Advantages:

Can be easily erased and changed

Can be zoomed in for more detailed sections
Can be copied and pasted many times
Depending on skill, can be neater
Can be quicker
Can be sent to elsewhere quickly
Can be stored in a safe place
Can be checked for measurements by the computer
Can easily mass produce identical products
Can work throughout the night so can produce product 24 hours a day
Disadvantages:
If computer problem, all data will be lost
If not checked properly, the object created can go very wrong
Can be very expensive
Can be hard to do and handling needs training
Since not manual, can be slightly irritating because if not familiar with technology, it is very hard to insure exactly what is
wanted by the designer e.g. If wanted something engraved instead of cut, the line colour has to be changed into blue instead of
red.
Sometimes you can't do everything you want to because the tools aren't available
Lots of people lost their jobs when CAD CAM originally came out

Advantages of CAD
Reduced storage space required.
Previously, paper drawings would have required whole rooms to store the drawings for a building.
Now this information can be stored on a single disk.
Corrections can be made easily.
Before, whole drawings may have had to be reproduced on paper if a mistake has been made.
Now a single line is deleted and redrawn in the correct place.
Repetitive parts of the drawing can be saved and imported as part of a drawing library.
Paper drawings require objects to be redrawn each time manually which is time consuming.
Being able to call the parts in from a library saves the user time.
It takes less time to produce drawings using CAD systems than traditional manual drawing methodsDrawings offices
often produce their drawings using a standard layout so that people can immediately identify the drawings as
belonging to that particular company.

Templates can be set up on a computer to make this easier.

No matter what size of drawing is being produced CAD systems van be used to produce them accurately.
Grid Snap, Zoom and Attach commands are 3 examples of methods of producing accurate drawings easily.
CAD systems can be linked with CAM machines to produce objects straight from the drawings.
This is referred to as CAD/CAM
CAM stands for Computer Aided Manufacture.
This is a cheaper and quicker method of producing the final product.
Because 3D CAD designs are so realistic and can be made to look like the actual material they will be made from, clients
can see exactly what is being made so a physical model is not required, reducing costs and the time it takes to design a
new product.
Designers can use powerful CAD computer packages to make virtual reality simulations of the layout of their buildings.
This means that the client can have a look around the building before it is built and changes can be made at this early
stage.
This results in a faster design of the building and a higher quality end product.
It is also cheaper to make any changes at this stage rather than while the building is being constructed.
On an ever greater scale, the Internet can be used to share plans and designs with anyone in the world that also has an
Internet connection.
This means that specialised work can take place between different countries quickly and cheaply.

Disadvantages of CAD
Initial costs of buying a computer system are high.
As computer systems can be used to produce quicker CAD drawings less people need to be employed.
CAD/CAM systems also means less people need to be employed.

It takes a long time to make CAD drawings of the existing drawings a company already has.

Cam and cad

Computer aided drafting (CAD) is the process of creating a design, known as drafting, using computer technology. Computer
aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computers and computer software to guide machines to manufacture something, usually
a part that is mass-produced. The relation between CAD and CAM is one of form to function and they are often used together.
CAD creates the design and CAM builds it.
The use of CAD, sometimes also referred to as computer aided design and drafting (CADD), is used across several environments,
some that overlap with CAM. CAD is used a lot when simple drafting would be too complex, such as in the design for
automobiles, airplanes, ships, and many other industrial design fields, and these are all fields where CAM is also frequently used.
In recent years with the proliferation of computerized movie effects, CAD is utilized with many forms of computer animation and
design.
Although CAD has many functions that dont necessarily coincide with the use of CAM, the opposite is generally not true, and
CAM is usually dependent on CAD. The use of CAD created designs offers an easy way of inputting information into a CAM
software system. Designs done by a CAD device are often put through another program that will utilize computer-aided analysis
(CAA) and then through to a computer that handles the software for CAM. CAM and CAD are both referred to as part of an
overall process known collectively as computer aided engineering (CAE).
Ad
Both CAD and CAM offer similar benefits. They can render things in either two dimensions (2D) or three dimensions (3D), and
they both offer expedited processing and manufacture of a design. Many CAM machines have CAD software built-in, although
not all designs require the use of a CAD created design.
One of the key differences between CAD and CAM is who implements the technology. Although both utilize computers to aid
efficiency, they still require a human to do the processing or input. A CAD user will typically be an engineer with training in
CAD software, whereas a CAM user will usually be a specially trained machinist. These types of machinists are highly skilled
and are comparable to a computer programmer or mechanical engineer.
The technology used in both processes has gotten very advanced. Where there was once a difference between the training for the
operators of their respective technologies, the type of training today is mainly done on computers. This makes the level of skills
necessary to operate CAD and CAM roughly the same.
Differences between Computer-Aided Design (CAD) & Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

A system that enables engineers and architects to design models of the products, new car, aircraft, bridge, building and many
other things is called Computer-Aided Design (CAD). It is a combination of hardware and software.
CAD system allows engineers/architects to view a design model from any angle. The designed model can be changed/modified
very easily. When an engineer changes one value, all other values that depend on it are automatically changed accordingly.
CAD system requires the following hardware devices for designing the products:

High-quality graphics monitor.

Input devices such as mouse, keyboard, light pen, and digitizing tablet for drawing.
Output devices such as printers and plotters for printing designed models.

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

A system that is used to control the machine tools and related machinery in the manufacturing process of the products is called
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM). It is a combination of hardware and software.
CAM system has the following benefits:

Product can be made very accurately and quickly.

Produced product is much cheaper.

3D modeling
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional
surface of an object (either inanimate or living) via specialized software. The product is called a 3D model. It can be displayed as
a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. The
model can also be physically created using 3D printing devices.
Models may be created automatically or manually. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer
graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting.
New concepts in 3D modeling have started to emerge such as curve-controlled modeling that emphasizes the modeling of the
movement of a 3D object instead of the traditional modeling of the static shape.[1]
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics software used to produce 3D models. Individual programs of this class
are called modeling applications or modelers.
Models
3D models represent a 3D object using a collection of points in 3D space, connected by various geometric entities such as
triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of data (points and other information), 3D models can be created by hand,
algorithmically (procedural modeling), or scanned.
3D models are widely used anywhere in 3D graphics. Actually, their use predates the widespread use of 3D graphics on personal
computers. Many computer games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites before computers could render them in realtime.
Today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of fields. The medical industry uses detailed models of organs; these may be created
with multiple 2-D image slices from an MRI or CT scan. The movie industry uses them as characters and objects for animated
and real-life motion pictures. The video game industry uses them as assets for computer and video games. The science sector uses
them as highly detailed models of chemical compounds.[3] The architecture industry uses them to demonstrate proposed buildings
and landscapes through Software Architectural Models. The engineering community uses them as designs of new devices,
vehicles and structures as well as a host of other uses. In recent decades the earth science community has started to construct 3D
geological models as a standard practice. 3D models can also be the basis for physical devices that are built with 3D printers or
CNC machines.
Representation
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories.

Solid - These models define the volume of the object they represent (like a rock). These are more realistic, but more
difficult to build. Solid models are mostly used for nonvisual simulations such as medical and engineering simulations,
for CAD and specialized visual applications such as ray tracing and constructive solid geometry

Shell/boundary - these models represent the surface, e.g. the boundary of the object, not its volume (like an
infinitesimally thin eggshell). These are easier to work with than solid models. Almost all visual models used in games
and film are shell models.

Because the appearance of an object depends largely on the exterior of the object, boundary representations are common in
computer graphics. Two dimensional surfaces are a good analogy for the objects used in graphics, though quite often these objects
are non-manifold. Since surfaces are not finite, a discrete digital approximation is required: polygonal meshes (and to a lesser
extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations have been gaining
some popularity in recent years. Level sets are a useful representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological
changes such as fluids.
The process of transforming representations of objects, such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a point on its
circumference into a polygon representation of a sphere, is called tessellation. This step is used in polygon-based rendering, where
objects are broken down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes, which are
nets of interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of e.g. squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to render
using scanline rendering.[4] Polygon representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and in these cases the tessellation
step is not included in the transition from abstract representation to rendered scene.

Modeling process

3D polygonal modeling of a human face.

There are three popular ways to represent a model:
1.

2.

3.

Polygonal modeling - Points in 3D space, called vertices, are connected by line segments to form a polygonal mesh. The
vast majority of 3D models today are built as textured polygonal models, because they are flexible and because
computers can render them so quickly. However, polygons are planar and can only approximate curved surfaces using
many polygons.
Curve modeling - Surfaces are defined by curves, which are influenced by weighted control points. The curve follows
(but does not necessarily interpolate) the points. Increasing the weight for a point will pull the curve closer to that point.
Curve types include nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS), splines, patches and geometric primitives
Digital sculpting - Still a fairly new method of modeling, 3D sculpting has become very popular in the few years it has
been around.[citation needed] There are currently 3 types of digital sculpting: Displacement, which is the most widely used
among applications at this moment, volumetric and dynamic tessellation. Displacement uses a dense model (often
generated by Subdivision surfaces of a polygon control mesh) and stores new locations for the vertex positions through
use of a 32bit image map that stores the adjusted locations. Volumetric which is based loosely on Voxels has similar
capabilities as displacement but does not suffer from polygon stretching when there are not enough polygons in a region
to achieve a deformation. Dynamic tesselation Is similar to Voxel but divides the surface using triangulation to maintain
a smooth surface and allow finer details. These methods allow for very artistic exploration as the model will have a new
topology created over it once the models form and possibly details have been sculpted. The new mesh will usually have
the original high resolution mesh information transferred into displacement data or normal map data if for a game
engine.

The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects that are later used in the scene. There are a number of modeling
techniques, including:

constructive solid geometry

implicit surfaces
subdivision surfaces

Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (e.g., Cinema 4D, formZ, Maya, 3DS Max, Blender, Lightwave,
Modo, solidThinking) or an application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3DS Max) or some scene description language (as in POVRay). In some cases, there is no strict distinction between these phases; in such cases modeling is just part of the scene creation
process (this is the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft 3D).
Complex materials such as blowing sand, clouds, and liquid sprays are modeled with particle systems, and are a mass of 3D
coordinates which have either points, polygons, texture splats, or sprites assigned to them.
Compared to 2D methods

A fully textured and lit rendering of a 3D model.

3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wireframe modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the final form.
Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers.

Advantages of wireframe 3D modeling over exclusively 2D methods include:

Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate images with quicker rendering of the changes;
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and rendering photorealistic effects rather than mentally visualizing or
estimating;
Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error in misplacing, overdoing, or forgetting to include a visual effect.

Disadvantages compare to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a software learning curve and difficulty achieving certain
photorealistic effects. Some photorealistic effects may be achieved with special rendering filters included in the 3D modeling
software. For the best of both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling followed by editing the 2D computerrendered images from the 3D model.
3D model market
A large market for 3D models (as well as 3D-related content, such as textures, scripts, etc.) still exists - either for individual
models or large collections. Online marketplaces for 3D content, such as TurboSquid, The3DStudio, CreativeCrash, CGTrader,
FlatPyramid, NoneCG, CGPeopleNetwork and DAZ 3D, allow individual artists to sell content that they have created. Often, the
artists' goal is to get additional value out of assets they have previously created for projects. By doing so, artists can earn more
money out of their old content, and companies can save money by buying pre-made models instead of paying an employee to
create one from scratch. These marketplaces typically split the sale between themselves and the artist that created the asset, artists
get 40% to 95% of the sales according the marketplace. In most cases, the artist retains ownership of the 3d model; the customer
only buys the right to use and present the model. [5] Some artists sell their products directly in its own stores offering their products
at a lower price by not using intermediaries.
Over the last several years numerous marketplaces specialized in 3D printing models have emerged. Some of the 3D printing
marketplaces are combination of models sharing sites, with or without a built in e-com capability. Some of those platforms also
offer 3D printing services on demand, software for model rendering and dynamic viewing of items, etc.[6] Among the most
popular 3D printing file sharing platforms are Shapeways, Thingiverse, CGTrader, Threeding and MyMiniFactory.
3D printing
Main articles: 3D printing and Rapid prototyping
3D printing is a form of additive manufacturing technology where a three dimensional object is created by laying down
successive layers of material.
Human models
The first widely available commercial application of human virtual models appeared in 1998 on the Lands' End web site. The
human virtual models were created by the company My Virtual Mode Inc. and enabled users to create a model of themselves and
try on 3D clothing.[7] There are several modern programs that allow for the creation of virtual human models (Poser being one
example).
Uses

Steps of forensic facial reconstruction of a mummy made on Blender

3D modelling is used in various industries like films, animation and gaming, interior designing and architecture. They are also
used in the medical industry for the interactive representations of anatomy. A wide number of 3D software are also used in
constructing digital representation of mechanical models or parts before they are actually manufactured. CAD/CAM related
software are used in such fields, and with these software, not only can you construct the parts, but also assemble them, and
observe their functionality.

3D modelling is also used in the field of Industrial Design, wherein products are 3D modeled before representing them to the
clients. In Media and Event industries, 3D modelling is used in Stage/Set Design.
Parametric Modelling Basics
Nowadays, parametric 3D CAD solid and surface models are the principal means of communicating design ideas and developing
new products and systems. 3D parametric modelling facilitates visual thinking and the design process, and represents a welcome
addition to the traditional three R's of reading,writing and arithmetic. It stimulates students to use their imagination and problem
solving skills and helps them to become more technologically literate. Worldwide, parametric modelling systems are part of a
technology education reform movement that seeks to improve critical thinking and multidimensional problem-solving skills,
while also inspiring and preparing a growing number of students to become the engineers, designers and technologists of
tomorrow.

Parametric modelling enables learners to think and create in three dimensions with sophisticated design software typically used by
manufacturers. Integrating it into technological subjects will inspire more students to become the innovators of tomorrow by
choosing careers in product design, engineering and technology. The integration of parametric modelling into the technological
subjects will give these subjects a great future and make them even more relevant to the needs of society. It will modernise these
subjects and bring excitement, interest, and vibrancy to them and facilitate the realisation of their potential.
What is Parametric Modelling?
Parametric modellers are often referred to as Mechanical CAD (MCAD) modellers and can be described as parametric, featurebased, solid and surface modelling design tools. Let us look briefly at these terms.
Parametric
The term parametric essentially means that MCAD software uses parameters. The most significant of these parameters are
dimensions, and in MCAD software, dimensions drive the geometry, as opposed to the geometry driving the dimensions, which
is the case in 2D and traditional 3D solid modellers. Therefore when you change a dimension value, this causes the model size to
change. In addition, the relations or constraints used to create the features of a part are also captured in the model.
Features
A feature is the basic unit of a parametric solid model. Just as an assembly is made up of individual parts, a part file is made up of
individual elements called features. Each feature has intelligent properties that define it. When a feature is created, the geometric
constraints and dimensions that apply to it are specified. The modeller stores these properties and uses them to generate the
feature. Examples of these basic building blocks called features are bosses, holes, ribs, cuts, fillets, and chamfers. New features
are dependent on existing features in such a manner that design changes are captured automatically. In essence, feature-based
modelling captures the designer's intent. If an element of the feature, or a related part of the model, changes, the modelling
software re-generates that feature in accordance with the defining properties assigned to it. For example, an edge that is defined to
be tangent to an arc will move to preserve the tangency constraint if the size of the arc is changed. Features can be classified into
two main types, namely sketched features and applied or placed features.
Sketched Features
A sketched feature requires a 2-D sketch that is then transformed into a feature in one of four main ways. These part modelling
methods are extrude, revolve, sweep and loft.
Applied features
Applied features are applied directly to the model and do not require a sketch. Fillets, chamfers, draft and shell are examples of
these features.
Solid Modelling
A solid model completely and unambiguously represents the geometry and topology of a part. In addition to the information
contained in surface models, solid models contain volume information. This means that a solid model can provide such
information as the mass properties of a part and interference checking between parts in an assembly.

Associativity
3D modelling software can automatically update related parts of the model when design changes are made and there is full bidirectional associativity between parts, assemblies and drawings. This means that your drawings are always correct as they are
based on the parts and assembly models and changes to a drawing transfer back to parts and assemblies.
Advantages of Parametric Modelling.
3D parametric solid modelling offers the following advantages over traditional 2D drawings:

In addition to standard orthographic views, 3D solid models also offer an unlimited range of ways to view the model,
including rendered and animated views.
3D modelling software can automatically update related parts of the model when design changes are made and there
is full bi-directional associativity between parts, assemblies and drawings.
3D systems provide easier design revisions. Changes can be made at the level of each individual sketch and feature. If a
sketch is not the required size, it can be easily edited by selecting the relevant dimensions. Similarly, the definition of
individual features can be edited by changing their properties.
3D systems are more motivational, interesting and appealing for today's students who have never used a typewriter,
owned a vinyl record or a black and white television.
Parametric modellers have a rollback feature that shows the sequence in which the model was created. This is an
invaluable tool for learning modelling strategies from existing models and is also very useful for assessing student work
Not alone is the modelling sequence captured in a parametric system but modelling errors are highlighted for the user.
With 2D systems there is no error checking.
3D conveys a superior sense of what an artefact will look like. Form and shape and overall model proportions are more
easily understood and defined in 3D. In essence, 3D systems provide better design visualization.
3D systems better capture design intent. This essentially relates to how the model should behave when design changes
are made.
3D systems provide automated drawing production.
Within industry, 3D systems provide better integration with downstream applications and reduced engineering cycle
time. The accuracy and completeness of the design definition in the CAD database make the models suitable for use in
analysis and for transfer to rapid prototyping and manufacturing machinery.

The Parametric Solid Modelling Process

The starting point for a parametric solid model is a sketch that need only be the approximate size and shape of the part or feature
being created, as dimensions can be added later to change the size and shape of the geometry. While a parametric solid model is
an intelligent representation of a part, it is important to analyse and plan every part before modelling to determine the most
efficient sequence for creating the features. Poor modelling strategies will result in parts that take longer to create and that are
difficult to edit. Features should be created to allow for maximum part flexibility and variation. Rather than perceiving the
finished solid model as a large solid mass, it needs to be viewed as a composition of features that are likely to be modified.

Before starting to sketch, the model should be studied to identify the best profile to use for creating the base feature. The best
profile is that which best describes the overall shape of the part, and will minimise the number of remaining features needed to
complete the model. Each new part contains three infinite reference planes, which represent the front, top and right planes in
space, each of which passes through the origin, which is the zero point in space.

The general procedure for parametric modelling is to decide on the best or most descriptive profile for the first sketch for the base
(first) feature of the model. You then select the most appropriate sketch plane on which to create this first sketch so that the
final model will have the correct orientation when viewed pictorially. The sketch geometry should be created by capturing
constraints as you sketch, and then dimensioned to fully define the geometry. Although sketches do not have to be fully defined
to create features, normally it is better to do so to avoid possible later model distortion. A fully defined sketch is black and is the
desired state, whereas an underdefined sketch is blue. An overdefined sketch is red.

The 2D sketch is then turned into a 3D solid usually by an extrusion or a revolve process. As noted previously, sketches can also
be turned into solid features through a sweep or loft process. Extrusions pull the sketch normal to the sketch plane, while a
revolved feature rotates the sketch around an axis. Sweeping moves the sketch along a path made up of straight or curved
geometry, while lofting uses multiple sketches to transition from one shape to another. Each sketch is linked to its resulting
feature. If you go back and change the sketch, the feature will update to reflect the change. Normally each sketched feature will
require its own sketch. Fillets and rounds can be added to the model to round sharp corners that would be inappropriate to do in a
sketch. From the finished solid model you can create a drawing file with standard dimensioned orthographic and isometric views.
Explicit modeling
With the explicit modeling, designers quickly and easily create 3D CAD designs, which they then modify through direct, on-thefly interactions with the model geometry.
Advantages
The explicit approach is flexible and easy to use, so its ideal for companies that create one-off or highly customized products
products that simply dont require all the extra effort of up-front planning and the embedding of information within models. With
an explicit approach to 3D design, the interaction is with the model geometry and not with an intricate sequence of design
features. That makes initial training on the software easier. But it also means designers working with an explicit 3D CAD system
can easily pick up a design where others left offmuch like anyone can open up and immediately continue working on a Microsoft
Word document. Thus explicit modeling appeals to a variety of audiences: companies with flexible staff; infrequent users of 3D
CAD; and anyone who is concurrently involved in a large number of design projects.
Use in repurposing
When designers repurpose a model, they take an existing 3D CAD design and radically transform it by cutting/copying/pasting
geometry to derive a new model that has no relationship to the original model. With an explicit approach, companies have
demonstrated accelerated product development by repurposing existing designs into new and completely different products. This
unique characteristic of an explicit approach can shave weeks or even months from project schedules.
Even with direct modeling capabilities, the parametric approach is still designed to leverage embedded product information. The
explicit approach, on the other hand, intentionally limits the amount of information captured as part of the model definition in
order to provide a genuinely lightweight and flexible product design process.
Parametric vs. explicit approach
With a parametric approach, data files include parameters, dimensions, features, and relationships that capture intended behavior.
An explicit approach, however, reduces data files to the 3D geometry only, dramatically reducing the design data of each
individual part, so large and complex designs dont overwhelm hardware or software. Smaller file sizes mean designers can load
and store data files faster, reload and update parts to new revisions instantly, and make better overall use of their computer
memory.
Use in data management
When combined with a data management system, an explicit 3D CAD system can also help manage complex relationships
associated with large assemblies. For example, an integrated data management system automates revisioning and encourages true
concurrent team design because all designers have access to the most up-to-date design data. When all design data is centralized
in a common database, companies can ensure that no one works on the wrong revision of a component, or changes a component
reserved by someone else.
Explicit 3D CAD systems excel at importing and modifying of multisource CAD data, which benefits companies working across
an extended supply chain for procured components or subcontracted design. STEP and IGES are essentially native 3D design data
formats in an explicit approach because explicit 3D CAD systems interact intelligently and on-the-fly with geometry, and
geometry is the only common element across all CAD systems. The explicit approach to 3D design, with its lower overhead and
flexibility, offers a better solution, especially for companies that rely on the ability to radically adapt and change to new and
shifting design requirements.
Use in product development
Companies that develop new-to-market and one-off product designs often face changing customer and product requirements
throughout the development cycle. An explicit approach is always open to change, so companies can keep the window for new

product information and major product changes open longer. Unlike other 3D design approaches, including hybrids, explicit
modeling can offer true flexibility because it doesnt require any upfront planning or the embedding of design information within
models.

Computer-aided design

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Example: 2D CAD drawing

Example: 3D CAD model

CAD rendering of Sialk ziggurat based on archeological evidence

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the us
e of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.[1] CAD software is used to
increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to
create a database for manufacturing.[2] CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other
manufacturing operations.
Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation,
or EDA. In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation (MDA) or computer-aided drafting (CAD), which
includes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software.[3]
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also
produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the
manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes,
dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in threedimensional (3D) space.[4]
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace
industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer
animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC digital content creation. The modern
ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard
of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in
computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry. [5]
The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design
(CAGD).[6]
Overview
Starting around the mid 1970s, as computer aided design systems began to provide more capability than just an ability to
reproduce manual drafting with electronic drafting, the cost benefit for companies to switch to CAD became apparent. The benefit
of CAD systems over manual drafting are the capabilities one often takes for granted from computer systems today; automated
generation of Bill of Material, auto layout in integrated circuits, interference checking, and many others. Eventually CAD
provided the designer with the ability to perform engineering calculations. During this transition, calculations were still performed
either by hand or by those individuals that could run computer programs. CAD was a revolutionary change in the engineering
industry, where draftsmen, designers and engineering roles begin to merge. It did not eliminate departments, as much as it merged
departments and empowered draftsman, designers and engineers. CAD is just another example of the pervasive effect computers
were beginning to have on industry.
Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers.
Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any
desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling, in which
case it may be marketed as CADD.
CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential
types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
[7]

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used
throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of
assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects. Furthermore many CAD
applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs.4D
BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule related information for project
management.
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as
lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on
screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.
Uses
Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the
profession of the user and the type of software in question.
CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM)
processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines
Photo realistic rendering
Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation of Environmental Impact
Reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to
represent what that locale will be like were the proposed facilities allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and
shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD.

CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history, features, parameterization, and
high level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single
area rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and other properties of the
different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile
strength, yield strength, electrical or electro-magnetic properties. Also its stress, strain, timing or how the element gets affected in
certain temperatures, etc.
Types

A simple procedure
There are several different types of CAD,[8] each requiring the operator to think differently about how to use them and design their
virtual components in a different manner for each.
There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open source programs. These provide an
approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand
drafting, since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft.
3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line has to be manually inserted into the
drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes.
The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe
model to make the final engineering drawing views.
3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real world objects (not often used today). Basic threedimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them, as if
assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated from the models. Basic 3D
solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of components, set limits to their motion, or identify interference between
components.
Solid Modeling There are two types of solid modeling
1). 3D parametric solid modeling allows the operator to use what is referred to as "design intent". The objects and features created
are modifiable. Any future modifications can be made by changing how the original part was created. If a feature was intended to
be located from the center of the part, the operator should locate it from the center of the model. The feature could be located
using any geometric object already available in the part, but this random placement would defeat the design intent. If the operator
designs the part as it functions the parametric modeler is able to make changes to the part while maintaining designed in
relationships.
2). Explicit Modellers or Direct 3D CAD Modelers provide the ability to edit geometry without a history tree. With direct
modeling once a sketch is used to create geometry the sketch is incorporated into the new geometry and the designer just modifies
the geometry without needing the original sketch. As with Parametric modeling, Direct modeling has the ability to include
relationships between selected geometry (e.g., tangency, concentricity).
Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetics and ergonomic features into designs. Freeform
surface modeling is often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the human form and visual
requirements as well as they interface with the machine.
Technology

A CAD model of a computer mouse.

Originally software for Computer-Aided Design systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran, ALGOL but
with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature
based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key C modules with their own APIs. A CAD system
can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry and/or boundary
representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint engine may also be employed to manage the
associative relationships between geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.
Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form of prototyping called digital prototyping. In
contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD models can be generated by a
computer after the physical prototype has been scanned using an industrial CT scanning machine. Depending on the nature of the
business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen according to specific needs.
Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac OS X); some packages even support
multiple platforms.
Right now, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD systems can do graphically and
computationally intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card, high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM
may be recommended.
The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet.
Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some
systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model.Technologies which in the past were limited to larger
installations or specialist applications have become available to a wide group of users.These include the CAVE or HMD`s and
interactive devices like motion-sensing technology
History
Designers[9][10][11][12] have long used computers for their calculations. Digital computers were used in power system analysis or
optimization as early as proto-"Whirlwind" in 1949. Circuit[13] design theory, or power network methodology would be algebraic,
symbolic, and often Vector based. Examples of problems being solved in the mid-1940s to 50s include, Servo motors controlled
by generated pulse (1949), The digital computer with built-in compute operations to automatically co-ordinate transforms to
compute radar related vectors (1951) and the essentially graphic mathematical process of forming a shape with a digital machine
tool (1952).[14] These were accomplished with the use of computer software. The man credited with coining the term CAD. [15]
Douglas T. Ross stated "As soon as I saw the interactive display equipment, [being used by radar operators 1953] I said "Gee,
that's just what we need". The designers of these very early computers built utility programs so that programmers could debug
programs using flow charts on a display scope with logical switches that could be opened and closed during the debugging
session. They found that they could create electronic symbols and geometric figures to be used to create simple circuit diagrams
and flow charts.[16] They made the pleasant discovery that an object once drawn could be reproduced at will, its orientation,
Linkage [ flux, mechanical, lexical scoping ] or scale changed. This suggested numerous possibilities to them. It took ten years of
interdisciplinary development[17] work before SKETCHPAD sitting on evolving math libraries emerged from MIT`s labs.
Additional developments were carried out in the 1960s within the aircraft, automotive, industrial control and electronics industries
in the area of 3D surface construction, NC programming and design analysis, most of it independent of one another and often not
publicly published until much later. Some of the mathematical description work on curves was developed in the early 1940s by
Robert Issac Newton from Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Robert A. Heinlein in his 1957 novel The Door into Summer suggested the
possibility of a robotic Drafting Dan. However, probably the most important work on polynomial curves and sculptured surface
was done by Pierre Bzier, Paul de Casteljau (Citroen), Steven Anson Coons (MIT, Ford), James Ferguson (Boeing), Carl de
Boor (GM), Birkhoff (GM) and Garibedian (GM) in the 1960s and W. Gordon (GM) and R. Riesenfeld in the 1970s.
The invention of the 3D CAD/CAM is attributed to a French engineer, Pierre Bezier (Arts et Mtiers ParisTech, Renault). After
his mathematical work concerning surfaces, he developed UNISURF, between 1966 and 1968, to ease the design of parts and
tools for the automotive industry. Then, UNISURF became the working base for the following generations of CAD software.
It is argued that a turning point was the development of the SKETCHPAD system at MIT[18][19] by Ivan Sutherland (who later
created a graphics technology company with Dr. David Evans). The distinctive feature of SKETCHPAD was that it allowed the
designer to interact with his computer graphically: the design can be fed into the computer by drawing on a CRT monitor with a
light pen. Effectively, it was a prototype of graphical user interface, an indispensable feature of modern CAD. Sutherland
presented his paper Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System in 1963 at a Joint Computer Conference
having worked on it as his PhD thesis paper for a few years. Quoting,For drawings where motion of the drawing, or analysis of a
drawn problem is of value to the user, Sketchpad excels. For highly repetitive drawings or drawings where accuracy is required,
Sketchpad is sufficiently faster than conventional techniques to be worthwhile. For drawings which merely communicate with

shops, it is probably better to use conventional paper and pencil. Over time efforts would be directed toward the goal of having
the designers drawings communicate not just with shops but with the shop tool itself. This goal would be a long time arriving.
The first commercial applications of CAD were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as in
electronics. Only large corporations could afford the computers capable of performing the calculations. Notable company projects
were , a joint project of GM (Dr. Patrick J.Hanratty) and IBM (Sam Matsa , Doug Ross`s MIT APT research assistant) to develop
a prototype system for design engineers DAC-1 (Design Augmented by Computer) 1964; Lockheed projects; Bell GRAPHIC 1
and Renault.
One of the most influential events in the development of CAD was the founding of MCS (Manufacturing and Consulting Services
Inc.) in 1971 by Dr. P. J. Hanratty,[20] who wrote the system ADAM (Automated Drafting And Machining) but more importantly
supplied code to companies such as McDonnell Douglas (Unigraphics), Computervision (CADDS), Calma, Gerber, Autotrol and
Control Data.
As computers became more affordable, the application areas have gradually expanded. The development of CAD software for
personal desktop computers was the impetus for almost universal application in all areas of construction.
Other key points in the 1960s and 1970s would be the foundation of CAD systems United Computing, Intergraph, IBM,
Intergraph IGDS in 1974 (which led to Bentley Systems MicroStation in 1984).
CAD implementations have evolved dramatically since then. Initially, with 3D in the 1970s, it was typically limited to producing
drawings similar to hand-drafted drawings. Advances in programming and computer hardware, [21][22] notably solid modeling in
the 1980s, have allowed more versatile applications of computers in design activities.
Key products for 1981 were the solid modelling packages -Romulus (ShapeData) and Uni-Solid (Unigraphics) based on PADL-2
and the release of the surface modeler CATIA (Dassault Systemes). Autodesk was founded 1982 by John Walker, which led to
the 2D system AutoCAD. The next milestone was the release of Pro/ENGINEER in 1988, which heralded greater usage of
feature-based modeling methods and parametric linking of the parameters of features. Also of importance to the development of
CAD was the development of the B-rep solid modeling kernels (engines for manipulating geometrically and topologically
consistent 3D objects) Parasolid (ShapeData) and ACIS (Spatial Technology Inc.) at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the
1990s, both inspired by the work of Ian Braid. This led to the release of mid-range packages such as SolidWorks and TriSpective
(later known as IronCAD) in 1995, Solid Edge (then Intergraph) in 1996 and Autodesk Inventor in 1999.
Home > Design World Articles > Parametric or Direct Modeling, One or the Other, or Both?
Parametric or Direct Modeling, One or the Other, or Both?
February 9, 2012 Design World Staff : 0 Comments
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Here are a few reasons why combining parametric and direct CAD offer benefits to you, your team, and the products you create.
There are a few differences between parametric and direct modeling. The parametric paradigm provides an engineer it approach
to design which requires you to anticipate and define feature constraints, relations, and dependencies to ensure that any design
modification will update all related downstream geometry in a predefined way.
Direct modeling tools enable CAE and FEA experts to quickly prepare their 3D models for analysis and optimization.
Direct modeling, on the other hand, provides a just do it modeling strategy that gives you the power to quickly define and
capture geometry. You focus on creating geometry rather than building features, constraints, and design intent into your models.
Hence the direct modeling method is all about quickness and responsiveness to change, making a strategy for design tasks where
speed and flexibility are key. Parametric modeling is better suited to those jobs where the designer is given strict criteria to meet
exacting design aesthetics, performance metrics, and manufacturing criteria. The added effort and upfront planning is justified to
deliver these downstream benefits.
Concept design
Industrial designers are often involved in concept design during product development. They do not need the powerful parametric
3D CAD tools. Instead, industrial designers must quickly produce multiple concept designs of the future product and discuss the
concepts with customers and colleagues.

Concept design requires speed and flexibility in order to enable creativity and innovation.
The optimal CAD solution at this stage must support the rapid creation and ideation of geometry. If the user is forced to think
about how to use the 3D CAD too, creativity slows down and innovation suffers.
Bid and proposal process
In the bid and proposal process, a customer is offering the opportunity to win business. The competitive bid process requires each
supplier to submit their proposal within the specified period so the process is time-sensitive. Once submitted the bids are
reviewed and the supplier is eventually selected based on their overall price point and ability to communicate and demonstrate
value. The better or more accurate the geometry, the better chance of securing the new business.
Here, the ideal CAD solution will support the bid process by allowing geometry to be quickly created to minimize the time and
costs required to create the bid geometry. Generally, parametric tools lack the ease-of-use, speed, and modeling flexibility
required to define throw-away bid geometry, which makes direct modeling a better choice.
Digital prototyping
Digital prototypes are frequently created to support the detailed design phase of product development to demonstrate and evaluate
design alternatives. The objective is typically to assess design feasibility. Digital prototyping is best supported by a CAD tool that
is easy to use, intuitive, and interactive enough to support innovation and the brainstorming process.
With digital prototyping, the ideal CAD system should make it easy to reuse and repurpose existing geometry. Rather than recreating digital prototypes from scratch, it is more advantageous to use carry-over or legacy data as the base geometry to quickly
create digital prototypes. Thus, the direct modeling approach is better suited to meeting digital prototyping requirements by
providing history-free, geometry-based creating and editing.
2D design and conversion to 3D
Two dimensional design capabilities are often required to support concept design and the creation of engineering deliverables.
The simplicity of 2D design supports fast conceptual design and layout detailing.
The ideal 2D CAD solution must provide comprehensive 2D design capabilities and support the 2D to 3D model conversion
process. To support downstream deliverables, the optimal 2D CAD package should be integrated with the 3D CAD system to
accelerate the 2D to 3D conversion process, thus leveraging the ability to directly use 2D information to create 3D models. Here,
the direct modeling approach is a good complement to parametric modeling because it provides integral 2D and 3D capabilities to
support fast 2D to 3D model conversions.
Reuse legacy data
For many organizations, the need to support legacy data is an ongoing effort that presents a variety of challenges resulting from
the need to maintain and carry over legacy information to support current and future programs.
Here, the best CAD option must provide the capabilities to leverage, maintain, edit, reuse, and repurpose legacy data to support
current and future programs. The challenges in reusing legacy data usually result from using multiple parametric CAD products
and their inability to work with native and non-native legacy data. Also, with parametric modeling, the geometry is generally
imported as a dumb entity, which means the user has few options to edit the data. Direct modeling enables you to leverage
legacy data, and repurpose and modify it just as if had been created inside the direct modeling CAD application.

Direct modeling makes it easy to design concepts in 2D and leverage and transform them into 3D designs.
Interoperability and data exchange
Interoperability and data exchange are critical to ensure that organizations can leverage the extended enterprise and communicate
and share the complete range of engineering deliverables with suppliers, vendors, and partners. The CAD solution should make it
easy to integrate non-native data into the design process, thereby providing opportunities to reduce effort and duplication.
The challenges surrounding data reuse and interoperability are often the result of designers working with multiple parametric
CAD systems, which are unable to work with native and non-native legacy data. Too often, geometry is imported as a dumb
entity and the user has few options to edit the data. Direct modeling lets you leverage legacy data so you repurpose and modify
the data as if it had been created inside the direct modeling CAD application.
Late stage design changes
In many industries, late-stage design changes are common and unpredictable, and yet they must be addressed in a timely and
efficient manner. The goal of the 3D system is to promote creativity and innovation, while leveraging the ability to react and
implement change at all stages of the product development process.
The optimal CAD system must also support fast creation and editing of geometry. The inability to address rapid turnaround late in
the process can severely impact production schedules and product success. Unlike the parametric modeling paradigm that
supports prescriptive and predefined changes as defined by the design intent, the direct modeling method supports the ability to
implement radical and unexpected changes.
CAE and FEA workflow
CAE is leveraged early in the design and development process to validate and improve the structural integrity and performance of
engineering designs. The objective here is to speed the time it takes to analyze CAD geometry and provide engineering feedback.
Analysts will often prepare the CAD geometry for analysis to improve the speed and accuracy of results. Initially, analysts will
assess the overall geometry and de-feature CAD models to remove unnecessary features. As a rule, analysts are not CAD experts
and do not spend their time performing CAD or design work.
The direct modeling method is best suited to the needs of analysts working with legacy data and heterogeneous CAD data. The
geometry-based approach eliminates the need to access feature-level information to implement design changes. Analysts can
easily edit, modify, and repurpose data from any CAD source.
Creating downstream deliverables
There is a range of downstream deliverables that must be created to support product development and product lifecycle. These
deliverables ensure that the product can be properly manufactured, supported, and serviced. Typical deliverables include CAD
illustrations required for service manuals and spare-parts catalogs. As well, fixtures and jigs must be created to support inspection
and machining processes. Fortunately, the majority of end-deliverables do not require the downstream user to create complex
CAD geometry, but only to reference and use the CAD information.
The ideal CAD product for creating downstream deliverables is one that provides the proper level of usability to allow casual and
non-CAD users to create their end-deliverables. In addition to ease of use, the appropriate CAD system must make it easy to work
with data from any CAD source.
The direct modeling approach provides the ease of use and modeling flexibility required to define the complete range of end
deliverables. Its history-free, geometry-based modeling supports heterogeneous data and the need to implement unexpected and
radical changes. Users can leverage a geometry-based approach to edit, modify, and repurpose CAD geometry with ease.
Design reviews
Design reviews are required so that cross-functional team members can review the status of key engineering deliverables and
program milestones. In addition to reviewing design activities and the teams progress, the design review process is an
opportunity to leverage the collective knowledge and expertise of the team in troubleshooting and solving engineering challenges.
To improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the design review, the CAD solution must offer designers the speed and flexibility
to create and manipulate geometry on-the-fly. By leveraging the proper CAD solution, you can eliminate or reduce the need to
schedule follow up meetings.
To speed the design review process, it is often necessary to edit, reuse, and repurpose CAD geometry to demonstrate design
alternatives. Direct modeling capabilities provide the maximum flexibility by ensuring that any data can be edited, modified, or
repurposed to quickly mock up geometry that represents a new product configuration or an alternative to be evaluated.

The Importance of AutoCAD to a Mechanical Engineer

AutoCAD is a comprehensive Computer Aided Design (CAD) program from AutoDesk. Like other CAD software packages,
AutoCAD allows designers and technicians -- such as mechanical engineers -- to create detailed, three-dimensional digital models
of their work, complete with information about dimensions, materials and the functioning of moving parts. This process can save
mechanical engineers and small mechanical engineering businesses a considerable amount of time and money as compared to
traditional prototyping, as well as facilitating communication and testing.
Prototyping
Prototyping can be a long and arduous task, especially in a complex field like mechanical engineering where the number of
variables and moving parts requires repeated design tests. AutoCAD allows mechanical engineers to simplify this process by
including simulations of how products will operate under certain conditions. Mechanical engineers, therefore, can see the effects
of changes in materials and dimensions by simply entering new data into the model, rather than physically testing each iteration of
the design. The ease of digital prototyping allows testing to be done more quickly, allowing for refined designs by the time
physical prototyping begins.
Cutting Design Costs
As all mechanical engineers know, prototyping can be a very expensive process. AutoCAD allows for significant savings in the
design process by eliminating the need for physical materials and workshop space during preliminary design. Although
purchasing and operating a software package has certain costs, these are often much less burdensome than the costs of prototype
materials and workshop time. As a digital simulation, AutoCAD models also have the advantage of allowing engineers to test
large-scale installations, a process that would be prohibitively expensive with physical prototyping.
Cutting Design Times
Beyond costs, physical prototyping can also be a lengthy process. In competitive fields like product design, the length of this
process can mean the difference between getting a patent or making it to the market first. AutoCAD allows mechanical engineers
to perform numerous tests quickly, cutting down on design times and making rigorous testing possible without waiting times for
prototype variations. With keystrokes rather than workshop hours, AutoCAD makes the design process more nimble and
responsive to changes in design criteria or market demand.
Communication and Integration
Storing design data in a digital format makes collaboration and communication much simpler. Multiple users can easily make
changes to the design on their own computer and send their changes to other members of the design team. In a globalized world
where conceptual design, engineering and manufacturing are often done in different places, AutoCAD allows mechanical
engineers and businesses to easily communicate changes to different parts of the design and production chain, as well as
generating a single model with all of the information that each team needs to organize testing, reviews and even manufacturing.
Temporary OSNAP Overrides (Including 3D Osnaps)
Customize Dynamic Input Coordinates
Intro To Coordinates
Posted on August 24, 2012 by AutoCAD Tips
Note: I must first apologize for the lack of posts lately. I have started teaching AutoCAD for a local community college at night
and it has been very demanding of my time. Teaching this class should help me focus on some of the more fundamentals of
AutoCAD that I have usually not bothered to post here on the blog. These fundamentals are a good reminder for all drafters at any
level so I think that covering these topics will be a good thing.
Coordinates:

Below is an excerpt from the AutoCAD 2002 users guide pg# 176-183
When a command prompts you for a point, you can use the pointing device to specify a point, or you can enter a value on the
command line. You can enter two-dimensional coordinates as either Cartesian (X,Y) or polar coordinates.
Cartesian and Polar Coordinates
A Cartesian coordinate system has three axes X, Y, and Z. When you enter coordinate values, you indicate a points distance (in
units) and its direction (- or +) along the X, Y and Z axes relative to the coordinate system origin (0,0,0).
In 2D, you specify points on the XY plane, also called the construction plane. The construction plane is similar to a flat sheet of
grid paper. The X value of the cartesian coordinate specifies the horizontal distance, and the Y value specifies the vertical
distance. The origin point (0,0) indicates where the two axes intersect.

The origin is marked by an object known as the UCS icon UCS = User Coordinate System. This icon can be manipulated (moved
and rotated) such that the origin point moves. But for the purposes of learning the basics of coordinates, this post will treat the
UCS icon as a static object in a permanent position. Oddly enough, the UCS icon does have permanant position that it can always
be re-positioned to. This position is called the World coordinates.

Absolute Coordinates let you type in a specific X and Y location on the construction plane.
Use the picture below to work through the use of using absolute coordinates to create the shape that is shown. Note that the
coordinates that are shown in the lower left of the screen (status bar) displays the coordinates of your cursor.
Note the all of the Drafting Setting toggles are turned off. this is because when DYN (dynamic input) is turned on it changes how
absolute and relative coordinates are entered.

Relative Coordinate entry is simply specifying the next point as it relates to your previously defined point whether you picked a
point with the cursor or you entered a specific coordinate. Think of this method as the last point you specified being equal to the
coordinate 0,0.
The way that you tell AutoCAD that you want to use relative coordinates is that you prefix the coordinate with the @ symbol.
Note that the first point that is specified is an absolute coordinate since there is not a specified previous point.
Note the all of the Drafting Setting toggles are turned off. this is because when DYN (dynamic input) is turned on it changes how
absolute and relative coordinates are entered.

Relative Polar Coordinate entry is very useful but for some people it is easily forgotten. As shown above, Relative coordinates use
the @ symbol when specifying a point. As shown in the picture below, relative polar uses the # symbol to specify the LENGTH
of the object followed by the < symbol to specify the angle.

Use the below picture to create the shape that is shown using Relative Polar Coordinate entry. Turn off all toggles in the drafting
settings.

As I have mentioned before each exercise, Dynamic Input when enabled turns your entry method to an automatic Relative Polar
method. This is confusing because when DYN is turned on and say that you want to specify the coordinate of 0,0 you will not see
anything happen. So in order to force Dynamic input to use Absolute coordinates use the # sign before the coordinates.

AutoCAD is a commercial software application for 2D and 3D computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting available since
1982 as a desktop application and since 2010 as a mobile web- and cloud-based app marketed as AutoCAD 360.
Developed and marketed by Autodesk, Inc.,[1] AutoCAD was first released in December 1982, running on microcomputers with
internal graphics controllers.[2] Prior to the introduction of AutoCAD, most commercial CAD programs ran on mainframe
computers or minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate graphics terminal.[3]
AutoCAD is used across a wide range of industries, by architects, project managers, engineers, designers, and other professionals.
It is supported by 750 training centers worldwide as of 1994.[1]
As Autodesk's flagship product, by March 1986 AutoCAD had become the most ubiquitous CAD program worldwide. [4] As of
2014, AutoCAD is in its twenty-ninth generation, and collectively with all its variants, continues to be the most widely used CAD
program throughout most of the world.
History
AutoCAD was derived from a program begun in 1977 and released in 1979 [5] called Interact CAD, also referred to in early
Autodesk documents as MicroCAD, which was written prior to Autodesk's (then Marinchip Software Partners) formation by
Autodesk cofounder Mike Riddle.[6][7]
The first version by the AutoDesk company was demonstrated at the 1982 Comdex and released that December.[8] The 2015
release marked the 29th major release for the AutoCAD for Windows. The 2014 release marked the fourth consecutive year for
AutoCAD for Mac.
Assembly modelling

An assembly.
Assembly modeling is a technology and method used by computer-aided design and product visualization computer software
systems to handle multiple files that represent components within a product. The components within an assembly are represented
as solid or surface models.
The designer generally has access to models that others are working on concurrently. For example, several people may be
designing one machine that has many parts. New parts are added to an assembly model as they are created. Each designer has
access to the assembly model, while a work in progress, and while working in their own parts. The design evolution is visible to

everyone involved. Depending on the system, it might be necessary for the users to acquire the latest versions saved of each
individual components to update the assembly.
The individual data files describing the 3D geometry of individual components are assembled together through a number of subassembly levels to create an assembly describing the whole product. All CAD and CPD systems support this form of bottom-up
construction. Some systems, via associative copying of geometry between components also allow top-down method of design.
Components can be positioned within the product assembly using absolute coordinate placement methods or by means of mating
conditions. Mating conditions are definitions of the relative position of components between each other; for example alignment of
axis of two holes or distance of two faces from one another. The final position of all components based on these relationships is
calculated using a geometry constraint engine built into the CAD or visualization package.
The importance of assembly modeling in achieving the full benefits of PLM has led to ongoing advances in this technology.
These include the use of lightweight data structures such as JT that allow visualization of and interaction with large amounts of
product data, direct interface to between Digital Mock ups and PDM systems and active digital mock up technology that unites
the ability to visualize the assembly mock up with the ability to measure, analyze, simulate, design and redesign.
AutoCAD Coordinates System
There is only 3 AutoCAD coordinates system you should know. Absolute coordinates, Relative coordinates and Polar
coordinates.
Absolute Coordinates
All input points specify in your drawing using standard Cartesian coordinates x and y. Using absolute coordinate, points entered
by typing x,y [Enter]
Relative Coordinates
After first points entered, your next points can be entered by specifying the next coordinate compare/relative from the first points.
The relative coordinate started with symbol @ tell AutoCAD it was a relative coordinates. Using relative coordinate, points
entered by typing @x,y [Enter]
Polar Coordinates
Polar coordinates used when you need to draw the next points at specify angle. Polar coordinates system in AutoCAD specifies
distance length at which angle. Using polar coordinate, points entered by typing @distance<angle [Enter]
Example of AutoCAD coordinates usage;

Absolute coordinates

Enter LINE command: L [Enter]

Start line at point A: 0,0 [Enter]

End first line at point B: 2,2 [Enter]
End of second line at point C: 2,3 [Enter]
Relative coordinates

Enter LINE command: L [Enter]

Start line at point A: 0,0 [Enter]
End first line at point B: @2,2 [Enter]
End of second line at point C: @0,1 [Enter]
Polar coordinates

Enter LINE command: L [Enter]

Start line at point A: 0,0 [Enter]
End first line at point B: @2.828<45 [Enter]
End of second line at point C: @1<90 [Enter]
Tagged as: Absolute Coordinates, AutoCAD, AutoCAD tutorials, basic, coordinate, Polar Coordinates, Relative Coordinates,
system

Computation
Computation is any type of calculation[1] or use of computing technology in information processing.[2][3] Computation is a
process following a well-defined model understood and expressed as, for example, an algorithm, or a protocol.
The study of computation is paramount to the discipline of computer science.
Classification
Computation can be classified by mainly three unique criteria: digital versus analog, sequential versus parallel versus concurrent,
batch versus interactive.
In practice, digital computation aids simulation of natural processes (for example, evolutionary computation), including those that
are naturally described by analog models of computation (for example, artificial neural network).

Comparison to calculation
Main article: Calculation Comparison to computation
Calculation is a term for the computation of numbers, while computation is a wider reaching term for information processing in
general.
Physical phenomenon
A computation can be seen as a purely physical phenomenon occurring inside a closed physical system called a computer.
Examples of such physical systems include digital computers, mechanical computers, quantum computers, DNA computers,
molecular computers, analog computers or wetware computers. This point of view is the one adopted by the branch of theoretical
physics called the physics of computation.
An even more radical point of view is the postulate of digital physics that the evolution of the universe itself is a computation pancomputationalism.
Mathematical models
In the theory of computation, a diversity of mathematical models of computers have been developed. Typical mathematical
models of computers are the following:

State models including Turing machine, push-down automaton, finite state automaton, and PRAM
Functional models including lambda calculus
Logical models including logic programming
Concurrent models including actor model and process calculi

Graphical tools
Graphical tools are software tools that link resources together in an online visual collaboration to author rich web presentations,
upload and share visual content among team or customers inside a visual workspace.It can help link peoples experiences from
across the globe and foster collaboration by providing a dynamic workspace to draw, annotate and review shared designs and
documents.Graphical tools uses visualization techniques to create a graphical network representation of patterns of reference in
collaborative discourse.[1]
As corporate data become more complex, Graphical tools will become an increasingly useful business tool. IBM Many Eyes is a
free public site created by Fernanda Vigas and Martin Wattenberg that allows anyone to create a visualization from a dataset. [2]
Furthermore, graphical tools are also used in the corporate world for Scenario planning and Process-driven application. We can
also imagine several business scenarios in which visualization may help: [3][citation needed]

A team doing a complex market analysis might use a collaborative-visualization intranet site to get a much better
understanding than is possible today of the ways in which one months data differ from the previous months.
A company seeking to wring costs out of its supply chain might post a treemap showing items relative sourcing
expenses, enabling many eyes-those of employees and suppliers-to spot new areas for potential savings.

Graphical tools can be divided into two categories:

Whiteboarding Tools: are software tools that link users together in an online visual workspace where they can draw,
markup, save and upload designs on a blank canvas.
Modeling Tools: are software tools that focuses on developing 2D and 3D models, flow document and charts. There are
several modeling tools available for use.

What is the difference between a 2D and a 3D CAD system?

A 2D CAD system lets the user work only in the x and y axis...basically up and down, left and right. You can make
objects look 3D, similar to how you would draw on paper using various drafting tools (triangles, french curve,etc). This
type of CAD system can be relatively less expensive than it's 3D counterpart, and is useful for drawings showing floor
plans, elevations, and certain views of objects such as top, front, right side.

A 3D CAD system lets the user work in the x,y, and z axis. Think of it as creating and working with actual material (sort
of like creating a sculpture). If you create a cube in 3D and rotate it, it will still look like a cube. Objects can be created
as solid models, line by line wireframes, etc. High end 3D CAD systems can get expensive $3,000 - $20,000...or more,
depending on what you do. I've left out a lot but I hope this gives you an idea about the two types.