Instrumentation

Oxylog- is a time-cycled, volume-constant and pressure-controlled emergency and transport

ventilator for patients with a tidal volume from 50 mL upwards.
With the following ventilation modes
IPPV/IPPVAssist (CMV/CMVAssist*)
Intermittent Positive Pressure Ventilation
Controlled and assisted volume-constant ventilation with
PEEP for CPPV.
SIMV/ASB (SIMV/PS)
Synchronized Intermittent Mandatory Ventilation
Procedure for weaning patients off the ventilator after they
have started spontaneous breathing, with adjustable
pressure assist during spontaneous breathing.
CPAP/ASB (SIMV/PS)
Continuous Positive Airway Pressure
Spontaneous breathing with positive airway pressure and
adjustable pressure assist.
BIPAP/ASB** (PCV+/PS*)
Biphasic Positive Airway Pressure
Pressure-controlled ventilation combined with free
spontaneous breathing during the complete breathing
cycle, and adjustable pressure assist on CPAP level.
The settings PCV+, PS and CMV can be viewed in the USEnglish display, see "Customer Service Mode", "Display
language text".
Special modes
Apnoea Ventilation
For switching over automatically to volume-controlled
mandatory ventilation, if breathing stops.
NIV
Non-invasive ventilation for mask ventilation with leakage
compensation.
With monitoring
Airway pressure Paw
Expiratory minute volume MV
Apnoea
Rapid shallow breathing: High frequency alarm
Areas of use
Mobile use for emergency medical care or primary care of
emergency patients:
During transport in emergency rescue vehicles or by helicopter,
In accident and emergency departments, in the recovery room.
Mobile use for secondary transfers:
During transfer by road or air
When moving ventilated patients around the hospital
Instrumentation for dust monitoring: The protection of people and their environment
against dangerous substances is of high concern.

Load cell for measuring tensile and compressive loads: A load cell is a highly accurate
device that is used to measure weight or force in a number of different applications. They can
be used to measure compression, tension, bending or shear forces.
The load cell itself is a transducer that is used to convert force into an electrical
signal. Within the load cell structure is an area, or group of areas, which are designed to be
stressed when a load/force is applied, normally in a linear fashion. Strain gauges
manufactured from metal foil are bonded to these areas to sense the strain in the load cell
structure under the applied load or pressure, and then provide a electrical output signal
proportional to the strain when excited by a regulated voltage or current source. This signal is
usually only a few millivolts and usually requires amplification before it can be read.
The load cell shown to us in the lab class was S-shaped and of Universal kind.

Fig:S-shaped Load Cell

It gives instantaneous values and consists of a recorder. For example-if the capacity is 200kg,
then it can measure 200kg of compressive and 200kg of tensile load. Thus, it capacity varies
from -200kg to +200kg. Peak force can also be recorded. The path should
be same for loading and unloading else hysteresis effect is observed.
McLeod gauge for pressure measurement: A McLeod gauge is a scientific
instrument used to measure very low pressures, down to 10-6 Torr. It was
invented in 1874 by Herbert McLeod (18411923).McLeod gauges were
once commonly found attached to equipment that operates under a vacuum,
such as a lyophilizer. Today, however, these gauges have largely been
replaced by electronic vacuum gauges.
McLeod gauges operate by taking in a sample volume of gas from a
vacuum chamber, and then compressing it by tilting, and infilling with mercury.
The pressure in this smaller volume is then measured by a mercury manometer,
and, by knowing the compression ratio, the pressure of the original vacuum
Fig: McLeod
can be determined. Boyle's law is then used to find the initial pressure from the manometer symbol
final pressure, and the initial and final volumes.
according to ISO
This method is fairly accurate for non-condensible gases, such as oxy3753-1977(E)
genn and nitrogen. However, condensible gases, such as water vapour, ammonia,
carbon dioxide, and pump oil vapors may be in gaseous form in the low pressure of the
vacuum chamber, but will condense when compressed by the McLeod gauge. The result is an
erroneous reading, showing a pressure much lower than actually present. It has the advantage
that it is simple to use and that its calibration is nearly the same for all non-condensable
gases.
The device can be manually operated and the scale read visually, or the process can be
automated in various ways. For example, a small electric motor can periodically rotate the

assembly to collect a gas sample. If a fine platinum wire is in the capillary tube, its resistance
indicates the height of the mercury column around it.
Modern electronic vacuum gauges are simpler to use, less fragile, and do not present a
mercury hazard, but their reading is highly dependent on the chemical nature of the gas being
measured and their calibration is unstable. For this reason McLeod gauges continue to be
used as a calibration standard for electronic gauges.
Thermopile: A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy into
electrical energy. It is composed of several thermocouples connected usually in series or, less
commonly, in parallel. It works on the principle of Thermoelectric effect.
The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to
electric voltage and vice versa. Thermopiles do not respond to absolute temperature, but
generate an output voltage proportional to a local temperature difference or temperature
gradient.
Thermopiles are used to provide an output in response to temperature as part of a
temperature measuring device, such as the infrared thermometers widely used by medical
professionals to measure body temperature. They are also used widely in heat flux
sensors (such as the Moll thermopile and Eppley pyrheliometer)[1][2][3] and gas burner safety
controls. The output of a thermopile is usually in the range of tens or hundreds of
millivolts. As well as increasing the signal level, the device may be used to provide spatial
temperature averaging.[5]
Thermopiles are also used to generate electrical energy from, for instance, heat from
electrical components, solar wind, radioactive materials, or combustion. The process is also
an example of the Peltier Effect (electric current transferring heat energy) as the process
transfers heat from the hot to the cold junctions.
Applications
Thermoelectric materials
Thermocouple
Thermoelectric cooling
Thermoelectric generator
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Automotive thermoelectric generator
Parshall flume: A Parshall flume is a fixed
hydraulic structure used in measuring
volumetric flow rate in surface water,
wastewater treatment plant, and industrial
discharge applications. The Parshall flume
accelerates flow though a contraction of both
the parallel sidewalls and a drop in the floor at
the flume throat. Under free-flow conditions
the depth of water at specified location upstream of the flume throat can be converted to a
rate of flow.
The free-flow discharge can be summarized as
Where

Q is flow rate

C is the free-flow coefficient for the flume

H is the head at the primary point of measurement
n varies with flume size (e.g. 1.55 for a 1-inch flume)
Under laboratory conditions Parshall flumes can be expected to exhibit accuracies to
within +/-2%, although field conditions make accuracies better than 5% doubtful.
A wide variety of materials are used to make Parshall flumes, including fiberglass (used
in wastewater applications due to its corrosion resistance), stainless steel, galvanized steel
(common in water rights measurement), concrete, aluminum, wood, and plastic (PVC or
Lexan). Smaller Parshall flumes tend to be fabricated from fiberglass and galvanized steel
(depending upon the application), while larger Parshall flumes tend to fabricated from
fiberglass (up to 144" in size) or concrete
Development
Development of what would become the Parshall flume began in 1915 by Ralph L. Parshall
of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service. In developing the flume, Parshall sought to overcome
limitations of the Venturi flume.
Modifications to the Venturi flume that Parshall made include:

Decreasing the angle of convergence of the inlet walls

Lengthening the throat
Decreasing the angle of divergence of the outlet wall
Introducing a drop through the throat of the flume

in 1930, the improved flume was named the Parshall Measuring Flume by the Irrigation
Committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers(ASCE) in recognition of Parshall's
accomplishments. Parshall was additionally honored as a Life Member of the ASCE.
Drawbacks[edit]

Parshall flumes require a drop in elevation through the flume. To accommodate the drop
in an existing channel either the flume must be raised above the channel floor (raising the
upstream water level) or the downstream channel must be modified.
As with weirs, flumes can also have an effect on local fauna. Some species or certain life
stages of the same species may be blocked by flumes due to relatively slow swim speeds
or behavioral characteristics.
In earthen channels, upstream bypass and downstream scour may occur.
Parshall flumes below 3 inches in size should not be used on unscreened sanitary flows,
due to the likelihood of clogging.
The Parshall flume is an empirical device. Interpolation between sizes is not an accurate
method of developing intermediate size Parshall flumes as the flumes are not scale
models of each other. The 30-inch [76.2 cm] and 42-inch [106.7 cm] sizes are examples
of intermediate sizes of Parshall flumes that have crept into the marketplace without the
backing of published research into their sizing and flow rates.

Noise meter: it is an instrument that measures sound pressure level, commonly used in noise
pollution studies for the quantification of different kinds of noise, especially for industrial,
environmental and aircraft noise. However, the reading from a sound level meter does not
correlate well to human-perceived loudness, which is better measured by a loudness meter.

Mainly the three kinds of sound measuring instruments are "conventional" sound level meter,
the integrating-averaging sound level meter, and the integrating sound level meter.
The various elements in a measuring system are:
a. the transducer; that is, the microphone;
b. the electronic amplifier and calibrated attenuator for gain control;
c. the frequency weighting or analyzing possibilities;
d. the data storage facilities;
e. the display.
Block diagram of the componenets of a noise meter is :
Preamplifier

Weighti
ng
networ
k of
filters

Amplif
ier

Rectif
ier

Avera
ging
Syste
m

AC outlet

The two main characteristics are:

1. The frequency response: that is, the deviation between the measured value and the true
value as a function of the frequency. As the ear is capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hz
and 20 kHz, the frequency response of the sound level meter should be good, with variations
smaller than 1 dB, over that range.
2. The dynamic range: that is, the range in dB over which the measured value is proportional
to the true value, at a given frequency (usually 1000 Hz). This range is limited at low levels
by the electrical background noise of the instrument and at high levels by the signal distortion
caused by overloading the microphone or amplifiers.
Some of the noise measuring instruments are-: microphone, sound level meter, noise
dosimeter, personal sound level meter, recorder
Lux
meter:
a portable instrument for measuring illumination; a type of photometer. The simplest luxmete
r consists of a selenium photocell that converts luminousenergy into the energy of an electric
current, which is measured by a pointertype microammeter with scales calibrated in luxes (Ix.
Different scalescorrespond to different ranges of the illumination being measured; scale chan
ges are made by a switch that changes the resistance in the electric circuit.For example, a Iu16 luxmeter has three measuring ranges: up to 25, up to 100, and up to 500 Ix. Higher illumin
ations may be measured by using a lightdiffusing attachment on the photocell, which attenuat
es the incident radiation by a certain factor that is constant over a wide range of wavelengths.
The curves for the relative spectral sensitivity of a selenium photocell and the average human
eye are not the same; consequently the readings of a luxmeterare a function of the spectral co
mposition of the radiation. The instruments are usually calibrated with an incandescent lamp,
and when simple luxmeters areused to measure the illumination produced by radiation having
a different spectral composition, such as daylight or fluorescent lighting, a correction factord
etermined by calculation is introduced. The measuring error of such luxmeters is at least 10 p
ercent of the indicated value.
More accurate luxmeters are equipped with correcting light filters that make the spectral sensi
tivity of the photocell close to the sensitivity of the eye; thereis an attachment to reduce the er
rors when measuring illumination produced by obliquely incident light and a checking attach
ment for measuring thesensitivity of the instrument. The spatial characteristics of illumination
are measured by means of luxmeters having spherical and cylindrical attachments.Luxmeters

Display

also exist with accessories for measuring brightness. The measuring accuracy of the best lux
meters is on the order of 1 percent. The most common uses of lux meter are in photography,
video filming, in meeting health and safety regulations of workers by checking the brightness
of the rooms in which they are working
Texture analyser: Texture analysis is primarily concerned with measurement of the
mechanical properties of a product, often a food product, as they relate
to its sensory properties detected by humans. The instrument used for this mechanical
analysis is Texture Analyser. Some of the major mechanical properties identified by this
system are: hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, resilience, gumminess, etc.
What is Signal conditioning and how is it obtained?
Soln: Signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets
the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Most common use is in analog-todigital converters. In a signal conditioning process it is common to have a sensing stage
(which consists of a sensor), a signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the
signal is done) and a processing stage (normally carried out by an ADC and a microcontroller).
Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and current, AC
voltage and
current, frequency and electric
charge.
Sensor
inputs
can
be accelerometer, thermocouple, thermistor, resistance thermometer, strain gauge or bridge,
and LVDT or RVDT.
Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching,
isolation and any other processes required to make sensor output suitable for processing after
conditioning.
Applications[edit]
It is primarily utilized for data acquisition, in which sensor signals must be normalized and
filtered to levels suitable for analog-to-digital conversion so they can be read by
computerized devices. Other uses include preprocessing signals in order to reduce computing
time, converting ranged data to boolean values, for example when knowing when a sensor
has reached certain value.
Types of devices that use signal conditioning include signal filters, instrument
amplifiers, sample-and-hold amplifiers, isolation
amplifiers, signal
isolators, multiplexers, bridge conditioners, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog
converters, frequency converters or translators, voltage converters or inverters, frequency-tovoltage converters, voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-voltage converters, current
loop converters, and charge converters.
Explain importance of calibration in instrumentation. How does it affect accuracy of an
instrument?
Calibration is a comparison between measurements one of known magnitude or
correctness made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar a way
as possible with a second device. The device with the known or assigned correctness is called
thestandard. The second device is the unit under test, test instrument, or any of several other
names for the device being calibrated.
Calibration defines the accuracy and quality of measurements recorded using a piece of
equipment. The accuracy of all measuring devices degrade over time. This is typically caused
by normal wear and tear. However, changes in accuracy can also be caused by electric or

mechanical shock or a hazardous manufacturing environment (e.x., oils, metal chips etc.).
Depending on the type of the instrument and the environment in which it is being used, it
may degrade very quickly or over a long period of time. The bottom line is that, calibration
improves the accuracy of the measuring device. Accurate measuring devices improve product
quality.
A measuring device should be calibrated:

According to recommendation of the manufacturer.

After any mechanical or electrical shock.

Periodically (annually, quarterly, monthly)