Lecture 4.

Elements and Objects of the Transportation Process

1.
2.
3.
4.

Types of cargo transportation process.

Basics of cargo classification.
Types of tare.
Marks and labels on cargo.

4.1 Types of cargo transportation process

The process of cargo transportation can be classified on the level of complexity as simple and
complex. When the cargo is transported from the origin point to the point of destination without
intermediary stops or with short stops en-route the transportation process is called simple. The
elements of simple transportation process (initial operation of loading, intermediary operation of
transportation and final operation of unloading) are illustrated on figure 4.1 below.

Fig.4.1. Simple transportation process

If the cargo transportation process implies carriage of the goods from the origin point to the
destination point including additional operations then such a process is called complex (fig. 4.2).
The additional operations are: reorganization of vehicles en-route with making up of trains;
partial additional loading onto vehicles in intermediary points.

Fig.4.2. Elements of complex transportation process

The transportation process is also considered to be complex if the cargo is carried to the
destination point by means of several transport modes. In that case, additional transfer of cargo
from one transport mode to another is performed.

Fig.4.3. Elements of complex transportation process (with interaction of different transport modes)

4.2. Basics of cargo classification

All types of cargo that are accepted for transportation can be classified based on a number of
criteria. The classification should be justified only by the most sufficient features though.
Therefore, the factors relevant for classification of goods are:
1) loading and unloading method;
2) conditions of transportation and storage;
3) load capacity of the vehicle used for transportation;
4) safety of cargo;
5) degree of danger during loading, transportation and unloading.
According to the loading and unloading method, the cargo is subdivided into unit load, bulk
cargo and liquid bulk cargo.
Unit load is characterized by size, mass and form. They are accepted for transportation and
returned to the customer by volume and mass.
Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to
material in granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as grain, coal, or
gravel. This cargo is usually dropped.
Liquid bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is liquid or half liquid such as petroleum, acids,
oils, liquefied natural gas, etc. Liquid bulk cargo is often poured and transported in drums,
containers and tanks.
Regarding the conditions of transportation and storage, the cargo is subdivided into specific
and normal.
Normal cargo is the cargo that requires no specific conditions for its transportation, loading,
unloading and storage and can be carried by drop-side trucks.
Specific cargo requires special conditions and caution during transportation, loading,
unloading and storage. They are further grouped as:
1) sanitary and non-sanitary cargo;
2) perishable cargo;
3) heavy loads;
4) long loads;
5) oversized cargo;
6) dangerous goods.
Sanitary cargo are goods that require specific sanitary conditions, such as food commodities.
Non-sanitary cargo are sewage and dusty cargoes.
Perishable cargo are goods, which may deteriorate over a given period of time or after
exposure to adverse temperature, humidity or other environmental conditions.
Heavy loads are the commodities that exceed the weight of 250 kg per package (or 400 kg for
rolled cargo).
Long loads are the commodities that exceed the size of the largest standard flat pallet
1200x1600 mm with possible overhang of 40 mm to the side.
Oversized cargo is the cargo exceeding 2,5 m of width and 3,8 m of height with possible
overhang of 2 m over the tailgate.
Dangerous goods are materials or items with hazardous properties which, if not properly
controlled, present a potential hazard to human health and safety, infrastructure and/ or their
means of transport.
The transportation of dangerous goods is controlled and governed by a variety of different
regulatory regimes, operating at both the national and international levels. Prominent regulatory
frameworks for the transportation of dangerous goods include the United Nations
Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, ICAOs Technical Instructions, IATAs
Dangerous Goods Regulations and the IMOs International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code.
Collectively, these regulatory regimes mandate the means by which dangerous goods are to be
handled, packaged, labelled and transported.

Regulatory frameworks incorporate comprehensive classification systems of hazards to

provide a taxonomy of dangerous goods. Classification of dangerous goods is broken down into
nine classes according to the type of danger materials or items present:
1. Explosives.
2. Gases.
3. Flammable Liquids.
4. Flammable Solids.
5. Oxidizing Substances.
6. Toxic and Infectious Substances.
7. Radioactive Material.
8. Corrosives.
9. Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods.
The multitude of dangerous goods regimes across the world and the complexity of dangerous
goods classifications and regulations render compliance a particularly difficult task. Below is a
detailed explanation of the dangerous items and their characteristics relevant for transportation.
CLASS 1 EXPLOSIVES
Explosives are materials or items which have the ability to rapidly conflagrate or detonate as a
consequence of chemical reaction.
Explosives are capable by chemical reaction of producing gases at temperatures, pressures
and speeds as to cause catastrophic damage through force and/or of producing otherwise
hazardous amounts of heat, light, sound, gas or smoke.
CLASS 2 GASES
Gases are defined by dangerous goods regulations as substances which have a vapor pressure
of 300 kPa or greater at 50c or which are completely gaseous at 20c at standard atmospheric
pressure, and items containing these substances. The class encompasses compressed gases,
liquefied gases, dissolved gases, refrigerated liquefied gases, mixtures of one or more gases with
one or more vapors of substances of other classes, articles charged with a gas and aerosols.
Gases are capable of posing serious hazards due to their flammability, potential as
asphyxiants, ability to oxidize and/or their toxicity or corrosiveness to humans.
CLASS 3 FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
Flammable liquids are defined by dangerous goods regulations as liquids, mixtures of liquids
or liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give off a flammable vapor (have a
flash point) at temperatures of not more than 60-65C, liquids offered for transport at
temperatures at or above their flash point or substances transported at elevated temperatures in a
liquid state and which give off a flammable vapor at a temperature at or below the maximum
transport temperature.
Flammable liquids are capable of posing serious hazards due to their volatility, combustibility
and potential in causing or propagating severe conflagrations.
CLASS 4 FLAMMABLE SOLIDS; SUBSTANCES LIABLE TO SPONTANEOUS
COMBUSTION; SUBSTANCES WHICH EMIT FLAMMABLE GASES WHEN IN
CONTACT WITH WATER
Flammable solids are materials which, under conditions encountered in transport, are readily
combustible or may cause or contribute to fire through friction, self-reactive substances which
are liable to undergo a strongly exothermic reaction or solid desensitized explosives. Also
included are substances which are liable to spontaneous heating under normal transport
conditions, or to heating up in contact with air, and are consequently liable to catch fire and
substances which emit flammable gases or become spontaneously flammable when in contact
with water.
Flammable solids are capable of posing serious hazards due to their volatility, combustibility
and potential in causing or propagating severe conflagrations.
CLASS 5 OXIDIZING SUBSTANCES; ORGANIC PEROXIDES

Oxidizers are defined by dangerous goods regulations as substances which may cause or
contribute to combustion, generally by yielding oxygen as a result of a redox chemical reaction.
Organic peroxides are substances which may be considered derivatives of hydrogen peroxide
where one or both hydrogen atoms of the chemical structure have been replaced by organic
radicals.
Oxidizers, although not necessarily combustible in themselves, can yield oxygen and in so
doing cause or contribute to the combustion of other materials. Organic peroxides are thermally
unstable and may exude heat whilst undergoing exothermic autocatalytic decomposition.
Additionally, organic peroxides may be liable to explosive decomposition, burn rapidly, be
sensitive to impact or friction, react dangerously with other substances or cause damage to eyes.
CLASS 6 TOXIC SUBSTANCES; INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCES
Toxic substances are those which are liable either to cause death or serious injury or to harm
human health if swallowed, inhaled or by skin contact. Infectious substances are those which are
known or can be reasonably expected to contain pathogens. Dangerous goods regulations define
pathogens as microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi, or other agents
which can cause disease in humans or animals.
Toxic and infectious substances can pose significant risks to human and animal health upon
contact.
CLASS 7 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Dangerous goods regulations define radioactive material as any material containing
radionuclides where both the activity concentration and the total activity exceeds certain predefined values. A radionuclide is an atom with an unstable nucleus and which consequently is
subject to radioactive decay.
Whilst undergoing radioactive decay radionuclides emit ionizing radiation, which presents
potentially severe risks to human health.
CLASS 8 CORROSIVES
Corrosives are substances which by chemical action degrade or disintegrate other materials
upon contact.
Corrosives cause severe damage when in contact with living tissue or, in the case of leakage,
damage or destroy surrounding materials.
CLASS 9 MISCELLANEOUS DANGEROUS GOODS
Miscellaneous dangerous goods are substances and articles which during transport present a
danger or hazard not covered by other classes. This class encompasses, but is not limited to,
environmentally hazardous substances, substances that are transported at elevated temperatures,
miscellaneous articles and substances, genetically modified organisms and micro-organisms and
(depending on the method of transport) magnetized materials and aviation regulated substances.
Miscellaneous dangerous goods present a wide array of potential hazards to human health and
safety, infrastructure and/ or their means of transport.
Based on the load capacity of the vehicle (that is calculated as the correlation to the maximum
load capacity of the vehicle and is defined as the ratio of load capacity utilization v), all goods
are subdivided into 4 classes:
Class 1, v = 1,0
Class 3, v = 0,51-0,70

Class 2, v = 0,71-0,99
Class 4, v = 0,40-0,50

Depending on the safety of cargo there are:

1) goods that require specific conditions of safety (explosives, flammable goods, glass,
electrical appliances, etc.)
2) goods that require regular conditions of safety (machinery, furniture, building
constructions, etc.);
3) goods that do not require any conditions of safety (soil, sand, metal, etc.).
According to the degree of danger during loading, transportation and unloading the goods are
grouped as follows:
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Group 1: low-hazard goods (food products, construction materials, etc.).

Group 2: goods that are hazardous according to their size (long-sized and oversized).
Group 3: dusty and hot goods (cement, fertilizers, asphalt, bitumen, etc.).
Group 4: highly hazardous goods (flammable, explosive goods, etc.).
During the process of transportation the goods are subject to three types of external effects:
a) mechanical: bumps, hits, vibrations, static load, friction;
b) meteorological: influence from the atmospheric conditions, humidity, changeable
temperature rates, radiation;
c) biological: impact from the microorganism, insects and small animals activity.
To ensure safety of cargo during transportation, the shipment should be carried out in intact
tare.
4.3. Types of tare
Tare as a unity of protective measures and material means intended for transportation and
storage of goods. Tare is subdivided into consumer and transportation tare.
Consumer tare is an element of package in which the product is placed to be delivered to the
final consumer (e.g. bottles, boxes, jars, tins, packages, etc.)

Fig.4.4. Transportation tare, including: a) wooden cases for window; b) wooden crating; c) boxes of corrugated
board; d) barrels; e) drums; f) soft tare (paper bags)

Shipping/transportation tare is an element of product packaging that is normally packed into

consumer containers or additional packaging means and materials and is intended for protecting
the product and the internal package from the external factors and for convenient transshipment
operations (such as drums, boxes, canisters, etc.).
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According to the construction scheme, transportation tare is grouped into folding,

dismountable, non-dismountable, open, closed, grid, tight, etc.
Depending on the degree of utilization, shipping tare is grouped as disposable and nondisposable.
According to the ability to keep the initial form, transportation tare is subdivided into hard
(made of metal, wood, plastic, etc.), semi-hard (of polymers, cardboard, paper) and soft (fabric,
paper, polymer wrap).
Efficient packing of the cargo requires standard size of the package which ensures convenient
laying of cargo in the vehicle, cargo consolidation, transportation and storage.
4.4. Marks and labels on cargo
Marking informs the carrier on the consignee, consignor and ways to handle the load during
its transportation and storage.
In general, marks are subdivided into handling; cautionary; main, additional and information
marks.
Handling marks are pictorial markings illustrating the ways to manipulate the cargo.
Cautionary marks are the pictorial markings that inform the carriers and handlers on
everything that cannot be conveyed through handling marks, e.g. Open here.
Main, additional and information marks inform about the consignor, consignee, intermediate
points, number of package, weight, size of the load unit, etc.
The primary purpose of marking is the identification of the shipment, enabling the carrier to
forward it to the ultimate consignee. Old marks, advertising and other extraneous information
only serve to confuse this primary function for cargo handlers and carriers.

Fig.4.5. Marks and labels on a cardboard package

These fundamental marking rules should be followed:

1. Unless local regulations prohibit, use coded marks; particularly where goods are
susceptible to pilferage. Change them periodically to avoid familiarity by cargo handlers. Trade
names should be avoided as they may indicate the nature of the contents.
2. Consignee (identification) marks and port marks showing destination and transfer points
should be large, clear and applied by stencil with waterproof ink. They should be applied on
three faces of the package, preferably side, and/or ends and top.
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3. If commodities require special handling or stowage, the shipping package should be so

marked, and this information should also appear on the bill of lading.
4. Cautionary and handling markings must be permanent and easy to read (use the languages
of both the origin and destination countries). The use of stencils is recommended for legibility
do not use crayon, tags, or cards. An example of marking on an export pack is illustrated in
fig.4.5.
Non-hazardous pictorial markings
It is recommended that handling instructions be printed on the exterior pack in the language of
the destination country. It is not unusual for a shipment to be handled by another country along
the trans-port path or by cargo handlers that cannot read. These potential problems can best be
overcome by pictorial markings. The international symbols depicted represent markings that
have been accepted as standards.
Hazardous materials markings
Unilateral state regulation of international commerce is impractical in today's interdependent
world. Procedures that are acceptable in one country and forsaken in another inhibit world trade
through embargo or unacceptable delay in cargo reaching its ultimate destination. The labels
shown on these pages are the hazardous material (dangerous goods) identification adopted by all
IMO and ICAO member countries to smooth the flow of these type materials in waterborne and
air commerce. The color coding, symbol and class number (when displayed) are universal.
These labels provide an important identification of packaged dangerous goods in transport.
They will alert cargo handlers to special stowage and segregation needs along the transport path.
Dangerous goods regulations almost always require special documentation and packing under
strict criteria. These shipments should be booked in advance with the carrier so that applicable
restrictions can be determined prior to actual shipment.
It should not be assumed that compliance with domestic regulations will automatically qualify
a shipment for passage through enroute countries and the destination port. Requirements that are
not met can easily be the difference between profit and loss.
If the material may be hazardous, then in addition to all known required markings and labels,
it is required to furnish pertinent chemical or physical data.