tube passes.
In air-cooled exchanger design, a difficulty arises with the exit air temperature, which
is needed to estimate the LMTD. Air enters the bottom of an air-cooled exchanger at.
essentially constant temperature but is heated differently in each location across the
exchanger. Rigorous estimation of the average outlet air temperature would be very
complex. GPSA (1987Section 10) details a method of estimating the outlet air
temperature and designing air-cooled exchangers. Brown (1978), Ganapathy (1978),
and Glass (1978) provide detailed design information.
Air-cooled exchangers are used for inter- and after-cooling of compressed gases,
desuperheating and condensing refrigerant streams, and fractionator condensers.

Figure 12 Typical Side Elevations of Air Coolers (GPSA, 1987)

31

Figure 13 Fin Fan Coolers

Heat Exchangers

32

Heat Exchangers
Advantages of Induced Draft Design
1. Easier to shop assemble, ship and install.
2. The hoods offer protection from weather.
3. Easier to clean underside when covered with lint, bugs, debris.
4. More efficient air distribution over the bundle.
5. Less likely to be affected by hot air recireulation.
Disadvantages of Induced Draft Design
1. More difficult to remove bundles for maintenance.
2. High temperature service limited due to effect of hot air on the fans.
3. More difficult to work on fan assembly, i.e. adjust blades due to heat from
bundle, and their location.
Advantages of Forced Draft Design
1. Easy to remove and replace bundles.
2. Easier to mount motors or other drivers with short shafts.
3. Lubrication, maintenance, etc. more accessible.
4. With reinforced straight side panels to form a rectangular box type plenum,
shipping and mounting is greatly simplified, permitting complete
preassembled shop-tested units. Best adapted for cold climate operation
with warm air recirculation.
Disadvantages of the forced draft design are the list of "advantages of the induced
draft design."

5.1 Heat Transfer Calculations

The basic calculation approach is the same as other exchangers. Table 1 shows a
group of overall heat transfer coefficients based on bare tube area. These are useful as
a first step in planning before choosing a particular fin type on the outside of the tube.
The optimum air temperature rise across the tubes may be estimated by' the equation
T T

(t2 t1) = (o.005)(U) 2 1 t1

2

Where:

t2 = outlet air temperature

t1 = inlet air temperature
T2 = temperature of process fluid out
T1 = temperature of process fluid in
U = value from Table 1

33

(7)

Heat Exchangers

The optimum air temperature rise is also a function of the range (T1 T2) of the
process fluid. The value of (t2 t1) calculated from Equation 7 should be corrected
using the equation
CF = 0.89 + A (T1 T2)

Where:

(8)

CF = correction factor
A = constant

For a specified cooling load and conditions, the outlet air temperature can
be estimated. From this an LMTD can be found to calculate bare tube
area.

34

Heat Exchangers
Table 1
Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients

Tube size can vary from 15.9-38.1 m [5/8-1 in.), but the standard size is 25.4 mm
[1 in.). Tube layout is triangular. Tube pitch is the minimum which avoids fin
contact or overlap.

The types of fins vary with the service. They are either tension wrapped, solder
bonded or extruded.
The latter are the most expensive. Fin height varies from -5/8 in. and normally
there are 8-11 fins per inch.

35

Heat Exchangers
The air-side film coefficient for a typical fin tube (based on extended area) can be
estimated from the equation
ha =

Where:

A (v g ) 0.6

(9)

d 0.3

ha = air-side film coefficient

Vg = air velocity by tubes

d = outside diameter of bare tubes
A = constant

This "h" would be used with other data in Equations 3 or 4 to find an overall "U" for
comparison with values in Table 1.

5.2 Fans
The fan power requirements can be estimated from the equation
kW =

(Pa )(Qa )
( A)( Efficiency )

(10)

Where:

Qa = air flow rate

Pa = air pressure drop in cooler
A = constant

Efficiency varies from 0.4-0.75; 0.7 is a useful planning number

Pressure drop varies with air rate, tube diameter, pitch and number of tube rows. For
planning purposes a pressure drop of 25 Pa [0.10 in H2O] per tube row can be used.
For most gas processing applications the number of tube rows varies from 3-6.

36

Heat Exchangers
The following figure is a rough estimate of horsepower based on the value of "U"
from Table 1 for bare tubes. The number of fans and heat transfer bays will vary with
the installation. Two fans/unit are generally preferred because of the additional
flexibility in controlling air flow.
Noise control is a serious concern. A common specification is that fan and motor
noise shall not exceed 85-90 dBA at a distance of three feet from the fan ring. One
can estimate the sound pressure level by the equation
dBA = 65+30 (log V) + 10 log (hp) + 20 (log d)
Where: dBA = relative sound level in decibel
log = logarithm to base 10
V = fan tip speed. (0.001)(ft/min).
hp = fan horsepower
d = fan diameter, ft.

Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient, But/(h)(ft2)(F)

37

(11)

Heat Exchangers
As noted previously, various methods of fan control are used. The primary criteria are
temperature control of the process fluid and power consumption. It is feasible to drive
variable speed fans with standard induction motors using some type of a.c. adjustable
frequency drives (AFD) - a variable voltage inverter, a pulse width modulator or
current source types.
One alternative is to use a variable pitch fan. It offers rather precise temperature
control, provides energy savings and is convenient for cold weather operations. It
also tends to cost more and may involve more routine maintenance. The choice
between variable speed and variable pitch depends on local circumstances and the
biases of the purchaser. If power costs are large and temperature control is critical,
one or the other normally will be chosen.
The other control alternatives are fluid by-pass, on-off operation (with possibly
several fans per cooling bay) and the use of louvers or shutters. By-pass and louvers
may be effective in some cases but they are energy inefficient. On-off fan control is
simple and may be used if there are a lot of fans in the same service. Winter
protection is required in cold climates. In this case, the use of louvers plus some form
of variable air rate control is desirable. This is one case where a variable pitch fan
plus louvers may be the best system to control internal air circulation.
Outlet temperature is controlled primarily, by air rate. Louvers, variable pitch fan
blades, and variable speed motors are all used to control temperature. Louvers may be
manually adjustable for seasonal or night-day air temperature changes, or controlled
automatically. We have found automatic louver control less than satisfactory in those
cases where a close tolerance is required on outlet fluid temperatures and the louvers
are operating almost closed (where a small change in position causes a large change in
air flow rate). In those cases where large air temperature changes are encountered, a
variable pitch fan may prove efficient. Some report trouble with the pitch control, but
this has not been a problem in my experience. Pitch and speed controls are expensive
but in this era of high energy costs they can prove profitable.
Fan power is an important operating cost consideration. A ten percent change in air
flow rate will cause about a 35 percent change in power used, assuming efficiency
stays constant. Actual power consumption required for a given heat transfer depends
on many factors. One is the clearance between the fan and the fan ring. Close
clearances are more expensive to fabricate. Consider this in comparing capital cost
from different vendors.

38

Heat Exchangers
5.3 Combination Coolers
Figure 14 shows one type of combination cooler that may offer advantage where
water is expensive to treat or is in short supply. It is an aerial cooler preceded by an
evaporative section. The entering air is cooled with water as necessary. When the air
temperature is low enough the water may be shut off. Water rate may be decreased at
intermediate temperatures.

Figure 14 Combination Air-Water Cooler

This unit has a higher capital cost but may offer a total cost saving in some
applications. When equipped with controls to vary fan horsepower output this unit
offers flexibility at minimum operating cost.
Some have accomplished a similar result by using an air cooler for water. This
cooling is supplemented as needed with a cooling tower. The combination unit is
usually preferred.

39

Heat Exchangers
5.4 Choice of Heat Exchangers
It should be apparent from preceding discussions that choice of heat exchangers
involves many factors. It is relatively easy to choose one that will work. An intelligent
choice however involves choosing equipment that optimizes cost of the total system
without compromising operating reliability.
Heat exchangers normally cost less per unit of energy transferred than any other type
of energy equipment. If you "chisel" on exchanger size you must pay dearly for this in
the cost of companion equipment in many instances. Since heat loads vary with flow
rates, some flexibility must be provided. If done wisely, a little extra heat exchange
capacity is the cheapest "insurance" one can purchase.
There are some "rules" one should follow.
1. Do not specify a HEX without consideration of its effect on the total
process.
2. Do not make the capital cost of the HEX alone a sole criterion for purchase.
3. Acquaint the vendor with details of service and point out that choice will be
made on both initial and operating cost, not initial capital cost alone.
4. Use realistic pressure drop specifications since this affects size and cost.
Allow as much pres sure loss as economics dictate for the actual system and
not merely reproduce a standard spec that might not apply.

40

Heat Exchangers

6. Heat Exchanger Operation

6.1 Procedure to Take a Heat Exchanger out of Service
1. The hot fluid must be shut off before the cold fluid, This should be done slowly to
allow the exchanger to cool down. The cold fluid must not be shut off first.
Otherwise, the heat from the hot side will cause the cold fluid to increase in
temperature and as there is no place for the expansion, the pressure would build up
and cause exchanger ruptures.
2. After the hot fluid has been shut off, both on inlet and outlet of the exchangers and
the temperature has cooled to that of the cold fluid, then the cold fluid can be shut
off on both inlet and outlet valves.

3. Both shell and tube side should now be pumped out to slop or drained
down.
4. Both inlet and outlet lines should be blanked off for safety.
5. If the exchanger is in sour oil service or any iron sulfide scale is expected, the
exchanger should be water washed before opening to the atmosphere.

6.2 Procedure to Place Heat Exchanger in Service

1. Cheek the exchanger carefully to ensure that all plugs have been replaced and that
all pipe work is ready for the exchanger to be placed in service -(no loose bolts,
gaskets in flanges).
2. All valves should be in the shut position.
3. Purging and testing.
4. Line up the system.
5. Open hot and cold fluid vent valves.
6. Crack open cold fluid inlet valve vent all air when liquid full. Close cold fluid vent
valve.
7. Crack open hot fluid outlet valve and vent all the air, then close hot fluid vent
valve. At this stage, the exchanger is liquid full of both hot and cold flowing
fluids - open cold fluid inlet and hot fluid outlet valves fully.

41

Heat Exchangers
8. The cold fluid valve outlet may be opened slowly until the cold fluid is passing
through the exchanger.
9. Start opening the hot fluid inlet valve slowly.
10. Both valves, the cold fluid outlet valve and the hot fluid inlet should be opened
slowly until fully open.
All operations should be performed slowly and care must be taken not to cause
sudden temperature changes.

6.3 Testing Heat Exchangers for Leaks

In some cases, before the equipment has been operated, it is
hydrostatically tested to check for leaks, although all tubular equipment is
normally tested at its place of manufacture. Sometimes, during operation,
the products become contaminated and this could be due to a leaking heat
exchanger tube. The basic method for testing is as follows. In a fixed tube
sheet exchanger, after the end covers have been removed, a hydrostatic
test pressure is applied to the shell and leaking tubes will be detected by
water running out of the tube. The tube is sealed by driving in a tapered
plug of suitable metal at each end of the tube and the test repeated until
all the leaks have been cured. In a floating head exchanger, the test
procedure is a little different. After the end covers are removed, a special
test ring sized to fit the exchanger is fitted so as to seal the tubes and
shell. The procedure then becomes the same as for a fixed tube sheet
exchanger. Always use a cold liquid for testing, because a hot liquid
affects the expansion of tube and shell and can cause damage. Hydrostatic
test pressures at ambient temperature, normally are 1.5 times the design
pressure corrected for temperature, except for cast iron parts where other
codes govern. It should be noted, however, that when testing, the
maximum specified D P between tube and shell sides should not be
exceeded.

42

Heat Exchangers

7. Heat Exchangers Problems

7.1 Heat Exchanger Fouling and Corrosion
Fouling of heat transfer surfaces-introduces perhaps the major uncertainty
into the design and operation of heat exchange equipment. Fouling in
equipment involving boiling and evaporation is often more severe than in
single phase heat exchangers and moreover, in aqueous systems, is
frequently associated with corrosion. Finally the modification of heat
transfer and pressure drop characteristics by fouling layers is briefly
reviewed.
7.1.1 Introduction

Although fouling is by no means confined to heat transfer equipment, it is

in this particular. field that its unwanted presence is perhaps most acutely
felt. As research work on the various aspects of single-phase and twophase heat transfer have progressed so the uncertainties in heat transfer
rates from clean surfaces have been markedly reduced. However, in
practice industrial heat exchangers rarely operate with non-fouling fluids.
Low temperature cryogenic heat exchangers are perhaps the only
exception. The probability that fouling will occur in a heat exchanger is
therefore normally taken into account at the design stage by the use of an
assumed fouling resistance or fouling factor. However, few systematic
investigations of fouling have been carried out and the uncertainty in the
fouling factor now greatly exceeds the uncertainty in the other terms of
the overall heat transfer equation
7.1.2 Types of Fouling

Epstein has delineated six classes or types of fouling depending upon the
immediate cause of the fouling.
(a)

Scaling involve the crystallization of inverse solubility salts (such as

CACO , CASO , Na SO in water) onto a superheated heat transfer
surface. This process can occur under both evaporating or nonevaporating conditions.

(b)

Particulate Fouling involves the deposition of particles suspended in the

fluid stream onto the heat transfer surface. This process includes
sedimentation, i.e. settling under gravitational forces as well as other
deposition. mechanisms.

43

Heat Exchangers
(c)

Chemical Reaction Fouling involves deposits caused by some form of

chemical reaction within the fluid stream itself (but not with the heat
transfer surface). Polymerization, cracking and coking of hydrocarbon
liquids at high temperature are prime examples.

(d)

Corrosion Fouling involves a chemical reaction between the heat

transfer surface and the fluid stream to produce corrosion products
which, in turn, foul the surface. Examples of this would be the on-load
aqueous corrosion process often experienced within nuclear and waste
heat boilers.

(e)

Biofouling involves the accumulation of biological organisms at the heat

transfer surface.

(f)

Freezing Fouling occurs as a result of the crystallization of a pure liquid

or one component from a liquid phase on to a subcooled heat transfer
surface.

Not all these mechanisms are mutually exclusive; often more than one mechanism
will be occurring simultaneously.

7.2 Vibration in Heat Exchangers

7.2.1 Introduction
To improve thermal efficiency heat exchangers are commonly equipped with baffles.
These devices produce a low f around the tube bundles which is favorable for the
heat transport, which also may induce vibrations. If the amplitudes of the vibrations
become too high, corrosion and erosion of the tubes at the position of-the baffles may
occur.

Since more than 30 years research activities are underway to study the
vibration phenomena in cross flow bundles of heat exchangers. Mostly it
is assumed that oscillations are excited by vortices departing from the
tubes, then the strongest vibrations should be observed if the departure
frequency of the vortices and the resonance frequency of the tubes are
identical. A safe layout of the tube banks -would then be not too difficult,
one just has to avoid the coincidence of these both frequencies. In
literature it is clearly stated that there is a linear connection between the
vortex frequency and the flow velocity, which means that the Strouhalnumber is constant.

44

Heat Exchangers
After a careful literature survey Chen found that the value of the
Strouhal-number should be between 0, 17 and 0, 21, for Reynoldsnumbers from 300 up to more than 2x10
Owen studied the turbulence behind the tubes and found that this may cause vibration.
He called this aeroelastic exciting phenomenon buffeting. These turbulent and
stochastic velocity fluctuations are mainly due to the perturbation of the boundary
layer on the rear side of the tube. These fluctuations have a very wide frequency
spectrum.

A special case is the resonant buffeting, which also has a statistical

energy distribution, however, in addition a periodical velocity fluctuation
is superimposed. If the frequency of this periodical fluid dynamic
exciting force coincides with the resonance frequency of the tubes,
vibrations of large amplitudes.
7.2.2 Galloping - Wake Galloping
In civil engineering another vibration exciting phenomenon is well
known, which is called galloping - for a single obstacle - or wake
galloping - for a group of obstacles like cylinders -. Galloping was
observed with chimneys or with the cables of high voltage transportation
lines. As shown in Figure 15 for the example of a tube or rod bundle with
3 rows galloping can produce a lifting force due to the partial deflection
of the flow. This phenomenon mainly in the second and in the third row
may perform a vibration rectangular to the direction of the inlet flow.

Figure 15 Flow Path in Rod Bundle

45

Heat Exchangers
7.2.3 Aeroelastic Coupling
Another mode exciting vibrations in cylindrical tube banks may be the
aeroelastic coupling, first mentioned by Livesey and later by Connors. In
contrast to the vortex or galloping induced vibration, the tubes not only
move rectangular to the f low but also in the flow direction.
The aeroelastic coupling is a consequence of the movement of the rods. If the rod
leaves its original or stationary position, the fluidynamic forces around the rod, which
are influenced by the relative position to the neighboring rods change. So a new
exciting force for vibration may be created. The frequency of the vibration, however,
is then not only depending on the flow velocity, but also on the resonant frequency of
the surrounding rods. The main influencing factor with aeroelastic coupling is the
movement of the neighboring tubes, which means that a small vibration of a few rods
in the tube bank may excite other rods by fluid dynamic forces and therefore this
phenomenon is called aeroelastic coupling. Contrary to the exciting modes discussed
before - like buffeting or galloping - with aeroelastic coupling no favored vibration
direction can be observed. The vibration movement of each rod is depending on and
influenced by the movement of its neighboring rods.
It is found that the vortices cannot be the only and main reason for inducing vibrations
in tube banks. Most of the experiments in the literature studying vibrations in heat
exchangers used tube banks where. only one tube could freely move and all others
were fixed.

7.2.4 Conclusion and Measures to Reduce Vibration

There seem to be two effects mainly influencing the vibration of tube or rod bundles,
namely the wake galloping and the aeroelastic coupling. From this information the
conclusion can be drawn that two measures could be taken in account to reduce the
sensibility of a bundle against vibrations namely
1.

Increasing of the inlet turbulence

2.

Putting out of tune the resonance frequencies of neighboring rods.

The inlet turbulence can be easily increased by placing a grid upstream of

the first row of the bundle. Already Vickery found a reduction of the
oscillating pressure onto a prismatic rod in the order of 100% by
increasing the inlet turbulence. Using a punched plate with wholes of 10
mm diameter and placed 20 cm upstream of the first row a remarkable
improvement of the stability against exciting vibrations could be
observed. By this measure the grade of turbulence which in the tests
before was in the order of 0, 7% could be raised up to 50%.

46

Heat Exchangers
The improvement was much more pronounced for the staggered
arrangement than for the inline one and the onset of vibrations could be
shifted to velocities which were almost twice of that under low turbulence
conditions. One can see that the grade of turbulence mainly influences
the vibration behavior of the critical rows, which are usually the three
inlet rows. Further downstream there is no effect of the turbulence
promotor which can be easily explained by the fact that then the grade of
turbulence is anyhow high enough due to the perturbation of the flow in
the first rows. It can be assumed that the increased inlet turbulence
affects the drag coefficient rectangular to the flow direction and reduces
by this the onset of aeroelastic coupling.
Whilst the increasing of the inlet turbulence is certainly measure of
practical use, the mistuning of the resonance frequency of neighbored
rods seems to be more of academic interest. Never the less it should be
briefly pointed out here that this can reduce the vibration amplitudes
remarkably. It, however, does not change the critical velocity, for the
most sensitive s/d ratio of 1,3 and a staggered-arrangement.
In a staggered arrangement the vibration is mainly induced by aeroelastic coupling ass we can conclude from the experimental results discussed before. This aeroelastic
coupling is introduced by the beginning of oscillations in the critical row.

7.3 Cleaning of Heat Exchangers

Five possible cleaning techniques are recognized for condenser tubes,
based on field testing.
1. Hydroblast. Small sections of the sample tube were sent to a local
hydroblast company. The results showed fairly clean tubes with
some pitting; however, a significant roughness remained to impede
fluid flow.
2. Acid Cleaning. A section of tube was sent to a local firm for acid cleaning
utilizing a 12% foaming hydrochloric acid solution. This technique also
produced a clean tube with pitting continuing, and surface roughness again
was evident.
3. Chemical Additive. A sample tube was tested utilizing five different
chemical agents. These chemicals were ineffective in removing the tenacious
mineral deposits.

47

Heat Exchangers
4. Brushes and Rubber Plugs. Several sample tubes were shot with nylon
brushes and rubber plugs. Both techniques were ineffective in removing
internal tube deposits.
5. Tube Scrapers. A medium-pressure (150 to 250 psi) water gun was used to
propel spring-loaded metal scrapers. This technique was used in several tubes
prior to removal from the condenser for inspection. The scrapers cleaned
down to bare metal and polished the tube surface for minimum flow
restrictions.

48