Bar Uzun

10629028
GE 311
Take Home Final

1) First, let's begin with CT. CT is used for medical and industrial imaging method. In medical
area, It is generally used for neurological workings. With CT method, three dimensional image of
brain can be generated. In this method, with the process of windowing, we see the bodily
structures based on their ability to black the X ray beam.
In MRI method, it gives much more detailed map of Brain than CT method. Simply, MRI method
uses information about how hydrogen atoms in the brain respond to strong magnetic field.
Electromagnetic signals is spreading from the atoms transmitted to a computer that construct a map
of brain by an array of sensors around the head.
On the other hand, in comparison with CT and MRI, there are other new techniques which are
more informative; these can yield us chemical and electrical process in the Brain. The imaging
methods in question are functional imaging techniques: PET and fMRI. In PET imaging, a
radioactive solution containing atoms is injected to bloodstream. These atoms which are emitting
positrons interact with electrons to produce photons of electromagnetic radiation. In this kind of
PET application, patient's head is surrounded by detectors pick up the photons. This application
gives informations about metabolic activity in the Brain. In fMRI technique, we see the changings
in
the magnetic field of Brain. In this technique, what is causing the changing is deoxyhemogoblin
which have paramagnetic specialty. More active regions of Brain receive more blood and of course
oxygen. FMRI detects neuronal activity through this path by measuring rate of oxyhemogoblin to
deoxyhemogoblin. By means of fMRI, which regions become active while expression of emotions
and movements can be detected.
Lastly, as for EEG, it is a technique which measure electrical activity in the post-synaptic area

through electrodes around patient's head. EEG helps diagnose neuronal conditions, especially
seizures of epilepsy and sleep disorders.
2) Protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm and genetic codes are in Nucleus.However these
genetic codes never leaves the nucleus. Protein synthesis beggining with amino acid synthesis and
transcription of genetic codes into messenger RNA. As we said above, genetic codes ( or
we can say that DNA) never leaves the Nucleus. In this point, messenger RNA consist of four
nucleic acids function as intermediary. Then the messenger RNA transcripts translate to Proteins.
The number of mRNA transcripts synthesized by different cells to specific proteins for specific
works.We can say that proteins are the form of codes are converted to work.
3) The most important point about the transmissions in neurons is based on fundamental
difference: The intercellular ( between two neurons) transmission is chemical, and the infracellular
(within neuron) transmission is electrical.
A typical neuron consists of three main part: Dendrites, Cell Body and axon. All of these parts
have different shapes. And different shapes in question also correspond to different functions in the
neuronal communication. If we begin with dendrites, we have to talk about their shape and function
in it. There are thousands of synapses under the dendrites. These synapses detect the
neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. And the dendritic membrane under the synapses has many
receptors. That is, dendrites function as antenna of the neuron. This is also the chemical
communication point of between two neurons. Then the chemical messages of neurotransmitters
transform into electrical signal through axon. In this point, we see the phenomenon of action
potential. Action potential is generated by voltage gated ion channels on the membrane. These
channels are closed when the membrane potential is near the resting potential of the cell. When the
membrane potential increases, they begin to rapidly open. When an action potential passes,
channels open and response to membrane depolarization; they allow sodium ions flow into cell.
and changes the electromagnetical gradient. Then the more channels open and allow the exit of

potassium ions from the cell. The flow of sodium ions increases concentration of positively charged
cations in the cell. This causes depolarization. Sodium channels close at the high level of action
potential. On the other hand, potassium continues to leave the cell. Whole of this process causes
electric current; this is the infracellular transmission. nformations in the electric currents travel
down the axon and then, they are converted into a chemical signal that crosses the synaptic cleft.
And the same process begins again from synaptic cleft to dendrites.
4) Olfactory system has specialized sensory cells to smell in the nasal cavity called the olfactory
epithelium. This olfactory epithelium has three main cell types: Olfactory receptor cells, Supporting
cells and Basal cells.
Olfactory sensory neurons are transduction cell within the olfactory system. Sniffing air through
the basal passages; odorants in the air dissolve in the mucus layer before they are detected by
receptors. Then, molecules of odorants detected by the receptors and lead an action potential - these
receptors can detect up to 10.000 different odors-.Then the electrical signal passess through
cribiform plate and reaches from nerves to the olfactory bulb.
Supporting cells help produce mucus layer. The mucus layer consist of variety of proteins,
enyzmes, salts, etc. And As for basal cells, they are the source of new receptors. Because the
receptor cells, grow and die consistently. The last point of the olfactory system is the olfactory bulb.
Olfactory bulb is a structure for the perception of odors in the Brain. It is on the inferior side of the
brain. As circular, olfactory bulb has a source of sensory input and output. It alsa receive
informations from amygdala, neocortex, locus coerules and hippocampus. All of these connections
related to filtering, interpretation, remember odors and identify with objects.
Smell disorders have many causes. In the states of respiratory infections and head injuries, we
can see the reduction the of sense of smell. For example, total inability to detect odors is termed
anosmia. It can be both temporary and permanent. The main reason of it is inflammation of the
nasal mucosa. Blockage of nassal passages or destruction of temporal lobe can cause it. If there is a
blockage or infection, anosmia is temporary. However permanent loss of smell can be caused by

death of olfactory receptor neurons in the case of brain injury which damages to olfactory nerves or
olfactory bulb.
5) This process seems to simple from outside, but it is a complex process which two main
sensory system step in: somatosensory and visual system. Let's try to describe process step by step:
First of all, when we look at the ball, light enters the eye and refract when passing through the
cornea. Photoreceptor cells in the retina (rods and cones) absorb photons and cause change in the
cell's membrane potential. Ganglian cells convert the photons into electrical signals, then the signals
are sent through the neural pathway to the brain by optic nerve. They pass through geniculate nuclei
and to the visual cortex of the brain. And in this visual cortex the image of the ball is seen. Thus,
first we see the ball. When we hold the ball, in this point, we have to talk about somatosensory
system. The sensory receptors cover the skin, skelatal muscles, bones, joints, cardiovascular system
and other internal organs. When we touch the ball, trasmission of information from receptors cover
the skin passes via sensory nerves through spinal cord and into the brain. In this process, we also
see the relaying role of thalamus and cerebellum in the motor control. When we throw the ball,
somatosensory cortex, spinal cord, thalamus, cerebellum and of course visual cortex works together.
But especially cerebellum is more active role in throwing.
6) As different from the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system controls
visceral functions; heart rate, salivation, digestion, respiratory rate, micturition, etc. It is an
extensive network of interconnected neurons inside the body cavity This nervous
system is controlled by hypothalamus. Although most of its actions are involuntary/motor, some
functions ( such as breathing ) can also controlled by conscious mind. This nervous system is
located in the brainstem and divided into three main area: the respiratory control centre, the cardiac
control centre and the vasomotor control centre. And it also is divided into two subsystems: the
parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system. Both of them use different
pathways in structure and in their neurotransmitter systems. Preganglionic axons of parasympathetic
system emerge from the brain stem and sacral segments of spinal cord. On the other hand,

preganglionic axons of sympathetic system emerge from the thoracic and lumbar segments of spinal
cord. We can say that their distinction is physiological. Generally, sympathetic system is aroused to
prepare body for stressfull conditions; it speeds heart rate and breathing up, tenses muscles, etc. As
for parasympathetic system, it works under vegetative conditions; disgesting, urination, defecation,
etc.
7) Fear is expressed by autonomic response, mediated by autonomic nervous system; it generally
is self-regulated. And it also can be source of a mental ilness. If we deal with anxiety disorder, first
of all, we have to say that the term of anxiety disorder covers different forms of pathological
fear, feeling of intense terror and anxiety. Normally, fear is an adaptive feeling to the warnings and
all kind of threatening situations. Panic attack is the one of the most known and celebrated
symptoms of it. Apart from that, anxiety disorders divided into three types basically: panic disorder,
phobic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Each of these have own characteristic.
Panic disorder is characterized by by recurring panic attacks. Panic attacks are unexpected
feelings of terror despite there is no warning. These attacks cannot be predicted, and therefore
patient may become anxious with thinking that attacks can occur. This is the expectation anxiety.
Symptoms of panic attacks are like this: sweating, shortness of breath, nausea, chest pain, dizziness,
palpitation, tingling sensations, blushing, etc. Most of patient say that they feel going crazy
during the attacks. The attacks are short-lived, but intense. However, panic disorder can be
controlled succesfully thanks to theraphies and threated by medicines. The attacks can be occur as
response to specific visible or invisible stimuli. Panic disorder cannot have a specific cause,
inheritance can have strong role in it. Except of these, stressfull live events can play a role in the
attacks.
Phobic disorder usually is defined as consistent fears about an object or a situation. These fears
have no rational cause. Phobic disorder is divided two kind of phobias: specific phobias and social
phobias. Arachnophobia and acrophobia are examples of specific phobias. As for social phobias,
they can be defined like this: they are irrational fears about public humiliation or another kind of

specific and excessive fears and avoidance of an object, places or situations ( avoidance behaviour
is generally more characteristic than fear ). All kind of phobias have own characteristic symptoms
and substructure, therefore we don't talk about them anymore.
Finally, Generalized Anxiety Disorder characterizes itself with irrational and uncontrollable
worry about daily life things. These uncontrollable worries interfere with daily works of individual.
They are intensely concerned about everyday matters; death, family problems, work dificulties,
enviromental problems, etc. Persistent anxiety and worry accompany these. There are several
physical symptoms of this process: fatigue, fidgeting, agitation, insomnia, trembling, restlessness,
sweating, inability to control anxiety, etc. Generalized Anxiety Disorder usually is seen from
chilhood to late adulthood. According to researches, it can grow during stressful proces. It can be
chronic, but managed.
As we wrote above, anxiety disorder covers all of these and more; it is an umbrella term. The last
point that we have to talk about is neurobiological substructure of these disorders. Basically,
hypothalamus has an central role in orchestrating somatic motor responses. In terms of stress,
releasing corticotropin-releasing hormone is secreteing from the Hypothalamus with the influence
of stress. It release into blood of the portal circulation by parvocellular neurosecretory neurons in
the hypothalamus. The things which we can understand about what is the neurobiological
substructure of them are related to how the activity of these neurons is regulated. In this point,There
are some researches about relations between CRH rate and cyle and anxiety. For example, When the
receptors of CRH are genetically eleminated from mices, it is observed that they have less anxiety
than normal mices. Amygdala also is a critical role in fear responses. As a phenomenon, we know
that when the central nucleus of the amygdala becomes active, the stress response occurs. That is,
we can say that the amygdala is associated with some kind of anxiety disorders as well.
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10) Dreams are a kind of scene is consisted of images, emotions an sensations that occur
involuntarily in the mind during stages of sleep. Functions and purposes of dreams are not
completely understood and it is unknown where in the brain dreams originate. Therefore, dreams
also are the object of speculation.
In terms of neurobiology, observations up to today say us that dreams are strongly associated
with rapid eye movement sleep. EEG shows us brain activity that during dreams is like
wakefulness. During REM sleep, some neurotransmitters are utterly suppressed like serotonin and
histamine. Most dreams last 5 to 20 minutes.
In terms of psychology and psychiatry, there are two celebrated theories: one is jungian and other
is freudian theories. According to Freud, content of dreams is created by unconscious wish
fulfillment. He said that important unconscious desires usually relate to early childhood memories.
That is, dreams have reflections from external reality and life of individual. According to Freud,
dreams have both latent and manifest content. Latent content is related to deep unconscious desires,
wishes and fantasies. As for manifest content, it is generally meaningless; it obscures latent content.
Freud also argued that majority of latent content is sexual.
On the other hand, according to Carl Gustav Jung, Freud's theory is problematic. He rejected that
dream content relates to unconscious desires. He construed dreams from different way and a bit
mystic -. According to him, dreams are messages to the dreamers. He thought dreams as aid to
resolve emotional and religious problems. In terms of this, according to Jung, recurring dreams
demand attention from the dreamer. Except this, Jung also said that memories formed throughout
the day also have role in dreaming. During his studies, he worked on the symbols in dreams. We
must say that his archetype theory also play role in this studies.