Digatron firing circuitBATTERY TEST GUIDE By Mike Weighall ABOUT THE AUTHOR Mike Weighall is an independent consultant with 35 years experience in the battery industry. He obtained his Chemistry degree from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST). He has spent most of his working career associated with the battery industry, in a range of technical and managerial roles with major UK employers, including Lucas, ‘Crompton, Cookson, and ENTEK International. This has included responsibilty for the Battery Test Laboratories at Crompton Batteries (now Hawker Energy Products) and setting up and running the laboratory at Cookson Entek/ ENTEK Intemational. As a result, Mike has extensive practical experience of the planning and implementa- tion of test schedules for a range of battery tests for SLI, Motive Power and VRLA applications. €2000, Digevoniing Grou, no, All Fights RosorvedTABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction... What is a Battery? Battery Types and Applications. ‘The Purpose and Importance of Battery Testing, Test Battery Sampling/ Scheduling and Statistical Analysis of Data National / International Test Standards. Basic Definitions and Data. 7.4 Definitions. 72 Influence of Discharge Fate on Capacity 78 _Infuenee of Temperature on Cap acy nnn 7. Acid Density 75 Open Circuit Voltage. 76 Influence of Temperature on Specific Gravity and Votage, 7.7 Peukert Equation. : 78 Reference Electro 7.9 General Test Requirements Test Equipment Requirements. Guidance on Laboratory Size, Equipment and Layout relative to _Battery Throughput. Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Batteries... 1" Automotive (SLI) Battery Te: 11.1 Key Parameters. 112 Test Sequence 113 SAE J2d0 Life Cycle Motorcycle Batteries. Lead-Acid Traction Batteries... 18.1 Industrial Trucks... a 13.1.1 Typical Test Sequence ~ 13.1.2 Key Parameters. 13.1.3 Specific Values ... 18.2. Light Electric Road Vehicles . 45 18.2.1 Key Parameters ono simintacenn 1 133° Deep Cycle Batteries. "16 Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries... 14.1 Type Testing of Vented Stationary Batteries 7 44.1.1 Specific Requirements... senna 142° Classification of Valve Regulated Types 143° Planté Type. a 144° General tnformation Aircraft Batteries 15.1 Type Approval Tests.. 152 General Requirements. 15.3 Acceptance Tests.. 15.4 Other Key Parameters 185. Spocialzed Test Equipment Requirements.Battery Charging... 16.1 General 162 SLI Battones. 163 Stationary Batteries. 164 Valve Regulated Batteries (VALA) 16.5 General Guidance. 166 Charging Temperature 16.7 Series / Parallol Arrangement of Cell... ‘Accelerated Battery Tests atten BB 23 Unusual Battery Applications and Test Procedures... Evaluation of Test Results Internal Battery Examination, Future Battery Developments eens FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure 1. Charge and Discharge Reactions for the Lead-Acid Battery 2 Figure 2. Percentage of the 20 hour Capacity Available at (Other Rates of Discharge 3 Figure 3. Typical Capacity Discharges at + 25°C. aot Figure 4. High Rate Performance at -18°C . sas 4 Figure 5. Efectof Temperature on High Rate Battery Performance vn a5 Figure 6. Influence of Discharge Rate and Temperature on Relative Capacity. 5 Figure 7. High Rate Discharge at 315 Amps at -18°C at Different Fully Charged Specific Gravities.... of 6 Figure 8. Relationship Between Open-Circut Voltage, Speciic Gravity, and Capacity of Batteries at 25°C r Figure 9. Temperature Correction of s.g. for Reference Temperature of 25°C. 8 Figure 10. Example Laboratory Layout aba Figure 11. Dynamic Capacity Test. (EN 60254 -1). i 15 Figure 12. Discharge Characteristic for Short Circuit Test (Stationary Battery BS EN 60896)... ete Figure 13. Typical Test Circult (Stationary Battery BS EN 60896)... 19 Figure 14. Series or Parallel connection of cells... a - Tables Table 1. Twin Cadmium Readings Table 2. Cold Crank Test Methods ‘Table 3. Typical Stationary Lead-Acid Battery Applications. s Table 4. Typical Types and Construction of Stationary Lead-Acid Batterie Table. Stationary Battery Test Schedule (BS EN 60896) Table 6. Performance Class of VALA Batteries. — Table 7. Final Discharge Voltages for Stationary Cells. 20 ‘Appendices Appendix 1. Examples of National Intemational Test Standards... 26 Appendix 2. Some Basic Electrochemical Terms. i.1. INTRODUCTION “The intention of this guide is that it will be of value to both the novice and the expert in the art of battery testing {t wil provide guidance concerning the equipment that will be needad to set up a battery test laboratory, and the type of tests that will be required. Reference will be made to commonly used national or international test specifications and their relevance to specific battery applications. itis directed primarily at tho testing of lead acid batteries, and all the referenced test specifications relate to lead-acid batteries. However, the equipment used for testing lead- ‘cid batteries is normally also suitable for testing other battery types. Many of the basic definitions are also valid for other battery types. For the benefit of the novice, the first part of the brochure will deal with some of the basic definitions, including the most basic one of all ‘What is a battery?” 2. WHAT IS A BATTERY? Abattery is @ source of electrical energy, which is stored fas chemical energy. Typically it contains two dissimilar ‘metals or metallic compounds, immersed in an electrolyte - usually a liquid and separated by a separator. The metals of metallic compounds are called electrodes. A difference in potential or voltage is developed between the electrodes, land when connected togather by an external load e.g. a light bulb, chemical reactions take place inside the battery and electrical current flows through the external circuit. ‘The electrolyte in which the electrodes are immersed can be a liquid es in the lead-acid battery, or a solid paste to make the battery unspillable as in the dry-cell battery used for torches, radios etc. Some sealed lead-acid batteries use a gelled electrolyte, or a starved electrolyte design in which the acid is absorbed in a specially absorbent Glass mat. These are known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries (VRLA), because the internal cell pressure is controlled by a re-sealable valve. The terms battery and cell are often used interchange- ably. A cellis a single unit having a voltage which is characteristic of the battery systom e.g. a lead-acid battery has a cell voltage of about 2 volts. A battery may consist of one or more cells, normally connected in series. For example, a car battery has 6 cells connected in series to give a voltage of 12 volts, Batteries fall into two main groups - Primary or ‘Secondary. A Primary battery is one in which the electrical current can only be supplied until the materials in the battery are exhausted. The chemical reactions are not reversible, and the battery cannot be recharged. When it ‘can deliver no further power, it has to be thrown away. Examples are zine-carbon and alkaline manganese dry cells widely used in various electrical items such as radios, cassette players, toys etc. ‘A Secondary battery or Storage battery is one in which the chemical reactions that take place are reversible. Electrical power can be drawn from the battery until the chemicals are used up and the battery is discharged. The battery can be recharged and the materials converted back, into the original charged materials by applying a charging, ‘current in the reverse direction to the discharging current. ‘This cycle of charge and discharge can be cartied out many times before the battery fails. ‘The lead-acid battery is an example of the Secondary battery. Nickel-cadmium is also a secondary battery and competes with lead-acid in some applications e.g. standby power, telecommunications etc. New battery technologies are also emerging e.g. nickel metal-hydride, nickel-zinc, lithium-ion and lithium-polymer systems. In the lead-acid system the electrodes are lead and lead dioxide, and the electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid, During discharge, both electrodes are converted to lead sulfate. Recharge converts them back to the original lead and lead dioxide. The number of charge/discharge cycles that can be carried out before the battery falls depends on the battery design and its application. The charge and discharge reactions are well known, and aro shown in Figure 1. Unlike most other battery systems, in the lead-acid battery the electrolyte (sulfuric acid) actually takes part in the electrochemical reaction. Measurement of the density of the electrolyte - and monitoring of the electrolyte density at the end of charge or the end of discharge - provides a useful indicator of the state of charge or state of health of the battery. 3. BATTERY TYPES AND APPLICATIONS This brochure will concentrate on the testing of lead- ‘acid batteries but some of the general principles will also bbe valid for the testing of other battery types. Lead-acid batteries are used in a wide range of applications, and the intended application has to be taken into account when deciding on the range of tests to be carried out. Some of the broad applications include: m= SLI — Starting, Lighting, Ignition. + Automotive ‘+ Heavy Duty Automotive + Truck + Normal maintenance/low maintenance/ maintenance free, + Motor-cycle. = Motive Power (Traction) * Industrial Trucks + Light Electric Road Vehicles + Deep Cycle Marine + Golf Car + Floor Maintenance Machinery = Stationaryistandby * Vented (flooded) + Sealed (VRLA) + Planté type + Flat Plate + Tubular wm Aircraft * Vented + Sealed (VRLA) All the applications listed above are the subject of rational and/or international specifications. I is not the intention of this brochure to provide details ofall these specifications. A listing of some of them is included in Appendix 2 for guidance. This brochure will give guidance ‘concerning the general tost methods for each of the above applications, and where appropriate will highlight differences between specific commonly used test specifications. ‘At the moment, the variety of national test standards, ‘can be confusing, but IEC Committees are currentlyOriginal Material Used lonization Program Current Producing Process Final Products of Discharge Final Products of Discharge Ionization Process Process Produced by Current Original Mater Restored Negative plate Negative plate Positive plate | Electrolyte | ‘4H20 ro Less amt used 24) 2H20 Discharge Reactions LB aoe Electrolyte | Positive plate ' pbees k ela ers tl H2S0,! PbO» Charge Reactions Figure 1. Charge and Discharge Reactions for the Lead-Acid Battery developing intemational standards wich itis anticipated will eventually supersede the various national standards. 4. THE PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF BATTERY TESTING = To ensure that the battery meats its design (rated) capacity, and to provide certification to customers. = To highlight specific manufacturing problems. = For sales promotion e.g. to show that the battery performance andior life is better than that of ‘competitors batteries. As part of the design process for anew battery type or an improved battery design. = As patt ofthe battery manufacturers or materials, suppliers research and development program e.g. looking at new or improved materials (e.g. new separator or grid alloy) 5. TEST BATTERY SAMPLING/SCHEDULING AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA Itis an unfortunate fact that battery manufacturers and battery test laboratories often forget to consider the influence Cf sample size on the validity of test data, and rarely subject the test results to any form of statistical analysis. Even with, ‘modern equipment and production techniques, the variation between one battery and another in the same batch can be surprisingly large. There will be an even greater variation between batteries from different batches (e.g. made on ifferent days from different paste mixes etc.). In order to 2bbe able to draw valid conclusions from the battery test data, certain precautions must be taken. 1. The sample size must be decided based on established statistical techniques. For a specific sample, a minimum of 5 batteries is needed. The guidance given in the relevant test specification should be followed where appropriate, Sample requirements may differ dependent ‘on the purpose of the test e.g. whether the testing is part of a research and development program or for rou- tine production/quality control checking. For production! quality control, decisions also have to be taken as to how frequently batteries are sampled from the produc- tion line (every day? every week?) 2. Test data should be analyzed using established statistical techniques. 3, Where comparisons are being made between different bbatterios 0.9. because of an intemal design change ‘such as a new grid alloy or separator, the results need to be analyzed using established statistical techniques, to determine whether any observed citferences are sta- ‘istically significant. For example, the “Students “test” for small sampies can be used. 4, Standards are available for sampling procedures, acceptable quality level etc., for example BS 6001-1: 1999. Appendix 1 gives more detail 6, NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL TEST STANDARDS, ‘Some of the most important test standards are ‘summarized in Appendix 1 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND DATA 7A Definitions “The electrical energy supplied by the battery can be used in a number of different ways, but essentially an ‘electrical current is drawn from the battery for a defined period of time, at a voltage which is characteristic of the battery system. However, the battery voltage may vary as the battery is discharged, and eventually the voltage of the battery will fall too law to carry out the desired work e.9. powering a light bulb, running an electric motor etc. The battery size, weight and design have to be such as to meet, the requirements of the duty application. The purpose of testing the battery is to ensure that it meets these design requirements. Basic electrochemical definitions and battery property definitions are summarized in Appendix 2. 7.2 Influence of discharge rate on capacity. “The capacity ofa battery ata given temperature will be influenced by the rate at which itis discharged — the higher the discharge rate the lower the actual capacity. An example of this is shown in Figure 2 where the capacity of a battery at different rates of discharge is shown as a % of the 20- hour rate capacity, In this particular example, the capacity at the 10-hour rate fs only 88% ofthe capacity atthe 20-hour rate; atthe S-hour rate itis only 75% ofthe 20-hour rate ‘capacity. This influence of the discharge rate on capacity is shown ina diferent way in Figure 3, where the capacity of a battery with a 10-hour rate capacity of 6OAh is shown at 3 diferent discharge currents. The influence of discharge rate on capacity is even more marked at high currents and low temperatures, as shown in 100 % Capacity ° 2 ‘ ‘ s 0 now «wm wm mw Discharge Time -Hours Figure 2. Percentage of the 20 hour Capacity Available at Other Rates of DischargeFigure 4, where the high rate performance at -18°C is shown for different discharge currents from 210 amps to 600 amps. From this curve it should also be noted that the slope of the voltage curve becomes steeper the highor the discharge current. 7.3 Influence of temperature on capacity. The lower the temperature the lower the capacity of the battery. This is because the electrochemical reactions take Bb place more slowly at low temperatures, and the viscosity and resistivity of the acid increase. Formulae are available to calculate the influence of a change in temperature on the capacity of the battery (see belon).. Figure 5 shows the influence of temperature on high rate battery performance for a typical battery discharged at ‘2 current of 340 amps. It can be seen that a reduction in the temperature affects the average discharge voltage as well as the discharge time. 75 AMS . 5 1 1s » Discharge 0 ure 9. Typical Capacity Discharges at +25°C. Figure 4. High Rate Porformance at -18°C.Figure 6 shows the influence of both discharge rate and ‘temperature on relative capacty over a temperature range from -50°C to +27°C, and a discharge rate from 1 min to 600 min. ‘Some test specifications include a formula to enable temperature correction of the capacity if the measured average temperature is different from the reference temperature. This formula is typically of the form: Coa CMI + At te) Where: Ca = actual capacity (comected for temperature) C= measured capacity temperature coefficient of capacity. yeasured temperature ‘w= reference temperature. ‘When using this equation, the value of \ used should be the value given in the relevant test specification (or by the battery manufacturer), as diferent specifications give different values for A, from d = 0.006, to d = 0.010. This is because the temperature cooffcient is also affected by the test temperature range and the discharge time. Battery Voltage ° as 1 1s 2 25 3 35 ‘ 4s 5 Diacharge Time- Minutes Figure 5. Etfect of Temperature on High Rate Battery Performance Sh of Sr, Rat Capacty 40 0 ‘0 “wo Discharge Rate Minutes Figure 6, Influence of Discharge Rate and Temperature on Relative Capacity7.4 Acid Density (specific gravity) Changes in the acid density have a slighty diferent ctfect on the positive and negative plates in the battery. However, in general, a lower capacity is obtained if the specific gravity of the acid is reduced. For example, a change from 1.280 to 1.240 s.9. will reduce the capacity by up fo 11% at the 10-hour discharge rate, and up to 40% at the high discharge rate (Z-minute rate). This effect is important, because batteries intended for operation in tropical climates may be specified with a lower top of charge spectic gravity than batteries intended for operation in temperate climates. An example of the influence of spe- cific gravity on capacity is shown in Figure 7. The main ‘graph shows the influence on the high rate capacity, while the inset table shows the influence on capacity at the 10- hour rate (6.8 amps). The effect of acid specific gravity on Capacity is much greater at a high rete of discharge than at low discharge rate. In the example shown, the high rate capacity at 1.240 s.g. is only 60% ofthat at 1.280 5.9; at the 10-hour rate, the capacity at the lower s.g. is 88% of that with the higher acid s.o, 7.5 Open Circuit Voltage The open circuit voltage of a fully charged lead acid cell (at 1.280 5.g,) is ~ 2.12v (~ 12.70 v fora 12 volt battery). Measurement of the open circuit cell / battery voltage can provide a good indication of the state of charge of the cell or battery, and of the specific gravity of the acid. However, the open circuit voltage is also influenced by the fully charged specitic gravity of the acid (0.9. ciferent fully charged acid s.g. for tropical climate and temperate climate batteries). These relationships are shown in Figure 8. lt should be noted that if the battery has been on charge within the previous 24 hours, then the open circuit voltage: ‘may be higher than the equiliorium voltages shown in this, ‘graph. Discharging the battery for a few seconds only will restore the “equilibrium” voltage while having no significant effect on the capacity of the battery. 7.6 Influence of temperature on specific gravity and voltage Specific gravity decreases as temperature increases, and vice versa. Different test methods may specify the fully charged specific gravity of a battery at different reference temperatures e.g. 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 26.8°C (80°F). When ‘measuring the specific gravy of the battery electrolyte, itis, important that the temperature is also recorded and the measured specttic gravity is corrected to the required reference temperature. The temperature correction used is as follows: For every 10°C below the specified reference tempera- ture, subtract 0,007 from the observed hydrometer read- ing, For every 10°C above the specified reference temperature, ‘add 0.007 to the observed hydrometer reading. or: For every 10°F below the specified reference temperature, subtract 0.004 from the observed hydrometer reading For every 10°F above the specified reference temperature, ‘add 0.004 to the observed hydrometer reading. This relationship is shown graphically in Figure 9., ‘Temperature correction of the battery voltage on éharge ‘can be made using the following formula: °C. Vaz /, +N x 0.0083(T Tp) , i fe , ft. 3 | curacao aeed Ley casan ; amp aan se & : : Discharge Time - Minutes, Figure 7. High Rate Discharge at 315 Amps at -18°C at Ditferent Fully Charged Specific Gravities, 2 2‘capac 2h Rae o> & » bs & 13.00 ee ee 120089 ) Tomporature Eloctolyt: 1.280 6.9. Tempers Gimote Sater nil A 1.20 ‘na Aages 10 ans 210 Open Circuit Cell Voltage 200 Open Circuit Battery Voltage 5 7150 ‘Specific Gravity of Acid: 1.95 7200 1250 7300 5° Figure 8. Relationship Betweon Open-Circuit Voltage, Specific Gravity, and Capacity of Batteries at 25°C Va = Va + Nx0.00385(T, - Tp) Where: Vp = Voltage at the reference temperature. Va = Actual voltage as measured at the actual tempera ture. Number of cells. T= Actual temperature, Ta = Reference temperature, ‘The temperature also has an effect on open-circuit battery voltage, although the effect is smaller and usually less important. 4 rise in temperature is accompanied by a rise in open circuit voltage, the value is +0.20 millivolts per degree centigrade. 7.7 Peukert equation ‘As we have seen already, the battery capacity is dependent upon the rate at which the battery is dis- charged: the higher the rate, the lower the battery capacity The Peukert equation defines this relationship between the ccurrent and the discharge time as shown below: rm ‘Cand n are constants, and can be evaluated by testing a battery at 2 diferent discharge rates, and inserting values for | and tin the equation. This enables the con- stants n and C to be calculated, and the equation can then bbe used to calculate the discharge time for any other dis- charge rate, or vice versa. The way to do this is shown in the example below: ‘Assume that |, and lp are the two discharge rates, and land t, are the discharge times: Lt, =e = 0, nlog ly = log C- log ty. N log Ip = log C- log ta. log t, - log t, log 1, - log 1, 7.8 Reference electrodes Connecting a voltmeter across the terminals of a cell or battery gives a record ofits overall voltage, ie. the potential difference between the positive and the negative plates. It does not yield specific information about the potential of the individual positive or negative plates. This information may be useful it, for example, itis desired to establish whether it is the positive or negative plates which have failed first at the end of a discharge. Individual plate potentials need to be measured against another electrode or “reference” electrode. For research laboratory use, the best reference electrode is the mercury! mercurous sullate electrode. However, this is not really suit- able for general laboratory use, and the cadmium electrode is preferred for general use. ‘The cadmium stick is about &mm in diameter and at least 25mm in length. It needs to be soaked in sulfuric acid eeCorrection Factor 4 | ‘Temperature °C Figure 9 Temperature Correction of s.g. for Reference Temperature of 25°C. of about 1.280 s.9. for 2 hours before first use. It needs to bbe dipped into the electrolyte in the cell but should not touch the plates. The cadmium is connected via a wire to the negative terminal of a voltmeter, while the plate or plates under test are connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter. The voltmeter needs to have a resistance of about 1000 ohms/volt, and a scale reading from -0.8v to 42.84. “The relationship between the call potential and the inci vidual plate potentials is: Cell potential = Positive plate potential - negative plate potential. ‘Accouple of examples follow: 41. Cell on charge Positive to cadmium = 2.30 Negative to cadmium =-0.20v Cell potential = 2.50v Positive to cadmium == 2.00v Negative to cadmium = 0.30v Cell potential = 1.70v 2. Call on discharge Cadmium readings should be taken only when the cell is on charge or discharge as open-circuit readings are ‘meaningless. ‘Cadmium readings are used less frequently now than in the past, because most modern automotive batteries have ‘one-piece lids and inaccessible internal intercell connections. In addition, the batteries are often of a sealed design with, no access to the electrolyte within the cells. Cadmium readings may stil be of value when testing motive power cells, which normally have removable vont plugs to allow ‘aceess to the electrolyte, and external cell connectors. For batteries with one piece lids having internal intercell connectors, where measurement of individual cell voltages, is not possible, a twin cadmium test head may be used. The twin cadmium has two cadmium sticks which,are ‘connected to a 3.0v voltmeter. The twin cadmium head uses the intercell connector to complete a circuit, and measures the difference between the positive plate potential in one cell and the negative plate potential in the ‘next cell, when the twin cadmium test head is placed with ‘one cadmium stick in each cell. Thus only 5 potentials can actually be measured: ‘Neg. potential cell 1 with Pos. potential cell 2 - Reading 1 ner oo as a BURN =) sammie hy he Sem ai seca arcane ergs esas ‘The twin cadmium reading will stil detect a faulty cell @g. a fault in cell 3 would affect readings 2 and 3. The twin cadmium readings can be used in the same way as the cell voltage readings i.e. a variation of more than 0.15v betwoen the highest and lowest twin cadmium reading indicates a faulty cell. Table 1 for twin cadmium readings taken while a battery is on charge (compared with individual plate readings) gives an example In the example, the cell voltage shows a fault in cell 3 and the individual plate potentials indicate that both the positive and the negative plates are faulty. The twin cadmium readings show a low voltage between cell 2 and 3, and between coll 3 and 4 i.e. call 3 is faulty. However, the twin ‘cadmium readings do not indicate whether its the positive ‘or negative plates which are faulty. Twin cadmium readings are now rarely used routinely, but may be of some value e.g. when checking warranty claims returns to establish it there is one faulty cell, and the battery has intemal intercell connectors so that individual cell readings cannot be taken. ar s 4 Sane S)7.9 General Test Requirements Testing of new batteries. The definition of a new battery is defined in the relevant test specification. For ‘example, the BCI specify that the battery should be unused and undamaged with no previous performance testing, and be no less than seven and no more than sity days from date of manufacture. ‘Stand time after charging. At the completion of a charge, the battery will be polarized above normal open circuit values, and may also be at a higher temperature than that specified for the subsequent test. The relevant test procedure will specify the minimum and maximum stand times between the end of charge and the beginning of the test discharge. constant voltage ( + 0.10 V) of up to 2.7 V per cell = High current power supply capable of supplying a constant high rate discharge current ( = 1%) at least ‘equal to the maximum cold crank rating of the batteries tobe tested, ‘= Water bath or environmental chamber capable of maintaining a set temperature in the range 20°C to 30° within + 2°C of the test temperature. = Freezer or environmental chamber capable of main- taining a set temperature of -18°C or O°C within + 1°C of the set temperature. Ammeter of accuracy class 1 or better. Voltmeter of accuracy class 1 or better. ‘Hydrometer for electrolyte density measurement. ‘The hydrometer should have a graduated scale, the Cell Cell voltage (v) | Twin Cd reading (v) 8, TEST EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS When equipping a new battery test laboratory, some basic adestions need to be asked and answered before deciding on the equipment and space requirements: = Purpose of laboratory: + Routine production/quality control testing «Type approval testing + Research and development = Battery throughput 1m Types of battery being tested and maximum battery capacity, ‘= Initial performance tests only, of eyclic/endurance tests, Before purchasing the test equipment, certain basic decisions have to be taken: ‘= Maximum current requirement per test circuit i= Voltage range per test circut. i= Is special equipment required for high current tests (e.g, cold cranking performance for SLI batteries). If 0, what is the maximum current requirement, = Are tests al low temperature needed e.g. 0°C, -18°C, 29°C, ‘Will tosts at temperatures higher than normal ambient temperatures be needed e.g. 40°C, 60°C, 75°C. 1m Is automatic test circuit programming and data colec- tion needed. ‘= What is the total budget. ‘A-basic” battery test laboratory for routine testing of automotive (SL!) batteries needs to include at least the following items: ‘= Power supply capable of supplying a constant current ( * 1 %) for discharges of up to 25 amps. = Power supply capable of supplying a constant ‘current ( = 2%) for charge of up to 25 amps, and a value of each division should be 0.005 kgil or less. The ‘accuracy of calibration should be to 0.005 kgll or better. ‘= Thermometer for temperature measurement, the vvalue of each scale division shall be not greater than 1K, the accuracy of calibration shall be not less than 0.6 K. ‘= Stopwatch or timer graduated in hours, minutes and seconds, or hours and centinours, with an accuracy of at least = 1%. “The advanced, well equipped laboratory will want 10 ‘automate as much of the testing as possible, and add ‘additional equipment, as suggested below: ‘= Automated, computer controlled battery test equipment. This will enable each test circuit to be programmed with the exact test requirement, enabling the battery to complete ‘many test cycles without operator input. Test data (e.g. current, voltage, ampere hours in/out, temperature etc), is collected automatically and stored for later analysis. With this moder equipment itis also guar- anteed by the supplier that the current and voltage will be ‘controlled to the accuracy required by all the latest test standards. (Assuming of course that the equipment is regu- larly calibrated). ‘= Water bath or environmental chamber capable of ‘maintaining higher temperatures (up to 75°C) e.g. for accelerated life testing. = Environmental chamber for low temperature tests, e.g, as low as -29°C. = Equipment for vibration testing. '= Enclosed area with addtional safety features for short circuit tests, induced destructive overcharge ete. ‘= Arca for battery teardown analysis to include stainless steel or lead lined sink and bench; water supply: facilities for acid disposal= Digatron'Firing Circuits offers a complete line of com- puter controlled battery test equipment designed for, production and research laboratory environments. BTS-600 software developed for Windows{tm) provides Centralised control of all test circuits. = For laboratories requiring the highest level of automation for automotive battery testing Digatron! iting Circuits provides a SAE J240 Automated Test ‘Sequencing stand, This test stand automatically ‘sequences batteries through the cycling portion of 1J240 with the required periodic high-rate discharge. ‘There is no technician intervention required. This is of special value to large scale laboratories performing tests with large sample sizes, ‘Test equipment available from Digatron’Firing Circuits includes: Life Cycle Tester (Series LOT) Cold Cranking Tester (Series HRD) ‘SAE J240 Automated Test Sequencing Stand Reserve Capacity Tester (Series RCT) Constant Potential Charger Discharge Capacity Tester m= Water Baths m= Freezers Vibration Testers 9. GUIDANCE ON LABORATORY SIZE, EQUIPMENT ‘AND LAYOUT RELATIVE TO BATTERY THROUGHPUT. ‘Atypical layout for a medium sized battery test laboratory is given in Figure 10. This particular laboratory has 24 charge/discharge circuits capable of testing up to twenty {four 12 volt batteries or the equivalent number of 6 volt batteries or 2 volt cells. The layout is given only by way of example, but some key points should be noted: ‘= The test equipment and computer for control of the test, Circuits are separated from the main laboratory to avoid ‘damage to the electronic equipment by acid spray or fumes. The cabling for connection to the test batteries is fed through a hole in the dividing wal The number and size of water baths are sufficient to hold up to 24 batteries (average 8 batteries per water bath) A storage area is shown — this is necessary but could be in a separate area immediately outside the laboratory. However, the test batteries should be held ina secure area. The environmental chamber will be regularly used for the cold crank (high rate) testing, therefore is sited close to the high rate tester. sink and bench for battery teardown examination are included Sink & Bench Water Bath Water Bath 1.68m ~ a ee 0.981 a : e Water Bath a 2 6m Figure 10. Example Laboratory Layout Sy10, VALVE REGULATED (VRLA) BATTERIES Historically, VRLA batteries have been used mainly in stationary applications, but are now finding increasing use in other applications such as SLI, Motive Power, Electric Vehicles. Most test specifications now include reference to the particular requirements and test procedures which may bbe required for VRLA batteries. The main features of VRLA batteries are summarized below: ‘= Any gases generated during charging (by electrolysis of water) are recombined internally ‘a The sulfuric acid clectrolyte is immobilized either by a gel or a special type of separator. ‘= Each coll has a re-sealable valve that vents gases to atmosphere ifthe intemal prossure rises above a certain level. = The VALA battery is unspillable and maintenance free. There are 2 types of valve regulated battery: 1. The sulturic acid is gelled using fumed silica. 2. The sulfuric acid is held totaly in the pores of the plates and the separators. Special separators are Used, normally of microfine glass fibers. These are often abbreviated as MFG (Microfine Glass) or AGM (Absorplive Glass Mat). An alternative generic term is RESM (Recombinant Battery Separator Mat). ‘The VALA battery may have particular charging require- ments (e.g. maximum charge voltage) as specified by the battery manufacturer. These special requirements need to be followed when testing the batteries, rather than using the dofaut recommendations given in the test specification. ‘Because the VALA battery is completely sealed, itis not possible to determine the acid density during testing. As a routine, only the voltage can be determined. There may be other test requirements which are specific to the VRLA battery (these may be optional or by agreement with the battery user) e.g = High current safety tests ‘Thermal runaway. = Seal integrity = Gas emission. 11, AUTOMOTIVE (SLI) BATTERY TESTING ‘Automotive battery tests are designed to test for certain key parameters which will normally include: 11.1. Key parameters Dry Charge Activation. This testis only required for dry charged batteries which have to be filled with acid before use. In the manufacture of these batteries, the plates will not retain 100% of full capacity, and the capacity retained over a period of time is also susceptible to storage conditions. The dry charge activation test establishes how ‘much charge has been retained in the battery, and may be carried out at ambient temperature or low temperature dependent on the test specification. Some examples are given as follows: EN 60095-1: The battery is filed with electrolyte (specific gravity in the range 1.270 to 1.300 or as, specified by the battery manufacturer) at (25 +2)°C, and allowed to stand for 20 minutes. It is then discharged at a current of 0.6lcc to 1vott per cell (6v). A minimum discharge time of 90 ‘seconds is needed. SAE J537: A dry charge activation testis not specified as part of J537. Reference should be ‘made to customer specifications it an activation testis required. Otherwise, the battery should be filed and charged in accordance with the manu- facturers instructions, and then tested in accor- ‘dance with the specication for fled and charged batteries. BCI Cold Activation Performance: The battery and acid (of specific gravity 1.265 + 0,008) are placed in a chamber cooled to 0°C for ‘a minimum of 18 hours. The battery is removed from the cold chamber and filled with the acid to the correct fing level. 20 minutes after the last cell has been filed, the battery is discharged at a ‘current equal to 75% of the Cold Cranking Performance Rating at -18°C for the battery. The terminal voltage of the battery is recorded alter 15 second of discharge, and should exceed 1.2 volts per cell Cold cranking performance. In practice this is the ‘most important tast for the car user. The battery must be able to provide sulficient power to the starter motor to ensure satisfactory engine starting, It must be able to achieve this at low temperatures (e.g. as low as -18°C) and, ina partial state of charge. The battery must maintain a satisfactory voltage during the cranking operation and must bbe able to maintain this for the time defined in the test ‘specification (typically 30 seconds or 1 minute). A number of diferent cold cranking tests are actually in use, so that the battery manufacturer may quote several diferent val- es far the cold cranking amps, dependent on the test specification. Differences between the test specification relate to the discharge time (e.g. 30s or tmin) and the voltage after the defined discharge time (2.9. 7.2v, 8.4v). ‘The test may also define a minimum time to 6 volts as well ‘as the minimum voltage after 30s or 1min. Examples are given in Table 2. BS9911 is now obsolete but is included for comparison. BS EN 60095-1 difers from the other exam- ples in that the battery is tested at the cold cranking current for 10, followed by a 10 s rest and then a discharge at 06 lec 0 6 v Low current drain — 20-hour capacity. This test was formerly widely used when cars needed to have side lights ‘on during hours of darkness if parked on the street. This is no longer a legal requirement, and the 20 hour rate capaci- ty is now rarely quoted. Itis stil included in test methods, but as an option rather than a requirement. In BS EN 60095-1: 1999, the nominal capacity is defined as the electric charge (in Ah) which a battery can supply with a current Ir = Gy/20 amps, to a final voltage Us = 10.50 V. The effective capacity is determined by dis- charging a battery with constant current In to U; = 10.50 V. ‘The resultant figure is used for the verification of Cy,Table 2 Test Method ane Temp. | Time | Voltage Notes SAE J537 CCAT -18°C 30" 72v BCI CoAT aC [30"__[72v BS391T COAT =18°C___[60"__[8.4v DIN 42539 CCA" 18°C [30° _[90v | > 150" to6v. | EN60095-1 | fee! ec | tor |75v__ | Rest for 10", discharge @ 0.6 lec to | 6, record discharge time | TEC 60095 i =ec__[60"_‘[84v | TEC 60095 Iss OC 60" | 84v Tropical climate battery | " Manufacturers cold crank rating. IEC 60095 uses the same definition. SAE J537 no longer includes a specification for the 20-hour rating Low current drain — reserve capacity rating. This has now generally superseded the 20-hour capacity rating. Regardless of battery size, the battery is discharged at 25 amps, and the reserve capacity is quoted in minutes. This testis in effect an emergency current test, and defines for how long the battery can sustain the electrical load on the car in the event of an alternator failure In BS EN 60095-1: 1993 the nominal reserve capacity , n is defined as the period of time (in minutes) for which thé battery can maintain a discharge current of 25 Ato a cut-off voltage Uy = 10.50 V, at a temperature of 25°C. The effective reserve capacity Cre is determined by discharging a battery with the constant current | = 25 A to Uy = 10.50 V. The resultant discharge time (in minutes) is used for the verification of C; n. IEC 60085 uses the same definition. ‘SAE J537 and BCI are similar, but the test temperature is, 27°C (BOFF). If the actual test temperature deviates from. the nominal temperature, the capacity can be corrected using the following formula: [1 0.005 (T — 80) A) M, = M,[1—0.009(T-26.7)) (°C) Where: IM, = minutes corrected to 80°F (26.7°C) IM, = minutes actually run. T = end of discharge electrolyte temperature (°F) 0° (°C) Charge current acceptance. Controlled voltage alterna- tors are now universally fitted to automobiles. It is impor- tant that the battery is able to accept charge from a partial state of charge at a low temperature when the charge potential is controlled, The testis normally carried out with the battery in a 50% state of charge at 0°C. The current must reach a certain minimum figure after 10 minutes charge. In some tests (e.g. SAE J537), the charge is continued for 120 minutes, and the charge rate acceptance is determined by checking the reserve capacity after the battery has been allowed to warm up to 25°C or 27°C. (without additional charge). ‘Self discharge on open circuit. This test has bocome less important with the advent of low maintenance and ‘maintenance free batteries. Its designed to ensure that the battery wil stil start the car even if thas been unused for several weeks or months. Gassing rate characteristic. Both SAE J537 and BCI include a test for gassing rate characteristic. The test specifies procedures for steady state charging current ‘measurement and gassing rate measurement. Cn a vehicle, the battery is normally charged at a constant current. A ‘measurement of the gas evolution rate or the current accepted at a charging voltage typical of a vehicle electrical system, provides a basis for comparing battery designs in respect to their abilty to withstand service water losses. ‘Standards of compliance to performance ratings. The BCI give guidance on standards of compliance. When statistically evaluated in accordance with accepted sampling and test procedures, 90% of all batteries should meet or ‘exceed the reserve capacity rating, and 90% should meet or exceed the Cranking Performance Rating (based on each batteries best performance within a test sequence), ‘The compliance to Reserve Capacity and Cranking Performance Ratings should be evaluated separately. I a battery fails to reach rated performance values during ‘lectrical tests, it should be checked for mechanical defects. If it is defective, the test results for that battery should be disregarded in the statistical analysis, and the tests repeated on a new battery. Life tests. tt can be very dificult to devise a satisfactory laboratory fe test because of the wide range of operating conditions experienced by an automotive battery in actual service. It may be necessary to carry out more than one life test regime (e.g. a deep cycle test and an overcharge test) order to assess whether the battery will exceed the guaranteed life in the marketplace. If carefully chosen, the life test can be of particular value in assessing the effect of ‘changes in battery design or battery materials (e.g. cfferent gtd alloy, new separators etc). ‘Arange of lfe cycle tests are available dependent on the battery application. The most appropriate life test should be selected ftom those available, taking into account the intended application of the battery. ‘Accelerated ie tosts are also available, which gonerally rely on testing the battery ata high temperature. These can be useful, but some preliminary tests need to be cared out to establish whether the high temperature changes the normal battery failure mode. I so, the test should be used 2 2 2with caution, as the results could be misleading. Section 17 gives further information. 11.2 Test sequence ‘Atypical test sequence (e.g, 8S EN 60095-1, IEC £60096) for automotive (SL) battery testing is given below: Cz (20 hour rate) capacity or C, (reserve capacity test) check at 25°C or 27°C, 9. Cranking performance test at -18°C. Cop oF C, check ‘Cranking performance test Gy oF C, check Cranking performance test itis important that these tests are caried out inthe cor- rect sequence as specified above or in the relevant test specication. The performance of a battery on a particular test may be influenced by its previous history. For exam- plo, a discharge ata lower rate must always be carried out before a cranking performance test. ‘The battery has to meet the specified value for capacity or cranking performance in atleast one of the three rele- vant discharges above. For routine quality checks, these may be the only tests which are needed, However, for full characterization testing, additional tests may include: Endurance test senate eeanon, ‘Charge acceptance Electrolyte retention Vibration resistance = Water consumption Reference should be made to the relevant test procedure for details. Tho SAE J597 testis stil widely used particularly in North America, and the test sequence is somewhat different, to the IEC test cutline given above. The BCI recommended test is very similar to SAE J597. In the SAE test the test sequence is: Dry charge battery activation (if required) Pre-conditioning (charging/acid S.G, adjustment) Reserve capacity test ‘Charge rate acceptance test Cold cranking test at 18°C. Reserve capacity test Cold cranking test at -29°C (optional) Reserve capacity test Optional tests (see below) Test events 6 and 8 are not needed if the capacity rating is met in event 3. Event 7 is optional, but event 6 is required if this test is run. (Low rate discharge before high rate discharge as specified above), The following additional optional tests may also be performed: ‘= Life Test for Automotive Storage Batteries (SAE 240) = Test Procedure for Battery Flame Retardant Venting Systems (SAE J1495) = Life Test for Heavy-Duty Storage Batteries (SAE 2185) = Vibration = Gassing rate characteristic. 11.3 SAE J240 Life Cycle Test. Tho SAE J240 life test for automotive storage batteries has become a widely used and well respected life test. In the original test procedure, the test temperature is 40°C. However, a high tomperaturo J240 lfo test at 75°C is also Used, particularly for new product development (see also section 17), Because of its popularity, the SAE J240 test is summa- rized below: 1m The battery is tested in a water bath maintained at 40°C (normal) or 75°C (high temperature). 1m The test cycle consists of + 4 min discharge @ 25 amps. * Charge at a constant potential of 14.8 V, with a ‘maximum current of 258, for 10 min, ‘= The battery is cycled continuously for 100 hours, followed by an open circuit stand of 60 to 72h on ‘open circuit in the water bath. (~ 428 cycles per week). ‘= With the battery at the test temperature (Le. 40°C or 75°C), itis discharged at a rate equal to its -18°C cold cranking rate in amperes. It is discharged to 1.20 V peer cell or for a minimum discharge time of 30 s, whichever occurs first m The battery is replaced on the life test without a ‘separate recharge, starting on the charge portion of the cycle, 'm The life test is complete and the battery is considered to have failed when the battery fails to maintain 1.2 V peer cell for a minimum of 30 s on the control discharge for two consecutive 100 to 110 h test periods. Water is added to the electrolyte as required during the cycling portion of the test unless the battery is described as maintenance free. 12, MOTORCYCLE BATTERIES Motorcycle batteries are closely allied to SL batteries for automobiles, and are also intended for starting, lighting and ignition duties. They may be in 6-volt or 12-volt construction and are smaller than automotive SL! batteries. Motorcycle battery testing is covered by the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS D 5302. This standard also includes details of layout, dimensions and nominal capacities. The key test parameters are: General test requirements — The specific gravity of the electrolyte should be 1.280 + 0.010 at 20°C. Capacity (10 hour rate C10) — The test temperature is 25 = 2°C. The battery is discharged at a current of 0.1C10 to an end voltage equivalent to 1.75 V per call. The capacity Is the product of the discharge time and the 10-hour rate current. Up to three tests are carried cut, and the battery ‘must achieve 95% of the specified capacity on at least one of the capacity discharges, High rate discharge — The battery is discharged at tho ‘specified high rato current at a temperature of -10 + 1°C, to a final average cell voltage of 1.00 V. The fully charged battery needs to be held at the set temperature of -10°C for ‘a minimum of 10 hours before the testis carried out. Duringthe test, the 5-second voltage and the time to reach the ‘end-point voltage aro recorded. The §-second voltage and {otal discharge time need to meet the specified values. Up to three high rate discharge tests may be carried out, but a capacity test needs to be carried out before each high rate discharge. Resistance to vibration — Resistance to vibration is particularly important for a motorcycle battery, therefore this is included as a standard test, It is summarized below: = 0.1Cj discharge for 2 hours ‘= Vibration: simple harmonic motion up and down, with 7 G (68.6 mis‘) acceleration. ‘= Frequency: increased from 50 Hz to 500 Hz and then decreased from 500 Hz to 50 Hz continuously ata constant rate, with a time sweep of 10 min. Life test — The life test consists of a cycle of 1 hour discharge followed by 5 hour charge, at currents depen- ent on the battery size and specified in the JIS standard, The test temperature is 40 — 45°C. The capacity is checked every 25 cycles and the battery has failed when the 10-hour rate capacity has fallen below 40% of the specified value. 13, LEAD ACID TRACTION BATTERIES ‘Traction batteries are used as power sources for electric propulsion, in applications such as industrial fork lit trucks ‘and mechanical handling equipment, electric road vehicles, locomotives, deep cycle marine, golf cars, floor maintenance machinery etc. In these applications the battery is routinely ‘deeply discharged on each cycle and has to withstand a large number of these deep discharge cycles before failure. Life cycle testing forms a critical part of the type testing of these batteries. 18.1 Industrial Trucks 13.1.1 Typical Test Sequence ‘A typical test sequence is given below (example based on BS EN 60254-1): 1. Capacity test at Cg rate (up to 10 cycles) 2. Capacity test at Cj rate. 8. Charge Retention. 4, High rate discharge performance at C0.5 rate. 5, Cyclic Endurance Test. The charge retention and high rate discharge performance tests are optional. The capacity test at the C1 rate may be caartied out if the application is for a light road vehicle. 13.1.2 Key Parameters. Rated Capacity. The key parameter for a traction battery is the capacity at the Cs rate. The nominal capacity C, at the 5:hour rate is declared by the manufacturer. The actual capacity C, is determined by discharging the battery at a constant current of 0.2Cs to a cut-off voltage U;of 1.70 V per cell at a temperature of 30°C. Because of the specific internal design of traction batteries, they normally take several cycles to attain the full nominal capacity Cy, G, fs required to be at least 0.85 C, on cycle 1, and 1.00 Gat or before the 10th cycle. if the initial temperature lifers from the test temperature, the capacity is corrected ~ to the actual capacity C, using the formula shown in section, 7.3, and a value of 0.006 for ‘Charge Retention Test. This testis optional. Atypical test procedure is to store the battery on open circuit for a period of 28 days at an average cell temperature of 20°C + 2°C. The residual capacity C, is determined (see ‘above) and shall be not less than 0.85 C,, High rate discharge performance test. This testis ‘optional, dependent on the intended application, in some ‘applications, traction batteries neod to be able to supply high current rates e.g. for acceleration and/or fiting of loads. The value of the high rate discharge current 10.5, should be indicated by the manufacturer. The testis canied cut on a new battery which has attained a capacity Cp = Cy The battery is discharged at temperature of 30°C and a cur- ‘ent of 10.5 and the discharge time to a final (average) vot- age of 1.50 V per call is recorded. If necessary (i the actual battery temperature varies from the nominal temperature), 4g), the discharge time Th is corrected for temperature using a value of 0,008 for n. The discharge time T, should exceed o5h. ‘One-hour rate (C1) capacity test. This test may be used for traction batteries intended for light road vehicles. The rated capacity C, is declared by the manufacturer, for a temperature of 30°C, a discharge time of 1 h anda cut-off voltage U; = 1.60 V per cell. The battery is discharged at a current |; to an average discharge voltage of 1.60 V per cell, and the discharge time is recorded. I the initial battery temperature is diferent from the reference temperature, the ‘capacity C, is corrected to the actual capacity C,, using the formula given in 7.3, and a value of 0.007 for oyelie Endurance Test. This ica dostustive ost and shoul be carted ou on enim of ese ot the same yee Atiieal tet pein eosin of aclachane Ch 78% ol the nominl capac is vomeved over a period ot 3 ours, olowed bya convoled recharge withthe cargo tpuland bre avoct bythe ect epecteaton rte rane Q four Conolod capacly decharges are cared out trary 0 o evry 100 oot, and the bal is Gaemed 0 havo fale ft elver oss than 80% of the nominal Capaciy uting the controled eapacty Gocharge The oct (emgertir ey be alo ror embint orpertureo-. 25°6 0 30°C, ora higher lempoaturos for acclraled tests. By way of example, the test procedure for EN 60254-1: 10657 i summarzed bob Each cycle consist of eR addeharge for 3 at current of =0.25C, > Atecharge for 9 hous rectly folowing tho discherge The charge taco normaly 1.16, but maybe higher or lover dopondent on cl yee and ttoratanarss vecoermbpaton, Th ave spew ete ull notin yf «The nominal tet omporaur te 4°, fe lomperatre af be cale should bo mabrtaned witin the range S90 To 49°C cuing the test + The call undergo ¢cxpacty ts oveyy 80 cyto ‘The tat is teminated wren ho conected copacty Ca (eo than 8 Gy ung 2 sucess of 80 yes‘+ The endurance in cycles is the number of cycles ‘completed up to the end of the frst of the 2 final sseries.This should be at least equal to the number stated by the manufacturer. For valve regulated cells, the test cycle may be rather diferent, as summarized in the example below, again from EN 60254-1: 1997: Each cycle consists of + Adischarge for 35 h ata curant of = 0.20, + recharge for a maximum of 14 h immediataly following the discharge, ata constant voltage not ‘exceeding 2.45 V per call (unless cthorwiso recommended by the manufacturer). The curtent during the last two hours of charge should be not ‘greater than C,/66.6. + For satoty raasons, a current limit may be needed uring tne intial part ofthe constant voltage charge. FP ~The votage may be alowed to rise above 2.45 V por call during the last two hours of charge 13.1.8 Specific values = Tho gravimetric energy density or specific energy, and the volumetric energy density have already been defined Where the specific energy or energy density are defined, it should apply toa capacity test as summarized eae (om) 100% (2,0 icy e 75% (15 vic} 0 60 120 above, and be determined using the average vollage during the test. The average voltage is based on a minimum of five voltage readings equally spaced over the specified discharge period. The inal reading is taken 5 s after the start of the discharge. = The specific energy of gravimetric energy density is quoted at the & h rate or the 1 h rate, and expressed in Whvkg. = The volumetric energy density is quoted at the 5 h rate or the 1 h rate, and expressed in Whi. ‘= Coll weights should not include intercell connectors unless they are an integral part of a monoblock. Cell dimensions should be overall dimensions including terminals, vont plugs otc. 19.2 Light Electric Road Vehicles. ‘This covers a range of applications including floor serub- bets, golf cars, personnel carters, small mine tractors, light passenger vehicles, motor cycles, light commercial vehicles tc. In practice, the battery may be required to supply widely varying current rates, and a variety of dynamic discharge performance tests are available which attempt to simulate real lfe duty. 19.21 Key Parameters Rated Capacity. This is normally quoted at the 1-hour rata, for example as defined in section 13.1.2 above. In the ‘BCI specification batteries are tested at rates to give discharge Time in seconds Figure 11. Dynamic Capacity Test (EN 60254-1)times from 1 to 6 hours at 27°C to a final voltage of 1.75 times the number of cells. Performance is expressed in the form of a log-log scale, plotting rate of discharge vs. time ‘of discharge. Average voltages may be recorded as an ‘option to enable watt-hour capacity to be calculated (this requires at least ten equally time spaced voltage measure- ments which include beginning and end discharge points). ‘The test sequence is to carry out the 3 hour rate discharge first (up to 15 cycles if desired), followed by the 6 hour capacity test then the 1 hour capacity test. The approximate ‘ampere-hour relationships are similar to those shown in Figure 2. Dynamic discharge performance. The driving profiles ‘can be simplified to high-rate current for acceleration, low- rate current for constant speed driving and zero current for, rest periods, The various test procedures have driving profiles of varying complexity. A relatively simple one is given in EN 60254-1: 1997, and is summarized below by way of example: The discharge has S current lovels on a 60" iterated cycle, & x Iy fo 10" felled by 2 xy for 20" followed by a 90" rest period, yl the nominal § hour rate capacity, and the battery is discharged at 30°C to a cut-off voltage U, = 1.5 V per cell. The ‘average curent for this terated mioro-cycle Is 2x y. The battery is subjected to a continuous series of these micro-ycles unt the terminal voltage fas to 1.5 V par cel, and the discharge time T is recorded. The dynamic performance is stated in the {orm of ischarge te T, or capacity Cy, I the initial tempera: ture differs from the test temperature, the capacity can be ‘corrected using the formula shown in section 7.3, and a value 10f 0,006 for » ‘The discharge cycle for this dynamic discharge testis ‘shown graphically in Figure 11 Dynamic endurance test. This is a destructive test and is carried out on a minimum of 3 cells of the same type. For applications such as light passenger road vehicles it ‘may be cartied out on the complete battery pack. The dri- ving profile used is normally the same as is used for the dynamic discharge performance test. The test in accordance ‘The discharge is cartied out as described above at a temperature (f 20°C: after each completa discharge the cells are racharged ‘a8 specifiad by he battery manufacturer. A saris of cycles are carried out until the discharge cycle time falls to less than 20 min on two consecutive discharge cyclos. The discharge time for teach discharge cyole, the cumulative discharge te, and the total number of discharges achieved are recorded, The dynamic endurance isthe cumulative discharge time forthe entire dynamic endurance test when measured in hours, COtner dynamic endurance tests include: FUDS Federal Urban Driving Cycle (usa) SFUDS Simpifiad Federal Urban Driving Cycle (USA) DST Dynamic Stess Test ECE 15L (Europe) 13.3 Deep Cycle Batteries (Marine/RV/Golt Cart ete) “These batteries are used in a wide range of deep-cycling vehicles) to electric wheelchairs and golf cars, therefore typical discharge rates will vary widely. There is. a BCL ‘specification (1997) for constant current cycle life testing of ‘deep cycle batteries which covers all these applications and standardizes on a discharge rate of 25 amps 2 hour rate of discharge, at a temperature of 26.7°C (80°F). The life cycle test is summarized below: “The battery s tested in a water bath at 26.7°C and a fly charged specific gravly as specified by the battery manufacturer. Each cycle consists ofa discharge ata constant current equal to the hour current rate in amperes as speced by the manufacturer) 25 amos toa final voltage of 1.75 volts per call (10.5,vots). and a recharge as specified in Table 8 below. The batter is recharged in accordance with the manufacturers instructions or by constant ‘current or current Kite constant voltage, such that not less than '5% and not more than 30% overcharge is delivered to the battery (end charge voltage and spectc gravity ofthe aloctrote are con- stant). When the cutoff vokage is reached on the discharge, the battery is allowed to sit at open circuit uni the total time for dis- chaige and open circuit ie 4 hours. The battory is considerod to have failed when the discharge time in minutes falls 10 50% of the ‘manufacturers tated 2-hour ampere-nour capacity. The total nur ber of eyes is reported. 14, STATIONARY LEAD-ACID BATTERIES with EN 60254-1: 1997 is eummarized as follows: ‘Stationary Batteries are defined as cals or batteries ‘which are designed for service in a fixed location and which Table 3 Application Abbreviation Telecommunications ite Power Station Switch Operatioin PSsP Central Emergency Lighting and Alarm Systems CES Uninterrupted Power Supplies ups. Stationary Engine Starting SES Solar Power Storage SPs ~Table 4 Test Method | Current} Temp.} Time| Voltage] Notes SAE J537. ccat =16°¢_[ 30” 72v BCI ‘ccAT =18°C [307 7.2V BS3911 coat =18°C [60° B5v DIN 42539, cecal -18°¢ | 30° 9.0v > 150' to 6v. EN 60095-1 Iegt ec | 10° | 7.5 y_ | Rest for 10", discharge @ 0.6 locto 6. ge record discharge time IEC 60095 Ist -16°C | _ 60" 84 v 1EC 60095 181 <6 | 60° | 84v_| Tropical cimate battery Table 5 Sores Tests 7 a Capacity test x x x Test of suitability Tor battery floating operation x Endurance test in Gischarge-charge cycles x Gharge retention test x Short circuit and internal resistance test x are permanently connected to the load and to the de. power supply. They are used in a variety of applications, ‘examples of which are shown in Table 3. Any type of battery ‘construction may be used for stationary battery applica tions, and typical types and construction are summarized in ‘Table 4. Variations in the battery test procedure may be required dependent on the application and the battery con- struction. Free Venting and Valve Regulated batteries are covered by different test specifications, 14.1. Type testing of Vented Stationary Batteries ‘Atypical test sequence (based on EN 60896-1: 1982) for type testing of Stationary Battorcs is given in Table 5. ‘Aminimum of 6 cells or moneblocs is recommended per series. 14.1.1 Specific Requirements: (reference EN 60896-1: 1992) (These requirements are valid for vented flat plate and tubular stationary batteries. The requirments for VRLA batteries are given in 141i, and for Planté batteries in 144i) Capacity — The rated capacity C, is a reference value indicated by the battery manufacturer in accordance with the manufacturers specification. The most commonly used values of the discharge time t are between 10h and 3h, to a final voltage U; = 1.80 V per call. The reference tempera- ture is normally 20°C, Suitability for floating battery operation — Stationary batteries are used mainly in floating operation, in which a ‘constant voltage Up, is permanently applied to its termi- nals. This applied voltage is sufficient to maintain it in a state close to full charge, in readiness to supply a circuit ‘whose normal power supply may fail. When subjected to this type of duty, the electrolyte densities and individual cell voltages must remain within specified limits. After a period of 6 months the actual capacity must be at least ‘equal to the rated capacity, and the loss of electrolyte must not exceed 50% of the volume between the minimum and maximum levels. The float voltage Utlo is specified by the battery manufacturer, and is typically in the range 2.14 to 2.25 = 0.01 volts per cell. The float voltage across the bat- tery is given by Ugo x n, where n is the number of cells in the battery. Endurance — This is defined as the ability of the cell or battery to withstand operation under specified conditions {or a minimum period of time. The cells undergo a continuous series of charge-discharge cycles, with a capacity test after every N cycles, where N may be e.g, 50 cycles. By way of example, a typical cycle could be: 2.0 yA 3 hour discharge at a current of Uo = Cyg0 Hy 21 hour charge at a voltage of 2.40 0.01 V per cel (ia charge ited '0 Ings = 2. lia). Charge retention test — Normally stationary batteries are on permanent charge, but the battery may become electrically disconnected either deliberately or accidentally. The charge retention test involves determination of the capacity of the battery before and alter a prolonged open circuit stand e.g. for 90 days at 20°C, Short-circuit test and internal resistance test — This information is obtained indirectly by establishing the capacity, of the calls at 2 different discharge currents. A similar test ‘may be carried out for other applications also e.g. aircraft batteries. An example of the testis given below. ‘The tests catied out on a minimum of 8 cols which have a w.Table 6 Unit ‘Temperature corrected capacity performance eae Conformity (48V 3hrate iat % Unit Performance Battery Performance 7 99.9% > G,__| All units C, > 0.99 C, 100% batteries Cr> Cs 2 99% > Cs All units Cy > 0.97 Cs 100% batteries Cr> Cs 3 95% > Cy All units C; > 0.95 C, 75% batteries Cr> C, 4 90% > Cy All units C;> 0.93 Cy (0% batteries C,> Cs “The values for batlery performance are based upon the 3h rate of discharge and assume a battery size of 48 V. ‘capacity atleast equal to the rated capac. ‘The teats caried out at a temperature of 20°. ‘The cells are discharged at a curent |, = Aly.-Bl (A) for 20 seconds, the voltage and current are read and give the fist point ‘Alter an open-cicult stand of 2 min to § min, the second point |s determined. Altar 5 s discharge at a cutent Ip = 20 Iyp.-40 lip (A) the vot ‘age and current are read and give the second point. “The characteristic U =f Is linearly extrapolated to U = 0 (V) “The intercept gives the short-circuit curent I. The intemal resistance (Ri) may also be determined. ‘This fe shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13. 142 Classification of Valve Regulated Types Valve regulated cells used in Stationary applications often have a large number of cells connected in series. It is important that the capacity band for the individual cells is as small as possible, otherwise the performance of the ‘complete battery may be compromised by the low perfor- mance of individual cells. Test specifications such as BS 6290: Part 4: 1997 deal with this by including classification tests and tests for conformity to cover the performance of complete batteries as well as individual cells. This requires that 20 units are subjected to a defined capacity test pro- ‘gram. The data from this test program is analyzed statisti= cally and a conformity factor and percentage conformity ‘are derived from this statistical analysis. This enables the battery to be placed in a given performance class from 1 to 4, as summarized in Table 6: ‘The values for battery performance are based upon the Sh rate of discharge and assume a battery size of 48 V. Note that classification tests may require specialized test equipment with a voltage capability of at least 60 V, to tenable a series circutt of 20 — 24 batteries to be tested. Other specific requirements: Rated capacity — recommended values of t are typical- ly in the range 10 to 1, with the 3 h rate being the most com- monly used rate, to a discharge voltage of 1.80 V. Gas emission — this testis specific to valve regulated batteries. The test determines the gas emission from new valve regulated stationary lead-acid units when operated in the overcharge float condition. It is carried out on a number (of new units, equivalent to 12 cells, at a temperature in the range 20°C to 25°C. Each unit valve is fitted with a gas col lection device (which can be left unattended if necessary) so that any gas emitted can be collected over a period of sev- ‘eral days. The units are float charged as a series string at a voltage equivalent to 2.4 volts per cell for 72 hours. Gas ‘collection is started after 72 hours, and continued for a fur- ther 96 hours. The cumulative actual volume of gas collected is recorded, and the ambient temperature and pressure are also noted. Formulae are given in the relevant standard to enable the gas emission to be calculated and expressed per call, per Ah, per hour High current endurance — Ifthe battery manufacturer states that the battery is suitable for high current endurance, itis tested as follows: ‘Sunits which have achieved the rated capacity C; are used for this test. Each unit is cischarged fr 1 min ata constant current ‘equal to 3.5 times the rated § min current. The units recharged in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, and then a ‘capacity tests performed atthe C, rate. The actual capacity Ca after the high ourrenttast shall be not less than C,. There ‘must be no sign of malting f the unt group bars or internal Intercell connections. There must be no combustion or set Jgniton during the high current test CAUTION: There is a risk of an explosion of the internal {gas mixture during this test and it should take place in an enclosure capable of containing explosion debris. 1423 Planté Type Historically Planté cells were the preferred option for stationary cells — more recently they have been displaced by VRLA cells in many applications and markets. in the high performance Planté cell, the active material of the positive plate is obtained by oxidizing the surface of the lead plate rather than using a lead oxide paste. The negative plate is a conventional pasted plate. The Planté cell i typified by a very long lifetime (> 20 years in stationary applications), however its design is not appropriate to regular deep discharges. The discharge Characteristics do not vary throughout its life, and the voltage characteristics on discharge, float or recharge are stable and reproducible. “The test specification (e.g. BS 6290-2: 1999) may specify certain design parameters for the Planté cell, but the test procedure will be broadly similar to that for the flooded cell (Gee above). The rated capacity is normally stated in terms.Uy lo-Uol. VOLTAGE (U) ee) Uy Up Uy .u: —i 2 9) only Wy - tp Isc Current (i) Figure 12. Discharge Characteristic fr Shot Cult Test (Stationary Battery BS EN 60896) m Figure 13. Typical test Cit (Stationary Batery BS EN 60886) 4 Tanita ate eee areal ven ecto smo Ese Fai pe ali voltage drop interferes with the test. Atypical test circuit is shown in Figure 13. ‘The values of short-circuit current and internal resistance obtained in this test refer to a single cell or monobloc However, the resistance of intercell connections has to be taken into account when calculating the short circuit current and internal resistance for a complete battery. 2. This test method provides information in stabilized test conditions, and does not indicate dynamic reactions ocourring, for example, during the first few millseconds of a short circuit. The results of this test have an accuracy which is of the order + 10%.Table 7 Discharge Duration | Final voltage per call h v 1 1.75, Z 1.78 3 1.80 4 1.81 5 1.82 6 1.83, 7 1.83 8 1.84 9 1.84, 10 1.85, Discharge Duration | Final voltage per cell Min v 1 1.60 5 1.62 15 1.65 30 1.69 of a discharge time of 3 h, at a fully charged electrolyte density of 1207 kg/m3 at 20°C. (Note that the electrolyte ‘density is lower than for conventional vented cells with pasted or tubular plates) 14.4 General information “The final voltages for discharge durations from 1minute to 10 hours are shown in Table 7. 15. AIRCRAFT BATTERIES 15.1 Type Approval Tests ‘Aircraft Batteries have specific test requirements which differ in many respects from other standard tests. The test specification may also include details of general construction requirements, dimensions, terminals, battery performance characteristics (power rating} etc. For details, reference should be made to the relevant test procedure, but a typical test sequence for type approval tests (based on BS 6G 205; 1995) is shown below 1. Storage Physical examination 3. Celifcell block leakage (vented batteries only) 4. Rated capacity 5, Insulation resistance &. Unspillailty 7. Allitude (sealed batteries only) 8. Ventilation 9. Charge retention 10. Rapid discharge capacity 11. Low temperature starting capability 12, Endurance 12.1 Vented Battery 12.2 Valve Regulated Sealed Battery 12.3 Valve Regulated Sealed Battery (additional test method) 49. Duty cycle 14. Power rating 18. Charge acceptance 16. Charge stability 17. Overcharge endurance (sealed batteries only) 18. Short circuit current 19. Topple 20. Vibration 21. Gelicell block leakage (vented batteries only) 22. Normal acceleration 23. Cell/cell block leakage (vented batteries only) 24. Crash acceleration 25. Explosion containment 26. Gas emission 27. Induced destructive overcharge 28. Fluid contamination I.can be seen that this is a very comprehensive test ‘sequence incorporating some tests not used in other applica: tions, for which specialized test equipment may be needed. 15.2 General Requirements ‘Type approval testing — For type approval testing 2) minimum of 6 batteries of each type is tested, using a defined test procedure and order of testing, ‘Temperature range —The battery has to be capable of operating over a very wide temperature range, typically 30°C to +50°C, and shall not be harmed by exposure to the temperature range -40°C to +70°C. Unless otherwise specified, the type approval tests are conducted in ‘an ambient air temperature of 23 = 5°C. Measuring equipment — Measuring equipment accuracy may need to be higher than for routine battery tests on ‘other battery types. For example, voltmeters and ammeters have to conform to an accuracy of class 0.3 or better. ‘Safety — The battery is requited to be inherently safe, and some of the tests are designed specifically to test this, e.g, the effect on the battery of thermal runaway or electrical short circuit. 183 Acceptance Tests a ‘The minimum tes requirement or aceptance tests as part of the Quality Plan is summarized below: Physical Examination — Each battery is examined to ensure conformity to the relevant standard with respect 10 ‘materials, dimensions, mass, identification, venting arrangements, workmanship and general condition. Rated capacity — the rated capacity is expressed at the 1 hour rate (1C,) to a mean voltage per cell of 1.67 V at an ambient temperature of 23 + 2°C. Rapid discharge capability — This is carried out both at ambient temperature and low temperature. For example, BS 6G 205 specifies discharge at the 6C1 rate at 23 = 2°C to a mean voltage por cell of 1.33 V. At -18°C the battery is discharged at the 25C, rate for 10s, immediately followed by a rate of 10C} for 50s. The minimum voltage per cell is ‘specified in the standard.mn Insulation Resistance — This is measured at 250 V d.c. between the negative terminal and the case immed- ately after charge without cleaning, and then re-measured ater the battery is cleaned, Charge Retention — The capacity of the battery at the 1C1 rate is determined before and after a 28 day open- circuit stand at 23 = §°C. Cell/Cell Block Leakage (vented batteries only) — Each collicell block is subjected to an internal air pressure of 14 KPa, and there should be no detectable leakage during 4 period of 15 5. For valve regulated sealed batteries, leakage may be established by visual inspection. 4154 Other Key Parameters Life cycle testing — This is of 2 types, an endurance test, and a duty cycle test. The endurance testis carted out at ambient temperature (23 = °C) and each cycle com } sists ofa constant current éscharge for @ minutes folowed by recharge for 51 minutes at constant current or con- trolled vollage. The capacity is checked at the 1C; rate every 250 cycles. An altemative test for valve regulated batieries also available. Inthe duty ole test, tho as- charges are carried out ata higher current Power rating — This is carried out a 3 different tem- peratures: 23°C, -18°C, and -30°C. At each temperature the battery is discharged at such a rate that the terminal voltage is maintained at 1.00 V per cell for not less than 15s. The curtent requirement at each test temperature is specified in the standard. Overcharge endurance (for sealed batteries only) — ‘The battery is subjected to a constant voltage overcharge at the equivalent of 2.42 volts per cell for 400h. At the end of the test, the weight loss shall be not more than 1.0%, and the capacity not less than 90% of the initial capacity, Pri hzige stability — This test requites the batery 1 be held at 50°C in an environmental chamber with assisted ventiation, while being subjected to a high rate discharge (€C1) folowed by a constant potential recharge for 10 hours. After 16-24h open circuit stand, the capacity of the battery is determined at the 1C; rate at 23°C. The testis designed to assess the tendency of the battery to thermal runaway and specifies the maximum charging current, cell temperature and discharge duration after the test. At the end of the test, the battery after charging should still be serviceable ‘Short circuit current — Extreme care needs to be taken when carrying out this test. Because of the possible fire/explosion hazard, itis strongly recommended that the ‘operator is screened from the battery under test, and preferably is supervising the test remotely from a separate room. The battery needs fo be able to withstand its own short circuit current when tested in accordance with the relevant standard. The standard specifies the total resis- tance of the test circuit (e.g. 1.5 m0), a 18.5 Specialized Test Equipment Requirements ‘Some of the test procedures for aircraft battery testing require specialized equipment as indicated below: * Environmental chamber capable of changing the atmospheric pressure (for the altitude test) ‘+ Centrifuge (for Normal Acceleration and Crash Acceleration test). ‘+ Vibration Generator Table (for Vibration test). + Topple Test Rig, + Enclosed Safe Test Area (for Short Circuit Current, Explosion Containment and Induced Destructive Overcharge tests) + Gas sample analysis (for gas emission test). 16. BATTERY CHARGING. 16.1 General Correct charging of the battery is very important and may influence the capacity/performance of the battery fon the subsequent discharge. The charging process is not 100% efficient, and towards the end of charge, part of the charge current is used in decomposition of water land corrosion of the positive grids. In order to ensure that the battery is fully charged, the charge input has to be up to 20% higher than the charge removed during the previous discharge (this applies only to conventional flooded batteries, see special notes below on charging of VALA batteries). At the end of the charge, the charge current needs to be limited to prevent an excessive temperature rise and possible damage to the plates. The charge regime may be at a constant current, a constant potential, or a stepped regime involving both constant current and constant potential possibly also including rest periods. ‘The charge regime to be used may be specified in the test procedure, or by the battery manufacturer. Ifthe charge regime is specified by the battery manufacturer, this should be followed where possible. If no regime is specified, the examples below may give some general guidance: 16.2 SLI Batteries Charge at @ constant current e.g. 0.1 Gag until a constant voltage or constant acid density is reached (2 consecutive hourly readings). Or, charge at a constant current to an average voltage equivalent to 2.4 V per cell, then charge for a further 5 hours at the same current. Charge input should be 15-20% more than the charge removed during the previous discharge. BCI recommend charging at a constant current which is between '/ and '/ % of the Cold Cranking Performance (18°C) rating (in amperes). The criteria for full charge is as indicated in section 16.5. Charge at ambient temperature 20°C — 20°C. It the previous discharge was at a low temperature (e.g. 0°C (0r-18°C), allow the battery to warm up to > 10°C before commencing charge. With computer controlled test equipment which auto- ‘matically calculates ampere hours, it may be possible to ‘set the test program so that the charge input is automatically a.related to the charge output e.g. charge input charge output. 16.3 Stationary Batteries Charge at 0.09C; (Cig = & hour rate capacity) for approxi- mately 14 hours. Or: Commence charge at a higher start- ing rate 0.18C,, and reduce to the finishing rate (0.09C,) when the gassing voltage has been reached (0.9. 2.35 V peer cell). Recharge time will be about 10 hours. Or: Limited voltage charging. The voltage may be limited to e.g. 2.25V peer cel, wth a current of 0.09C,a, but the starting current could be increased to 0.18C.,. It will take a lot longer for the battery to reach full charge, possibly up to 50 hours. 16.4 Valve Regulated Batteries (VRLA) Valve regulated batteries are a special case, as they are designed so that any gas generated during charge is recombined internally. It is essential that the manufacturers recommendations be followed when charging valve regulated, batteries. If the manufacturers recommendations are not available, the recommendations in the relevant standard, {for VLA batteries should be followed. The maximum voltage ‘during charge is normally limited e.g. to 2.40 V per cell, to minimize the risk of excessive gas generation resulting in incomplete intemal gas recombination. The recommended % overcharge on each recharge is also normally lower than for flooded batteries €.g. 106% - 110%. 16.5 General Guidance on Voltage Changes During Charge During battery charging, there is a steady increase in the cell voltage until the battery is nearty fully charged and, the battery voltage then levels off. When the voltage has become constant for @ period of time, the battery is, considered to be fully charged (e.g. when the temperature Cottected voltage does not change by more than 0.008V per cell over three successive hourly intervals). When the battery is fully charged, the specific gravity of the electrolyte also reaches a maximum and becomes constant (e.g when the temperature corrected specific gravity is constant within = 0.002 over three successive hourly intervals). ‘Alternatively, it the charge is at constant voltage, the ‘observed current should not show any appreciable change during a period of 2 hours. Any changes in temperature should be taken into account. 16.6 Charging Temperatures IF the charge follows a previous discharge at low temperature, the battery should be allowed to warm up to al least 10°C (end preterably 15°C) before charge commences. During charge, the battery temperature should be maintained between 16°C and 40°C. 16.7 Series/Parallel Arrangement of Cells ‘When building a battery from more than one cell, the calls are normally connected in series. For example, a 12v, automotive battery is assembled from 6, 2v cells connected in series. The capacity of the battery is the same as tho capacity of the individual cells, but the voltage of the battery is additive. ‘There may be occasions when itis necessary to connect ‘cells or batteries in parallel, for example if itis necessary to charge a number of colls from a power supply which has. ‘a low voltage but a high current availabilty. Or i a battery ‘needs to be constructed with a high capacity but low voltage. If cells are connected in parallel, the voltage is the same as the voltage of the indvidual cells, but the capacity is additive, For example, a cell has a capacity of 40h and a voltage of 2y. If 3 cells are connected in series, the battery will have a capacity of 40Ah and a voltage of 6. If connected, in parallel, the battery has a capacity of 1204h, and a voltage of 2v. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 14, which also shows a series/parallel arrangement of cells. 17. ACCELERATED BATTERY TESTS In one sense, all endurance tests included in test specifications are accelerated tests because the battery fails more rapidly on these tests than they would in normal, duty. The main reason for this of course is that the en- durance tests exclude the long rest periods that normally ‘occur e.g. for an SLI battery on a vehicle. However, these standard endurance tests do test the battery under the con- ditions of charge current, discharge current, voltage and ‘temperature which would normally be experienced in the relevant duty application. Accelerated tests change one or more of these parameters. . = er (Cells connected in serie 6 Volts: 0A . . . . (Calls connected in parallel~2 Vole: 1204 ° . . . | e . . . . . Figure 14, Series of Parallel Connection of Cells w ww ~~ A good example of an accelerated life testis the SAE -J240 life cyole test in which the test temperature has been ‘changed from 40°C to 75°C. This high tomperature testis becoming more widely used because It is more representative of actual service duty on modern automobiles than the 40°C test. However, some caution must be used in interpreting the results, because for certain battery designs (e.g. ‘wrought calcium alloyed lead positive grids) the test failure mode may not correspond with the service failure mode, ‘The following paragraph is boing added to the current J240 standard and is quoted here in full because it summarizes the potential risks when accelerated life tests are used: Optionally, this test may be conducted with the water bath temperature maintained as high as 75°C + 3°C depending on the temperature and severity of the applica- ‘ton. Shortening of time and of number of cycles can be expected. However, this test option may change the types ‘and distribution of failure modes depending on the battery design technology. The battery supplier and the automotive User should concur that this test option will produce failure modes that correlate with application life and the temperature required to produce these failure modes. ‘The above comments need to be taken into account when considering the use of an accelerated life test. Before adopting an accelerated life test on a routine basis, the laboratory should carry out the normal endurance test land the accelerated test on representative sample batter- jes from the same batch of batteries, and examine the bat- teries at the end of the test, to establish whether the accel- erated test has changed the failure mode. 18. UNUSUAL BATTERY APPLICATIONS AND TEST PROCEDURES ‘Sometimes test procedures are agreed between the supplier and the customer, or used as part of a research and development program, which are not covered in the relevant national or interational test standards, This may be because the battery application is unusual, or because the test procedure has been devised to test a specific ‘component such as the arid or the separator. Examples PM rright inctude: 1= High temperature overcharge test designed to deter- mine the resistance to oxidation of the internal com- ponents such as the grids or the battery separator. This may include teardown examination of selected ccelis at defined intervals e.g, for detailed separator or grid analysis. 1 Test designed by the motor vehicle manufacturer For example there is a Mercedes test used some- times in Europe which is a lite cycle test at 60°C. Each week of the test involves a combination of overcharge, cranking test (at 60°C), a cycle test (8 charge/discharge cycles) and an open circuit stand. ‘When using a new or unusual test procedure, some preliminary development work may be needed, to establish that the test procedure is relevant to the proposed applica tion, and that the failure cause replicates the typical failure cause of the battery in actual service. a 19. EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS These notes can only act as a check list and give general {guidance in the evaluation and interpretation of the test data, itis important to be aware that the interpretation of results must take into account the test sample size and be carried out using accepted norms of statistical practice. ‘= What is the purpase of the test? For example, i it for routine production sampling or Research and Development testing of different battery builds. ‘= Did the batteries meet the performance specitication? It there were ferences between different battery builds, were these differences statistically significant? If the performance specication was not met, examine the results in more detail = Were open circuit vollages and on-charge voltages normal? Look out for abnormalities such as unusually high ‘or unusually low voltage on charge or discharge. i= Was the test temperature corect? Ifthe test temperature differed from the specified temperature, was the appropri- ate temperature correction applied to the capacity result? [At the completion of life cycle testing, the celisbatteries {are normally subjected to a teardown examination to determine cause of failure. Section 20 gives further guidance. 20. INTERNAL BATTERY EXAMINATION ‘An important function of any battery test laboratory is the ability to carry out an internal examination of batteries at the end of test to determine their condition and cause of failure. The battery test laboratory may also be used to test warranty claims batteries to determine whether the claim is. justified, and iso to establish the cause of failure. ‘The first stage in the internal battery examination is to drain the acid and remove the lid. At this stage the open circuit voltage of each cell should be measured to deter- ‘mine whether one cell has a lower voltage than the other cells in the battery — if 50, this cell should be examined first. ‘A guide to the more common causes of battery failure is given below, but this does not claim to be comprehensive. Ifthe battery is being examined after a destructive laboratory test e.g, life cycle or overcharge, then the cause of failure is normally fairly obvious as itis related to the known duty ‘cycle. Determination of the failure cause of batteries retumed from the field can often be much more dificult, and may also require discussions with component suppliers. Detailed notes should be made, accompanied by photographs if possible. This will make it easior to spot any trends in battery failures caused e.g. by assembly faults or component failures. Fault: Normal end of life. Plate appearance: Positive paste soft, and possibly shedding, There should be uniform shedding from the surface of the plates rather than pellet loss. If leaf separators have. been used, there may be a build up of “sludge” in the mud- rack at the bottom of the container. if envelope separators hhave been used, any active material loss should be contained within the separator envelope. The negative plates should be in goad condition, with a leady streak if scraped with a fingernail. The grid frame and lattice may be weak but should stil be intact. zaCause: This is normal end of life for a battery which has been on a life test at temperatures below 40°C, or which has reached the end ofits life in normal service duly. Fault: Overcharge. Plate appearance: Positive grids corroded. The grid frame may be intact, or there may be one or more breaks in the frame. The grid lattice (ribs and strands) is weak and corroded, and may have disintegrated completely. The positive active material normally remains fairy hard, but there may be significant loss of complete paste pellets. The negative plates ray stil be in a reasonable condition, Depending on the severity of the overcharge, the separators may also have been oxidized, with the possibilty of splitsinoles in the separator resulting in short circuits. Cause: This is the expected failure mode when the bat- tery has been on an overcharge test or a cycling test which involves a significant degree of overcharge on the charge: part of the cycle. If the battery has been in service on a vehicle, there are a number of possible causes including faulty alternator setting, high battery temperature (e.g. due to high ambient temperature) etc. The overcharge causes corrosion of the positive grids, and excessive gassing Which loosens the positive active material. it also results in ‘excessive water loss. The oxidizing atmosphere at the pos- tive plates arising from the excessive gassing, and the resultant high battery temperature may also destroy the integrity of the separators. Fault: undercharge Plate appearance: Positive paste hard, crystalline and light in color. The plates may be buckled and distorted. The negative plates are hard and light in color. A very fine white powder of lead sulfate may be deposited in the bot- tom of the cell. Cause: This failure cause is unlikely to be a typical cause of failure in the routine laboratory battery tests. Its ‘more likely to be observed in a battery removed from a vehicle, if for example the vehicle electrical system has failed, the altemator voltage is set 100 low, or the fan belt is loose/stipping. Use of the vehicle for short journeys only or in stop/start conditions of heavy traffic may also result in this failure cause, Fault: Overdischarge (sulfation) Plate appearance: Positive paste hard and almost white. The grid frame may be broken due to expansive forces. Negative paste hard and sulfated. Cause: This fault is unlikely to be observed after routine laboratory testing. It may arise if the battery has been left for a long time in a discharged condition, or has bean persistently undercharged. Fault: Hydration, Plate appearance: White deposit on positive and nega- tive plates, also white powdery deposit on separators. Cause: The battery has been left for a long time in a low state of charge, so that the electrolyte is effectively water, or has a pH very close to that of water. This permits, the formation of hydrated lead oxides. Fault: short circuit Plate appearance: Locse, mossy deposit of materia, usually gray in color, around the edges ofthe pletes, or around a holefbreak inthe separator. The postive plates may have an orange patch where the shor circuit has boon taking place. ‘Cause: Alow voltage on charge or dscharge, with very litte gassing during charge, is normally indicative ofan intemal short crcut. The hit cause may be an assembly fault suchas a bent pate, @ damaged separator ete. A short circuit may occur towards the end of ie when active material which has shed from the positive plates builds up tthe edges ofthe plates o that a bridge formed between the positive and negative plates (his is less Bkely ‘to occur with envelope separators). It can sometimes be Gitfcult to decide whether a short circu e.g, through the Separator) has caused high temperatures and battery failure, or whether high battery temperatures (from some other cause) have resuted in overcharge and separator deterioration n tis instance, may be necessary to examine all the calls in the battery to determine the primary cause of faire. Fault cell reversal Plate appearance: Each pate wil contain some post tive and some negative material. The postive plate ace material wil contain patches of dark brown color. Cause: This fault may be due to an assembly fault (e.g. cel inserted into the battery container backwards). Or for some reason one cell inthe batter has a much lower Capac than the other cols, fal the cells are reversed, the battery has been connected an charged in the wrong direction. Fault: Weak (low density) acid Plate appearance: Negative plates severely contracted. Cause: The battery has been filled with incorrect acid ‘84g, oF has been left in a discharged condition, Fault: Strong (high density) acid Plate appearance: Negative plates expanded and ‘spongy with a sandy or gfity feel. ‘Cause: The cell has been topped up with acid instead of water during service. Or the cell has not been topped up as water is lost during service, and the remaining acid becomes steadily more concentrated. Fault: Low electrolyte level. Plate appearance: The upper part of the plate is citfer: ent in color and texture to the lower part. The positive plate is lighter in color where itis out of the acid. The upper part of the negative plate will not give a leady streak when scraped with a fingemail. ‘Cause: The battery has not been topped up when electrolyte has been lost through gassing and evaporation. This will also cause the remaining acid to become steadily more concentrated, which may damage the plates and the separators. The battery performance will also be adversely affected, wGeneral comments: Sulfation and Hydration Lead sulfate fs a natural product of the discharge process, and is normally in a finely crystaline form, which is readily converted back to the active materials lead and lead dioxide by action of the charging current. It also forms as a result of self discharge and unless the battery is left in a discharged state for a very long time, itis again readily converted to the active materials. However, under certain conditions, much larger crystals of lead sulfate may for, which prove very difficult to reconvert to the active materials on charge. ‘A elated problem is the phenomenon known as hyda- tion, which occurs when virtually all the sulfuric acid has combined with the active material of the plates, so that the pH of the electrolyte is very close to that of water. Under these conditions, the lead sulfate in the plates which is ‘normally insolubie in the sulfuric acid, can become slightly soluble and migrate into the pores of the separators. On. recharge, the lead in solution is converted back to lead, and this can result in shor circuits (sometimes known as ‘microshorts) through the separators. Some battery manu- facturers try to avoid the occurrence of this problem by adding sodium sulfate to the electrolyte. The presence of the sulfate ions from the sodium sulfate inhibits the solubility of the lead sulfate. 21. FUTURE BATTERY DEVELOPMENTS 36 volt battery (42 volt automotive system). Within the next 3-5 years, 36-volt batteries will start to ‘appear as original equipment on luxury vehicles in the USA and Europe. Over a period of time, 36-volt batteries will aso appear on “mass market” automobiles. This has implications for battery testing, in particular: = These new batteries will require higher voltage test rigs. These will require a maximum voltage of 54v, ‘compared with 18y for test rigs that are used for existing 12-volt automotive batteries. i= The test specification may need to include a test for Peak Power in addition to the routine performance tests as described in section 11 Electric Vehicles/ Hybrid Electric Vehicles ‘Some mention has already been made of battery test specifications for Light Electric Road Vehicles in section 18.2. As E’s/ HEV's gain wider acceptance in the market- place, specialized test equipment will be needed in order 1 test electric vehicle batteries. This is because the dynamic endurance tests are complex in nature, involving a variety of current levels on both charge and discharge, with some of the current spikes of very bri duration. Testing of complete battery packs also requires test rigs capable of supplying voltages of up to 300v.APPENDIX 1. EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL TEST STANDARDS SAE Standards SAE JSST: June 1994 Storage Batteries. SAE J240: June 1993 Life Test for Automotive Storage Batteries. SAE J2185 Life Test for Heavy-Duty Storage Batteries. BCI Standards (Battery Technical Manual) 4-001 to 4-008/ 1-93 BCI Storage Battery Electrical Specifications 5-001 to 5-003/ 5-93 BCI Specifications for Electric Vehicle Batteries 6-001 to 6-002/ 1.97 BCI Specification for Constant Current Cycle Life Testing of Deep Cycle Batteries European Standards EN 60896-1: 1992 ‘Stationary lead-acid batteries. General requirements and methods of (IEC 896-1: 1987) test. Part 1. Vented types. EN 60896.2: 1996 ‘Stationary lead-acid batteries. General requirements and methods of (IEC 896-2:1995) ww test. Part 2. Valve regulated types. BS 6290-2: 1999 Lead-acid stationary cells and batteries. Part 2: Specification for the high-performance Plante positive type. BS 6290-3: 1999 Lead-acid stationary cells and batteries. Part 3: Specification for the flat postive plate type. BS 6290-4: 1997 Lead-acid stationary cells and batteries. Part 3: Specification for classifying valve regulated types. EN 60254-1: 1997 Lead-acid traction batteries. Part 1. General requirements and methods (IEC 60254-1:1997) of test. EN 60096-1: 1993, Lead-acid starter batteries. General requirements and methods of test. : (Shorty to be superceded by EN 50432) BS 6G 205: Part 1: 1995 Secondary batteries for aircraft. Specification for lead-acid batteries. BS 7483: 1091 ‘Speetication for lead-acid batteries for the propulsion of light electric vehicles. IEC 60095-1: Ed, 6: 1999 Lead-acid starter batteries. Part 1. General requirements and methods (In drat) of test Japanese Standards (JIS) US D 5901: 1998 Lead: Acid batteries for Automobiles JIS © 8702: 1988 Small-Sized Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries JIS © 5303: 1986 Llead-Acid Traction Batteries AIS C 8704: 1989 Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries IS D 6302: 1985 Motorcycle Batteries ~ Standards for Statistical Sampling and Data Analysis ‘BS 6000: 1996 Guide for the selection of an acceptance sampling system, scheme or (ISOTR 8550: 1994) _plan for inspection of discrete items in lots. BS 6001-0: 1996 Introduction to the 8S 6001 atbute sampling system, (ISO 2889-0:1995) BS 6001-1: 1999) ‘Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes. Sampling schemes (ISO 2859-2: 1985) Indexed by AOL for ot-by-lot inspection. BS 6001-2: 1993 Specttication for sampling plans indexed by limiting quality (LO) for (180 2859-2: 1985) isolated lot inspection. BS 6001-3: 1993, Specification for skip-lot procedures. ('S0 2859-3: 1991) BS 6001-4: 1994 ‘Specification for sequential sampling plans. (ISO 8422: 1991) BS 6001-5: 2000 Procedures for assessment of stated quaity levels. (ISO 2859-4: 1999) BS 6002-1: 1993, ‘Sampling procedures for inspection by variables. Specification for (ISO 3951: 1969) single sampling plans indexed by AQL for lot-by-lot inspection, BS 6002.4.1: 1994 Specification for sequontial sampling plans for percent nonconforming, @ (ISO 8423; 1991) Known standard deviation,APPENDIX 2. SOME BASIC ELECTROCHEMICAL TERMS Electron - An eleciron is a small particle, having unit negative charge, small mass, and small size. An atom consists of a nucleus which is positively charged, circled by one or more electrons. Some of these electrons can be readily removed from the atom and are transferred from one element or compound to another during chemical reactions. In an electrical circuit, the flow of electrical current is (@ carried by electrons. (an ATOM is the smallest chemically indivisible part of an element) Electrolyte - An electrolyte is a liquid which is capable of carrying an electric current. For example, dilute sulfuric acid is an electrolyte. Completely pure water is not an electrolyte, but can become an electrolyte if a small amount of an acid or salt has. been added. Paraffin oil is a good insulator and is therefore not an electrolyte. Electrode - An electrode is a conductor of electricity which brings the current into, and leads it from, the electrolyte. In most batteries the electrades also take part in the chemical reactions which occur. In the lead/acid battary the electrodes are lead and lead dioxide, Pion -A particle of molecular size that cartes electric charges through the electrolyte. It may be formed either from the electrodes or from the substance dissolved in the electrolyte A positively charged ion is known as a Cat A negatively charged ion is known as an Anion Example: H,S0, 2H+ + SO¥ in solution ion ion The 'SO,* ion is an Anion carrying 2 negative charges: The H* ion is a Cation carrying 1 positive charge. ‘Anode - The electrode at which oxidation occurs: alternatively, itis the electrode at which electrons are lost. Is the electrode to which Anions migrate Cathode - The electrode at which reduction occut alternatively itis the electrode at which electrons are gained. Its the electrode to which Cations migrate. DEFINITIONS ‘Ampere — This is the unit of electrical current. Volt — The unit of electromotive force. It is the difference in potential required to make a current of one ampere flow through a resistance of one ohm. ‘The electromotive force (EMF) of a cell — measured, in volts — is the difference between the two single potentials of the positive and negative electrodes in the electrochemical cell Ohm — This is the unit of electrical resistance. Ohmis Law — This is expressed as E = IR, and expresses the relationship between the current, |, measured in amperes, the electromotive force, E, measured in volts, and the resistance, R, measured in ohms. Coulomb — A coulomb is a current of one amp flowing for one second. This is a small quantity, therefore the larger unit of one ampere-hour (3600 coulombs) is normally used. Faraday — A Faraday is 36,500 coulombs or 26.80 ampere hours. It is also the quantity of electricity associated with one equivalent of chemical change. 2.Ampere-hour (Ah): 1 ampere-hour = 1 amp flowing for 1 hour. The ‘Ampere-hour’ capacity of the battery isa measure of the amount of electricity the battery is able to deliver. The battery capacity is dependent ‘on the discharge rate and therefore when the ampere hour capacity of a battery is quoted, the discharge rate must also be specified, For example, a battery may have a quoted capacity of 40Ah at the 20 hour rate, This can also be stated in the format: 40h @ C20. This means that i the battery is dis- charged at 2 amps (0.05C29), the discharge time will be 20 hours. Another example would be a battery with a capacity of 100Ah at the 5 hour rate (Cs). If discharged at 20 amps (0.2Cs) the discharge time will be 5 hours. ‘When specifying the ampere hour capacity of a bat- tery, the final voltage or “cut-off” voltage must also be specified. This cut-off voltage will vary dependent ‘on the discharge rate: some examples are given below: 20 hour rate 1.78 volts per cel 5 hour rate 1.7 volts per cell {hour rate Final voltage: 1.60 volts per cell 3 minute rate Final voltage: 1.00 volts per cell Watt hour (Wh) — The watt hour capacity of the battery is a measure of the energy available, or the ability to do work. Watt hour capacity = Ampere hour capacity x average voltage during discharge. Specific Energy — This is the energy available from the battery per unit of weight, and is normally expressed in the units Whvkg. This value is particularly important in electric road vehicle applications. Energy Density — This is the energy available from the battery per unit of volume, and is normally ‘expressed in the units Wh/Liter or WhIL. This value is particularly important in electric road vehicle applications. Electrolyte specific gravity/density — The specific gravity of a solution is the ratio of the weight of the solution to the weight of an equal volume of pure water at some fixed temperature. The density is the ratio of the mass of the liquid to its own volume at a definite temperature. So that density measures a propery of the substance itself, whereas specific gravity depends on the properties of two substances, The specific gravity of the battery electrolyte is based on a comparison with water, for which the density at 4°C is unity, and therefore the specific gravity of a solution and its density are very nearly the same. Because the practical difference between specific gravity and density is so small, this difference can generally be neglected in commercial work on stor- age batteries. The terms specific gravity and density wy are often used interchangeably. 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