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c 3.00 108 m s
Light travels through transparent materials at a speed less than its speed in a
vacuum. When light enters one material from another, such as from air to water, it
also changes its direction of propagation, an effect known as refraction.
c 3 10 8 m / s
v
1.24 10 8 m / s
n
2.419
n1 sin q1 n2 sin q 2
(a)
n1 sin q1 1.00sin 46
sin q 2
0.54
n2
1.33
q 2 33
(b)
n1 sin q1 1.33sin 46
sin q 2
0.96
n2
1.00
q 2 74
APPARENT DEPTH
0.69
n1
1.00
n1 sin q1 n2 sin q 2
For small angles,
sinq tanq
a
a
n1 n2
d
d'
n2
d d
n1 q
2
n2
n1
q1
Example: You are looking into a pool that is 2.00 m deep. How deep the pool
appears to be?
n2 = 1.00
n1 = 1.33
di
n2
1
d d 2.00m
1.50m
1.33
n1
(Here we used the approximation of small angles.)
The pool appears to be shallower than it really is.
n2
d d
n1
The coin is in the air, so n1 = 1.00
The swimmer is in water, so n2 = 1.33
n2
1
n1
d' d
n1 sinq1 n2 sinq2
Light exits glass into air:
n2 sinq2 n3 sinq3
From these two equations it follows that
n1 sinq1 n3 sinq3
But n1 = n3, therefore:
q1 q 3
The incident and the emergent rays are tilted from the vertical by angles q1 and q3,
and q1 = q3. Therefore they are parallel to each other, but as the diagram shows,
they are displaced relative to each other.
When q1 increases, q2 also increases, and always q2 > q1 because n1 > n2. At a
certain critical angle q1 = qc < 90o, q2 becomes 90o. When q1 exceeds qc, there
is no refracted light anymore; light reflects back into the denser medium. This
effects is known as total internal reflection. It can occur only when light strikes the
interface from an optically denser medium. An expression for qc can be obtained
from Snells law:
n1 sinqc n2 sin90
n2
sin q c
n1
n1 n2
Example. A beam of light is propagating through diamond and strikes the diamondair interface at an angle of incidence of 28 degrees. (a) Will part of the beam enter
the air or will there be total internal reflection? (b) Repeat part (a) assuming that the
diamond is surrounded by water.
(a)
n2
1.00
q c sin sin 1
24.4
2.42
n1
1
c
n
2
.
42
Total reflection of light can be achieved using simple glass instead of mirrors. In
these examples, glass prisms are used to reflect light at 90 or 180 degrees. The
refractive index of glass is n1 = 1.52.
n2
1
sinqc
0.66
n 1 1.52
The incidence angle qi = 45o is greater than the critical angle qc = 41o, so at qi =
45o there is no refraction, light is totally reflected: total internal reflection does occur.
Dispersion
The refractive index of a transparent material can be
expressed through the physical properties of the material:
n 1
Ne 2
2 0 me w02 w 2
n f
The dependence of wave speed and refractive index on wavelength is called dispersion.
Rainbow
Light entering the raindrop is white light.
After refraction, reflection from the back
surface, and a second refraction, it
becomes dispersed light. As shown in
lower left picture, rays with certain
wavelengths (colors) generated by
different drops reach the observers eyes,
creating a sensation of the rainbow.
Lenses
When two prisms are combined, parallel rays coming from a far away object bend relative
to the central axis. When you use a converging lens (upper right) or a diverging lens
(lower right), which have more complex surfaces than the flat surface of the prism,
paraxial rays that are parallel to the principal axis converge to the focal point of a
converging lens and can be traced back to converge at the focal point of a diverging lens.
Thus, lenses refract light in a way to create the image of the object. The image point is at
the other side of the converging lens and at the same side of the diverging lens as the
incident rays (the object). For thin lenses, the focal length is much larger that the lens
thickness.
In this example, when the object is placed further than twice the focal
length from the lens, the real image is inverted and smaller than the
object.
When the object is placed between F and 2F, the real image is inverted and
larger than the object.
When the object is placed between F and the lens, the virtual image is upright
and larger than the object.
Relationships between the object and the image created by a lens, i.e. relationships
between do, di, f, ho and hi, are given by the
1 1 1
do di f
hi
di
m
ho
do
A thin lens has thickness much less than its focal length; light passing through its
center is considered not to be displaced.
(a)
1 1 1
1
1
19.6 m 1
di f d o 0.0500 m 2.50 m
di 0.0510 m
(b)
di
0.0510 m
0.0204
do
2.50 m
inverted image
Lenses in Combination
More than one lens can be
used to create large images.
The lens closer to the object is
called the objective, and the
second lens is called the
eyepiece (or the ocular).
The image produced by the
objective serves as the object
for the eyepiece, which creates
the final image. The shapes
(focal lengths) and relative
locations of the objective and
the eyepiece can be selected
so that the first image is
created between the eyepiece
and its focal point Fe. Then the
final image is a virtual and
significantly enlarged image.
For clear vision, light coming from the object should be refracted in a way to create
a sharp image on the retina. The various structures of the eye have refractive
indices from 1.33 to 1.4, so the greatest refraction (~70%) occurs at the air/cornea
interface. While the lens only contributes about 20-25% of the refraction, it provides
formation of image on the retina. The image distance, di, is the distance from the
lens to the retina and is constant. The thin lens equation can be satisfied for all
objects at various distances do if the focal
= constant
length f is changing correspondingly. The eye
1 1 1
changes the curvature (and hence f) of the
d o di f
lens using the ciliary muscle.
1 1 1
const
di f d o
Near point 20-50 cm
NEARSIGHTEDNESS
The lens of a nearsighted (myopic) eye cannot adopt a focal length large enough to
create the image of far away objects on the retina. The Image is created in front of
retina and is seen as a blurred image. This can be corrected using diverging lenses,
which create an image of the object at the far pint of the nearsighted eye (closer than
the real object)
1 1 1
d o di f
Example. A nearsighted person has a far point located only 521 cm from
the eye. Assuming that eyeglasses are to be worn 2 cm in front of the
eye, find the focal length needed for the diverging lens of the glasses
so the person can see distant objects.
He job of the diverging lens is to cerate an image at the far point of the eye.
The object distance is practically infinity, and the image distance from the
lens is 521 cm 2 cm = 519 cm. But the image is virtual, hence di = -519 cm.
1 1 1 1
1
f d o d i 519 cm
f 519 cm
FARSIGHTEDNESS
The lens of a farsighted (hyperopic) eye cannot adopt a focal length short enough to
create the image of nearby objects on the retina. Image on the retina again is a
blurred image. This can be corrected using converging lenses, which create an
image of a close object at the near pint of the farsighted eye (farther than the real
object)
1 1 1
d o di f
1
Refractive power (in diopters)
f in meters
1 diopter = 1 m-1
Since a converging lens has a positive focal length and a diverging lens has a
negative focal length, they have positive and negative refractive powers,
respectively.
Example: A converging lens has a focal length of 0.25 m. What is its refractive
power?
subtended by the object. The angle q is called the angular size of both the image
and the object.
ho
q in radians Angular size
do
Penny:
ho 1.9 cm
q
0.027 rad
d o 71 cm
Moon:
ho 3.5 106 m
q
0.0090 rad
8
d o 3.9 10 m
Optical instruments magnify the angular size of the object (and of the image). The
angular magnification (or the angular power) M is the ratio of the angular sizes of
the image with and without the instrument.
q
M
q
Angular
magnification
of a magnifying
glass:
1 1
M N
f di
Larger magnifications can be obtained using lenses with shorter focal lengths. This,
however, doesnt mean M can be increased as much as you want by using highly
curved lenses with shorter focal lengths, because of lens aberration effects.
L f e N
M
fo fe
L fo fe
The Telescope
A telescope provides the image of large objects that are far away. Refracting telescopes have
an objective with a larger focal length and an eyepiece with a shorter focal length, and they
are positioned in a way that their focal points coincide. The objective creates a reduced real
image I at point F1 (or F2), which then serves as an object for the eyepiece that creates a
virtual image at infinity.
The angular magnification of a refracting telescope is the ratio of the focal lengths of the
objective and the eyepiece:
fo
fe
Reflecting Telescope
In a reflecting telescope, the objective is replaced by a concave mirror that has several
advantages compared to a lens; there is no chromatic aberration (dependence of f on l) and
other aberrations are easily corrected. The light reflected from the large primary mirror can
either be focused to a cage that records the image, e.g. by a CCD camera (left panel), or can
be reflected by a plane secondary mirror to the observer (middle and right panels).
Lens Aberrations
We have learned that sharp images are created by spherical mirrors or lenses for paraxial
rays that arrive at small angles relative to the principal axis. When incident rays are not
paraxial and arrive at a wide range of angles, spherical aberration occurs with both
converging and diverging lenses with spherical surfaces, preventing formation of a sharp
image. This is called monochromatic aberration.
Suppose the rays shown in red are nearly paraxial and converge at point P. The purple rays
are not paraxial and converge at a different point P. All rays converge at a circle of least
confusion. These effects of aberration can be minimized by decreasing the aperture (shown
as blue bars) and thus removing non-paraxial rays.
Chromatic Aberration
Chromatic aberrations result from dispersion, i.e., the dependence of the refractive index on
the wavelength.
1
n
f l
The incident white light is dispersed into different colors, each of which is deviated to different
degrees. It appears that different color components of the light have different focal lengths
and produce images at different locations. This results in rainbow fringes in binoculars that do
not contain additional corrective lenses or mirrors.
Chromatic aberration can be reduced
using a compound lens, such as a
converging a diverging lens combined
together. The two lenses are made of
glass with different refractive index and
together form an achromatic lens. Blue
light undergoes more refraction than red
light, so the aberration created by the
converging lens is inversed (corrected) by
aberration in the diverging lens.