BANGLADESH RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS JOURNAL

ISSN: 1998-2003 Volume: 1, Issue: 1, Page: 22-37, April - June 2008

REGIONAL DIVERGENCE OF INCOME AND ALLOCATION OF

PUBLIC FACILITIES IN BANGLADESH
Md. Shohel Reza Amin*1, Mrs. Umma Tamima2
TP

PT

TP

PT

Abstract
Bangladesh is one of the least urbanized countries in south Asia and
features densely populated rural areas composed of clustered villages.
Imbalanced industrial development and agrarian agony has drawn
regional divergence of income distribution. This paper examines the
extent of asymmetrical distribution of income among the districts of
Bangladesh and its impact on the provision of public facilities in the year
2001. One of the main areas of innovation in this research work is that of
the methodological instruments used to accomplish the objectives such
as spatial autocorrelation (Morans I), Location Quotient method, Gini
Index, and Discrimination or Dissimilarity Index. The result attained reveals
that the level of disparity varies considerably between districts, which lead
to discrimination in the provision of public services in sixty-four districts. The
comparative evaluation among income distribution and discrimination
index of facilities provision reveals that districts within low-income groups
are usually lowly and moderately deprived from provision of public
facilities. This is because households of these districts are mainly involved in
rural based income generating activities and almost deprived of urban
facilities. Furthermore, most of the incomes generating establishments are
concentrated in some selected districts. This sort of divergence of income
is leading to disproportional regional growth resulting lower national
growth as a whole. The regional convergence in terms of income and
public facilities is required for the overall development of Bangladesh.

Key words: Regional divergence, Discrimination Index, Gini Index, Location

Quotient Method, and Spatial autocorrelation.

Introduction
Bangladesh is a country of 130 million population with population density of
840 persons/sq.km (BBS, 2001). Bangladesh economy is not big enough to support
such a vast population and high incidence of poverty is the ultimate result.
Though the country is making good progress in the socio-economic field in
1Corresponding

Author
Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar
University, Savar, Dhaka-1342. e-mail: shohel_027@yahoo.com, Cell: 8801717159382
2Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology, BUET, Dhaka-1000, e-mail: umma_tamima@urp.buet.ac.bd
TP

PT

1Assistant
P

TP

PT

Regional Divergence of Income

23

increasing the literacy rate, improving expectation of life, increasing food

production and decreasing infant mortality and total fertility but progress of
poverty reduction is very slow. For a number of reasons the current distribution of
income in the districts of Bangladesh is worthy of analysis. Unequal distribution of
income boosts up the poverty and hinders inter-regional migration along with
deprivation

of

public

facilities

and

services

and

income

generation

establishments.
On the other hand, provision of basic services greatly influences the quality
of human development and economic activities. Efficient and equal delivery of
essential services is critical for reducing poverty and improving welfare.
Investment in improving the delivery of services can make significant contribution
towards raising productivity and accelerating the pace of economic growth
(ADB, 2005).
Nevertheless in case of service provision the regions are more or less
discriminated on the issue of income, race and religion. A common complaint is
that people in the low-income part are unfairly treated compared to the rests
regarding deteriorating service levels, small resources and poor infrastructure.
The objectives of this project are to explore the spatial distribution of income
inequality in the districts of Bangladesh, and to determine the significance of
district-wise income inequality on the provision of facilities in different districts.

Research methodology
In this research the impact of spatial income inequality on the provision of
facilities and income generating establishments in sixty-four districts of Bangladesh
was investigated using data from the last Population census of Bangladesh: Zila
Series (2001) and Preliminary Report on Household Income and Expenditure
Survey 2005. Three public facilities such as safe drinking water, hygienic sanitation
system and electricity supply along with income generating establishments per
10000 were taken into account for this research based on the availability of data.
Later on, the spatial correlation of income of households of different
districts of Bangladesh was calculated by using Morans I in order to determine
the spatial dependency of districts regarding household income.

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Tamimaand Tamima

24

Moran introduced in 1950 the first measure of spatial autocorrelation in

order to study stochastic phenomena, which are distributed in space in two or
more dimensions. Morans I is used to estimate the strength of this correlation
between observations as a function of the distance separating them
(correlograms). Like a correlation coefficient the values of Morans I range from
+1 (meaning strong positive spatial autocorrelation) to 0 (meaning a random
pattern) and to 1 (indicating strong negative spatial autocorrelation). Values
near +1 indicate similar values tend to cluster; values near 1 indicate dissimilar
values tend to cluster; values near -1/(n-1) (which goes to 0 as n gets large)
indicate values tend to be randomly scattered (Zimeras and Tsimbos, n.d.).
T

The definition of Morans I (Anselin, 1995) for a spatial proximity matrix wij for
B

a variable y at location i is defined below as:

n

I=

wij ( yi y ) ( y j y )

i =1 j =1

( yi y ) 2

i =1
i j
n

wij

(1)

Nevertheless, before performing these tests it is necessary to define a

spatial weight matrix W to capture the strength of the interdependence between
each pair of districts i and j. a first option is to use the concept of first ordercontiguity, according to which wij =1 if districts i and j are physically adjacent and
B

0 otherwise (Lpez-Bazo et al., 1999; Rey and Montouri, 1999). Usually, the
proximity matrix wij is everywhere 0 except for contiguous locations i and j where it
B

takes the value 1.

The extent of concentration of district-wise households provided by public
facilities was determined by applying Location Quotient (LQ) method. An idea
about the extent of concentration of public facilities in different parts of the city
can be obtained if we consider the distribution of population in our analysis. In this
context the use of location Quotient method could be helpful. This method can
be use to measure the extent to which public facilities households in different
districts are in balance. (Pasha, 1991).
For calculating the location quotient (LQ) for households of a particular
facility i in a particular district, the following formula has been used:
L.Q = (ni/p)/(Ni/P)
B

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(2)

Regional Divergence of Income

25

Where,
ni = No. of households of each facility i in a given district
p = Households of the concerned district
Ni =No. of households of each facility i in Bangladesh
P = Total households in Bangladesh
B

Using the above formula location quotients for the households of selected
public facilities for districts has been prepared. These quotients identify the
concentration or deconcentration of households in different districts based on
facility provision. If the value of the quotient for a particular facility in a particular
district exceeds 1 (one), concentration is indicated. An indication of deficiency is
given by a value of less than 1 while a value of 1 or close to 1 indicates selfsufficiency.
On the basis of the values of LQ the concentration of households of each
facility are grouped below:
Range
0.00-0.49

Rank
Highly Deficient

Range
1.21-2.00

0.50-0.85
0.86-1.20

Moderately Deficient
Self-sufficient

>2.00

Rank
Moderately
Concentrated
Highly concentrated

Thereafter, district-wise inequality of facilities provided households was

measures by Gini Index. In order to determine the spatial disparity with respect to
various public facilities a special type of cumulative frequency graph - known as
Lorenze Curve - is used (Pasha, 1991). This curve is commonly used for measuring
the inequality in the distribution of facility provided households (Bahauddin, 1989).
For this purpose the districts have been grouped in order of the values of their
location quotient and the disparities existing among the different groups of
districts have been computed.
The computation of Gini Index is simplified by calculating twice the
concentration area and dividing this by twice the area under E (Figure 1). The
area of a trapezoid such as WXYZ (called T) is

T = ab +

cb
2

(3)

Doubling this and rearranging for convenience, we have: \

2T = 2ab + cb
2T = b(2a + c)

2T = b{a + (a + c)}

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(4)

Tamimaand Tamima

26

Where b is the sum of the percent of households of districts under a certain group,
a is the cumulative percentage of households of a particular facility and (a+c) is
the cumulative percentage of facilitated households of a group plus all
preceding groups.
Since area under E is the area of the square or, 10000, the Gini Index, G is
given by,

G=

10000 bi {a i + (a i + c i )}
10000

where, i = 1, 2, 3..

(5)

Figure 1: Lorenze curve

After that, Discrimination or Dissimilarity Index was applied to determine
which districts are in advantaged condition in case of facilities provision.
There is a large literature on how to measure discrimination, which primarily
focuses on residential discrimination across urban areal units. Massey and Denton
(1988) distinguished five dimensions of residential discrimination: evenness,
exposure, concentration, centralization and clustering. Each is conceptually
distinct, picking up different aspects of the phenomenon. Concentration,
centralization and clustering are all explicitly spatial in nature that is hardly ever
quantifiable. Hence, the focus is on evenness.

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Regional Divergence of Income

27

Evenness refers to the differential distribution of two social groups in a city

(Massey and Denton, 1988). An uneven distribution of an income group across
urban areas results in discrimination of that group. Following Duncan and Duncan
(1955), the most widely used measure of evenness is the index of dissimilarity; D.
So, this study picks up on evenness dimension of discrimination by using D.
Massey and Denton (1988) discuss this and other measures in detail, setting
out their advantages and disadvantages. No single measure captures all aspects
of discrimination and all have some statistical shortcomings.
Nevertheless, this index is most widely used. The dissimilarity index was
discussed in detail by Duncan and Duncan (1955) and used for example more
recently by Culter et. al. (1999) for the US. The discrimination index ranges from -1
to 1.
In this study, the discrimination in case of public facilities by the households
for the districts was assessed. The formula of dissimilarity index D for each district is
given by the following

Di =

( ALL HH )ij
1 HH ij

2 HH jT ( ALL HH ) jT

(6)

By combining all the households provided by the selected three facilities,

the discrimination index for each district will be

Di =

( ALL HH )i
1 3 HH i

2 j =1 HH T ( ALL HH ) T

(7)

In this case, the value of Discrimination Index was categorized into

(i)

Lowly deprived (0 -(-0.3));

(ii)

Moderately deprived ((-0.3) - (-0.6));

(iii)

Highly deprived ((-0.6) (-1));

(iv)

Lowly benefited (0 - 0.3);

(v)

Moderately benefited (0.3 - 0.6); and

(vi)

Highly benefited (0.6 1).

Finally a comparison was drawn between spatial distribution of income and

combined Discrimination Index of the selected facilities and establishments in the
sixty-four districts of Bangladesh.

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Tamimaand Tamima

28

Spatial dependency of monthly income

The

district-wise

monthly

income

(million

TK)

of

households

were

categorized into three groups high ( 5661.88 ), medium (2983.73-5661.87) and

low (305.58-2983.72). From the analysis it is revealed that fourty-four districts are
within the category low-income group while seventeen are within medium
income group. The rest Mymensingh, Chittagong and Dhaka are within highincome group. Among the low-income group the gross monthly income of Barisal,
Bandarban, Lalmonirhat, Netrokona, Meherpur, Rangamati, Khagrachari, Narail
and Jhalakathi are very low comparing to that of other districts. On the other
hand, within the middle income, the gross monthly income of Comilla, Tangail,
Khulna, Gazipur, Narayangonj, Rajshahi and Sirajgonj is considerable higher than
rest of the districts (Map 1).

Table 1 summarizes the result of spatial autocorrelation tests by using

Morans I (Equation 1). It can be seen that the standardized Morans I statistics is
positive (0.328) and statistically significant (0.008). This is clear evidence of the
existence of a pattern of positive spatial association. We can therefore conclude

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Regional Divergence of Income

29

that, in the Bangladesh setting, spatially adjacent districts tend on the whole to
exhibit a similar degree of income dispersion.
Table 1: Calculation of Morans I of Household Monthly Income (Million TK)

Mo
del

Unstandardized
Coefficients

(Constant)
Monthly Income
(Million TK)

Standardi
zed
Coefficien
ts

B
2411.382

Std. Error
192.204

Beta

.156

.057

.328

Sig.

12.546

.000

2.736

.008

a Dependent Variable: income_Y

Spatial concentration and disparity of public facilities

The extent of concentration of district-wise households provided by public
facilities was determined by applying Location Quotient (LQ) method (Equation
2). Considering the safe drinking water supply, the concentration of households is
highly deficient in Rangamati and Bandarban districts and moderately deficient
in Khagrachari, Bagerhat, Sylhet, Narail, Moulvibazar and Pirojpur. While in rest
fifty-six districts the concentration of households is self-sufficient (Appendix 1).
In case of hygienic sanitation facility, eleven districts of northwest and
southeast region of Bangladesh are highly deficient districts while Patuakhali and
Comilla are highly concentrated districts. On the other hand, seventeen districts
are self-sufficient districts apropos of hygienic sanitation facilities (Appendix 2).
Correspondingly fifteen districts are highly deficient regarding the
concentration of households facilitated by electricity supply. On the contrary,
fourteen districts are self-sufficient. The electricity-facilitated households are highly
concentrated in Narayangonj and Dhaka districts (Appendix 3)
Furthermore, spatial disparity of household for each facility was measured
by using Gini Index (3, 4 and 5). The Gini Indices of safe drinking water, hygienic
sanitation and electricity facility are 0.014, 0.636 and 0.493 respectively which
reveal that the inter-district disparity is very high in case of hygienic sanitation
facility and electricity supply. On the inter-district disparity is less in case of safe
drinking water (Appendix 4).

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Tamimaand Tamima

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30

Regional Divergence of Income

31

Inter-district discrimination in facility provision

The result of discrimination among the districts based on each of selected
three

public

services

categorized

the

districts

into

advantaged

and

disadvantaged groups (Equation 6) and reveals that twenty-three districts are in

disadvantaged group comparing to others in case of safe drinking water supply.
Although the discrimination indexes value of Chittagong, Meherpur and Sherpur is
almost equal to zero i.e. negligible (Appendix 5 and Map 2).
In the same way, twenty-six districts are in advantaged group in case of
hygienic sanitation facility. Nevertheless, within this group the index value is
comparatively high for Gazipur, Narayangonj, Jhalokathi, Khulna, Barisal, Dhaka,
Feni, Patuakhali, and Comilla districts (Appendix 5 and Map 3).
In case of electricity supply, seventeen districts are in advantaged group
(Appendix 5 and Map 4).

Comparative Evaluation
Finally a combined Discrimination Index of three facilities was derived for
the sixty-four districts. The combined index reveals that Bandarban, Rangamati
and Khagrachari districts are in moderately deprived group, while lowly deprived
group consists of forty-two districts (Map 5).
On the other hand, Narayangonj, Feni, Dhaka and Comilla are in
moderately benefited group and rests of the district are in lowly benefited group
(Map 5).
Finally, the comparison between income distribution and combined
discrimination index reveals that most of the districts of the low-income groups are
within lowly and moderately deprived group. While the high income districts e.g.
Dhaka and Chittagong are categorized as moderately and lowly benefited
districted respectively. The reason behind this scenario is that the major share of
monthly income of these low-income districts is rural income and the rural
communities are highly deprived of public facilities (Appendix 6). The lion share of
these rural households are involved in agriculture based activities who are usually
deprived in Bangladesh. Another reason is that most of the income generating
establishments are located only a selected number of districts e.g. Dhaka,
Chittagong, Narayangonj, Rajshahi, Sylhet, Joypurhat, Feni, Khulna, Bagerhat,

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Tamimaand Tamima

32

Jhenaidah, Chuadanga and Dinajpur (Map 6). This type of regional disparity
causes various problems like inter-district migration, inefficient utilization of local
resources and unplanned development, which lead excessive pressure on some
districts leaving rest of the districts undeveloped.

Conclusion
The paper examined the regional unequal distribution of income in
Bangladesh. The study carried out shows that inequality levels vary considerably
across regions. Nevertheless, the presence of positive spatial dependence in
regional inequality levels was detected in this study. This means that, in
Bangladesh, income is not randomly distributed in space, and therefore,
neighboring regions tend to register similar degrees of income dispersion. On the
other hand, the spatial disparity is very high in case of hygienic sanitation and
electricity supplies especially in the northern districts, Chittagong Hill Tracts and
coastal belt districts that are highly disadvantaged. The similar case is obvious in
case of provision of safe drinking water. Later on, comparative evaluation among
income distribution and discrimination index distribution reveals that those districts
that are within low-income groups are usually lowly and moderately deprived

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Regional Divergence of Income

33

from provision of public facilities. This is because households of these districts are
mainly involved in rural based income generating activities and almost deprived
of urban facilities. This sort of divergence of income is leading to disproportional
regional growth resulting lower national growth as a whole. Therefore, The
regional convergence in terms of income and public facilities is required for the
overall development of Bangladesh.

References
Anselin, L. (1995) Local indicators of spatial association LISA, Geographical
Analysis, 27(2).
Bahauddin, M. (1989) The Spatial Distribution of Physical Facilities in Bangladesh
unpublished

Undergraduate

project,

Urban

and

Regional

Planning

Department, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,, Dhaka.

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2001) Bangladesh Statistical Year Book. Dhaka:
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.
Culter, D. M., Glaseser, E. L. and Vidgor, J. L. (1999) The rise and decline of the
American ghetto Journal of Political Economy, 107(3): 455-506.
Duncan, O. D. and Duncan, B. (1955) A methodological analysis of discrimination
indexes, American Sociological Review, 20:210-217.
Lpez-Bazo E, Vaa E, Mora, A, Suriach, J. (1999) Regional economic dynamics
and convergence in the European Union, Annals of Regional Science, 33:
343-370.
Massey, D. S. and Denton, N. A. (1993) American Apartheid: Discrimination and
the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Pasha, K. (1991) Spatial Distribution of Socio-economic Facilities in Dhaka City,
unpublished

Undergraduate

project,

Urban

and

Regional

Planning

Department, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,, Dhaka.

Rey, S. and Montouri, B. (1999) US regional income convergence: a spatial
T

econometric perspective Regional Studies, 33: 143-156.

Zimeras, S. and Tsimbos, C. (n.d.) Modeling the Spatial Distribution of the
Immigrant

Population

in

Greece

viewed

<http://www.ecomod.org/files/papers/1394.pdf>

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12th
P

February

2008

Tamimaand Tamima

34

Appendix 1: Calculation of Location Quotient of the households facilitated by

services

District

Househol
Househol
Locati
ds
No of
Locati
ds
Households
Total
on
Location
Location
establishme
on
provided
facilitate
provided by
d
by
safe
household
Quotient
Quotient
Quoti
by
nts per Quotie
electricity
drinking
ent sanitary
10000
nt
water
faculties

Bagerhat
Bandarban
Barguna
Barisal
Bhola
Bogra

323505 205534 0.71 107636

60141
26042 0.49
6009
179968 149700 0.93 80263
48596
42049 0.97 30016
328670 297413 1.02 87732
688367 645502 1.05 209042
Brahmanbaria 402681
378192 1.05 186439
Chandpur
433768 372301 0.96 228529
Chittagong
1039690 914152 0.99 556284
Chudanga
225830 213593 1.06 47917
Comilla
808998 742710 1.03 806621
Cox'sbazar
296109 265269 1.01 93440
Dhaka
1438685 1292841 1.01 1021695
Dinajpur
579929 539662 1.04 89623
Faridpur
349458 330660 1.06 158426
Feni
193049 201621 1.17 140841
Gaibandha
493282 450008 1.02 55158
Gazipur
448258 412107 1.03 248358
Gopalganj
221986 206002 1.04 97392
Habiganj
322037 266934 0.93 88537
Jamalpur
481235 439087 1.02 93080
Jessore
524126 495221 1.06 193895
Jhalokati
144923 124186 0.96 83681
Jhenaidah
333396 319024 1.07 66230
Joypurhat
204317 194304 1.07 42685
Khagrachhari
109190
56674 0.58 17357
Khulna
499324 430639 0.97 295596
Kishoreganj
534770 489723 1.03 133107
Kurigram
397465 372585 1.05 122140
Kustia
379504 359698 1.06 136855
Lakshmipur
288736 247335 0.96 127807
Lalmonirhat
85264
74060 0.98 29228
Madaripur
231655 215810 1.05 41245
Magura
163949 157052 1.08 34179
Manikganj
276932 262470 1.06 115533
Maulvibazar
292889 208875 0.80 93657
Meherpur
117382 102355 0.98 22141
Munshiganj
214529 200267 1.05 109972
Mymensingh 1001476 910541 1.02 228742
Naogaon
540222 490862 1.02 88536
Narail
141071
97856 0.78 62110
Narayanganj 453627 419438 1.04 254456

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0.88
0.26
1.18
1.63
0.71
0.80
1.22
1.39
1.41
0.56
2.63
0.83
1.88
0.41
1.20
1.93
0.30
1.46
1.16
0.73
0.51
0.98
1.53
0.52
0.55
0.42
1.56
0.66
0.81
0.95
1.17
0.91
0.47
0.55
1.10
0.84
0.50
1.35
0.60
0.43
1.16
1.48

73201
8638
19964
13764
30514
170766
128498
133468
554424
66358
357050
55528
1152912
123759
73208
104948
53721
235769
33990
76230
78233
187037
27971
77534
53731
14604
216593
102772
29928
125749
68843
4352
72621
32005
78137
74426
33488
115896
164327
95741
26114
360949

0.75
0.48
0.37
0.94
0.31
0.82
1.06
1.02
1.77
0.97
1.46
0.62
2.66
0.71
0.69
1.80
0.36
1.74
0.51
0.78
0.54
1.18
0.64
0.77
0.87
0.44
1.44
0.64
0.25
1.10
0.79
0.17
1.04
0.65
0.94
0.84
0.95
1.79
0.54
0.59
0.61
2.64

796
1175
303
20
382
643
410
464
3573
455
526
375
7531
1058
550
468
438
682
249
495
572
743
81
612
430
1144
2843
808
543
671
294
139
246
251
392
352
158
219
654
1000
150
887

1.25
9.93
0.86
0.21
0.59
0.47
0.52
0.54
1.75
1.02
0.33
0.64
2.66
0.93
0.80
1.23
0.45
0.77
0.57
0.78
0.60
0.72
0.28
0.93
1.07
5.33
2.89
0.77
0.69
0.90
0.52
0.83
0.54
0.78
0.72
0.61
0.69
0.52
0.33
0.94
0.54
0.99

Regional Divergence of Income

35

Narsingdi
385361 356431 1.04 153346
Natore
337311 312043 1.04 88608
Nawabganj
275707 259837 1.06 40671
Netrokona
118954 107014 1.01 17558
Nilphamari
335178 287441 0.96 46022
Noakhali
460394 412199 1.01 198870
Pabna
448290 420682 1.05 115587
Panchagarh 178957 147372 0.92 41668
Patuakhali
272984 244988 1.01 211686
Pirojpur
232962 167369 0.81 90502
Rajbari
191492 183114 1.07 59948
Rajshahi
503036 483977 1.08 146830
Rangamati
102820
42837 0.47 19854
Rangpur
579902 529883 1.03 95431
Satkhira
390745 330517 0.95 140609
Shariatpur
213677 193574 1.02 78996
Sherpur
301706 267809 1.00 90435
Sirajganj
562708 525340 1.05 132177
Sunamganj
349558 267018 0.86 72424
Sylhet
423670 271512 0.72 179632
Tangail
723111 655876 1.02 283617
Tharkurgaon 257816 242489 1.06 26434
Source: calculated by authors, 2008

1.05
0.69
0.39
0.39
0.36
1.14
0.68
0.62
2.05
1.03
0.83
0.77
0.51
0.43
0.95
0.98
0.79
0.62
0.55
1.12
1.04
0.27

170623
84471
55963
13094
45355
136489
137299
15180
40176
46642
27658
143279
22269
108130
72442
29182
33453
130352
35185
145020
184220
39753

1.47
0.83
0.67
0.36
0.45
0.98
1.02
0.28
0.49
0.66
0.48
0.94
0.72
0.62
0.61
0.45
0.37
0.77
0.33
1.13
0.84
0.51

672
353
362
59
429
296
716
310
353
451
304
2706
2044
721
410
344
325
462
377
834
566
229

0.89
0.53
0.67
0.25
0.65
0.33
0.81
0.88
0.66
0.98
0.81
2.73
10.11
0.63
0.53
0.82
0.55
0.42
0.55
1.00
0.40
0.45

Appendix 2: Calculation of Gini Index

b
c
Safe drinking water
0.68
0.32
supply
6.36
4.72
92.96
95.28
14.96
5.79
34.93
23.50
Hygienic water
23.39
24.66
supply
22.21
34.82
4.52
11.24
15.1
5.55
42.46
29.05
Electricity supply
19.55
20.14
14.99
24.30
7.90
20.96
22.17
8.43
42.80
27.95
Income generating
17.20
16.31
establishments
6.50
10.27
11.33
37.03
Source: calculated by authors, 2008

http://www.bdresearchpublications.com/journal/

a+c
0.32
5.04
100.32
5.79
29.29
53.95
88.77
100.01
5.55
34.60
54.74
79.04
100.00
8.43
36.38
52.69
62.96
99.99

a+(a+c) b*(a+(a+c)) Total Gini Index

0.32
0.218
5.36
34.129 9858.538 0.014
105.68 9824.191
5.79
86.618
49.89
1742.54
38.35
896.918 3639.357 0.636
37.17
825.266
19.48
88.015
5.55
83.805
40.15 1704.949
60.29 1178.478 5069.327 0.493
84.59
1267.98
105.55 834.115
8.43
186.893
44.81
1918.15
61.12 1051.113 4848.668 0.515
71.39
463.987
108.42 1228.524

Tamimaand Tamima

36

Appendix 3: Calculation of Discrimination Index

Districts
Bandarban
Khagrachhari
Rangamati
Sunamganj
Gaibandha
Nilphamari
Panchagarh
Netrokona
Bagerhat
Tharkurgaon
Naogaon
Rangpur
Bhola
Lalmonirhat
Jamalpur
Maulvibazar
Nawabganj
Mymensingh
Dinajpur
Sherpur
Pirojpur
Kurigram
Narail
Habiganj
Meherpur
Kishoreganj
Magura
Jhenaidah
Barguna
Satkhira
Sirajganj
Cox'sbazar
Sylhet
Shariatpur
Rajbari
Joypurhat
Madaripur
Natore
Chudanga
Bogra
Pabna
Gopalganj
Lakshmipur
Rajshahi
Tangail

http://www.bdresearchpublications.com/journal/

Discrimination Discrimination Discrimination Combined

Index for
Index for
Index for Discrimination
water
sanitation
electricity
Index
-0.229
-0.140
-0.080
-0.448
-0.187
-0.110
-0.080
-0.381
-0.238
-0.090
-0.040
-0.374
-0.064
-0.090
-0.100
-0.253
0.011
-0.140
-0.100
-0.224
-0.017
-0.120
-0.080
-0.224
-0.034
-0.070
-0.110
-0.217
0.004
-0.120
-0.100
-0.208
-0.129
-0.020
-0.040
-0.191
0.025
-0.140
-0.070
-0.189
0.009
-0.110
-0.060
-0.164
0.012
-0.110
-0.060
-0.157
0.007
-0.060
-0.110
-0.155
-0.011
-0.020
-0.130
-0.155
0.011
-0.090
-0.070
-0.154
-0.090
-0.030
-0.020
-0.144
0.026
-0.120
-0.050
-0.141
0.010
-0.080
-0.070
-0.141
0.020
-0.110
-0.050
-0.140
-0.002
-0.040
-0.100
-0.138
-0.087
0.010
-0.050
-0.133
0.024
-0.040
-0.120
-0.128
-0.099
0.030
-0.060
-0.127
-0.031
-0.050
-0.030
-0.117
-0.009
-0.100
-0.010
-0.113
0.013
-0.070
-0.060
-0.109
0.034
-0.090
-0.050
-0.105
0.034
-0.090
-0.040
-0.093
-0.030
0.030
-0.100
-0.092
-0.023
-0.010
-0.060
-0.091
0.022
-0.070
-0.040
-0.087
0.003
-0.030
-0.060
-0.087
-0.127
0.020
0.020
-0.083
0.008
0.000
-0.080
-0.080
0.033
-0.030
-0.080
-0.079
0.030
-0.090
-0.020
-0.075
0.021
-0.100
0.010
-0.075
0.017
-0.060
-0.030
-0.067
0.028
-0.080
0.000
-0.060
0.024
-0.040
-0.030
-0.042
0.024
-0.060
0.000
-0.035
0.019
0.030
-0.070
-0.026
-0.017
0.030
-0.030
-0.017
0.036
-0.040
-0.010
-0.016
0.008
0.010
-0.020
-0.009

Ranking
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Regional Divergence of Income

Faridpur
0.028
0.040
Noakhali
0.002
0.030
Jhalokati
-0.017
0.100
Kustia
0.029
-0.010
Manikganj
0.029
0.020
Jessore
0.028
0.000
Chandpur
-0.017
0.080
Brahmanbaria
0.025
0.040
Barisal
-0.013
0.120
Narsingdi
0.017
0.010
Patuakhali
0.003
0.200
Khulna
-0.014
0.110
Chittagong
-0.006
0.080
Munshiganj
0.022
0.070
Gazipur
0.015
0.090
Narayanganj
0.017
0.090
Feni
0.077
0.180
Comilla
0.014
0.320
Dhaka
0.004
0.180
Source: calculated by authors, 2008

http://www.bdresearchpublications.com/journal/

37
-0.050
0.000
-0.050
0.020
-0.010
0.030
0.000
0.010
-0.010
0.070
-0.080
0.070
0.120
0.120
0.110
0.250
0.120
0.070
0.270

0.019
0.027
0.028
0.035
0.039
0.051
0.062
0.076
0.098
0.099
0.126
0.162
0.197
0.210
0.218
0.362
0.376
0.406
0.446

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5