Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Knipp
Diode
Dr. Dietmar Knipp
Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering
Source: Apple
Ref.: Apple
Ref.: IBM
10-8
10-7
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
101
Critical
dimension (m)
3 Diodes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pn-junctions at zero bias
3.2.1 Semiconductor in Thermal Equilibrium
3.2.2 Pn-junctions in thermal equilibrium
3.2.3 The Space Charge Region
3.2.4 The Built-in voltage
3.2.5 Field and Potential Distribution
References
Diodes
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will deal with pn-junctions, metal-semiconductor junctions
(Schottky diodes) and ohmic contacts. Pn-junctions are of importance for
several modern electronic devices like diodes (e.g. Optical detectors, solar
cells, light emitting diodes, laser diodes), bipolar transistors, thyristor and field
effect transistors. In the following the operating principle of pn-junctions will be
discussed starting from the semiconductor materials. The ideal diode equation
will be derived. Furthermore, an equivalent circuit for pn-junctions will be
presented.
The main characteristic of a pn-junction or a diode is that for positive voltages
(forward bias) the diode is conduction, whereas for negative voltages (reverse
bias) the current flow is blocked. Due to this properties a diode can be used for
several applications like rectifiers, sampling circuits, demodulators, logic gates
and so on.
Diodes
3.1 Introduction
A silicon pn-junction can be realized by the formation of a junction between an
n-type and a p-type doped region. The junction can be formed by the
implantation or diffusion of dopants in an wafer. For example a silicon pnjunction can be formed by the implantation of boron atoms in an n-type silicon
wafer.
Dopant concentration
p-type Silicon
p+
n-type Silicon
Depth
Acceptors
Donors
Charge
SCR
Position
-xp
Diodes
xn
8
Diodes
jn = 0
jndrift = jndiff
jp = 0
diff
j drift
=
j
p
p
10
dn
dEFn
=0
jn = q n n F + Dn
= q n n
dx
dx
dp
dEFp
j p = q p n F D p
=0
= q p p
dx
dx
The Fermi level is constant throughout the sample independent of the spatail
position.
Diodes
11
nn N D ,
ni2
pn =
ND
ni2
pp N A, np =
NA
Ref.: M.Shur, Introduction to Electronic Devices
Diodes
xp < x < 0
0 < x < xn
p+
= qN D
n
Diodes
Charge
p = qN A
N A x p = N D xn
SCR
-xp
Position
Space
charge
=0
xn
Charge neutrality
13
Vbi
-
SCR
Vbi
bn
Vbi = bn bp
Position
Built-in voltage
Diodes
-xp
xn
x
14
ND
bn Vth ln
ni
NA
ni
bp Vth ln
ND N A
Vbi Vth ln
2
ni
Built-in voltage
Therefore, the built-in voltage is determined by the product of the donor and
acceptor concentration. The intrinsic carrier concentration can be substituted by
Eg
ni = N C NV exp
2kT
Diodes
15
Vbi
N N
+ Vth ln D A
q
N C NV
Eg
Built-in voltage
where ND is the Donor and NA is
the acceptor concentration, NC and
NV are the effective densities of
states in the conduction and the
valence band. In order to increase
the build-in voltage the doping
concentration can be increased.
This is for example of interest for
specific applications like solar cells.
Diodes
dF
d 2
1
= 2 =
dx
0 r
dx
Poisson Equation
Lets start with the semiconductor material outside of the space charge region.
The charges outside of the space charge region are zero, =0, so that the electric
field distribution is zero
Fn = Fp = 0
for
and subsequently the potential distribution for this region of the device results to
=0
for
Within the space charge region the space charge density is given by
= q( p n + N D N A )
Diodes
for
x p < x < xn
17
qN A
=
qN D
It is assumed that the pn-junction is an abrupt junction, so that the acceptor and
donor concentrations are constant throughout the p-region and the n-region of the
space charge region. This approximation is called depletion approximation. Based
on the depletion approximation the electric field can be calculated by
qN A
dF S
=
dx qN D
S
for
xp < x < 0
for
0 < x < xn
Here, x=0 corresponds to the boundary between the p-type and the n-type region
and xp and xn are the depletion widths on both sides of the junction.
Diodes
18
x
Fm 1 + for x p < x < 0
xp
F =
F 1 x for 0 < x < x
m
n
x
n
where Fm is the maximum electric field. Further, it is assumed that F(x=-xp)=0 and
F(x=xn)=0. The maximum electric field is observed for Fm=F(x=0), where
Fm =
qN D xn
qN A x p
qN A
(x p + x ) for x p < x < 0
S
F =
qN D
( xn x ) for 0 < x < xn
S
Diodes
19
qN A (x + x p )
for x p < x < 0
( x p ) +
2 S
=
2
(
)
qN
x
x
(x )
D
n
for 0 < x < xn
n
2 S
Potential distribution
where (-xp)=Vbi and (xn)=0. Due to charge neutrality, xpNA=xnND, the built-in
voltage can be calculated by
2
qN D xn2 qN A x p
Vbi =
+
2 S
2 S
Diodes
20
2 S
ND
1
xp =
Vbi
q
N A N A + ND
2 S
NA
1
xn =
Vbi
q
ND N A + ND
w = xn + x p
w=
N + ND
2 S
Vbi A
q
N A ND
Again, it is obvious that these equations only apply for zero bias. Otherwise the
width of the depletion region has to be a function of the applied bias.
Diodes
21
qN A
=
qN D
qN A
(x p + x ) for x p < x < 0
S
F =
qN D
S
Electric field distribution
2
qN A (x + x p )
for x p < x < 0
Vbi +
2 S
=
2
qN D ( x xn )
2 S
Potential distribution
Diodes
=0
-xP
xn
-xP
xn
-xP
xn
22
23
Depletion layer width and energy diagram of a pn-junction under two different
biasing conditions. (left) Thermal equilibrium, (right) Forward bias.
Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices
Diodes
24
EF(n ) EC
n = N C exp
kT
EV EF( p )
p = NV exp
kT
Under thermal equilibrium the quasi Fermi levels for electrons and holes are
identical, so that the Fermi potential is identical for electrons and holes. Under
non-equilibrium conditions EF(n) is not equal to EF(p) and both might be a function
of the position and the time.
Diodes
25
qV = EFn EFp
Using the pn product
(n )
( p)
E
E
2
F
F
p n = ni exp
kT
The
following
expression
is
calculated for the product of
electrons and holes under quasithermal equilibrium
qV
p n = ni2 exp
kT
Law of
the junction
Energy band diagram for a silicon pnjunction under zero bias (top) and
forward bias (bottom). xp and xn define
the boundary conditions between the
depletion and the neutral region. EFn
and EFp are nearly constant within the
depletion region.
26
EFn EFp
n p = n p 0 exp
kT
Diodes
27
p p p p0 N A
nn nn 0 N D
The
minority
carrier
concentration
at
the
boundary x=-xp is given by
qV
n p = n p 0 exp
kT
ni2
qV
=
exp
NA
kT
kT N D
kT
Under forward bias conditions V>0, so that the minority carrier concentration is
higher than the minority carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium. Under
reverse bias conditions V<0, so that the minority carrier concentration is lower
than the minority carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium.
Diodes
29
Diodes
30
31
Diodes
32
qV
n p = n p 0 exp
kT
qV
pn = pn 0 exp
kT
Therefore, the minority carrier concentration under bias (non-thermal equilibrium)
is expressed in terms of the carrier concentration under thermal equilibrium.
Diodes
33
nn nn 0 pn pn 0
n p
Low injection assumes now that the change of the minority carrier concentration
is smaller than the majority carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium. As a
consequence Fermi level for the majority carriers is assumed to be identical with
the Fermi level under thermal equilibrium.
pn < nn 0
EFn EF
Low injection
pn > nn 0
Diodes
High injection
34
Diodes
35
F
pn
2 pn
+GR =0
+ n F
+ Dn
pn n
2
x
x
x
Continuity equation
for holes
2 pn
Dn
R=0
2
x
Diodes
36
R = A np ni2 = A (nn pn nn 0 p p 0 )
Recombination equation
R=
pn pn 0
pl
Recombination rate
The parameter tpl is the hole lifetime. The resulting equation is called the
Diffusion equation.
Diodes
37
2 pn pn pn 0
Dp
=0
2
pl
x
Dn
2n p
x 2
np n p0
nl
=0
The Diffusion equation can be solved by using the following general solution.
xx
n
pn ( x ) pn 0 = A exp
D p pl
+ B exp x xn
D p pl
To simply the equation the Diffusion Length for minority carriers is introduced.
Diodes
38
L p = D p pl
Ln = Dn nl
x xn
x xn
pn ( x ) pn 0 = A exp
+ B exp
L
L
p
p
qV
pn ( x = xn ) = pn 0 exp
kT
pn ( x ) = pn 0
Diodes
39
x xn
qV
pn ( x ) pn 0 = pn 0 exp
1 exp
L
kT
p
40
dp
j p = q p pF qD p
dx
The drift contribution can be neglect due to the dominance of the diffusion
current. Accordingly the following expression is obtained:
j p j pD
Diodes
x xn
dpn qD p pn 0 qV
exp
= qD p
=
1 exp
dx
L p kT
LP
41
n p
Quasi charge neutrality leads to the following relationship between the gradients
of the minority carrier concentration.
n p
p
n
x
x
and
2n p
x 2
2 pn
x 2
By using this simple relationship the electron diffusion current can be correlated
with the hole diffusion current.
jnD = qDn
p
nn
D
qD p n = n j pD
x
Dp
x
So that the total diffusion current jD in the n-type neutral region becomes
jD = j pD + jnD
Diodes
x xn
qpn 0
qV
(D p Dn ) exp
1 exp
Lp
L
kT
p
42
Ln >> xn + x p
L p >> xn + x p
Therefore, the hole and the electron diffusion current densities remain nearly
constant throughout the depletion region. The total current density is given by
j = j pD
x = xn
+ jnD
x= x p
where jpD and jnD are the hole and the electron diffusion current densities at the
boundaries.
Diodes
43
44
qD p pn 0 qDn n p 0 qV
exp
j =
+
1
Ln kT
p
D p ni2 Dn ni2 V
exp 1
+
j = q
V
L p N D Ln N A
th
Leading to the Shockley / ideal diode equation
I=
Diodes
qAni2
Dp
V
D
n
exp 1
+
V
L N
L
N
n A
th
p D
45
V
I = I S exp 1
Vth
Ideal diode equation /
Shockley equation
IS =
qAni2
Dp
D
n
+
L N
p D Ln N A
Saturation current
Current voltage curve using a linear (a) and a semilog (b) plot.
Ref.: M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices
Diodes
46
Diodes
47
p-type Silicon
Insulator
Diodes
n-type Silicon
Xn
Short pn-junction
with a highly
doped p-region.
48
qV X n x
pn ( x ) pn 0 pn 0 exp
1
kT X n xn
and the hole concentration in the n-type region can be approximated by a
linear function of x. The overall current is given by
p
j qD p n
x
x = xn
qD p pn 0 qV
=
exp
1
X n xn kT
Diodes
49
Ref.: T. Fjeldly, T. Ytterdal, M. S. Shur, Introduction to device modeling and circuit simulation
Diodes
50
pn
= exp q << 1
2
kT
ni
Gthermal =
ni
gen
Generation rate
51
xn =
Diodes
2 s (Vbi V )
qN D (1 + N D N A )
2 s (Vbi V )
xp =
qN A (1 + N D N A )
52
ni
gen
Generation current
where w is the width of the depletion
region w=xp+xn.
The generation current scales with the
intrinsic carrier concentration, which
depends on the bandgap of the
material. As a consequence the
generation current for a silicon diode is
much higher than the generation current
of a GaAs diode.
jGen = q w
Diodes
53
ttr
w
vs
Transit time
I R = I s + I gen = A ( jS + j gen )
Reverse current
Diodes
54
55
56
I I
d n = n 0 ( n dx )
q q
Multiplication currrent
Based on this equation for the multiplication current the condition for breakdown
can be derived.
w
dx = 1
Breakdown condition
57
FC w S FC2
VB =
=
2
2qN B
Breakdown voltage
58
qV
jrec = jrecs exp
2
kT
Recombination current
In reality traps levels may not only exist in the middle of the bandgap, which
leads to the following empirical equation:
jrec
qV
= jrecs exp
mr kT
Recombination current
qV
qV
exp
jF = js exp
+
j
recs
kT
mr kT
Diodes
qV
I F = I s _ eff exp
nkT
where Is_eff is the effective saturation current and n is the ideality factor.
Therefore, the ideality factor varies between 1 and 2 depending on the material
properties and the applied bias voltage. If the ideality factor shifts towards 2 for
higher applied voltages we can conclude that the properties materials are
reduced (materials with higher defect density).
Diodes
60
p n + N D = nn + N A
Charge neutrality
p n + p n 0 + N D = nn + nn 0 + N A
Charge neutrality
Carrier
concentration at
low-level injection
(a) and high-level
injection (b).
Ref.: G.W. Neudeck, The pn Junction diode
Diodes
61
pn < nn 0
Low injection
qV
p n nn = p n N D = ni2 exp
kT
ni2
qV
pn
exp
ND
kT
qV
I exp
kT
pn > nn 0
High injection
qV
p n nn = p n ( N D + pn ) = ni2 exp
kT
qV
pn ni exp
kT
2
Diodes
qV
I exp
2
kT
V IRS
I = I S exp
Vth
Diodes
63
Influence of the series resistance on the I/V curve under forward bias.
Ref.: M.Shur, Introduction to Electronic Devices
Diodes
64
Diodes
65
Rshunt
Shunt resistance
I(V)
Differential resistance
Cd(V)
Rd(V)
Internal diode
Diodes
Differential capacitance
Rseries
Small signal
equivalent circuit of a pn diode.
66
V IRS V IRs
1 +
I = I S exp
Vth Rshunt
Diode current
I leakage =
V
Rshunt
Leakage current
The leakage current is caused by the generation current and leakage effects.
The shunt resistance influences the I/V characteristic under reverse bias.
Diodes
67
1
dI
= Gd =
Rd
dV
Differential resistance
Gd 0
V
1
dI F I S
= Gd =
=
exp
Rd
dV Vth
Vth
leading to
IF
Gd =
Vth
Diodes
68
Diodes
69
Cdep = A
s
w
= A
s
x p + xn
Depletion capacitance of a
symmetric and abrupt pn-junction
where A is area of the diode, w is the width of the depletion region and s is the
dielectric constant of the semiconductor. The width of the depletion region is the
sum of the depletion region in the n- and the p-region.
Schematic sketch of a pnjunction including the distribution
of charges and the equivalent
depletion capacitor.
70
xn =
2 S
N
1
(Vbi V ) D
q
N A N A + ND
xp =
2 S
N
1
(Vbi V ) A
q
ND N A + ND
w = xn + x p
w=
Diodes
2 S
N + ND
(Vbi V ) A
q
N A ND
71
Cdep =
dQd
q s N A N D
=A
dV
2 ( N A + N D ) (Vbi V )
Depletion capacitance
Cdep
Cj
q s N A N D
1
=A
=
2( N A + N D ) Vbi 1 V Vbi
1 V Vbi
1 1 V Vbi
Diodes
72
Cdep =
C j0
(1 V
Vbi )
Depletion capacitance
73
Formation
of
the
diffusion capacitance in
the neutral region under
forward bias voltage.
74
Cdif
1 pl 1
=
= Gd pl
2 Rd 2
Diffusion capacitance
where the factor correspond to the ideality factor in the empirical diode
equation.
If the transit time of a carrier is much smaller than the recombination time (ttr <<
pl), the recombination time can be expressed in terms of the transit time for
holes.
pl =
L2p
Dp
2
(
X n xn )
= 2t
Dp
tr
Cdif = Gd ttr =
Diodes
IF
ttr
Vth
Diffusion capacitance
75
Cd _ max =
s A
LDn + LDp
where LDn and LDp are the Debye lengths for holes and electrons. The Debye
length defines the minimum width of the depletion region.
L Dn =
sVth
qN D
2 sVbi
xn =
qN D
Diodes
L Dp =
sVth
qN A
2 sVbi
xp =
qN A
Debye length
Cd =
Differential capacitance
Depletion (Cdep),
diffusion (Cdif),
maximum diffusion
(Cd_max) and differential
capacitance (Cd).
77
Diodes
78
79
EC = q( 2 1 )
EV = E g1 + q1 (E g 2 + q 2 )
= E g EC
Energy diagram of two
isolated semiconductors
M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices
Diodes
80
EC = q( 2 1 )
EV = E g1 + q1 (E g 2 + q 2 )
= E g EC
Energy diagram of two
isolated semiconductors
M.S. Sze, Semiconductor Devices
Diodes
81
Vbi = Vb1 + Vb 2
Built-in Voltage
Diodes
82
Vb1 =
2 N 2 (Vbi V )
1N1 + 2 N 2
1 N1 (Vbi V )
1N1 + 2 N 2
Vb 2 =
x1 =
x2 =
Diodes
21 2 N 2 (Vbi V )
qN1 (1 N1 + 2 N 2 )
21 2 N 2 (Vbi V )
qN 2 (1N1 + 2 N 2 )
Schematic energy
diagram for the
electrons in a metal
and a semiconductor.
84
Schematic energy
diagram for the
electrons in a metal
and a semiconductor
including the vacuum
energy level.
85
Diodes
86
Diodes
88
89
90
qV
I = I 0 exp
nkT
91
Diodes
< S).
92
References
Michael Shur, Introduction to Electronic Devices, John Wiley & Sons;
(January 1996).
(Price: US$100), Audience: under graduate students
Simon M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices, Physics and Technology, John
Wiley & Sons; 2nd Edition (2001).
(Price: US$115), Audience: under graduate students
R.F. Pierret, G.W. Neudeck, Modular Series on Solid State Devices,
Volumes in the Series: Semicondcutor Fundamentals, The pn junction
diode, The bipolar junction transistor, Field effect devices,
(Price: US$25 per book), Audience: under graduate students
T. Fjeldly, T. Ytterdal, M. S. Shur, Introduction to device
modeling and circuit simulation, Wiley (1997)
Diodes
93