THE RETURNS TO SPEAKING A SECOND LANGUAGE*

Albert Saiz
Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia and Harvard University
Elena Zoido
Harvard University
October 2002
Abstract
Does speaking a foreign language have an impact on earnings? We use a variety of empirical
strategies to address this issue for a representative sample of U.S. college graduates. OLS
regressions with a complete set of controls to minimize concerns about omitted variable biases,
propensity score methods, and panel data techniques all lead to similar conclusions. The hourly
earnings of those who speak a foreign language are more than 2 percent higher than the
earnings of those who do not. We obtain higher and more imprecise point estimates using state
high school graduation and college entry and graduation requirements as instrumental
variables.
Working Paper on Second Language Acquisition Research:
Some Notes on Theory and Method
Joseph Galasso
San Diego State University
1999
In foreign language acquisition, different learners also follow different paths (cf. Meisel,
Clahsen, and Pienemann: 1981). There is variation in what one might call learning strategies
from large scale differences like the distinction between avoiding and guessing, to something
as specific as using very particular mnemonic tricks and devices to aid memorization of
vocabulary, etc. These tactics resemble what one finds with general adult skill learning.
Although there has been some question over whether or not formal instruction is a must for L2
acquisitionthe fact that L2 can be learned as a pidgin reinforces this viewL2 studies seem to
show that formal instruction does make a crucial difference in quantity and quality of language
learned. This suggests that L2 learning is a type of general problem solvinge.g., cognitive
models for problem solving. (NB. This questions L2 learning in the face of the Fundamental
Difference
Hypothesis that represents a clear difference between cognition and language
modularities.)
Research on Second Language Acquisition: A Democratic Educational Concept
Rafael Lara-Alecio, Ph.D.
Professor and Director of Bilingual Programs
Department of Educational Psychology
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-4225

a-lara@tamu.edu
Beverly J. Irby, Ed.D.
Professor and Chair
Educational Leadership and Counseling
Sam Houston State University
Huntsville, TX 77341
edu_bid@shsu.edu
There are four issues and levels of significance regarding research on second language
acquisition in the areas of economy, best educational practices, lack of research, and research
that is methodologically flawed. Each of these areas is related to democracy as we define it
herein the provision of and the access to equitable opportunities within the educational
system. Each is discussed initially and then our own research is reported as one part of a larger
picture that should be painted by many to address democracy in the research on second
language acquisition and its impact specifically on Hispanic/Latino students.

The Effect of Computer Assisted Language Learning in Teaching English Grammar on the
Achievement of Secondary Students in Jordan
Abdallah Abu Naba'h1, Jebreen Hussain1, Aieman Al-Omari2, and Sadeq Shdeifat1
1Department of Curricula and Instruction, The Hashemite University, Jordan
2Department of Educational Foundations and Administration, The Hashemite University,
Jordan
2008
Abstract: This study aimed at investigating the effect of using an instructional software program
of English language on the achievement of secondary students in Jordan. The sample of the
study consisted of (212) students distributed randomly on four experimental groups and four
control groups. The instruments of the study were an instructional software program for
teaching the passive voice and an achievement test. An Analysis of covariance was used to find
out the effect of the instructional program on the students achievement in the passive voice.
The findings of the study revealed that: 1. there were statistically significant differences ( <
0.05) between the students' achievement mean scores in grammar attributed to the
instructional method of teaching. This difference is in favor of the students in the experimental
group 2. there were statistically significant differences ( < 0.05) between the students'
achievement mean scores in grammar attributed to gender. This difference is in favor of male
students. 3. there were statistically significant differences ( < 0.05) between the students'
achievement mean scores in grammar attributed to stream of study. This difference is in favor
of the scientific stream students. In light of the findings of the study, it was recommended that
TEFL teachers use CAI lessons in their instruction.

Global perspectives on Computer-Assisted Language Learning

Glasgow, 10-13 July 2013
Socially multilingual? An exploration of informal language
learning practices on Facebook
Antonie Alm
University of Otago
Dunedin, New Zealand
Abstract
This paper investigates the use of Facebook for informal language learning by tertiary language
students. 191 language students (Chinese, German, French, Japanese and Spanish) completed
an anonymous online questionnaire on (1) their perceptions of Facebook as a multilingual
environment, (2) their online writing practices and (3) their views on the educational value of
their experiences. Findings indicate that language students are using a range of Facebook
features to expose themselves to and for practicing the languages they study. Some variability
in use could be explained by the proficiency-levels of the students (beginner, intermediate and
advanced levels), the strength of social ties with native speaker Facebook friends, and personal
attitudes towards the social networking site. Participants displayed a high level of personal
agency in their second language Facebook use, which was shaped by online practices in their
native language. The findings confirm that Facebook is perceived as a personal communication
tool and that any endeavours for training of language students in the use of Facebook for
language practice need to consider learner perceptions of the social networking site.

An overview of mobile assisted language

learning: From content delivery to supported
collaboration and interaction
AGNES KUKULSKA-HULME
The Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University, UK
(email: A.M.Kukulska-Hulme@open.ac.uk)
LESLEY SHIELD
Independent E-learning Consultant, UK
(email: lesley.shield@yahoo.co.uk)
Abstract
Mobile learning is undergoing rapid evolution. While early generations of mobile learning
tended to propose activities that were carefully crafted by educators and technologists,
learners are increasingly motivated by their personal learning needs, including those arising
from greater mobility and frequent travel. At the same time, it is often argued that mobile
devices are particularly suited to supporting social contacts and collaborative learning - claims
that have obvious relevance for language learning. A review of publications reporting mobileassisted language learning (MALL) was undertaken to discover how far mobile devices are being
used to support social contact and collaborative learning. In particular, we were interested in
speaking and listening practice and in the possibilities for both synchronous and asynchronous

interaction in the context of online and distance learning. We reflect on how mobile language
learning has developed to date and suggest directions for the future.
AN OVERVIEW OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
CHIEN KUO LEE
Abstract
This paper aims to talk about the development of language learning strategy since the 1970s. It
will provide information about of the use of language learning strategies, which will enhance
English learning for non-native learners. Further, the better understanding of language learning
strategies for English teachers can help students to learn more successfully and develop their
learning autonomy. To this end, this paper can also serve as a research reference in the field of
language learning strategies, particularly the relationship between a different language learning
cultural background and the use of strategy as well as leading us to the current status of
learning strategies and learning strategies instruction.
Learning and Teaching Styles
In Foreign and Second Language Education
Richard M Felder
North Carolina State University
Eunice R. Henriques
Universidade Estadual de Sao Paulo
ABSTRACT The ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retains, and retrieves
information are collectively termed the individuals learning style. Mismatches often occur
between the learning styles of students in a language class and the teaching style of the
instructor, with unfortunate effects on the quality of the students learning and on their
attitudes toward the class and the subject. This paper defines several dimensions of learning
style thought to be particularly relevant to foreign and second language education, outlines
ways in which certain learning styles are favored by the teaching styles of most language
instructors, and suggests steps to address the educational needs of all students in foreign
language classes.
Issues in Language Learning Strategy Research and
Teaching
Anna Uhl Chamot
(Auchamot@aol.com)
The George Washington University
Abstract
Learning strategies are the thoughts and actions that individuals use to accomplish a learning
goal. Extensive research has identified the learning strategies used by students of a variety of
second and foreign languages and a somewhat smaller body of research has documented the
effectiveness of helping less successful language students improve their performance through

learning strategy instruction. This article discusses current issues in language learning strategy
research that affect teachers and learners of foreign languages. These issues include:
identification procedures of learning strategies, terminology and classification of strategies, the
effects of learner characteristics on strategy use, the effects of culture and context on strategy
use, explicit and integrated strategy instruction, language of instruction, transfer of strategies
to new tasks, and models for language learning strategy instruction. These eight issues are
explored through a discussion of existing research that illumines the issues. Suggestions are
presented for future research on issues that have not yet been thoroughly explored.