II.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the literature and studies that
are pertinent to the present study. In this aspect, the
researchers made some readings and surfing to the Internet
regarding the relevant articles and studies that is very
helpful in gaining a broader background and knowledge and
have bearing on the study.
RELATED LITERATURE
Foreign literature
The analysis of how individuals obtained and are paid
for their skills is fundamental to labor economics. The
basic idea of human capital theory is that workers and
firms invest in workers skills in order to increase their
productivity,

must

as

persons

invest

in

financial

or

physical assets to earn income. Workers develop many skills

through formal education not tied to an employer, but an
important part of their skills are learned on the job.
Employees acquire skills on the job in a variety of ways.
They

may

train

formally

in

classes,

informally

by

co-

27

workers or supervisors, or they may become more productive

without direct training as a result of learning by doing.
H. Francis and M.A. Loewenstein, Foundations and Trends in
Microeconomics,

Now

Publishers,

Inc.,

Hanover

MA,

USA,

2006, pp. 1-2.

One of the features of working life today is that
whatever education and trainings obtained at the start, it
will almost certainly become redundant or obsolete during
ones working lifetime. The need to train, and to acquire
new knowledge, new skills, and new attitudes has become an
everyday aspect of each individuals working life. In some
cases, these may merely be an updating process, but in
others, it will require a change from one occupation to
another.
Boella, Michael, & Gross-Turner, Steven, Human Resources
Management

In

The

Hospitality

Industry:

An

Introductory

Guide, Elsevier (Singapore) Pte Ltd., p.119.

Most people have faced the challenge of learning new
knowledge

and

skills

as

part

of

their

job.

Training

programs are designed to make this learning easier and less

threatening.

Yet,

training

is

not

meant

to

benefit

28

individual

employees

only.

The

organization

expects

benefits from employees training. In fact training helps

insure that employees can do what the organization asks of
them.

Thus,

training

is

ultimately

about

the

issue

of

developing high levels of employee and expertise.

Ronald L. Jacobs, Structured on-the-job Training, Berret
Koehler Publishers, Inc., 235 Montgomery Street, Suite 650,
San Francisco, California, 2003, p.3
According to Elippo, Training is a continuous process
of increasing knowledge and skills for doing a particular
job. It is processed to which employees learn knowledge and
skill and the purpose of training is basically to bridge up
the

gap

between

job

requirements

and

competence

of

employees.
Shipra Sharma, Functional Management, Think Tanks Biyani
Group of Colleges, 2009, p. 89
In

simple

terms,

competency

is

tool

that

an

individual can use in order to demonstrate a high standard

of performance. Competencies are characteristics that we
use to achieve success. These characteristics or traits can
include things like knowledge, aspects of leadership, self-

29

esteem, skills or relationship building. There are a lot of

competencies but they are usually divided into groups. Most
organizations

recognize

numerous

sub

groups

divided

into.

competencies.

which

There
It

is

two

groups

competencies

has
easy

main

been
to

see

can

lot

how

and

then
be

have

further

written

people

about

can

become

easily confused by what a competency actually is. It is

also essential that people in the world of business have a
clear understanding of what different competencies are and,
in particular, which competencies are of interest to them
either as an individual interested in self-development or
as an employer looking for the best candidate for a job.

Competencies can be divided into two distinct types;

technical

competencies

functional)
suggests,

and

(sometimes

personal

technical

referred

competencies.

competencies

are

to

As

those

the
which

as
name
are

related to the skills and knowledge that are essential in

order for a person to do a particular job appropriately. An
example of a technical competency for a secretary might
be:Word processing: able to word process a text at the
rate of 80 words per minute with no mistakes.
competencies

are

not

linked

to

any

particular

Personal
function.

30

They include characteristics that we use together with our

technical competencies in order to do our work well. An
example

of

Sensitivity:

personal

Demonstrates

competency
respect

is: Interpersonal

for

the

opinions

of

others, even when not in agreement.

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/businessmagazine/introduction-competencies, para. 2-3
It

can

be

difficult

to

form

clear

and

cohesive

picture of what training or internship is like, especially

if you never participated in such experience before. One
factor that contributes to its difficulty is the fact that
internship can take many forms. Students work full days,
five

days

curriculum

per
is

week

in

arranged

their
so

placements,

that

no

and

other

their

coursework

interrupts the day.

Pamela Myers Kiser, The Human Services Internship: Getting
the Most from Your Experience, Third Edition, 2012, p.2

Various
students

and

researchers
employers

investigate
towards

the

the

expectations

internship

of

program.

Tackett et al. mention four specific areas, namely, ethics,

oral and written communication skills, office conduct and

31

technical

skills

where

interns

and

employers

have

conflicting perceptions. Students hope to receive monetary

rewards

and

be

treated

as

regular

employees.

However,

employers are not willing to treat interns employees and

thus, normally assign duties that are more appropriate for
college.
Tackett,

J.,

Wolf,

F.,

&

Law,

D.

(2001),

Accounting

interns and their employers: conflicting Perceptions, Ohio

CPA Journal, 60, pp. 54 56
The

Four

learning.

It

Stages

of

suggests

Learning
that

provides

individuals

a
are

model

for

initially

unaware of how little they know, or unconscious of their

incompetence. As they recognize their incompetence,

they

consciously acquire a skill, and then consciously use it.

Eventually,

the

skill

can

be

utilized

without

it

being

consciously thought through: the individual is said to have

then acquired unconscious competence.
The four stages are:

Unconscious incompetence
The individual does not understand or know how to

do something and does not necessarily recognize the

32

deficit. They may deny the usefulness of the skill.

The individual must recognize their own incompetence,
and the value of the new skill, before moving on to
the

next

stage.

The

length

of

time

an

individual

spends in this stage depends on the strength of the

stimulus to learn.

Conscious incompetence
Though the individual does not understand or know

how to do something, he or she does recognize

deficit,

as

well

as

the

value

of

new

skill

the
in

addressing the deficit. The making of mistakes can be

integral to the learning process at this stage.

Conscious competence
The

individual

something.
knowledge
down

into

understands

However,
requires
steps,

or

knows

demonstrating

the

concentration.
and

there

is

It

may
heavy

how

to

skill
be

do
or

broken

conscious

involvement in executing the new skill.

Unconscious competence
The individual has had so much practice with a

skill that it has become "second nature" and can be

33

performed

easily.

As

result,

the

skill

can

be

performed while executing another task. The individual

may be able to teach it to others, depending upon how
and when it was learned.
Flower J (1999). "In the Mush". Physician Exec 25 (1): 64
6
Dreyfus
levels

of

causative
competency

and

Dreyfus introduced

competence
reasoning
may

be

in

nomenclature

competency

of

such

seen

in

their

for

development.

language
paper

of
on

levels

the
The
of

Calculative

Rationality titled, "From Socrates to Expert Systems: The

Limits and Dangers of Calculative Rationality". The five
levels proposed by Dreyfus and Dreyfus were:

Novice: Rule-based behavior, strongly limited and

inflexible

Experienced Beginner: Incorporates aspects of the

situation

Practitioner:

Acting

consciously

from

long-term

goals and plans

Knowledgeable practitioner: Sees the situation as

a whole and acts from personal conviction

34

Expert:

Has

an

intuitive

understanding

of

the

situation and zooms in on the central aspects

Dreyfus, Stuart E.; Dreyfus, Hubert L. (February 1980). A
Five-Stage

Model

of

the

Mental

Activities

Involved

in

Directed Skill Acquisition

The process of competency development is a lifelong
series of doing and reflecting. As competencies apply to
careers as well as jobs, lifelong competency development is
linked with personal development as a management concept.
And it requires a special environment, where the rules are
necessary in order to introduce novices, but people at a
more advanced level of competency will systematically break
the rules if the situations require it. This environment is
synonymously

described

organization,

using

knowledge

terms

creation,

such

as

learning

self-organizing

and

empowerment.
Within

specific

organization

or

professional

community, professional competency, is frequently valued.

They

are

usually

the

same

competencies

that

must

be

demonstrated in a job interview. But today there is another

way

of

looking

at

it:

that

there

are

general

areas

of

35

occupational competency required to retain a post, or earn

a promotion. For all organizations and communities there is
a

set

of

primary

tasks

that

competent

people

have

to

contribute to all the time. For a university student, for

example,

the

primary

Handling

methods,

and

tasks

could

Handling

be:

the

Handling

information

theory,
of

the

assignment.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence_(human_resources), May 2010,
para. 12, 13
The four general areas of competency are:

Meaning Competency: The person assessed must be

able

to

identify

organization

or

with

the

community

purpose

and

act

of

the

from

the

preferred future in accordance with the values of

the organization or community.

Relation Competency: The ability to create and

nurture connections to the stakeholders of the
primary tasks must be shown.

Learning Competency: The person assessed must be

able to create and look for situations that make
it

possible

to

experiment

with

the

set

of

36

solutions that make it possible to complete the

primary tasks and reflect on the experience.

Change Competency: The person assessed must be

able to act in new ways when it will promote the
purpose of the organization or community and make
the preferred future come to life.

iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/ICIMS/Volume-1/8.pdf,
pp. 1
Local Literature
Group
defines

of

business

competencies

knowledge,

skills,

organizations
as

the

in

the

measurable

abilities,

and

or

Philippines
observable

behaviors

(KSABs)

critical to successful job performance.

They provide a list of choosing the right competencies
allows employers to:

Plan

how they

will

organize

and

develop

their

workforce.

Determine

which

job

classes

best

business needs.

Recruit and select the best employees.

fit

their

37

Manage and train employees effectively.

Develop staff to fill future vacancies.

According to them, Competency types have developed:

Knowledge Competencies - practical or theoretical

understanding of subjects.

Skill and

Ability

Competencies -

natural

or

learned capacities to perform acts.

Behavioral Competencies - patterns of action or

conduct.

They also define competencies in different manners:

In Job Descriptions

Job descriptions explain the duties, working conditions,

and

other

aspects

of

job,

including

the

competencies

needed to perform the job's essential functions. Positionspecific competencies are determined through the process
of job

analysis,

and

are

documented

in

the Position

Description (PD) form. These competencies form a basis for

recruiting, hiring, training, developing, and managing the
performance of employees.

38

In Recruitment, Assessment, and Selection

Describing

desired

competencies

in

recruitment

announcements gives job seekers a clearer picture of what

jobs entail. Competencies also provide the foundation for
assessment

and

selection

techniques,

including

exams,

interviews, and reference checks.

In Employee Performance Management

Competencies allow supervisors to more fully describe

to

employees

descriptions
skill

their
show

mastery

performance

employees

is

required

expectations.

what
to

level

of

Competency

knowledge

and

perform

job

successfully

duties, and what behavioral standards must be consistently

demonstrated.
Development

Washington
Plan includes

State's Performance
competencies

in

and

both

the

expectations and evaluation sections.

In Training and Development

Done well, competencies allow supervisors to choose

and

prioritize

opportunities
describe

the

training
for

courses

employees.

competencies

and

Training

students

other

learning

courses

should

be

often

able

to

39

demonstrate by the end of the class. Likewise, most on-thejob

and

build

other

certain

developmental
knowledge

assignments

and

skills.

are

designed

Knowing

how

to

class

content and developmental activities build mastery helps

supervisors to 'map' each position to a specific training
and

development

plan

that

fosters

growth

in

required

role

in workforce

competencies.

In Career and Workforce Planning

Competencies

planning efforts.
workforce must

play

Knowing

possess

to

key

which

competencies

achieve

the

business

future

goals

and

deliverables helps organizations plan and design:

o Organizational structure.
o Recruitment strategies.
o Training budgets and development plans.
o Job assignments and individual performance plans.

Employees can also use competencies to plan a career

path. Knowing which competencies are critical for certain
promotions

allows

employees

to

request

training

and

40

development opportunities and seek out specific feedback

and coaching.
hr.wa.gov/WorkforceDataAndPlanning/WorkforcePlanning/Compe
tencies/Pages/default.aspx
According to Philippine Human Resource your competence
is what interests your present or future employers. Do not
build your career on too narrow competence. Keep an eye on
what happens in your field of technology to prepare in
advance for changes.

Learn to live with uncertainty. It is very difficult

to know for certain today what kind of competence will be
usefulfive years from now.
Do

not

forget

that

in

addition

to

your

technical

competence, other types of skills and knowledge are also

important
society

in

and

the

working

people

life.

that

Learn

will

make

about
a

the

world,

better-rounded

person. In the working life, successful completion of tasks

often
useful

requires
skills

leadership,

multidisciplinary
are

sales

business,
&

marketing,

approach.
financing,

Examples of
management,

communication

skills,

41

interpersonal
languages,
management,

skills,
teaching

negotiation,
/

customer

training

relationship

organising,

foreign

/ coaching,

project

management,

writing

(project /research reports, articles), legislation, foreign

cultures, patents, quality. Age is not an obstacle. You are
never too old to start to learn. Learning can be hard work

at

any

age

because

listening

or reading.

processing

what

you

learning

Learning

have

done

is

not

just

requires
or

read.

doing,

thinking
People

and

like

to

process things in a different way. Someone reflects best

alone.

Another

discussion.

one
third

else

likes

person

to

gets

have

clearer

livelygroup
picture

and

deeper understanding through writing or drawing mind maps.

Sharing experience and knowledge with your colleagues
is

an

important

way

of

learning.

It

is

also

often

requirement since many projects are complicated and multifaceted impossible for just one person to manage.
Gopinoy.com

provides

some

ways

to

develop

your

competence. Find how you can develop your competence to

keep

employers

interested

in

you.

Below

there

are

some

42

ways. On the job learning and training is an important way

of developing competence.

Participate in new projects / working groups in your

workplace.

Attend training courses / seminars / conferences in

and outside your company.

Pursue doctoral studies.

Study for another complementary degree.

Read

and

study

on

your

own,

use

e-learning

possibilities.

Do web research on specific professional items.

Write articles in magazines, scientific periodicals or

on the web to make you known as a professional.

Learn through networking and discussion groups inside

and outside your company / organisation.

Join expert groups of technical organisations.

Reflect on what you have done and learned. That will

deepen the knowledge and help you look at things from
new angles. Share and communicate your knowledge and
expertise

in

professional

groups,

engineering

associations by giving lectures, coaching or training.

feani.org/site/index.php?id=157

43

RELATED STUDIES
Foreign Studies
The generic skills needed for the new economy were
identified through a review of research studies. First, the
development of sets of key competencies/key skills in Great
Britain, the United States, and Australia were examined.
The U.S. model, which involves a broader, more flexible,
and more holistic set of generic skills, was contrasted
with the Anglo-Australian model, which has resulted in a
more

narrowly

focused

and

instrumental

set

of

key

skills/key competencies that are broadly similar. Next, the

implications of key contextual shifts for generic skills
were considered. The following topics were discussed: the
emergence of the new knowledge-based economy and the impact
of new technologies; the consequent pressures for lifelong
learning

and

maintaining

employability;

changes

in

the

workplace; and initiatives to foster an enterprise culture

and

innovation.

conclusions:

(1)

The
there

following
is

no

were

among

international

the

key

consensus

regarding identification of the essential generic skills;

(2)

fostering

generic

skills

requires

active

learning

44

strategies

in

which

learners

assume

responsibility

for

their own learning; and (3) direct and indirect evidence of

the

impact

of

generic

skills

on

business

performance

exists.
Kearns,

Peter

(2001),

Generic

Skills

for

the

New

Economy.Review of Research.
In the last decade, the need for change in accounting
education has been extensively written about and discussed.
Fifteen

years

ago,

the

chairmen

of

the

Big

Eight

Firms

issued a white paper entitled Perspectives on Education:

Capabilities for Success in the Accounting Profession. This
paper

was

intended

to

focus

attention

on

the

need

for

accounting education to emphasize broad skills, to identify

knowledge

required

to

understand

public

accounting,

to

suggest changes in the manner in which accounting education

was delivered and to become competitive globally. One of
their recommendations was that students should be active,
independent

learners

and

problem

solvers

rather

than

passive recipients of information.

This study is based on two related premises. First, we

believe

that

the

stronger

the

business

and

professional

45

background possessed by students, the more confident and

motivated they will be to take an active, independent role
in their education. However, it is also our belief that the
typical

18-23

year

old

accounting

student

brings

little

profession or business context to the study of accounting.

Taken

together,

these

two

beliefs

suggest

that

significant benefit of an internship experience is that, by

strengthening
accounting
facilitate

the

professional

students,
more

the

active,

and

business

internship

independent

context

experience

learning

and

of
will

problem

solving by the students.

The Accounting Educators Journal, Volume XVI, 2006, pp.
129 130
Supelveda
formal

in

training

his

research

programs

in

investigated

the

productivity

role

growth.

of
He

conducted research on US manufacturing industries from 1988

to 1997 to investigate the factors affecting the formal
training on the job training on productivity. It was
found out that it depends on the skills possessed by each
respondent
training

which

like

gives
teacher

unprogressively skills.

him

the

factor,

factors
in

affecting

developing

the

students

46

Supelveda, F. (2005), Training and Productivity: Evidence

for US manufacturing industries
Preparing

faculty

for

teaching

in

variety

of

technology settings with a variety of communication media

requires both common and unique methods. While traditional
faculty

roles

have

included

course

conceptualization,

course delivery, course management and evaluation, it is

not necessary that all faculties perform all these tasks.
Collaborative
emphasizing

effort,

individual

advantage

of

too

expectations

many

focused

on

differentiated

strengths

technology-facilitated
for

faculty,

may

indeed

education.
without

staffing
be

one

Moreover,

appropriate

training and support, can create a significant barrier to

faculty

use

of

technology.

From

the

review

of

some

available faculty development systems, it clearly stands

out that there is still a need for well organized, living,
interactive environment, where teachers are encouraged and
supported

in

becoming

technology-used,

in

being

able

to

retrieve pertinent information, in being able to set up and

organize effective instructional activities and resources.
So faculty should participate as learners, observers and
active practitioners in setting the educational strategies,

47

then contribute with information or lessons, in order to go

through all the steps involved in the instructional design.
However, such a system cannot be the result of private
initiatives;

institution

should

provide

convenient

and

supportive faculty development opportunities aimed at high

quality
paper

educational

has

required

led
to

experiences.

to

identify

technology.

perform
These

some

effective

new

The

roles

discussion

new

skills

activity
have

in

already

of

and

this
roles

educational
found

their

professional opportunities in the new emerging job market,

as is seen by the presence of the job opportunities in IT
field already available on the Internet. In this paper, we
also treated the issues of staff development for the use of
Information Technologies in education, which has proved to
be

an

essential

technology

starting

applications.

The

point,

for

the

argumentation

educational

hassled

to

referential model for the staff involved in the development

of

networked

based

courses

or

activities.

This

model

highlights a schema of potential modules, to train the team

following a schedule time-line. The aim of this training is
to cover all the necessities of a networked-based course
development, including real team working and on-the-field
experiences.

48

Department

of

Electronics

University of Florence,

and

Telecommunications

Information Technology and Staff

Development: Issues and Problems Related to New Skills and

Competence Acquisition

Local Studies
According

to

the

study

of

Morales,

business

firms

provide practically unlimited opportunities for individuals

to find gainful employment and to reap rewards commensurate
with their own establishment a much greater number prosper
as employees. Although career opportunities are widespread,
the

problem

to

most

young

men

and

women

in

selecting

suitable employment is just complex as the economic system

that provides their jobs.
Oliver

H.

Morales,

Employment

Requirement

of

Selected

Business establishment in the Santiago City.

According to Nicholas, to inform the employment office

about the existence of a vacancy to be filled, the line
supervisor

or

the

department

head

concerned

should

accomplish a formal acquisition form, indicating the facts

and the information about the vacancy to be filled, such as

49

the date when the new employee will be needed, his rate of
pay, the required qualification of the employee, approval
by the responsible official of the firm and other data.

Recruitment

is

the

process

by

which

prospective

applicants are induce to apply to the company in order that

their qualification for present and anticipated vacancies
can

be

evaluated

procedures

to

through

make

the

sound

screening

selection

truly

and

selection

discrimination,

there must be several qualified applicants from whom the

final

choice

individual

can

most

be

made.

qualified

The
for

change
the

of

jib

finding

can

be

the

better

achieved if there are several applicants to select from.

Edilberto

M.

Nicholas,

Placement Practices

The

Recruitment,

Selection

and

in the Philippine Coconut Authority,

Region 2.

According
applied

for

vacancies

to

jobs

through

Cabarong,
in

that

business

former

majority

firms

employees

of

those

who

learned

about

the

and

from

their

relatives. The applicants were made to fill up forms and

went

through

all

steps

of

the

selection

process

and

50

procedure.

Most

undertaken.

The

often

preliminary

applicants

were

interviews

made

to

have

were

not

employment

test. Also the business corporation as found out offered

very limited type if training program for job enrichment
and there was specific assignment of responsibilities.

The National ICT Competency Standards (NICS) define

the knowledge and skills an individual must possess at a
recognized
fields/areas.

level

of

competence

in

specific

ICT

Knowledge and skills in competency areas are

presented generally with specifics on essential areas of

learning and performance indicators, but avoid reference to
specific vendors, versions or equipment.

Thus, it allows

flexibility

standard

in

the

adoption

of

the

while

preserving the general requirements for competence.

ncc.gov.ph/nics/index.htm, n.d., para. 1

Synthesis

Job preparation includes the characteristics earn in

an organization such as skills which involve social skills
like communication skills and learning skills. Developments

51

in

society

and

economy

require

that

educational

systems

equip young people with new skills and competencies, which

allow

them

to

socialization
development

benefit
and

to

under

from

the

emerging

contribute
system

where

new

actively
the

forms

to

main

of

economic
asset

is

knowledge. These skills and competencies are often referred

to as 21st century skills and competencies, to indicate
that they are more related to the needs of the emerging
models of economic and social development than with those
of the past century, which were suited to an industrial
mode of production.

It is important to have skills and competencies that a

company needs for job employment and preparation to adjust
on a working environment. We need to train ourselves and
develop our skills before internship so we can cope up with
the

characteristics

that

are

required

in

certain

job

because it will serve as an edge or advantage for more

effective and efficient work.

Competencies

are

also

what

people

need

to

be

successful in their jobs. Job competencies are not the same

as

job

task.

Competencies

include

all

the

related

52

knowledge, skills, abilities, and attributes that form a

persons

job.

This

set

of

context-specific

qualities

is

correlated with superior job performance and can be used as

a standard against which to measure job performance as well
as to develop, recruit, and hire employees.