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On Helmholtz's Theorem and its Interpretations

X. L. Zhou
Published online: 03 Apr 2012.

To cite this article: X. L. Zhou (2007) On Helmholtz's Theorem and its Interpretations, Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and
Applications, 21:4, 471-483, DOI: 10.1163/156939307779367314
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J. of Electromagn. Waves and Appl., Vol. 21, No. 4, 471483, 2007

ON HELMHOLTZS THEOREM AND ITS

INTERPRETATIONS
X. L. Zhou

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156 Wyndham Drive

Allentown, PA, 18104, USA
AbstractThis paper presents a direct, natural proof of a generalized
Helmholtzs theorem for piecewise continuously dierentiable vector
functions in vector analysis and mathematical physics and its precise
statement. Based on the generalized Helmholtzs identity, it is pointed
out that Helmholtzs theorem is an operator-based decomposition
theorem of a vector function. As a mathematical identity, although
it is compatible with some uniqueness theorems (especially those
in electromagnetics), it does not indicate directly any uniqueness
theorems for boundary value problems. Most existing versions of
Helmholtzs theorem are commented. As an important application
of the generalized Helmholtzs identity, the denitions of irrotational
and solenoidal vector functions are revisited and complete denitions
are proposed as a result. The generalized Helmholtzs theorem and
the present conclusions should have important indications in vector
analysis related disciplines such as electromagnetics.

1. INTRODUCTION
Helmholtzs theorem in vector analysis and mathematical physics is
a critical mathematical theorem for applications involving general
vector elds such as electromagnetics, gravity theory, elasticity and
hydrodynamics etc. Although named after a great German scientist
Hermann von Helmholtz, it was essentially used rst by a British
mathematician G. Stokes in 1849, almost nine years before Helmholtzs
paper in 1858. This theorem is so old that its history has not been
mentioned in many modern books and articles except for few of them
such as [1] and [2]. J. Carvallo wrote in 1922, Of all the results
of mathematical physics Vaschys theorem is that which has most

The author is currently with Agere Systems Inc.

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472

Zhou

practical consequences and most philosophical importance [1, p. 14].

Here Vaschys theorem refers to Helmholtzs theorem. Because of its
important applications in electromagnetics, it has been related very
closely to the divergence and curl of a vector eld. There are many
versions of statements and proofs in books and literatures [115]. In
most statements of Helmholtzs theorem, scalar and vector potentials
are introduced even they were not used in G. Stokes original work.
Furthermore, Helmholtzs theorem has been widely accepted as the
uniqueness theorem of a vector eld. [4] interpreted Coulombs law
based on Helmholtzs theorem. It has also been generalized to fourvector elds in theoretical physics [5, 15]. Helmholtzs theorem is also
the rudiment of a more general decomposition Hodge decomposition
[25].
This paper presents a direct, natural proof of Helmholtzs theorem
in Section 2, its precise statement, and generalizes the Helmholtzs
identity to piecewise continuously dierentiable vector functions, then
concludes that Helmholtzs theorem is essentially an operator-based
decomposition theorem of a vector function, it does not indicate
directly any uniqueness theorems. Some discussions and comments on
existing statements and proofs of Helmholtzs theorem are presented
in Section 3 and Section 4. As an important application of Helmholtzs
identity, the denitions of irrotational and solenoidal vector functions
are revisited and complete denitions are proposed as a result in
Section 5.
2. DIRECT PROOF OF A GENERALIZED
HELMHOLTZS THEOREM
We will give the proof and then propose the precise statements.
Suppose a piecewise dierentiable vector function F(r) is known
in a space V0 . Our purpose is to expand it in terms of a sum of only
an irrotational part and a solenoidal part. This attempt is obviously
inspired by the well-developed potential theory about irrotational and
solenoidal elds and the corresponding applications in electrostatics,
magnetostatics etc. Is it possible for any given piecewise dierentiable
F(r)? We will nd the requirements on F(r) in the proof. The proof
is motivated by the vector identity
2 L = ( L) ( L)

(1)

The above is always true for any second order dierentiable L(r). The
rst part is irrotational because 0; the second part is solenoidal
because 0. This is dierent from the denitions of irrotational
and solenoidal vectors that will be revisited later. It is easy to verify by

On Helmholtzs theorem and its interpretations

473

looking into any handbooks of mathematics [14] that (1) is the simplest
vector identity that includes only an irrotational part (the rst term)
and a solenoidal part (the second term). If we can nd the relation
between L(r) and F(r), the expansion is completed. Obviously, the
only way to establish a relation between L(r) and F(r) is to link them
by an equation. Let us dene
F = ( L) + ( L)

(2)

This satises our purpose if and only if L(r) can be determined in

terms of F(r) only. From (1) and (2), we get

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2 L(r) = F(r)

(3)

Fortunately, (3) is a vector Poisson equation from which L(r) can be

solved based on potential theory. (3) is only a dierential equation,
boundary conditions must be specied. Note that (3) is just a
constructed problem of L(r) based on a given F(r). L(r) can be
continuously dierentiable. F(r) is considered as mathematical source
of L(r) only, dierent boundary conditions can be used while (2) and
(3) can be always true. Let us assume that the constructed problem
is dened in a volume V enclosed by a surface S. V must be equal
to or greater than V0 . If V is larger than V0 , let F(r) 0 in V V0 .
If the corresponding Greens function is G(r, r ) for a given boundary
condition, then the solution to (3) is

G(r, r )F(r )d3 r
(4)
L(r) =
V

By substituting (4) into (2), our purpose of decomposing F(r) into an

irrotational part and a solenoidal part is achieved. The irrotational
part is




 3 
(5)
Fi (r) =
G(r, r )F(r )d r
V

and the solenoidal part is

Fs (r) =

3 

G(r, r )F(r )d r


(6)

Then
F(r) = Fi (r) + Fs (r)

(7)

Since the solution to (3) for a given V and boundary condition is

unique, the decomposition is unique. Note that the uniqueness theorem

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of Poisson equation is proven based on the maximum principle of

harmonic functions in potential theory [16]. The proof is logically
independent of the current reasoning.
Since (3) is a constructed problem, we can pose Dirichlet or
Neumann or even mixed boundary conditions to the vector Poisson
equation (3). They correspond to dierent Greens functions [17], then
dierent L. This arbitrariness leads to dierent decompositions of the
same vector function in dierent V . This property can be employed to
develop techniques for non-uniform structures. Although other choices
are possible, lets discuss the simplest and most popular one. V is
chosen to be the whole Euclidean free space with Dirichlet condition,
which is the simplest. Then G(r, r ) is the Greens function of a free
space,
1
4|r r |

(8)

F(r )
d3 r
4|r r |

(9)

G(r, r ) =
Thus, (4) becomes

L(r) =
V

Thus property of L is determined completely by that of F and so

does the decomposition. From the existence theorem of solutions
to Poisson equation [16, p. 246][18, Chap. III], the requirement on F
as mathematical source of L, is that F is bounded, integrable and
piecewise continuously dierentiable. Therefore, the expansion (2) is
valid at all points, including the discontinuities. If F is given in the
whole Euclidean space (9) requires that |r|2 |F| is bounded at innity,
(5) and (6) become



F(r )
3 
(10)
d r
Fi (r) =

V 4|r r |



F(r )
3 
Fs (r) =
r
d
(11)

V 4|r r |
where V is the entire Euclidean space. If F is dened in a nite volume,
it just implies mathematically that F 0 outside the volume. F is not
required to be continuously dierentiable in V . Note that the above
procedure seems similar to the one given in [12, pp. 799800], where
the property of function is used. However, the present derivation
exhibits other possible decompositions and is logically straightforward
and general. The motivation is also dierent.

On Helmholtzs theorem and its interpretations

475

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Following the same procedures given in [9, pp. 2936][12] and [13,
p. 53], we can change the forms of (10) and (11) to obtain the socalled Helmholtzs identity. The existing Helmholtzs identity for a
continuously dierentiable F [12] can be obtained from (10) and (11)



 F(r ) 3 
F(r ) n 2 
d r
d r
F(r) =


V 4|r r |
S 4|r r |



 F(r ) 3 
F(r ) n 2 
+
d r +
d r
(12)


V 4|r r |
S 4|r r |
where the property of Greens function G(r, r ) =  G(r, r ) is
used, and  operates on the primed variables only. When S goes to
innity, (12) reduces to the one originally given by Stokes. We will
show that the Stokes version of Helmholtzs identity is valid only for a
continuously dierentiable vector with |r|2 |F| bounded at innity, and
(12) is for a continuously dierentiable vector dened in a space with
nite boundary surface S.
For a general piecewise continuously dierentiable vector F(r),
assume
 that it is continuously dierentiable in each partial region
Vl ( Vl = V ) bounded by Sl , then



F(r )
Fl (r ) 3 
3 

r
=

d
d r


V 4|r r |
Vl 4|r r |
l


  Fl (r )
Fl (r ) n 2 
3 
=
d r +
d r


Vl 4|r r |
Sl 4|r r |
l



 F(r ) 3 
Fl (r ) n 2 
=
d r +
d r


V 4|r r |
Sl 4|r r |
l
(13)
where n is the outward unit vector normal to Sl . Theoretically, there
is no requirement on the number of Sl although l is nite in many
practical cases.
Similarly,




F(r )
 F(r ) 3 
Fl (r ) n 2 
3 

d r =
d r +
d r


4|r r |
V 4|r r |
V 4|r r |
S
l
l
(14)
It is not dicult to show that if F(r) is continuously dierentiable
in a single volume V bounded by S, and F(r) = 0 outside V , (13) and
(14) lead to the Helmholtzs identity (12) given in [9, p. 31][12, p. 800]

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[15], which is of fundamental importance in the theory of uniform

electromagnetic cavities and resonators. Furthermore, if S goes to
innity Stokes version without any surface integrals is obtained. (9)
requires |r|2 |F| be bounded at innity. Equivalently, if |r|2 | F|,
|r|2 | F|, |r||F n|, |r||F n|, and |r||F| approach zero at innity,
the innite surface integrals in (12) are zero vectors. Consequently,

 F(r ) 3 
Fi (r) =
(15)
d r

V 4|r r |

 F(r ) 3 
(16)
Fs (r) =
d r

V 4|r r |
The decomposition is unique in the entire Euclidean space since
the solution (9) to the vector Poisson equation (3) is unique (not simply
because F is given). The decomposition is complete since there are no
other operator-based components. The two parts (components) Fi and
Fs are independent since any one of the three items in (1) can not be
expressed in terms of just another one.
Note that the above decomposition has nothing to do with
the physical signicance of F as noticed by ORahilly [1, p.14].
Furthermore, introduction of scalar and vector potentials is not
necessary. Stokes himself did not introduce any potentials in his
original big paper [2, p. 147]. Based on the above derivations,
we propose the precise statement of a generalized Helmholtzs
decomposition theorem and two corollaries.
Theorem. Any nite and piecewise continuously dierentiable vector
function F(r) given in the entire Euclidean space, with |r|2 |F| bounded
at innity, can be completely and uniquely decomposed into a sum of an
irrotational part and a solenoidal part. The two parts are independent
and determined by (10)and (11) or through (13)and (14) respectively.
Corollary 1 Any nite and piecewise continuously dierentiable
vector function F(r) given in a region bounded by a nite surface S can
be completely and uniquely decomposed into a sum of an irrotational
part and a solenoidal part. The two parts are independent and
determined by (10)and (11) or through (13)and (14) respectively.
Corollary 2 Any continuously dierentiable vector function F(r)
given in an innite space with |r|2 |F| bounded at innity can be
completely and uniquely decomposed into a sum of an irrotational part
and a solenoidal part. The two parts are independent and determined
by (15)and (16) respectively.

On Helmholtzs theorem and its interpretations

477

The theorem describes the exact behavior of F(r) when r .

Since F(r) = 2 L 0 outside the nite region V then |r|2 |F| = 0
at innity, corollary1 is included in the theorem. Corollary 2 is also a
reduced case of the theorem. The theorem claims not only the existence
of the decomposition but also the exact way in which the decomposition
is achieved.

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3. OTHER POSSIBLE OPERATOR-BASED

EXPANSIONS
As we can see in the above section, Helmholtzs decomposition theorem
is an operator-based expansion of a vector function. It is not dicult
to imagine that a vector function can be decomposed in terms of other
operators. In fact, a solenoidal vector can be decomposed into toroidal
and poloidal parts [19]. A direct example is the following. If we want to
decompose F in terms of and , regardless of the physical meaning,
we just dene
F = ( L) 2 L

(17)

Notice that 2 = . Then solve

( L) = F

(18)

for L. The integration of (18) is discussed in [18, p. 250]. Of course

the operators are not necessarily irrotational or solenoidal. Another
example is to use the vector identity [14]


4 L = 2 [( L)] 2 ( L)
(19)
to expand a vector function in terms of other operators.
The discussion suggests that at least other possible operator-based
expansions of a vector function with probably dierent explanations
may exist. This is similar to decomposing a vector in dierent
coordinate systems. We can expand a vector function in terms of
dierent sets of operators according to applications. However, up to
now, only the decomposition discussed in Section 2 has found most
important and practical applications in physics such as electrostatics,
magnetism etc., because theories about an irrotational and a solenoidal
elds have been well-developed. A more abstract decomposition is
Hodge decomposition in modern dierential forms of manifolds [25].
This may lead to a more general topic.
Although the introduction of scalar potential and vector
potential A is not necessary in the proof of Helmholtzs theorem, they
are often used in real computations and theoretical research. Then we
have the following corollary.

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Zhou

Corollary 3 In Euclidean space, any piecewise continuously dierentiable vector function F(r) with |r|2 |F| bounded at innity, can be
expressed as
F = + A

(20)

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where is a scalar potential, A a vector potential, and A are

unique.
This corollary is almost the description given in literatures [2,
p. 147][3, p. 163] and ORahillys version [1, p. 14]. However, conditions
and emphases are dierent. For example, in [2, p. 147], Sommerfeld
introduced vectorial constants which do not appear in the present
proof. The uniqueness of the decomposition needs to be proven
separately. Similar troubles may occur in Kings version and others if
we introduce from Fi = 0 and A from Fs = 0. Or, if we start
from (20) to show the Helmholtzs theorem [6][10, p. 93][20, p. 326], the
proof is not complete since vectorial constants may appear. In order
to resolve the non-uniqueness, Sommerfeld wrote the constants
in (2) and (5) must cancel each other, since the sum V = V1 + V2
is supposed to vanish at innity [2, p. 147]. His assumption is
over-constrained. We already show that the necessary and sucient
condition is |r|2 |V| bounded at innity. More importantly, it will be
shown in Section 5 that the introduction of should depend on the
condition of Fs = 0; the introduction of A should depend on Fi = 0.
The theorem, corollaries 1 and 2 show the possibility, uniqueness
and completeness of the decomposition and how to do it. This can be
important in theoretical research. In practical applications, we seldom
use the decomposition theorem to decompose a known vector function,
even it allows us to do so. In contrary to this fact, the corollary 3 with
and A expressions does not emphasize how to decompose a
vector function. Instead, it emphasizes the existence and uniqueness
of the decomposition in Euclidean space. This form has important
practical and theoretical applications. Corollary 3 can be employed to
solve actual boundary value problems in disciplines involving vector
elds.
4. UNIQUENESS OF A VECTOR FIELD AND
HELMHOLTZS THEOREM
In many literatures, the uniqueness theorem of a vector eld is
commonly stated as part of Helmholtzs theorem [4, 5][7, p. 166][9,
p. 29][11, p. 63][21, pp. 187190][14]. For example, in [9, p. 29], the
authors claimed, Another way of stating the Helmholtzs theorem is

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On Helmholtzs theorem and its interpretations

479

that a vector eld completely specied by its divergence and curl. In

the proof of ORahillys version, the uniqueness theorem of a divergence
and curl problem of a vector has to be used. When the author
constructs (1.204b), he used the condition A = 0 implicitly which
is also based on the same uniqueness theorem. Similar procedure is
used in [13]. It is a logic circle.
The attempt to prove uniqueness theorem from decomposition
theorems has been tried for other problems [5, 15]. When time domain
Maxwells equations are dealt with, Shadowitz wrote, It is seen that
they really do not satisfy the requirements of Helmholtzs theorem
This is too bad insofar . [21, p. 412]. Obviously, the requirements
of his Helmholtzs theorem refer to that the values of divergence and
curl are specied [21, pp. 187190]. Another interesting attempt is to
construct (compute) a vector from the decomposition theorem [5, 12].
All above statements and attempts are obviously based on
observations about the Stokes version of Helmholtzs identity from
(15) and (16)




 F(r ) 3 
 F(r ) 3 
d r +
d r
(21)
F =


V 4|r r |
V 4|r r |
(21) includes explicitly the divergence and curl of F only. However,
it does not apply for uniform regions bounded by nite surfaces, and
the boundary condition at innity is assumed. From (13) and (14), for
general cases, the generalized Helmholtzs identity is
F(r) = Fi (r) + Fs (r)



 F(r ) 3 
Fl (r ) n 2 
=
d r +
d r


V 4|r r |
Sl 4|r r |
l



 F(r ) 3 
Fl (r ) n 2 
(22)
+
d r +
d r


V 4|r r |
Sl 4|r r |
l

It is easy to understand that for a given F, its divergence, curl

and other terms (in general, any proper operations on F) in (22)
are determined. But a proper boundary value problem of F cannot
be deduced from (22) itself. Of course, a solution to a physical
problem satises (22). But the original boundary problem cannot
be deduced/discovered reversely from it. (22) includes not only the
divergence and curl of F but also all the tangential and normal
components on all discontinuities of F. If interpreted as potentials,
the sources F, n F, etc. include not only free sources but also
induced ones [18, Sec. 3.13 and Sec. 4.10]. However, as it is well-known

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Zhou

that in electromagnetics, in order to solve elds, it is not necessary

(even impossible) to specify induced (polarized) sources in V and on
internal surfaces. For general constitutive relations, the divergence
and curl of a quantity (for example, electric eld) are not specied
explicitly. Although F is continuously dened in the entire Euclidean
space, specifying its divergence F and curl F is only one
of many mathematical possibilities of determining the vector F. As
a mathematical identity, (22) does not exclude other possibilities.
The vector Poisson equations (3) is a good example for existence of
other types of vector dierential equations that can determine a vector
function. Other examples can also be found in the theory of elasticity
[22]. Furthermore, for the same set of dierential equations, dierent
boundary conditions can be imposed [23]. In fact, the precondition
in the proof in Section 2 is nothing more than that F is given and
satises the conditions in the theorem or its corollaries. F may be
solutions to any suitably posed physical or mathematical problems.
It does not matter whether the solutions to the problems are unique
or not because any one of the solutions can be decomposed in the
same way. Non-unique examples can be found in bifurcation theory
[24]. Of course, since specifying the divergence and curl of a vector
is so important in science, it is reasonable to pay a lot attention to
this case. Unfortunately (22) does not tell us how to properly pose
boundary value problems with necessary and sucient equations and
boundary conditions. Of course, if all the terms on the right of (22)
are given, F is uniquely determined. Unfortunately, we cannot tell
if the problem is over-constrained. Although (22) includes boundary
information, it is impossible to know if the boundary information is
over much or insucient. As an example, (22) can not tell us how to
pose boundary conditions for a vector Poisson equation. In fact, as we
pointed out that it is not necessary to specify all internal boundary
information. At most (22) could be a revelation of posing some kinds
of boundary value problems. Usually, boundary value problems should
be imposed rst based on physical laws and the cases under study,
then their existence and uniqueness theorems have to be studied in
other ways in which the Helmholtzs theorem and its corollaries may
be used. Of course, it has to be compatible with the uniqueness of any
vector boundary problem.
In conclusion, Helmholtzs theorem is a pure mathematical
identity or decomposition theorem about vector functions, rather than
a uniqueness theorem. We cannot deduce any physics laws or boundary
value problems from it although some laws and boundary problems in
electromagnetics are compatible with (22).

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481

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5. DEFINITIONS OF IRROTATIONAL AND

SOLENOIDAL VECTOR FUNCTIONS
In all literatures, it is widely accepted that if the divergence of a vector
is zero, the vector function is solenoidal; in parallel, if the curl is zero,
the vector function is irrotational [2, 10, 12, 20] etc. The introduction of
potentials is based on this statement only. Some authors even use it to
prove Helmholtzs theorem as an obvious fact. Of course, those are the
necessary conditions. Are they sucient? Unfortunately, based on the
generalized theorem, we can easily show that the existing denitions
are incomplete. In fact, it is found this is one of the most important
applications of the theorem.
The expansion (22) is valid in all regular regions in which F is
dierentiable. The question is: for a given vector function F to satisfy
F = 0 in regular regions, is there any requirement on the values
of F on its discontinuities or on the boundaries? (22) reveals the
secret. Since (22) is valid at all points, a more accurate condition for a
piecewise dierentiable vector to be solenoidal is that the irrotational
part is a zero vector, Fi 0, only solenoidal part is non-zero. From
(22), Fi 0 is always true if and only if both  F(r ) = 0 and
F(r ) n = 0 hold true. That is, in term of divergence, a solenoidal
vector function must satisfy,
F(r) = 0 in Vl V
F(r) n = 0 on S

(23a)
(23b)

(23b) is required on S only since the surface divergence concept

must lead to cancellation of normal components on interior surfaces
[18]. Without (23b), (22) can not be consistent with (23a) even at
regular points. If (23b) is not true, the volume integral is identically
zero because of (23a), then its divergence; but the surface integrals
could possibly lead to non-zero divergence for a given F. This is
contradictory to (23a). Is (23) a proper boundary value problem of
F? This is a dierent topic. (23b) cannot be deduced from (23a)
in general. It is interesting to notice that the denition of solenoidal
vectors is related to the irrotational part of (22).
Similarly, from the second term of (22) Fs 0, in term of curl,
an irrotational vector function must satisfy,
F(r) = 0 in Vl V
F(r) n = 0 on S

(24a)
(24b)

In fact, R.E. Collin already recognized the above conditions in [12,

p. 800]. Unfortunately, it is not incorporated into the denitions of

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irrotational and solenoidal vector functions explicitly. His discussion

is limited to continuously dierentiable vectors.
Obviously, it is expected that the new denitions have not only
literal meanings but also physical signicances about our knowledge of
irrotational and solenoidal elds.
Consequently, the introduction of the scalar potential depends
on (24a) and (24b) and the introduction of the vector potential A
relies on (23a) and (23b). The traditional introduction of potentials
based on zero divergence and zero curl is then incomplete for piecewise
continuously dierentiable vector functions.
In fact, the generalized Helmholtzs theorem and the new
denitions are employed in [26] to prove a complete uniqueness theorem
of a vector function.
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Cork University Press, London, 1938.
2. Sommerfeld, A., Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, Translated
from the 2d German ed. by G. Kuerti, Vol. 2, Academic Press,
New York, 1950.
3. King, R. W. P., Fundamental Electromagnetic Fields, Dover
Publications, New York, 1963.
4. Miller, B. P., Interpretations from Helmholtz theorem in
classical electromagnetism, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 52,
No. 10, 948950, Oct. 1984.
5. Kobe, D. H., Helmholtzs theorem for antisymmetric second-rank
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American Journal of Physics, Vol. 52, No. 4, 354358, April 1984.
6. Kobe, D. H., Helmholtzs theorem revisited, American Journal
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7. Korn, G. A. and T. M. Korn, Mathematical Handbook for
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