february 2004 tec 6 SUMMARY

A N IN TRODUCT ION TO G RO U N D S O URCE

HEAT P UMP SYSTE M S
Chris Arkins
This note TEC 6, originally published in February 1999, was reviewed by Chris Arkins in January 2004. This summary page includes
recent updates to the topic since publication.

SUMMARY OF

Actions Towards Sustainable Outcomes

Introduction
Alternative low energy air conditioning solutions are now commonly sought in preference to typical air conditioning systems for
both residential and commercial applications. The industry has seen a growing emergence of ground source heat pump (GSHP)
installations throughout Australia over the last five years. A broad spectrum of facilities ranging from domestic housing, hospitals,
education facilities, commercial offices and civic buildings to name a few, are now realising the environmental benefits offered by
GSHP systems over more commonly used air conditioning systems. This summary note provides a brief overview of the previous
note and provides an update on changes that have occurred since.

Basic Strategies
Heat rejection is fundamental to all air conditioning systems. Typically, unsightly roof mounted air cooled condensers and cooling
towers are by far the most commonly used method for rejecting heat from a building.
Ground source heat pumps are somewhat different to the norm. Basically GSHP are refrigeration machines that provide heating
and cooling by using ground water and the earth as a medium to reject and/or absorb heat and as such do not require air cooled
condensers or cooling towers. This is made possible because ground temperatures are stable, remaining relatively constant
throughout the year. During summer when space cooling is required, heat is removed from the building and transferred to the
ground. In winter the reverse occurs, with heat being removed from the ground and supplied to the building.

Environmental Benefits

Water Efficiency Ground heat exchangers require no make up water, hence significant water savings are achieved when
compared to cooling tower systems that rely on the evaporation of water and the subsequent cooling effect to reject heat from
the water.

Low maintenance Ground heat exchangers require no regular chemical dosing or make up water.

Energy efficiency Ground source heat pumps achieve greater efficiencies due to constant return water temperatures from
the ground. With air cooled equipment, efficiency varies with changes in ambient air temperature. On hot days, air cooled
systems are less efficient as more energy is required to achieve the same cooling effect.

Flexibility Ground source heat pumps can adapt to residential and commercial buildings. They can be placed in new
buildings or used as retrofits in existing buildings.

Carbon dioxide emissions Use of fossil fuels is reduced due to the energy efficient operation.

Energy costs energy costs are reduced by 10 to 30%.

Aesthetics Noise and visual exposure associated with roof top equipment is eliminated.

Legionnaires control Since cooling towers do not form part of the system, the risk of Legionnaires disease is eliminated.
Ground source heat pumps are therefore particularly attractive for health care facilities.

Changes in the Industry

The principles of GSHPs have not changed, however the following indicative costs reflect current market costs compared to those
published in the previous note. Installation costs vary according to site conditions, site accessibility, ground structure, size of heat
exchanger and appointed contractor. The following unit rates are suitable for preliminary costing purposes. Final costing should
obviously be confirmed by a qualified professional for each specific project. For drilling, piping and grouting of vertical bore holes,
horizontal header pipework and horizontal trenching from the building line to the ground heat exchanger field, allow around $45
to $50 per meter of pipe.

february 1999 tec 6 PAGE 

A N IN TRODUCT ION TO G RO U N D S O URCE

HEAT P UMP SYSTE M S
Chris Arkins
Alternative low energy air conditioning solutions are now commonly sought in preference to typical air conditioning systems for both
residential and commercial applications. Whilst still a developing market in Australia, ground source heat pumps (GSHP) offer
environmental advantages over more commonly used air conditioning systems. This Note introduces the GSHP and provides an overview
of applications, benefits and system types.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Heat rejection is fundamental to all air conditioning
systems. Whilst ground heat rejection, or geothermal
heat rejection as it is commonly called, is seldom used
in Australia, it is not a new technology and has been
used for many years in other countries.
Ground source heat pumps have often been
misunderstood or misapplied. This has led to
reservations by some practitioners to specify such
systems. Such systems can, however, be used
successfully. The new Nursing Faculty building at the
University of Newcastle is a recent example within
Australia of where geothermal technology has been
successfully employed. The building has since won the
1998 Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD)
Award of the NSW Chapter of the RAIA.
This note attempts to dispel the myths and provide
guidance to encourage application of ground source
heat pumps in both residential and commercial
buildings.

Figure 1. Soil temperature profile

2.0 WHAT ARE GROUND

SOURCE HEAT PUMPS?
In elementary terms, a heat pump is a device which
pumps heat from a lower temperature to a higher
temperature level. This applies for all refrigeration
machines. However, the label heat pump has
evolved to define those refrigeration machines which
are configured to provide both cooling and heating,
commonly referred to as reverse cycle. The term is
unfortunate, as every refrigeration machine pumps heat
even if it is in one direction.
Ground source heat pumps, as the name implies, are
refrigeration machines that provide heating and cooling
by using ground water and earth as a medium to reject
or absorb heat. This is made possible because ground
temperatures are stable, remaining relatively constant
throughout the year.
During summer when space cooling is required, heat
is removed from the building and transferred to the
ground. In winter the reverse occurs, with heat being
removed from the ground and supplied to the building.

E n v i r o n m e n t D e s i g n G u i de

PAGE  tec 6 february 1999

Ground source heat pumps use water as the medium

in which to transfer heat between the building and
ground. The heat pumps are essentially water cooled
package units which can either be diversely located
as smaller units throughout a building or housed
collectively with a lesser number of larger units in
central plantrooms. The system configuration used will
depend on building function and use.
The interface used to transfer/absorb heat with the
ground is referred to as a ground heat exchanger.
Ground heat exchangers are configured either as a
closed loop circuit or as an open circuit. These different
types of ground heat exchangers are discussed in more
detail in the following section.

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF HEAT

PUMP OPERATION
When in cooling mode, the heat pump removes
heat from the space and transfers it to the ground
via circulating water. The water temperature leaving
the heat pump is in the range of 3038C. When
this warm water passes through the ground heat
exchanger it is cooled by the ground which would
be approximately 19C , (the actual temperature is
dependent on geographic location). The heat from the
water is dissipated by the earth and, if present, ground
water aquifers. This is in contrast with conventional
air conditioning systems which, in cooling mode,
reject waste heat to the air via air cooled condensers or
cooling towers.

Figure 3. Heat pump operation heating mode

4.0 TYPES OF GROUND HEAT

EXCHANGERS
4.1 Closed loop
The most commonly used ground heat exchanger is a
closed loop system. This is comprised of high density
polyethylene (HDPE) pipe distributed in the ground.
The pipe can be buried horizontally in trenches below
the ground, sunk in vertical boreholes, or placed on
the bottom of a large pond or lake. Most sites can
accommodate one of these three closed loop designs.
The attributes of each system type are discussed below.
Vertical

Vertical loops provide the most economical use of land

and are an ideal choice when available land surface area
is limited. The vertical bore holes are usually arranged
in a 4.5m x 4.5m grid pattern. Rectangular shaped
fields are preferred over square fields as they provide a
greater area of exposure to the earth mass and can result
in a reduced field size. Drilling equipment is used to
bore holes usually 150mm in diameter to a depth of
between 50 to 100 metres.

Figure 2. Heat pump operation cooling mode

When in heating mode the heat pump transfers heat

from the ground to the building. Simplistically, the
heat pump now operates in reverse (reverse cycle),
cooling the earth and heating the building. The ground
is now used to provide a dummy heating load for the
heat pump. (In cooling mode this heat load is supplied
by the building.) In the reverse of the cooling cycle,
waste heat from the heat pump is now used to heat
the building. This is in contrast with conventional air
conditioning systems, where heating is achieved via hot
water boilers, reverse cycle or electric heater units.

Figure 4. Vertical closed loop ground heat

exchanger

Once the required number of holes is drilled, two

HDPE pipes are fed down each bore hole. The bottom
ends of these pipes are fusion welded together with a
U-bend to close the circulation loop. The pipework
is usually 2025mm in diameter. When all vertical

E n v i r o n m e n t D e s i g n G u i de

february 1999 tec 6 PAGE 

pipes have been interconnected with horizontal header

pipework the system as a whole is pressure tested for
around 24 hours to identify any leaks that may be
present in the system. After testing, each bore hole is
pressure filled from the bottom up with a grout slurry
made from bentonite clay. The grout plays a critical
role in ensuring that a good thermal junction is made
between the earth and pipework. Any air cavities will
act as insulation barriers thus reducing the performance
of the system.

Figure 6. Pond closed loops

Pond

Figure 5. Horizontal closed loop ground heat

exchanger

Pond (lake) loops are very economical to install when

a body of water is available, as excavation costs are
virtually eliminated. Coils of pipe are simply placed in
banks on the bottom of the pond or lake. Evaporation
and exposure of the water to the lake floor will help
to regulate the pond temperature thus providing a
stable temperature for the coils. If the pond or lake
is susceptible to large changes in water volumes, for
example during times of drought, then this type of
system is not appropriate.

Average heat rejection in cooling mode is approximately

1 kW per 15m length of bore hole and can be as high
as 1kW per 20m. The capacity and efficiency of the soil
and rock to absorb and diffuse heat obviously varies
for each site. It is recommended that a geotechnical
consultant is engaged to advise site suitability,
conductivity of soil and other parameters that effect the
design of the system. These issues are discussed in more
detail below.
Installation costs vary according to site conditions,
ground structure, size of heat exchanger and appointed
contractor. However, the following unit rates are
suitable for preliminary costing purposes. Drilling,
piping and grouting for vertical bore holes is in the
order of $22$25 per vertical metre. Allow $80$90
per bore hole for the horizontal header pipework and
$50$65 per metre of pipe for the horizontal trenching
from the building line to the ground heat exchanger
field.
Horizontal

Horizontal loops are often considered when adequate

land surface is available, for example a car park, park
or playing field. Horizontal installations are simpler
to construct as the HDPE pipes are placed in shallow
trenches at a depth of 1.52 metres. However, because
the earth temperature at shallow depths varies, longer
lengths of pipe are required to overcome the variations
in soil temperature and moisture content. Horizontal
closed loop systems are more appropriate for domestic
applications due to the simplicity of installation
and lower cost. Horizontal fields will limit future
development opportunities on the site, as the field
cannot be easily built over and may need to be fully or
partially relocated.

Figure 7. Pond open loop

4.2 Open loop

Open loop systems utilise ground water as a direct
energy source. In ideal conditions, an open loop
application can be the most economical type of
geothermal system.
The water that circulates in an open loop system is
sourced from a lake, river, or well. Rather than being
recirculated as with closed loop systems, the water is
returned to its source or to another acceptable discharge
point. Open loop systems can only be used at sites
that have a plentiful supply of water, and where local
councils do not prohibit it.
A similar concept to open loop heat exchange is used
in Sydney with the Opera House and Power House
Museum which both use the harbour water as a heat
sink enabling simultaneous heating and cooling.
Similarly, in Hong Kong, buildings reject heat to the
harbour in lieu of cooling towers, due to shortage and
cost of providing fresh water to cooling tower systems.

E n v i r o n m e n t D e s i g n G u i de

PAGE  tec 6 february 1999

Flexibility Ground source heat pumps can adapt

to residential and commercial buildings. They can be
placed in new buildings or used as retrofits in existing
buildings.
Carbon dioxide emissions Use of fossil fuels are
reduced due to the energy efficient operation.
Energy costs Energy costs are reduced by 10 to 30%.
Aesthetics Noise and visual exposure associated with
roof top equipment is eliminated.
Legionnaires control Since cooling towers do not
form part of the system, the risk of Legionnaires disease
is eliminated. Ground source heat pumps are therefore
particularly attractive for health care facilities.

6.0 SUITABILITY OF SITE

Site suitability is a function of many variables and
extends to include:
Figure 8. Well open loop

4.3 Hybrid
Hybrid systems can be used in large commercial
buildings where the cooling load is much greater than
the heating load. With such a system, the ground heat
exchanger is supplemented with a conventional cooling
tower to cope with peak cooling periods. This allows a
reduction in the initial installation cost of the system,
by reducing the amount of ground heat exchanger
required.

5.0 WHAT BENEFITS DO

GROUND SOURCE HEAT
PUMPS PROVIDE?

thermal conductivity (ability to diffuse heat) of

the soil and rock

allowable area of field (existing/future structures)

including space for future capacity

drilling conditions (slope of site, trees)

species of flora with aggressive root systems should

be removed from the proposed site

quantity and diversity of heat to be rejected to the

field

when considering suitability of the site, all

underground and above ground services, both
present and future, need to be taken into account

an allowance should be made at the plantroom

header for connecting a cooling tower at a later
date, should extra capacity be required and where
additional field loop is unable to be laid.

Diversity of use - Each heat pump operates only when

the zone it serves is occupied. Simultaneous heating
and cooling is possible for different parts of the
building.

The number and depth of bore holes required will

depend on the type of soil or rock and their formations
below the proposed site as well as the peak heat capacity
to be rejected.

Spacial planning Plantroom sizes are reduced by

2050% over more traditional systems, allowing an
increased net lettable area or a reduction in the size of
the building. Mechanical equipment such as chillers,
boilers and cooling towers are no longer required.

A check list for what should be performed in the

geotechnical survey includes:

Durability Ground source heat pumps last longer

than conventional systems as they are protected from
the weather. The unit is housed indoors and the loop
underground. Cooling towers have a economic life
of 10 to 25 years, air cooled package units have an
economic life of 10 to 15 years, while the ground heat
exchanger has an expected life of over 50 years.
Low maintenance Ground heat exchangers require no
regular chemical dosing or make up water.
Energy efficiency Ground source heat pumps
achieve greater efficiencies due to constant return
water temperatures from the ground. With air cooled
equipment, efficiency varies with changes in ambient
air temperature. On hot days, air cooled systems are
less efficient as more energy is required to achieve the
same level of cooling.

a check to determine if underground aquifers exist

and to what depth standing water will rise

any fault lines or unusual geological formations

should be noted along with any reasons why
drilling on the proposed site may be inadvisable.
Any other unsuitable conditions which may effect
drilling or installing the proposed field should be
highlighted

local ground stability, over time

advice as to what depth conventional trenching

equipment can reach without requiring blasting
(the trench for header pipes should preferably be
dug without blasting)

the potential variability of the geological

conditions over the entire proposed field should
be noted and the advisability or necessity of
drilling further test holes to gain a more reliable
estimate, stated

E n v i r o n m e n t D e s i g n G u i de

site gradient, soil surface conditions and weight

bearing capacity (to determine site suitability for
supporting drilling machinery)

soil temperature and moisture content at 5 metre

intervals.

7.0 DESIGN PRECAUTIONS

Ground heat exchanger installation - The installation of
the ground loop heat exchanger should be carried out
by a specialist contractor who is suitably qualified in the
following areas:

boring of vertical holes, horizontal trenching and

back fill

heat fusion of the high density polyethylene

pipework

pressure grouting of vertical bores.

Preferably, the contractor should have current

International Ground Source Heat Pump Association
(IGSHPA) certification or equivalent.
Site management During the drilling of vertical bore
holes, a significant amount of water can be expelled
(particularly if aquifers are present). Allowance should
be made for the capture, treatment and removal of this
waste-water. Treatment of this waste-water usually
entails provision of silt traps and pump stations to
prevent silt entering local stormwater drains.
Drilling equipment can generate excessive noise levels
which may cause noise pollution problems, both on site
and for adjoining properties.
Thermal changes Geothermal heat pump systems
are not suitable for 24 hour operation over extended
periods, unless during that period heating and cooling
is performed. Continued heat extraction or dumping
can result in a sustained change in the temperature of
the field, and associated loss in system performance.
To avoid this the field needs time to regain thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding earth. An annual
heat balance is desirable. That is, during summer the
earth is heated while during winter the earth is cooled,
in this way the net thermal balance is maintained. If
the earth is just continually heated its capacity to act
as a heat sink will progressively reduce over time. This
will vary depending on geographic location and heat
load diversities.

REFERENCES AND
FURTHER READING
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Protection 1996, Ground Source Heat
Pump Manual.
International Ground Source Heat Pump Association
1988: Closed-Loop/Ground Source Heat Pump Systems:
Installation Guide, Oklahoma State University.
International Ground Source Heat Pump Association
1997, Closed-Loop/Ground Source Heat Pump Systems:
Design and Installation Standards, Oklahoma State
University.

february 1999 tec 6 PAGE 

International Ground Source Heat Pump Association

1989, Soil and Rock Classification for the Design of
Ground Coupled Heat Pump Systems: Field Manual,
Oklahoma State University.

BIOGRAPHY
Chris Arkins, BE (Mech), an Associate of Steensen
Varming, is responsible for the development and
coordination of Steensen Varmings ability to provide
specialist environmental and sustainable design services.
Chris has completed a variety of challenging projects
encompassing the design of innovative, low energy
mechanical and passive systems. He has developed
specialised fields of competence in geothermal heat
pump systems, solar slab heating, natural ventilation,
daylighting and mixed mode ventilation systems.
Chris has specialised in ESD design for the past ten
years and has participated in the following key projects:

The Richardson Wing, University of Newcastle,

which won the RAIA New South Wales Chapter
Ecologically Sustainable Development Award
1998 and the Master Builders Association
National Energy Award Commercial.

Life Sciences Building, University of Newcastle,

which won the 2001 Sulman Award.

Interactive Learning Centre, Charles Sturt

University, Dubbo which won the RAlA
Environmental Architecture Award 2002.

Gold Medal, The Francis Greenway Society, 2002

Green Building Award, Fry Street Residential
Development.

Gold Medal, The Francis Greenway Society, 2003

Green Building Award, Masterplan for Martin
Bright Steel.

The views expressed in this Note are the views of

the author(s) only and not necessarily those of the
Australian Council of Building Design Professions Ltd
(BDP), The Royal Australian Institute of Architects
(RAIA) or any other person or entity.
This Note is published by the RAIA for BDP and
provides information regarding the subject matter
covered only, without the assumption of a duty of care
by BDP, the RAIA or any other person or entity.
This Note is not intended to be, nor should be, relied
upon as a substitute for specific professional advice.
Copyright in this Note is owned by The Royal
Australian Institute of Architects.