CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF BOILING HEAT

TRANSFER AND TWO-PHASE FLOW

2.1 Nucleation Theory
2.1.1 Homogeneous Nucleation
Thermodynamic Limit of Superheat

Liquid
saturation

Critical point
Vapor spinodal
Vapor saturation

Pressure
(p)

T = TC

Subcooled
liquid

Mechanical
unstable region

Specific volume ()

T=T2>T1
G

T=T1

Mechanical Stability Limit :

p
< 0

T
Determination of thermodynamic limit of superheat
1.Need a reliable state equation , such as the van der Waals
or the Berthelot equation :

P + n 2 ( b ) = RT
T

0 --------- var der Waals

n =
1 --------- Berthelot
Where a and b in the state equation can be determined based on
The following two properties at the critical state:

=0
v Tc

2P
2 = 0
v Tc

Thus,

9
n +1
a =
RT c v c
8

1
b = vc
3

The state equation can be non-dimensionalized as

3
+
n

1
8

=
3
3

Where =P/PC = T/TC and =v/vC

2.The minimum in the P-v isotherms , i.e., the minimum
pressure corresponding to a given T , is given by the
following two criteria :

= 0

> 0

Applying these criteria one obtains the following equation along

the spinodal

n +1

3 1)
(
=
4 3

Procedure to determine the thermodynamic limit

1.Giveand solve for
2.Using the state equation to determine

Eberhart & Schnyders J. physical Chemistry vol. 77 No.23, pp.2730-2736, 1973

Kinetic limit of superheat

Refs. a. Collier & Tome, 1994, convective boiling and condensation, ch1.
b. Hsu & Graham, 1989, Transport process in boiling and
two-phase system, ch1.
c. Van Stralen & Cole, 1979, Boiling phenomena, ch2.
At a given temperature liquid molecules have an energy distribution
such that there is a small but finite fraction having energies
considerably greater than the average, therefore is a small but finite
probability of a cluster of molecules with vapor like energies coming
together to form a vapor embryo of the size of the equilibrium nucleus.
Vapor phase is created and grown based on the surrounding
liquid superheat .Given a liquid superheat, an equilibrium radius of
embryo can be evaluated as follows

Superheat needed to sustain a vapor nucleus of radius of r

Tsat = The saturation temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure, Pf
Tl = The liquid temperature > Tsat (the liquid is superheated)
Question: Tl Tsat =? in order to sustain a vapor nucleus of radius of r ?

Pl

Tl

Pv

The Clausius Clapeyron equation (for a flat vapor liquid interface)

The Clausius Clapeyron equation defines the slope of
saturation pressure vs. temperature.

Vapor pressure curve

P

ilv
dP

=
dT Tsat Tsat lv
ilv = iv il
vlv = vv vl

Tsat

Laplace equation (mechanical force balance )

2
Pv Pl =
r

: surface tension

Pl

Vapor liquid interface

r22

r11

r2
r1

r2

Pv

Force balance requires that

(Pv Pl )r11r21 = 2r11 sin 1 2 + 2r2 2 sin 1 1

2

[1 2 r1 + 21r2 ]

1 1
Pv Pl = +
r1 r2
r1 = r 2 = r Pv Pl =

For a spherical bulle

Form the Clausius-Clapeyron relation,
T = P

2
r

T sat v lv
i lv

Neglecting the possible bubble curvature effect on the vapor pressure

T l T sat

T sat v lv
= (P l P v )
i lv
2 T sat v lv

i lv

This is the superheat needed to sustain a vapor nucleus of radius r

Conversely the equilibrium radius for a nucleus in the liquid with a

superheat of Tl-Tsat is:

re

2
=
T l T sat

T sat v lv
i lv

Carey (1992) derived the following equation for re

based on the equilibrium of chemical potential:

2
re =
Psat (Tl ) exp {vl [Pl Psat (Tl )] / RTl } Pl

Now, the remaining question is that how many nuclei are

formed and grown per unit time per unit volume?
See the boiling process, the nucleation rate must be >109 to1013 m-3s-1.
The free energy to form a nucleus of radius r , G(r) , is given by :

G (r ) =
Free energy

4 r
2

Additional
surface energy

4
r 3 (Pv Pl )
3
Work done by the vapor
to the surrounding liquid

At a given temperature (liquid superheat)

2
Pv Pl =
re

Gmax

4
G ( r ) = 4 r
r
3
2

2
re

2r
= 4 r 1

r
3
e

r/re

It can be shown that

d [G (r )]
=0
dr

at

r = re

4 2
16 3
G ( re ) = re =
2
3
3(Pv Pl )

Since the free energy is less, a nucleus smaller than re will collapse
and a nucleus larger than re will grow spontaneously.
If one more molecules collides with the equilibrium nucleus ,
than the nucleus will grow and vice versa.
Rate of nucleation: J
J = the number of critical size nuclei per unit volume per unit time
which grow to macroscopic size .

Boiling occurs if J > 109 to 1013 m-3s-1

J = N ( re )

N(re) = number of equilibrium nuclei per unit volume

= collision frequency
N(re) is given by the Boltzmann equation

N ( re ) = N l exp

G ( re )
kT l

k = Boltzmann constant
Nl = Number density of liquid molecules
kTl
h

=
1
2 2

Westwater

Bernath

h is Planks constant
m is the mass of a single liquid molecule

 For water at 100 , =1012 ~ 1013 s-1

Solution produce to determine the limit of superheat
1. At a give a superheat , evaluate re from the following eq.

2 Tsat vlv
re =
Tl Tsat ilv

2. Evaluate
3. Evaluate
4. Evaluate

4 2
G(re ) = re
3 G ( re )
N (re ) = N l exp kTl

J = N l exp

G ( re )
kTl

Tl

5. J > 109 to 1013 m-3s-1 , if yes, then Tl- Tsat is the superheat of
homogeneous nucleation , if not, repeat the procedure form 1 to 5

Lienhards correlation: T r , l T r , sat = 0 . 905 T r , sat + 0 . 095 T r , sat

Water Superheat for Homogeneous Nucleation
P(bar)

Tl-Tsat
Van der Waals 175(174)*

70

155

11.2(14) *

-5.75(-7.1) *

Berthelot

223(223) *

47.2(49.2) *

10.3(10.2) *

Kinetic

206

49.3

10.4

Lienhard

214

46.0

10.6

2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation

Vapor formation with the presence of foreign
bodies or container surface .
With the presence of non-condensible gases
2
Pv + Pa Pl =
re

2
Pv Pl =
Pa
re
The presence of dissolved gas reduces the
superheat requirement to maintain a nucleus of radius re
With the presence of a flat solid surface surface
wettability effect

Contact Angle

Liquid

Vapor

Soild
: contact angle , measuring from liquid side
= 0 perfect wetting ; eq. Freon on metal surface.
= 180poor wetting.
Typically , = 60~ 90

Static advancing / receding contact angle

s,
A

s,
R

Liquid Supply

Liquid Withdrawal

Static advancing

Vapor/air

Vapor/air

Static receding
d,A

Dynamic advancing

d,R

Dynamic receding

Pl
Alv
Flat surface

Pv Vv
vs

ls

Vapor

lv =

Force balance at the triple point

vs + lv cos( ) = ls
vs ls = lv cos

re

Avs

Free energy to form a vapor nucleous on a flat surface

G ( re ) = Alv lv + A vs vs Avs ls V v ( Pv Pl )
= Alv lv + Avs [ vs ls ] Vv

2 lv
re

2Vv
= Alv + Avs cos

r
e

Alv lv + Avs vs : Addition surface energy

Avs ls
: Liquid-solid interface replaced by vapor-solid interface
Vv ( Pv Pl ) : Work done by the vapor on the liquid system

Alv = 2re (1 + cos )

2

Avs = re sin 2
2

2 3
3
2
Vv =
re (1 + cos ) + re cos sin
3
3

4 2 2 + 2 cos + cos sin 2

G ( re ) = re

3
4

4 2
= re ( )
3

4 2
re
3

: free energy for forming an equilibrium nucleous in the

homogeneous liquid .

( ) = 0 , i.e. in perfect wetting liquid.

( ) =180, i.e. poor wetting liquid.
1.0

( )
0.5

0.0
0o

90o

180o

 G ( re )
)
N (re ) = N exp(
kTg
2
3

At low contact angles, the superheat required for homogeneous

nucleation is lower than for heterogeneous nucleation with the
presence of a flat surface. At a contact angle of approximately 68
, the two modes are equally probable .For = 90, the superheat
is reduced by approximately 35%.
The reduction in superheat is insufficient to explain the very much
lower superheat found in practical situations, particularly with water,
compared with those required for homogeneous nucleation.

Initiation heat-transfer and nucleation-site data(Form Van Stralen Cole)

S ite

q , k W /m 2

R , m

T w - T s, K
5

T y p e o f site

1
2

2 7 .9
2 8 .1

6 .8
7 .2

4
8

2 9 .0
2 9 .0

8 .0
8 .3

6
4

18

2 9 .6

9 .0

5 .5

19

2 9 .6

9 .0

2 .5

20

2 9 .6

9 .0

1 .5

P it, d e e p in p a rts
S ite a t e n d o f g ro o v e , 2 0 m
w id e

33
34

3 3 .9
3 4 .3

9 .3
9 .5

3
2

P it, d e e p in p a rts
P it, d e e p in p a rts

41

3 5 .1

9 .5

1 .5

42

3 5 .1

9 .5

1 .5

E lo n g a te d p it, d e e p a t o n e e n d
P it, la rg e st in c ra te r o f 9 0 m

P it, d e e p in p a rt
L a rg e st c a v ity in c ra te r o f 8 0 m
d ia m e te r
E n d o f g ro o v e ,1 2 m w id e
P it, d e e p c e n tra l p a rt o f 4 m
d ia m e te r
P it, e lo n g a te d a n d d e e p , 6 1 8 m

44

4 4 .6

1 0 .2

2 .5

d ia m e te r
P it, d e e p p a rt o f 2 m d ia m e te r

45

4 4 .6

1 0 .5

1 .5

P it, d e e p p a rt o f sc ra tc h , 1 m w id e

50

4 4 .6

1 0 .6

P it, s h a llo w c ra te r 2 5 m w id e

Scanning-electron-mircoscope photographs of selected natural nucleation site.

Vapor Trapping Mechanisms Proposed by Bankoff

Gas(or vapor)
Liquid

Advance of a liquid sheet

For >, the flood of liquid
would tend to leave a vapor or
embryp in the cavity

Gas(or vapor)
Retreating of a liquid sheat
(advancing of a gas-liquid interface)

Liquid

For >, gas or vapor would

displace the liquid in the cavity.

Limiting cavity conditions

Case
1

Type of cavity
steep ( small)

Condition
Poorly wetted ( big,

steep ( small)

> , > )
Well wetted( small < ,
< )

Trap liquid only

shallow( big)

Poorly welted ( bigger,

Trap gas and liquid

shallow ( big)

> , < )
Well wetted( smaller,

Trap neither

< , > )

Trapping Ability
Trap gas only

Effective Nucleation Site

< 90

> 90

Surface tension at the interface

tends to lead liquid to penetrate
and cause the cavity to be ineffective

Surface tension tends to resist

further penetration of the liquid

Re-entrant Cavity

< 90

Natural re-enterant cavity

Artficially fabricated re-entrant

cauity

Cavity Nucleation Process

r2
r3
ra

r1

Curvature of a liquid-vapor interface emerging form a conical cavity.

Form Van Stralen Cole

Advancing liquid front

rc

rc

Vapor trapping model of Lorentz, Mikic, and Rohsenow

Form Tong et al. 1990 (Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.33, pp.91-103)
1

sin ( )

sin

sin

r
2
2

=
2
rc

tan

3
tan

cos 2
2

+ 2 3 sin + sin 3

2
2

tan

2
tan

2
1

tan

,
in rad

2.3 Boiling Incipience and Size Range of Nucleation

Ref. Y.Y.Hsu, On the size range of active nucleation cavity on
a heating surface, J. Heat Transfer, pp.207-216 1962
Engineering surface is characterized by a distribution of cavities
with various size and geometries.
Experimental observations have indicated that for a given superheat
, there exists a size range of active cavities.
At higher heat fluxes or superheat, the range of active cavities is
extended in both directions to both larger and smaller cavities.
Griffith and Wallis experiment:
For 25m diameter of artificial cavities, the wall superheat of
boiling incipience is 11k rather than 1.3k predicted by :

T Tsat

2
=
rc

Tsat vlv
1

=
ilv
dp
dT Tsat

rc

Transient Heat Conduction in Thermal Boundary Layer

y
2Tl
1 Tl
G.E.
=
2

l t

I.C. t =0, Tl = T

yb

rb

B.C.

y=0

y =

Case 1

Tl = Tw

q = q o
T = T

case
case

1
2

T = Tw

or

q = q 0

n 2 2 l t
Tl T y 2 cos n
y

=
+
=
sin (n )
exp
2

Tw T

n =1

y
t ,
=

Bubble interior Temperature

Tv Tsat

2 Tsat vlv
=
rb ilv

Criterion for the bubble embryo to grow is the condition that the liquid
temperature at the bubble cap (y=yb)is equal to or greater than the
bubble interior temperature.

2 Tsat vlv
Tl ( y = yb ) T sat +
rb ilv
where rb = c1 rc

c1 = 1

y b = rb = rc

for

=
2

Tv Tsat

2 Tsat vlv
=
rb ilv

Steady state temperature distribution

Tl-T

t
Tsat-T

rc,min

y or rc

rc,max

Size range of nucleation

rc ,min < r < rc , max

Assume c1=1

rc ,max

sat
sat
= 1
+ 1
2 w
w

4A

w

rc ,min

sat
sat
= 1
+ 1
w
2 w

4A

w

2Tsat vlv
A=
ilv
where

T T sat = Tsat T ; w = Tw T

Boiling incipience
No cavity will be effective if the discrininant in the above two
equation is negative

sat
1
w

4A

<0
w

( w sat )
8Tsat vlv
=
w
ilv
2

For

2A
2 A 2 A

w sat = (Tw T ) (Tsat T ) = Tw Tsat =

+ 2 sat +

This is the superheat for boiling incipience.

Similarly, for case 2, under constant heat flux condition, the incipient

boiling heat flux for =

is
2

kl
q =

2A
sat +
+

2 A 2 A

2 sat +

2.4 Bubble Dynamics

In homogeneous medium
In heterogeneous medium
More relevant to experimental boiling heat transfer
but is more difficult to tackle
Extended Rayleigh Equation
Mechanical energy balance
R
1
2
2
2
4
(
)
4
v
r
dr
P
t
r
dr

R 2 l
R
P(t) = Excess pressure of bubble
b

Rb

Continuity equation

Rb &
&
4r v = 4Rb Rb (r ) = 2 Rb
r
dRb
&
where
Rb =
dt
2

R0

P
v

P
l

Substituting the continuity equation into mechanical energy balance

equation results in
2

& 2
R R
Rb
4
b
b
l 2 r dr = P(t )4r 2 dr
Rb
Ro
2
r
2

Rb
1
3 &
2
l Rb ( Rb ) = P(t )r 2 dr
R0
2
Operating on the above equation by

d dRb
=
dt
dt Rb

( )]

d
1
3
l
Rb R& b
2 dt

dRb
=
dt Rb

3 & 2 P (t )
&
&
Rb Rb + (Rb ) =
2
l

Rb

R0

2
P (t )r 2 dr = R& b P(t ) Rb

2
+ ( rr ) R
P(t ) = Pv Pl
Rb

Pv = Vapor pressure inside the bubble.

Vapor pressure corresponding to the instantaneous liquid

Pl

temperature at the interface.

=Imposed static pressure well away form the bubble.

2
=Capillary pressure due to the bubble interface.
Rb

( rr ) Rb

r
dv r 2
= l 2
V =Normal stress due to the liquid motion
dr 3

(v r )R

dRb
=
= R& b
dt

v r
r 1 d
2
2 & R& b
2

v = 2 2 (r v r ) = v r +
=
Rb +
R
r
Rb
r dr
r R

 4 R& b
4 1 &
Rb
( rr )Rb = l
3 r R 3 Rb
R& b
R& b (Rb + r ) R& b

r = lim
r 0
r

Rb

R& b

r

rr

Rb

r & 2r &
Rb
1
&
&
R 1
Rb =
Rb = 1
Rb
2
2
Rb
( Rb + r )
r
Rb

1 +

Rb
R& b
= (2)
Rb

R& b ( Rb + r ) =

4
R& b 4 R& b
R& b
= l (2)

= 4 l
Rb 3 Rb
Rb
3

Extended Rayleigh Equation

&

R
3
1
2

2
b
&& + ( R& ) =
Rb R
P
P
4

b
b
l
l
2
l
Rb
Rb
Pv and are function of liquid temperature at the bubble interface.
Therefore, the energy equation for the liquid region must be solved
simultaneously.
Liquid energy equation
2
T
T
1

T
Rb &
+ vr
= 2 T = l 2
r2
v r = 2 Rb
t
t
r
r r
r
Initial conditions

Rb (0) = R0
R& (0) = 0
b

T (0, r ) = Tl

Boundary conditions

T (t , ) = Tl
T
kl
r

= ilv

4Rb

Rb

ilv d
4
d
3
3
( v Rb ) =
( Rb v )
2
3
dt
3Rb dt

Inertial controlled bubble growth, valid for initial growth stage

Neglect the capillary pressure and viscous stress and
Pv-Pl = constant = P Thus,
&& + 3 ( R& ) 2 = P
Rb R
b
b
2
l

1
d &2 3
P
(
R
R
)
=
b
b
2
l
2 R& b Rb dt

2
P & 2
P 2 dRb
P 2
3
d (R& b ) Rb = 2
Rb Rb dt = 2
Rb
dt = 2
Rb dRb
dt
l
l
l
2
2P 1 2
3
&
Rb + c
(Rb ) Rb =
l 3

(1) if

R(0) = 0

R& (0) <

c=0

2 P
R& b =
3 l
R b (t ) = t

and

2
3

1
2

(2) if

R (0) = R0

c = ( 1)

2 P 3
R0
3 l

2
2 P
3
&
(Rb ) Rb = 3 Rb 3 R 0 3
l

P
l

2
&
(Rb )

R& b = 0

and

2 P
1
=
3 l

1
3
Rb

R 0

1
R& b 2 P 1
=
1

2
3
R0 3 l R0
R b

R 0

1
2

For a growing bubble

Rb

R0

as

R& b 2 P 1
=
2
R0 3 l R0
Rb =

2 P
t
3 l

t
1
2

Note: (1) Bubble radius is proportional to t.

ilv
(2) P (Tl Tsat )
Tsat vlv

Diffusion Controlled Bubble Growth

Growth is governed by heat conduction
Normally applied for the final stage of bubble growth
Simplified liquid energy equation

Tl

Tsat

Rb
Theremal boundary layer
1 2 T Note: At this stage, the bubble is relatively big
T
= l 2
r
t
r , is relatively small and convection may be neglected.
r r

T (0, r ) = Tl
T (t , Rb ) = Tsat
T
k
r

=
R

ilv
3Rb

d
3
Rb v
dt

2
2 Ja
Ja
l t = 1.13Ja l t
Rb (t ) =
lt
1 + 1 +
Ja

Note: Rb (t ) is proportional to t
Other analytical solution available in the literature
Plasset and Zwick Eq.

3
Rb (t ) = 2
Ja l t

Plasset and Zwick The Growth Vapor Bubble in Superheated Liquids

J. Appl. phys., vol.25, pp493-500, 1954

Forster and Zube Eq.

(Tl Tsat ) l c p ,l

Rb (t ) = 2
Ja l t
Ja = Jacob number =
2
v ilv
Forster and Zube Growth of a Vapor Bubble in Superheated Liquids,
J. Appl. Phys. Vol.25, pp474-478, 1954
Mikic et al.
3
3
2
+
Rb = [(t + + 1) 2 (t + ) 2 1]
3

2(Tl Tsat )ilv v

A=
3Tsat l

A
Rb = Rb (t ) 2
B
+

where

12 l Ja
B=

A 2
, t = t( )
B
+

1
2

Mikic et al.,1970, Bubble Growth Rates, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,

vol.13. pp.657-666.

Bubble Departure Diameter

Departure from heating surface due to break in force balance
For pool boiling on upward facing plate

Buoyancy force
Bubble
Rb

Surface tension force

Buoyancy force ( ) g 4 R 3
l
v
b
3
Surface tension force (2Rb sin )(sin )
If buoyancy force is greater than surface tension force, the bubble will
begin to departure form the heating surface.

Bubble departure criterion

4
3
( l v ) g Rb = c1 2Rb (sin 2 ) c1 2Rb 2
3

Rb = c
(l v )g
Fritz correlation

Db = 0.0208

)
g
v
l

1
2

For water at 1 atm Db 1 2.5mm

Fritz equation provides good prediction for Db at low pressures.

However, it does not give good predictions at high pressures.
It neglects viscous force and inertial force.
Cole & Shlman (1966)
3

dD 2

Db = 0.0208
1 + 0.0025( )
g(l v )
dt

dD
( )
dt

in mm / s

Cole & Rohsenow(1969)

1
2

E0 = 1.5 10 J a
1
2

5
4

E0 = 4.65 10 J a
g ( l v ) Db
E0 =

5
4

for

water

for

Ja =

other

fluids

l c p ,lTsat
vilv

Bubble Frequency

1
f =
tw + t g

tw : waiting period , tg : growth period

Both tw & tg are difficult to determine.

Jacoh: fDb C
g ( l v )
Zuber: fDb = 0.59

2
l

Bubble Population Density

q Nn

1
4

For water at 1 atm

f ~ 20-40 s-1
for example, Gaertner and Westwater

q N 0.47

2.5 Hydrodynamic Instability at an Interface between Two Fluids

1.Boundary Conditions at the Interface
a. Assume the interface is impermeable, consequently, the fluids
at the interface move with the interface
v
v
F ( x + dx , t + dt ) = 0

F
v
v
v2
2
dt + (udt ) F + 0(dt ) + 0(dx ) = 0
F (x, t) +
t
F v
+ u F = 0
t

v v
F ( x + dx , t + dt ) = 0

v
dx = u dt

v
F ( x, t ) = 0

Example: A two-dimensional interface y = ( x, t ) or

F ( x , y , t ) = ( x, t ) y = 0
F
=
t

+ (u x i + u y j ) ( i j ) =
+ ux
t
x
t
F =

uy =

b.

i j,
x

+ ux
t
x

v
u = u xi + u y j ,

uy = 0
x

for both fluids

v normal to curve C and tangent to v

A
v v
C = x ( s)
v dxv
=
ds
v v v
n = v

v (1)
t
dA

v
C = x (s)

v ( 2)
t

v
n
v
v

Assume the interface has no mass

v (1)
t

Forces = 0
dA
v (1) v (2)
v
v
( t + t )dA + v ds = 0
C = x (s)
A
v ( 2)
C
t
v
v
dx v
v
v v
v
v ds = ( n) ds = ( nds) = (1) n dx
C
C
C ds
C

v
n
v
v

From Stokes theorem

v v
v
v
f dx = (1) (n ) fdA
A
C
v
v v
v
v
v v
v ds = (1) n dx = (n ) n dA = { ( n )n + }dA
A
A
C
C
v (1) v (2)
v v

t
+t
( n )n + dA = 0

A
Note: ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2

v (1) v ( 2 )
v v
t + t ( n )n + = 0
v (1)
(1) v
(1) v
t = nn n + ns s
v ( 2)
v
( 2) v
t = nn
n ns( 2 ) s

(1)
nn

(1)
ns

(2)
nn

(2)
ns

v
= ( n ) = Continuity of normal stress

=
Continuity of shear stress
s

Note: K is interface curvature.

2.Small amplitude waves at an interface
Assume the fluids in both sides of the interface are incompressible,
inviscous and irrotational; therefore, potential flow theory is applicable.
v
v
v

w
=

u
=
0

u
=
Irrotational
v
Incompressible u = 0 = 2 = 0

v
u
=
,
u
=
is flow potential function, u = x i + y j x x y y
1
P
2
+ ( ) + = C (t )
Bernoulli Eq. :
t

Where is the body force.

Consider the following case:

V1,1

y
x

V2,2

Upper fluid

Lower fluid

(1)For the upper fluid:

G.E. 21 = 0
B.C.s 1 V1 x
as
y )
as
y (i.e. u x = V1
The fluid interface allows no particles across. Thus, the fluids at
the interface is equal to the interface velocity.

1 1
=
+
y
t
x x

y = ( x, t )

at

1 1
P1
2
+

+
+ g = A(t )
(
)
Bernoulli Eq.
1
t 2
1

(2) For the lower fluid:

2 2 = 0
B.C. 2 V2 x

as

2 2
=
+
at
y = ( x, t )
y
t
x x
2 1
P2
2
+ ( 2 ) +
+ g = B (t )
Bernoulli Eq.
t
2

(3) Dynamic Condition

P1 P2 =
v
= n

at

y = ( x, t )

Since the basic flow is stratified, therefore

P10 = P20 The 0 means basic flow.
From the Bernoulli Eq.
0

1 2 P1
V1 +
= A0
2
1

V1

1 2 P2
V1 +
= B0
2
2

No wave for basic flow

=0

V2

1 2
1 2
1 ( A0 V1 ) = 2 ( B0 V2 )
2
2
(4) For small amplitude problem, assume:

( x, t ) = ( x, t ) ,

<< 1

1 = V1 x + 1

P1 = P1 + P1

2 = V2 x + 2

P2 = P2 + P2

A(t ) = A0 + A(t )
B (t ) = B0 + B (t )

1
y

1
=
y

y =

y =

y =0

1
2
+ 2
y

1
=
y

y =0

y =0

+ LLL
y =0

1
2
+ 2
y

y =0

=
+ (V1 +
=
+ V1
+ 0( 2 )
)
t
x
x
t
x

=
+ V1
y
t
x

at

y = 0 (1)

at

y = 0 ( 2)

Similarly,

2

=
+ V2
y
t
x

As for the Bernoulli equation,

1 1 2
1 P11 P10

+ V1 + V1
+
+
+ g = A + A(t )
t 2
x
1
1

1 P11
1 2 P10

+ V1
+
+ g = A0 + A(t ) V1
1
x 1
2
t

Similatly,
2

2 P21
1 2 P20

+ V2
+
+ g = B0 + B (t ) V2
2
x 2
2
t

at

y=0

at

y=0

at

y=0

; 1 = 1 + A(t )dt
Let 2 = 2 + B (t ) dt
1 2
1 2
0
0

(
A

V
)
=

(
B

V
P
=
P
)
,
Since 1 0
1
2
0
2
1
2
2
2

1 P11
2 P21
1
+ V1
+
+ g = 2
+ V2
+
+ g
x 1
x 2
t

Form the dynamic condition

v
P1 P2 = = n

i j

v F

x
=
n=

i j
F
x
2 2
1+ (
)
x

2
v
= n = ( i+
j ) (
i j) =
x
y
x
x 2

2
P1 P2 = 2
x
Thus,
1
2
2
1
2
1
+ V1
2
+ V2
+ 2 + ( 1 2 ) g = 0

x
x
x
t
t

at

y = 0 (3)

(5) Linear stability analysis

Let = D exp[ik ( x Ct )]
Where C is wave velocity, k is wave number = 2/
1 = E exp[ik ( x Ct )] exp(ky)

2 = G exp[ik ( x Ct )] exp(ky)

to satisfy B.C at y =

The above equation satisfies G.E. automatically. Substituting these

expressions into eqs. (1), (2) and (3) gives

ik (V1 C )
ik (V C )
2

( 1 2 ) g k 2

k
0
D
E = 0
0
k

1ik (V1 C ) 2 ik (V2 C ) G

For a nontrivial solution

ik (V1 C )
ik (V2 C )
( 1 2 ) g k 2
C=

k
=0
1ik (V1 C ) 2 ik (V2 C )

1V1 + 2V2
1

1 + 2
1 + 2

V
V
(
)
(
)

)
1

2
1
2
1 2
1
2

1
2

The sign inside the braket determines whether or not C is an

imaginary number. If C is an imaginary number, and , which are
proportional to exp(-ikCt), may become infinite as time goes
on and the instability take places.

Special cases:
1. Taylor instability

V1 =V2 and 2 < 1 (Note: lower fluid is thinner)

g
if , k < ( 1 2 )
k

C is an imaginary number and instability may occur.

g ( 1 2 )
g ( 1 2 )
2
k <
k<

c =
= 2
kc
g ( 1 2 )

if > c an instability may occur

The expressions for and indicate that the bigger the imaginary part
of the kC is, the more unstable the interface is.

( kC ) = i
1

d
dk

[g (

)k k

= 0 k = k
= 2

1
2

3
(

max

(
=

)g

1
2

3
=

)g

1
2

2
D

is called the most dangerous wavelength.

2.Helmhotz instability (g=0, for a vertical interface )

if

( 1 + 2 ) k < 1 2 (V1 V 2 )

, C is an imaginary number.
Therefore, if V1 V2 is sufficiently large, instability may occur.
( 1 + 2 )

2
= 1 2 (V 1 V 2 ) 2

= 2

1 + 2

1 2 (V 1 V 2 ) 2

2.6 Quality and Void Fraction

Non-flow system
mv
vapor mass
x = quality =
=
mixture mass mv + ml
= void

vapor
fraciton =
mixture

Vv
volume
=
volume Vv + Vl

mx
v
1
=
=
mx m(1 x)
1 x v
+
1+
v
l
x l

Note: At low pressures, is very small and a small quality can

result in a large void fraction.

Flow system (channel flow)

m& v
vapor
mass
flow
rate
x = quality =
=
vapor mass flow rate + liquid mass flow rate m& v + m& l
cross sec tional area of vapor flow
fraciton =
=
total cross sec tional area

= void

m& v
( v wv )
m& v
m& l
+
( v wv ) ( l wl )

1
=
=
m& l v u v
(1 x) v
1+
1+
( )s
&
mv l u l
x
l

where

wv
s=
= slip ratio
wl

Note: Information about s is needed to determine at a give quality.

The homogeneous two-phase flow model assumes s=1.

Drift flux model

jv
jv
jv
=
=
=
wv C 0 j + wvj C 0 ( jv + jl ) + wvj

Gx / v

jv

=superficial vapor velocity =

jl

=superficial liquid velocity = G (1 x) / l

jdA
C0 =density parameter =

wvj =drift velocity

=

jdA + dA
A

x
v wvj
v
C0 [ x +
(1 x)] +
G
l

C 0 , wvj are functions of

two-phase flow pattern.

g ( l v ) 14
]
For bubbly flow, C01.2, wvj = 1.41[
2
l

2.7 Two-phase Flow Pattern

Flow pattern
Flow configuration created by two-phase flow.
Interactions between phases depends strongly on interfacial
density and so two-phase flow pattern.
Typical flow patterns in vertical cocurrent flow
Bubbly flow
Slug flow
Churn flow
Annular flow

Typical flow patterns in horizontal flow

Bubbly flow
Plug flow
Stratified flow
Wavy flow
Slug
Annular flow
Flow pattern map & flow transition mechanisms
Hewitt and Robertss map for vertical flow
Bakers map for horizontal flow
Taitel unified model (for vertical, horizontal and inclined flow)

(Taitel, Y., 1990, Proc. of 9th Int. Heat Transfer. Conf., Vol.1, pp.239-254.)


(Hewitt & Roberts, 1969)

Fig 4 (Taitel, 1990)

CHAPTER3 NUCLEATE POOL BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

The nucleate pool boiling can have a very high heat transfer capalcility
Situation
Natural convection, single phase
l 0.3-m vertical wall in air, T = 30
l 4-cm-O.D. horizontal pipe in H2O, T = 30
l 0.025-cm-diameter wire in methanol, T = 50
Forced convection
l Air at 30 m/s overt a 1-m plate, T = 70
l Water at 2m/s over a 0.06-m plate, T =15
l Aniline-alcohol mixture at 3m/s in a

(W/m2)
4.33
570
4000
80
590
2600

2.5-cm-I.D. tube, T = 80
l Liquid sodium at 5m/s in a 1.3-cm-I.D. tube, at 370

75000

Situation
Boiling water
l During film boiling at 1 atm
l In a teakettle
l A peak-pool boiling heat flux at 1 atm
l A peak-flow boiling heat flux at 1 atm
l Approximate maximum convective heat
flux under optimum conditions
Condensing
l Typical value in a horizontal
cold-water-tube steam condenser
l Same but condensing benzene
l Dropwise condensation of water

h (W/m2)

J.H.Lienhard A Heat Transfer Textbook

300
4000
40000
100000
900000

15000
1700
100000

Individual bubble region vs. vapor mushroom region

Low heat fluxes: Individual bubble region.
High heat fluxes: Vapor mushroom region.
Transition criterion: Moisse, and Berenson model.

g
qtr = 0.11 v ilv [
]
l v
1
2

q CHF
qtr

Individual bubbly
region

1
4

Vapor
mushroom
region

T w T sat

q CHF

qtr

Tw Tsat

Gaertner, 1965

3.1 Modeling of Boiling Incipience-following Hsus model

Tv
(a) (b) (c)

Tl
3
1

rc,crit

Tw
From: Moody & Lahey

-Liquid temperature in the thermal boundary layer

2

d Tl
=0
2
dy

and

Tl ( y = 0) = Tw

k dTl
= q
l

dy y =0

q
y
Tl ( y ) = Tw
kl

-Vapor temperature in the bubble

2 Tsat vlv
Tl (rc ) = Tsat + ( )
rc
ilv
-For boiling to begin (Assuming that a wide range of cavity
size available)

Tv = Tl

and

dTv dTl
=
drc
dy

Using

dTv dTl
=
drc
dy

Bk l 12
rc ,crit = (
) = optimal cavity size
q
T v
B = (2 ) sat lv
ilv
At y = rc ,crit Tv = Tl holds.

Thus,

(Tw Tsat ) ONB

=
or qONB

1
2

B 2
) ( )
= 2(qONB
kl

k l ilv
1
2
(Tw Tsat ) ONB
4
(2 )Tsat vlv

This is the criterion for onset of nucleate boiling.

Bergles and Rohsenows equation

Based on a similar but more regular approach,
Bergles and Rohsenow obtained the following equation
for boiling incipience in water.

Tsat ,ONB

qONB
0.463P 0.0234
]
= 0.556[
1.156
1082P

Tsat,ONB = (Tw Tsat ) ONB

Tsat in q in W/m2, P in bar
valid for water only1-138 bar (15-2000Psia)

Hysteresis effect in boiling incipience (of refrigerant)

R-113 (You et al., 1990)

Variation of void fraction profile on the horizontal surface with

heat flux for water at atmospheric pressure (Fujita et al., 1977)

The relative contribution of the latent heat flux, the natural convection
heat flux, and the enhanced convection heat flux observed in nucleate
boiling.(Paul & Abdel-Khalk Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.26, No.4,
pp509-519, 1983)

3.2 Mechanisms of Nucleate Pool Boiling Heat Transfer

Enhanced convection due to bubble agitation

Vapor-liquid exchange

(Hsu & Graham,1976)

Micro-layer evaporation mechanism

(Moore & Mesler, 1961)

Thermocapillary driven flow

Thermocapillary driven flow and macrolayer evaporation

(Ma & Pan, 1999a )

3.3 Correlation Development

Rohsenow correlation

Nu = C Re x Pr y
hD
Nu =
kl

Re =

UD
l

f Cp l

Pr = =
kl
l

QuestionWhat are the appropriate characteristic length

Dand characteristic velocityU
Rohsenow proposed that

D = departure diameter

g
(

)
l

U=Superificial liquid velocity toward the heating surface

assuming that all the energy is removed by latent energy transport

q
=
il l

q
D
1

2
hD Tsat
1 q

Nu =
=
=

kl
kl
k l Tsat g ( l )
UD q
=
Re =
l
il l

g
(

)

l

Assume that

1
m
Nu =
Re1 n Prl
C sf

l
l

1
m
= C sf Re n 1 Prl
Nu

Re Prl
m +1

= Csf Re n Prl
Nu

2 1 l Cp l

i
g ( l ) l k l
Re Prl l

=
LHS =
1
Nu
2

q 1
Tsat k l g ( l )

RHS = C sf
l il

C pf Tsat
il

m +1

2 Cp

(
)
g

l
l

= C sf
l il

Data fit shows that

Cp l Tsat
ilv

g ( l )

m +1

Cp
k
l

n=0.33
m=0.7but m=0 for water

Csf is a function of fluid-solid combination

q
l ilv

g(l v )

C
Form: Rohsenow 1952

pl

T sat

i lv Pr

1 .7
l

Whenever possible it is recommended that a pool boiling experiment

be carried out to determine the value of Csf applicable to the
particular conditions of interest. In the absence of such information a
value of Csf of 0.0013 may be used as a first approximation.
(From Rohsenow 1952 )

Forster and Zubers Model

Based on bubble agitation (basically for subcooled boiling)
R ( t ) Ja ( l t ) 0 . 5
T sat l Cp
Ja =
v i lv
R& ( t ) Ja

0 .5
l

= Jacob

1
t 0 .5

T sat l Cp l
=
l

v lv

Ja 2 l
R& R
Ja 2

=
=
l
vl
Pr l
l

R ( t ) R& ( t ) Ja 2
UD
Re =
v

Nu =

hD
kl

number

T sat

=
kl

2 R

kl
l Cp

They define a new characteristics for 2R in Nu,

because R is a function of time.
0 . 25
l ( R R& ) 2
l
2
0 .5
0 .5
= Ja l (
2R R0
) (
) 0 .25

Pw Pl
Pw Pl
2 R 0
2
R0
; ( Pw Pl ) (T w T sat )
Pw Pl
l
q

0 .5
0 .5
(
) Ja l (
) (
) 0 .25
T sat
Pw Pl
Pw Pl
Nu =
kl

Nu = C 1 Re m Pr ln

k l0.79 Cpl0.45 l0.49 1.24 0.75

q = 0.00122 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24 Tsat P
m=0.62 , n=0.33
l ilv v
P = ( Pw Pl )

Data bank was: water 1~50bar.

n-butyl alcohol at 3.4 bar.
aniline at 2.4 bar.
mercury at 1 and 3 bar pressure.

Gorenflo Correlation
q nf R p 0.133
h = h0 FPF ( ) [
]
q0
RP 0
h0=reference heat transfer coefficient evaluated at
q 0 =20000W/m2,R =0.4m, P =0.1(reduced pressure)
p0
r0
Rp=surface roughness inm, it can be set to 0.4m for an
unknown surface.
Fpf=pressure correction factor
Pr
P
0.27
Pr =
=1.2Pr + 2.5Pr +
,
Pcrit
1 Pr
nf = 0.9 0.3Pr

For water,

0.3

(= 0.75

FPF = 1.73Pr

0.27

nf = 0.9 0.3Pr

at

Pr = 0.1)

0.68
2
) Pr
+ (6.1 +
1 Pr
0.15

Mean value from scattered data;

b Preliminary estimated value;
c At triple point pressure;
d At standard heat flux of 1000
W/m2 at Pr=0.3
From: Collier & Thome, 1994

3.4 Semi-Theoretical Modeling and Nucleation Site Interaction.

l Mikic & Rohsenow (1969) approach for individual bubble regime
Ref.: Mikic & Rohsenow, 1969, A New Correlation of Pool Boiling
Data Includingthe Effect of Heating Surface Characteristics, J. Heat
Transfer, pp.245-250.
q = q b + (1 D b2 n b ) q l
q l = S in g le - p h a s e n a tu r a l c o n v e c tio n h e a t tr a n s fe r .
q b = H e a t f lu x d u e to h e a t tr a n s f e r in th e b u b b le - in f lu e n c e ( D = 2 D b ) r e g io n
(2 D b ) 2
=
n b qi = D b2 n b qi
4
w h e r e D b is th e b u b b le d e p a rtu re d ia m e te r , n b is th e n u c le a tio n s ite d e n s ity ,
a n d qi is th e a v e r a g e h e a t flu x d u e to tr a n s ie n t h e a t c o n d u c tio n b e tw e e n

b u lk liq u id a n d s u r f a c e a f te r a b u b b le d e p a r tu r e .
q b = f b

1 / fb

n b = C 1 r sm (

q idt = 2

k l ( T w T sat )

i lv v m
) ( T w T sat ) m
2 T sat

fb

rs is the cavity radius corresponding to nb=1.

g ( l v ) 0.25

0.5
1.25
f b Db = 0.6[
]
Db = C 2 [
] ( Ja )
2
l
g(l v )
4

1
.
5
10
, water

Cp
T

l
l sat
, C2 =
Ja =
4
v ilv
4
.
65
10
, non water fluids

Combine above equations give

qb
g(l v )
l ilv

m +1

19 / 8 ( m 23 / 8 )
l
lv
9/8
( m 11 / 8 )

Cp

l (l v )

Tsat

kl

1/ 2

= B m +1 (Tw Tsat ) m +1

17 / 8
l

rs 1.55 1
5/3
B=
C
C1
2
9/8
2 g

( m 15 / 8 )
( m 15 / 8 )

Pan and his co-workers model (for high heat flux regime)
Ref. 1.Pan & Lin, 1989,Marangoni Flow on Pool Boiling Near Critical
Heat Flux, Int. Comm. in Heat & Mass Transfer, vol.16,
pp.475-486.
2.Ma & Pan, 1990,Thermocapilly Driven Flow in Macrolayer at
High Wall Heat Fluxes, Int. J. of Numerical Methods for Heat
and Fluid Flow, vol.7, pp.788-808.
3.Ma & Pan, 1999, The Effect of Heated Wall Thickness and
Materials on Nucleate Boiling at High Heat Flux, Int. Comm. in
Heat and Mass Transfer, vol.26,pp.1103-1114.
Nucleation Site Interactions
Nucleation Site Density
-Gaertrer & Westwater, 1960 (individual bubble regime)
2.1

nb = 2.6 10 (q )
7

-Pan & Lin, 1989 (vapor mushroom regime)

11 l
0.6
+ 1)
0.8 (

l
16 v

nb = 1043
v ( l + 1)

0.5
2

l q 4
v (1 + ) ( )
v ilv

-Kocamustfaogullari & Ishii, 1983

nb Db = f ( + )(
2

Db 4.4
)
2rc

f ( + ) = 2.157 10 7 (1 + 0.0049 + ) 4.13 /( + ) 3.2

+ = (l v ) / v
2Tsat vlv
rc =
ilv Tsat
Db = 0.0012( + ) 0.9 Db , F
Db , F = Bubble departure diameter form the Fritz correlation

-Yang & Kim, 1988

--Cavity size distribution ----Gamma distribution
rc
1
exp[
]
f (rc ) =
< rc >
< rc >

<rc> is the mean cavity radius

--half cone angle distribution ---normal distribution

1
2
2
exp[
(
)
/(
2
g ( ) =

<

>

)]
0.5
( 2 )

<> is the mean half cone angle

is the standard deviation of
For a cavity to be active, >2as Bankoff suggested and
rc,min<rc<rc,max as Hus suggest.
/2

nb = n c

g ( )d

rc , max

rc , min

f (rc )drc

Nucleation Distribution on the Surface

-Poisson distribution

(nb a) na e nb a
P(na) =
(na)!

n = local nucleation site density

nb= mean nucleation site density
a = the area of an area element
3.5 Boiling Chaos
Nucleate boiling heat transfer is influenced by many variables such as
surface material, geometry orientation, working fluid and its
wettability, etc.
Nucleate boiling heat transfer is highly nonlinear and boiling chaos is
thus of no surprise

Ma & Pan, 1999

Ma & Pan, 1999a

Ma & Pan, 1990a

Ma & Pan, 1999b

Ma & Pan, 1999b

Kacamustafaogullari & Ishii, 1983

Point et al., 1996

Kenning and Yan, 1996

Kenning and Yan, 1996

Shoji, 1998

Nelson et al., 1996

Nelson et al., 1996

Sadasivan et al., 1995

Sadasivan et al., 1995

CHAPTER4

Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer

and Forced Convective Evaporation

Topics to be presented in this chapter

Onset of Nucleate Boiling
Subcooled Nucleate Boiling
Saturated Nucleate Boiling and Two-Phase Convective Heat Transfer

From: Collier, 1981

4.1 Onset of Nucleate Boiling

Review of single-phase heat transfer
Energy balance

q ( z )Ddz = m& l Cp l (Tl ( z ) Tli )

m& = mass rate of liguid flow

1
= D 2 G (kg / s)
4
G = mass flux(kg / m 2 s )

dz
D

= w
4
Tl ( z ) = Tli +
GDCp l

q ( z ) dz

Wf(kg/s)

Length of subcooled region, zsc

Let zsc be the entrance length where Tl Tsat , zsc can be
determined by the following equation.

Tl ( z sc ) = Tsat
e.g.

4
= Tli +
GDCpl

zsc

q( z)dz

q( z) = q0

GDCpl
z sc =
Tsub,i
4q0
Tsat,i = Tsat Tl ,i = inlet subcooling
Tsat ( z) = Tsat Tl ( z) = local subcooling

Wall temperature distribution in single-phase region

q ( z ) = h[Tw ( z ) Tl ( z )]
Tw ( z ) = Tl ( z ) + q ( z ) / h
h = heat transfer coefficient
For turbulent flow in a pipe
Dittus-Boeiter correlation

Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.33

0.8

GD Cp
hD
= 0.023

kl

l
l

0.33

For z/D > 50 and Re > 10000

However, it is commonly used in entrance region.

Boiling incipience (Onset of subcooled nucleate boiling)

For boiling to occur Tw must be at least Tsat
q ( z )
T sat
Tw = Tl ( z ) +

4
1
z
h
+ = Tsub,i
q
Recall that
GDCpl h

4
T l ( z ) = T li +
GDCp

q ( z ) dz

if q ( z ) = q = constand
4
T l (z) = T li +
GDCp
4z

T li + q [
GDCp
or q [

4z
GDCp

+
l

q z
l

1
+ ] T sat
h

1
] T sat T li = T sub , i
h

Non-boiling region

Tsub,i

Recall that, assuming that a wide range of cavity size available,

=
qONB

k l ilv
1
Tsat ,ONB
4
(2 )Tsat vlv

for the onset of nucleate boiling.

For water, the correlation of Bergles and Rohsenows correlation
maybe used:

T sat

, ONB

q ONB
0 . 463
= 0 . 556 [
]
1082 P 1 . 156

0 . 0234

For a tube with a constant heat flux, q , a mass flux, G, the location
of boiling incipience may be evaluated in the following way:

Tw ( z ) = Tl ( z ) + q / h

For the criterion for the onset of nucleate boiling,

T w T sat

8 T sat v lv
=

k l i lv

0 .5

( q ) 0.5

Thus,
8 T sat v lv
q
Tl ( z ONB ) + ( ) T sat =

k
i
h
l lv

Recall that
4 q z
Tl ( z ) = Tl ,i +
GDCp l

0 .5

( q ) 0.5

Thus,
0.5

8Tsat vlv
4q z ONB q
0.5

Tli +
+
Tsat =
(
q
)

GDCp l
h
k l ilv

z ONB

0.5

GDCpl
q 8Tsat vlv
0.5
=
(q )
Tsat ,i +

4q
h k l ilv

If water is used as the working fluid.

z ONB

GDCpl
=
4q

qONB
q

0.463 P 0.0234
]
Tsat ,i + 0.556[

1.156
h
1082P


qONB

Relation between heat flux and wall

superheat at the position incipient
boiling (Form Hino & Ueda, 1985
Int. J. Multiphase Flow vol.11,
No.3, pp.269-281 )

qONB

kl ilv
1
2
= (Tw Tsat ) ONB
.
4
(2 )Tsat vlv

...............Eq.(3) in the figure

=
qONB

2klTsat
(Tw Tsat ) ONB
..

2
ilv v (rmax )
rmax
kl

...........Eq.( 4) in the figure

Ts = Tw Tsat

Boiling hysteresis

Partial subcooled nucleate boiling

Fully developed subcooled nucleate boiling
Single-phase liquid
Non-boiling region

Tsat

TONB

Tw

Tw K

Ts = Tw Tsat
Boiling curve hysteresis

Distance z m
Wall temperature profiles

Form: Hino and Ueda, 1985, Studies on Heat Transfer and Flow
Characteristics in Subcooled Flow Boiling Part1, Boling
Characteristics, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol.11, pp.269-281

X EXP
X 0.05

X =

( Tsat ) ONB
) 0.5 Prl
( qONB

X EXP from reported value of Tsat

Experimental data for the onset of boiling compared with eq.

(Forost and Dzakowic34) Form Collier, 1981

4.2 Heat Transfer in Subcooled Nucleate Boiling

I. Partial subcooled boiling
i. Few nucleation sites
ii. Heat transferred by normal single-phase process
between patches of bubble + boiling
II. Fully developed subcooled boiling
i. Whole surface is covered by bubbles and their influence regions.
ii. Velocity and subcooling has little or no effect on
the surface temperature.

Partial subcooled boiling

Single-phase heat transfer

Subcooled boiling
heat transfer

Rohsenow correlation
+ q scB

q = q spL
spL : single phase liquid
scB : subcooled nucleate
= h [T w T l ]
q spL
h : Dittus Boelter
:
q scB

boiling

correlatio n

q scB

Cp l T sat
= C sf
i lv
l i lv

g(l v )

0 . 33

Cp l l

k
l

1 . 0

1 . 7

for water
for other

fluids

Values of Csf in eq. Obtained in the reduction of the forced

(and natural) convection subcooled boiling data of various investigators
(Form Collier, 1981)

Full developed

Partial

qONB

B
qC

qscB
Tw

Tsat

(Tw ) ONB

Wall temp

Bergles and Rohsenow correlation

q
qC
scB
1 +
q = q spL
1
q scB

q spL

0.5

+ ( q scB
+ qC ) 2
q = q spL

Calculation procedure

q
q c
scB
1 +
= q spL
1
q scB

q spL

1. Pick Tw
[= h(Tw Tsat )]
and q spL
2. Evaluate q scB

v.s. (TW ) ONB )

3. Determine C, ie (qONB
form the incipience boiling model

4. Evaluate q C from fully-developed

equation but setting Tw = (Tw ) ONB

0.5

0.5

Fully developed subcooled boiling

-Surface is covered by bubbles and their influence region

-Velocity and subcooling has little or no effect on the surface temperature

Low subcooling
High subcooling

ln(q)

H Low G
L High G

ln(q)
H

H
L
ln(Tw Tl )

L
ln(Tw Tl )

Fully
developed
boiling

Correlations for fully developed subcooled boiling

-Jens and Lottes correlation(1951)
Tsat = 25(q ) 0.25 e

P
62

Tsat in k, q in Mw/m 2 , P in bar

-Ranges of data for water only

i.d = 3.63 to 5.74 mm , P = 7 to 172 bar , Tl = 115 to 340
q up to 12.5 MW/m2
G = 11 to 1.0510-4 kg/m2s ,
-Thom et al (1965)
Tsat = 22.65(q ) 0.5 e

P
87

Tsat in k, q in MW/m 2 , P in bar

for water only

-Jens and Lottes correlation in terms of heat transfer coefficients

Tsat = 25( q ) 0.25 e

q
h=
=
Tsat

P
62

q
25(q ) 0.25 e

P
62

P
62

1
= [ e ]( q ) 0.75
25

h increases with increase in heat flux.

or
4

4
(
)
e

sat
P 4
25
1 62
q

h=
=
= e (Tsat ) 3
Tsat
Tsat
25

h increases with increase in wall superheat.

P
62

q = 10 6 W / m 2 , P = 70bar and 155bar

Tsat = ?

h=?

At P=70bar

Tsat = 25(1) 0.25 e

70
62

= 8.1k

70

1 62 0.75
h = [ e ]1 = 0.124MW / m 2 k = 1.24 10 5 W / m 2 k
25
At P=150bar

Tsat = 25(1) 0.25 e

155

155
62

= 2.1k

1 62 0.75
h = [ e ]1 = 0.487 MW / m 2 k = 4.87 10 5 W / m 2 k
25

Heat transfer of subcooled water flowing

in a swirl tube(Form: S.Toda, Advanced
Researches of Thermal-Hydraulics under
High Heat Load in Fusion Reactor, Proc.
NURETH-8. pp.942-957,1997)

It is summarizes the present data

of heat transfer of subcooled flow
boiling of water in the swirl tube
and hypervapotron under one side
heating conditions. The data are
obtained by experiments in
regions fro non-boiling to highly
subcooled partial flow boiling
under conditions that surface heat
fluxes, flow velocities, and local
pressure range form 2 to 3
MW/m2, 4 to 16 m/s and 0.5, 1.9
and 1.5 MPa respectively. In the
figure, a new heat transfer
correlation for such subcooled
partial flow boiling under one
sides heating conditions on which
no literature exists is proposed.

-Shah(1977), ASHRAE Trans. Vol.83, Part1, pp.202-217

Tsat Tl
hTP
4
1.25
if
< min[2, 6.3 10 Bo ], then
=0
Tw Tsat
hl
Tsat Tl
Tsat Tl
hTP
4
1.25
> min[2, 6.3 10 Bo ], then
=0 +
if
Tw Tsat
hl
Tw Tsat

if Bo > 0.3 10 4 , thus 0 = 230Bo 0.5

f Bo < 0.3 10 4 , thus 0 = 1 + 46Bo 0.5
q
Bo = boiling number =
Gilv
-Valid for subcooled nucleated boiling of water,
refrigerants and organic fluids, Ref >10000

-Correlation of Bjorge, Hall and Rohsenow, 1982

Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.25, No.6 pp.753-757
For subcooled and low quality region
2
3

(Tsat ) ONB

) 2 + (q scb
) 2 1
q = (q FC
Tsat

= hFC (Tsat Tsub ) = hFC (Tw Tl )

q FC

0.5

hFC is ecaluated by Colburn eq.

GD
hFC D

= 0.023

k l ,b
l, f

0.8

l , f Cp l ,b

k
l ,b

1/ 3

f = film =

is evaluated by Rohsenow eq.

q scB

q scB
l ilv

(
)
g

l
v

0.5

Tw T f
2

b = bulk , T f

l17 / 8 Cp l19 / 8 v1 / 8
3
= BM
Tsat
7/8
9/8
5 / 8 1/ 8
l ilv ( l v ) Tsat
kl

1/ 2

BM Depends upon boiling surface cavity size distribution

and fluids properties For water only, BM=1.8910-4 in SI units.

For rc,min>rmax (the radius of largest cavity, rmax)

1
1
(Tsat ) ONB =
(
NTsub )
1 N 4 N
for rc ,crit < rmax

1
(Tsat ) ONB =
1 + (1 + 4Tsub )1 / 2
2
k l ilv
=
8Tsat vlv hFC
hFC rmax
N=
kl
rc ,crit

4Tsat vlv
=
ilv (Tsat ) ONB

Tw Tsat F

q Wm 2 10 6

q Btu 1 ft 2 10 6

Tw Tsat K
Comparison of equation with data of Cheng et al.
From: Bjorge, Hall and Rohsenow, 1982

4.3 Saturated Forced Convective Boiling Evaporation

-The associated two-phase flow pattern may be bubby,
slug or annular flow
-Assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium is acceptable
-Heat transfer coefficient may be strongly dependent upon
the heat flux and the mass quality.
Quality change in saturated flow boiling
z

(i il )GA = q ( z )Ddz
z sc

Note that i = il + xilv , thus

z

xilv GA = D q ( z )dz
z sc

z
4
x( z ) =
q ( z ) dz

ilv GD z s

Subcooled

Superheated
DNB

Saturated
Saturated
nucleate
boiling
D
0

B
Dryout

Two-phase
forced-convective heat transfer
From: Collier & Thome, 1994

-Saturated nucleate boiling

-Essentially identical to that in the subcooled regions
with zero subcooling.
-Empirical correlation in fully developed subcooled
boiling may be used.
-Suppression of nucleate boiling in two-phase forced convection.
As will be discussed later, in two-phase forced convection

hTP x and velocity

There is a possibility that Tsat(=q/hTP)
is so low that nucleate boiling will be suppressed.

Heat transfer in vertical annular flow

Ref.:Ch6 and 9 in Butterworth & Hewitt.
-When boiling is suppressed, heat transfer in two-phase
forced convection can be in a form of annular flow.
-Triangular Relationship

m& LF
dP
dz

= The film flow rate

= Pressure gradient
= film liquid film thickness

There are three dependent variables in vertical annular two-phase

flow. Any of them can be calculated from a knowledge of the other
two. The knowledge of these three variables are important for the
determination of heat transfer coefficient.

For example,

and

dP
dz

m& LF can be calculated from

by the following procedure:

(1) Evaluate the interfacial shear stress, i

Force balance on the control volume gives

i 2 ( R ) dz +
dP
(P +
dz ) ( R ) 2 +
dz
v g ( R ) 2 dz
= (R )2 P

(R )
dP

i =
(1)
v g

2
dz

dP
P+
dz
dz

v g
P
Liquid film
Vapor flow

(2) Calculate (r)

Force balance on the control volume gives,

ri

2rdz + P (r 2 ri 2 )
= 2ri i dz
dP
+ (P +
dz )(r 2 ri 2 )
dz
+ l g (r 2 ri 2 )dz
2
2
ri
dP
(ri r )
= i ( ) +
+ l g
r
2r
dz

dz

P+

dP
dz
dz

Vapor flow
Liquid film

(3) Calculate the velocity distribution in the film

by integration of the expression
( r ) = eff
eff

du
dr

l
=
l + t ( r )

for lamianar flow

for turbulent flow

(4) Integrate the velocity profile across the film to give

m& LF = 2ru (r ) l dr
0

Interfacial waves in annular flow

-A rough rule of thumb:
If the liquid film occupies 10% by volume of the channel
then the pressure drop increases by a factor of 10 for the same
total gas flow through the channel compared with the smooth
dry pipe. This gross increase is principally caused by the interfacial
waves.
-Two distinct types of wave:
(1) Ripples-Acts as a surface roughness and giving rise to an
increased pressure drop.
-Do not result in droplet entrainment.
(2) Disturbance waves:(most of cases)
-Highly disturbed interface, several times the mean
film thickness in height.
-Entrainment occurs by the tearing away of film, which
beaks up from the surface of the waves.

Transport of energy in the liquid film

-Energy equation

DT
2
Cp
= k T +
Dt

u
z

Assumption
1.Steady state
2.Constant properties
3.Negligible axial conduction
y
4.Negligible viscous dissipation
5.The flow is one-dimensional
6.Because of the film is quite thin, the film may be treated as a slab.

T
2T
Cpu ( y )
= k
z
y 2
where

y = R r,

y : distance

from

Because
the flow is 1 D
u
= 0,
z
( uT )
2T
= k
Cp
z
y 2
Operate

Cp
z

this

equation

uTdy = k

by

dy

2T
dy
2
y

T
T
= k

y
y
= q w q i

wall

Defining the average bulk temperature as:

Tb =

uTdy
udy
0

uTdy
Q

Where Q is volumetric flow rate per unit tube wall perimeter

Thus,

uTdy = QT b

Q Cp

dT b
= q w q i
dz

Laminar flow solutions

Assume qi = q w (all the energy is used for evaporation)
and high interfacial shear i 0 .
High shear stress with phase change is usually associated with
evaporation in up-ward flowing system.

Since qi = q w ,

dTb
= 0(fullly developed), T = T ( y ) and
dz

d 2T

= 0 T = ay + b
2
dy
dT
= q at y = 0
B.C ' s (a) T = Tw and ()k
dy
q
T = Tw
y
k
q
T ( y = ) = Tsat = Tw
k
q
k
=( )
h

Tw Tsat
h
=1
or Nu =
k

The flow field is basically driven by the interfacial shear stress

(gravity is negligibly small)
G .E .

d 2u

= 0
2
dy

B .C .' s

u = 0 at y = 0

u =
Q =

du
dy

=i
y =

i
y

1 1
( i )
2

u ( y ) dy =

2Q
=

1
2

k 2 i
k
h =
=

Q
2

1
2

Turbulent flow solutions

-If turbulent eddies are present within the film, the apparent
thermal conductivity and hence the heat transfer coefficient
significantly will be increased for a given film thickness.
-Assumption
(1) qi = q w
(2) film surface is flat
(3) heat transfer is not affected by the droplets
-Model

dT
q w = (k + H Cp )
dy

H = eddy thermal diffusivity

M = eddy viscosity
H M has usually been assumed in theoretical
studies of heat transfer in liquid film.
Assume that M is related to y in the film in the same way as in
single-phase full-pipe flow.
For example
Deissler Model:

M = n uy 1 exp( n uy / ) , y = yu / 20
2

Von Karman Model:

( du / dy ) 3

= kk
,
y
20
2
2 2
( d u / dy )

u = w /
usually n 2 = 0 .01 ; k k = 0 .36
Define the nondimensional temperature in the following way:

Cpu
(Tw T )
T+
q w

Thus,
Tsat+

Cpu
Cpu
=
(Tw Tsat ) =
q w
h

q w
Cpu
=
h=
+
Tw Tsat
Tsat

Recall that
q = q w = ()(k + H Cp )

dT
dy

dT +
q
1
= (1)(k + H Cp ) + ( 1)
Cpu / u
dy

1 H dT +
1=[ +
] +
Pr v dy

Thus,

+
dT
1

1 = + n 2 u + y + 1 exp(n 2 u + y + ) + , for y + < 20

Pr
dy

k k (du + / dy + ) 3 dT +
+
for
y
1= 2 +
,
> 20
+2 2
+
(d u / dy ) dy

To solve T+, u+ needs to be calculated first. u+ depends on the shear

stress and film mass flow rate. Once u+ is determined, T+ can be
evaluated and h can be determined accordingly.
An approximate approach following Butterwoth & Hewitt
y
dP
Assume = w (1 ) comparing to = i + [
+ l g] ( y )
R
dz

as in a full-pipe flow and recall that

= w (1

y
du
) = l (v + )
dy
R

y
)

R ,
= ( 1) +
v
l (du / dy )
( w / v)(1

1
1 + +
du / dy +

y+
as + << 1 for a thin film
R

u
Where u =
u
y
+
y =
y
+

u = w / l
v
y =
u

Assume universal velocity profile, i.e.,

u+=y+, y+ 5
(viscous sublayer)
u+=-0.305+5ln(y+), 5<y+30 (buffer zone)
u+=5.5+2.5ln(y+), y+ > 30
(turbulent cure)

du +
=1

+
dy+
5
du
=
+
+
dy
y

du + 2.5
dy + = y +

y+ 5
5 < y + < 30
y + > 30

-Temperature distribution
+
1

dT

1= + +
Pr v dy

with T + = Tsat+ at y + = +
T+ =0

at y = 0

0
y+ 5

y+
= 1 +
5 < y + 30
v
5
+
y
1+
y + > 30

2.5

a discontinuity at y+ = 30


Case(1), 5,
=0
v
1 dT +
1=
Pr dy +
+

Viscous sublayer

+
T Tsat

T + = Pr y + + C
Applying the B.C. at y+ = +
C = Tsat+ Pr +
T + = Pr y + + Tsat+ Pr +
T + ( y + = 0) = 0 = Pr* 0 + Tsat+ Pr +

Tsat+

Cpu
=
(Tw Tsat ) = Pr + , + 5
q w

5
+

+
sat

Case ( 2), 5 < 30

1
y + dT +
1 = [( 1) + ] +
Pr
5 dy
1
y+
T = 5 ln[ + ( 1)] + C1
5
Pr
+
1

T + ( + ) = Tsat+ = 5 ln[ + ( 1)] + C1

5
Pr
+

T + = 5 ln[

y
1

1
+ ( 1)] 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+
5
Pr
5
Pr

5
+

+
5
1
1

T + ( y + = 5) = 5 ln[ + ( 1)] 5 ln[ + ( 1)] + Tsat+

5 Pr
5
Pr

30
+

At y+=5, temperature evaluated from the buffer zone must be equal to

that from the viscous sublayer.
Recall that for the viscous sublayer
T + = Pr y + + C 2
1
1
+
T (5) = Pr 5 + C 2 = 5 ln[1 + ( 1)] 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+
Pr
5
Pr
1
+
C 2 = 5 ln Pr 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+ 5 Pr
5
Pr
1
+
+
+
T ( y = 0 ) = C 2 = 0 = 5 ln Pr 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+ 5 Pr
5
Pr
+

T
or

+
sat

+
1
= 5 ln Pr + 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + 5 Pr
5
Pr

Cpu
+
1
(Tw Tsat ) = 5 ln Pr + 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + 5 Pr
q w
5
Pr

+
= 5Pr + ln[1 + Pr(
1)]
5

Case(3), + > 30
For the turbulent core region

1
y + dT +
1 = [( 1) +
] +
Pr
2.5 dy

+
+
y
1

1
T + = 2.5 ln[
+ ( 1)] 2.5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+
2.5 Pr
2.5 Pr

Recall that
for the viscous sublayer,
T + = Pr y +
for the butter zone
+
y
1
+
T = 5 ln[ + ( 1)] + C
5
Pr
so, the continuity of temperature at y+ = 5 results in

1
5 Pr = 5 ln[1 + ( 1)] + C = 5 ln(Pr) + C
Pr
C = 5 ln(Pr) + 5 Pr

So, for the buffer zone

1
y+
+
T = 5 ln[ + ( 1)] + 5 ln(Pr) + 5 Pr
5
Pr
The continuity of temperature at y+ = 30 results in
30
1
+
1
2 . 5 ln[
+ (
1 )] 2 . 5 ln[
+ (
1 )] + T sat+
2 .5
Pr
2 .5
Pr
1
= 5 ln[ 6 + (
1 )] + 5 ln Pr + 5 Pr
Pr
+

1
30
1
T sat+ = 2 . 5 ln[
+ (
1 )] 2 . 5 ln[
+ (
1 )]
2 .5
Pr
2 .5
Pr
1
+ 5 ln[ 5 +
] + 5 ln(Pr) + 5 Pr
Pr

Tsat+

+
+
(

1
= 5Pr + ln(5 Pr + 1) + ln[ 2.5
30
2

(
+

2.5

1
1)

Pr
]
1
1)

Pr

1 +
T 5Pr+ ln(5Pr+1) + ln( )
2 30

if Pr 1
+
sat

+
Pr

Cpu
(
T
T
)

+
w
sat
Tsat =
= 5Pr+ ln[1 + Pr( 1)]
q
5

1 +
5Pr+ ln(5 Pr+ 1) + ln( )
2 30

T sat+

Viscous
sublayer

Buffer zone

30

+ 5
5 < + 30
+ > 30 & Pr 1

Turbulent region

This is the Martinelli universal temperature profile.

Note that
T w T sat
1
=
q
h
Cpu
T =
h
Cpu
h=
T sat+
+
sat

hD
CpDu
=
Nu =
k
kT sat+

Du
v DU u 1
=
= ( )(
)( ) +
+

v
U T sat
T sat

u 1
= Pr Re
U T sat+

U = average liquid flow rate assuming full pipe flow

u Re
U +
u
Pr Re
Nu =
+
U 5 Pr + ln[1 + ( 1) Pr]

Pr Re
u

+
U
1

)

Pr + ln( 5 Pr + 1) + ln(
2
30

w
u =
l
Note that

w / l
v

5<

30

> 30 & Pr 1

4.4 Estimation Methods for Forced Convective Boiling

Ref.: Collier & Thom, 1994 ]
The two-phase forced convection is usually associated with annular
flow. Heat is transferred by conduction and convection through the
liquid film and vapor is generated continuously at the interface.
For single-phase turbulent flows
Nu=fn(Re,Pr)
For turbulent flow in an annular flow passage, the same relation will be
still applicable provided the appropriate dimensionless groups are used.
-Re is the same whether the liquid completely fills the tube or
flows as a thin film

UD GD
Re =
=
for fully occupied case
v

For annular flow with the same mass flow rate,

1 2
V ( R ri ) = U D
4
D 2U
V =
, D = 2R
2
2
4( R ri )
2

ri

4 cross section area

De =
heated perimeter

4 ( R 2 ri2 )
=
2R
2( R ri )( R ri )
=
R

Annular flow

2( R ri )
DU

R
VDe 4( R 2 ri 2 )
UD
=
Re =
=
v
v
v
2

(Same as for fully occupied case)

D
U
Full-pipe flow

-For both cases, the appropriate physical properties are those of the
liquid, therefore, Pr is the same for both cases.

( Nu ) annular = ( Nu ) sigle phase

hTP D e
hl D

=
k
k

hTP D
D
1
=

hl
De 4 1

( R 2 ri 2 ) ( R + ri )( R ri ) 2 R
4
(1 =
=
=
=
)
2
2
2
D
R
R
R

Lockhart and Martinelli successfully correlated 1- using Xtt

Xtt = the Lockhart and Martinelli parameter
1/ 2

(dP / dz ) l
=

(
dP
/
dz
)
v

1 = f n ( X tt )

1 x 0.9 v 0.5 l 0.1

(
) ( ) ( )
x
l
v

hTP
1

= f n ( X tt ) or f n (
)
hf
X tt
Chens Correlation (1963)

hTP = hNCB + hc
hNCB : Saturate nucleate boiling
hc :Two-phase forced convection

-For hNCB Chen used the equation of Zuber and Forster as a beginning

k l0 . 79 Cp l0 . 45 l0 . 49
h = 0 . 00122 0 . 5 0 . 29 0 . 24 0 . 24 T sat0 . 24 Psat0 . 75
l i lv v
Which is from the instantaneous bubble diameter and growth rate.
However, the actual superheat controlling the bubble growth is not
Tsat = Tw Tsat but Te = Tl ( at bubble tip ) T sat , which is smaller
than Tsat
In pool boiling, the boundary layer thickness is thick,
therefore, Te Tsat
However, in forced convective boiling, the boundary thickness is thin,
consequently Te < Tsat

Pool boiling
T l (y )

T sat

Te

T sat

Force convective boiling

Tl (y )

T sat

Te

T sat

Therefore, the Zuber and Forsters equation should be modified as

follows for forced convective boiling

h NCB

k l0.79 Cp l0.45 l0.49 0.24 0.75

= 0.00122 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24 Te Pe
l ilv v

Chen defined a suppression factor S, the ratio of the superheat at

the bubble tip(Te) to the wall superheat Tsat

Te
S
Tsat

0.99

Te
=
Tsat

0.24

Pe

Psat

0.75

Note that from the Clausius-Clapeyron relation

i lv
P
=

T sat v lv
T Tsat
i lv
Pe = T e
T sat v lv
Psat = T sat

h NCB

i lv
T sat v lv

Pe
Te

Psat
T sat

k l0.79 Cp l0 .45 l0 .49

= 0 .00122 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24
l i lv v

0 .24
0 .75

T
P
sat
sat S

It might be expected that S1 at low flows, S0 at high flow.

Therefore, Chen suggested that S = f n (Re TP )
ReTP is the two-phase Reynolds number, which will be defined later.

-For hC
It is assumed that hC could be represented by a Dittus-Boeltet
type equation.

h C = 0 . 023 Re

0 .8
TP

Pr

0 .4
TP

k TP
D

PrTP Prl , kTP = kl, since heat is transferred to a liquid film

in annular flow regime.
0.8
Re TP

G (1 x) D
0.8
= Re l F =

0.8

0.8

G (1 x) D Cp k l
hC = 0.023
( )F

k l D
0.4

F may be considered as a two-phase convection enhancement factor.

Since F is a flow parameter only, it may be expected that F can be

expressed as a function of the Martinelli factor, Xtt

F = f n ( X tt )
Chen presented F and S graphically as follows.

From Collier, 1981

The factors F and S may be fitted as follows:

1. 0
X tt1 0.10
F =
1
1
0.736
+
2
.
35
(
0
.
213
)
X
X
tt
tt > 0.10

[1 + 0.12(Re TP )1.14 ] 1
Re TP < 32.5

S = [1 + 0.42(Re TP ) 0.78 ] 1
32.5 Re TP < 70.0

0. 1
70 Re TP

G (1 x) De 1.25
Where ReTP =
F 10 4
l

This fit was presented by Butterworth

From: T.A. Bjornard & P.Griffith, PWR Blowdown Heat Transfer,
Symposium on the Thermal and Hydraulic Aspects of Nuclear Reactor
Safety, vol.1 Light Water Reactors Presented at the Winter Annual
Meeting of the ASME, Atlanta, Geogia, Nov.27-Dec.2
, 1997 Ed. by O.C. Jones Jr. & S.G. Bankoff, NY. NY.

Range of conditions for data used in testing Chens correlation

Quality
(wt.%)

From: Collier, 1981

Heat Flux
(kW/m2)

q kWm 2

Tsat C
Comparison of Chens correlation with Thoms and Jens-Lottess correlations.
P=10MPa, G=5.4Mgm-2s-1, De =0.3cm.
From: Hewitt, Delhaye & Zuber, 1986. Vol.2 ch3.

Modification Chens correlation

-Hahne, et al.s correlation, 1989.
Hahne, Shen & Spindles, 1989 Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
, vol.32, No.10 1799-1808, 1989
hTPW = hc F + h NCB S
G (1 x) D
hc = 0.023

F =1

0.8
0.4
l

Pr

F = 2.35[(1 / X tt ) + 0.213]

0.736

h NCB

kl
D
1 / X tt 0.1
1 / X tt > 0.1

q m
P 0.27
1. 8
P R p 0.133
)( ) (
)
= h0 ( ) 2.1( ) + ( 4.4 +
P Pc R p 0
q o
Pc
(1 )

Pc

S=

kl
0.5

0 .5
0
.
041
h
[
]

g(l v )

( 1)

1
exp

kl

0 .041hc

g
(
)
l
v

q 0 = 2 10 4 W / m 2 ,
R p 0 = 1 10 6 m

( R p 0 is the surface roughness defined by DIN 4262 )

for organic fluids
P
m = 0 .9 0 .3
Pc
for R12

0 .3

h0 = 2 .3 10 3 W / m 2 K

--Effect of flow direction is also studied in this paper. There is no clear

effect of flow direction
--Upwards or downwards with a minimum liquid velocity of 0.25 m/s

-Gungor-Winterton Correlation
Ref: Gungor. K.E and Winterton, R.H.S(1986),A general correlation
for flow Boiling in tubes and annuli, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer.
Vol.29 pp.351-358

hTP = Fhc + ShNCB

G (1 x) D
hc = 0.023

F = 1 + 24000 Bo
hNCB = 55 Pr

0.12

1.16

0.8
0.4
l

Pr

kl
D

q
1 0.86
+ 1.37(
) , Bo =
X tt
Gilv

(0.4343 ln( Pr ))

0.55

0.5

( q )

0.67

P
Pr =
Pc

M , Molecular weight
S = [1 + 1.15 10 6 E 2 Re l

1.17 1

G (1 x ) D
Re l =
l
where q in W / m 2 ; h in W / m 2 K

For horizontal
Fr = Froude

flow boiling
G2
No . =
( l2 gD )

If Fr < 0 . 05
E = EFr

( 0 . 1 2 Fr )

& S = S

Fr

For subcooled
flow boiling
q = h l ( T w T l ) + Sh NCB ( T w T sat )
This correlation for subcooled boiling is with an accuracy of 25%


hcal

hexp
The Chen correlation compared with our data
Fluid R12 From Hahne et. al. 1989


hcal

hcal

hexp

hexp

The correlation by Bjorge et al.

The modified Chen correlation
compared with the data of Vaihinger compared with our data
and Kaufmann.
Fluid R12 From Hahne et. al. 1989

q&
Comparison of flow boiling
correlation at 6105Pa

q&
Comparison of flow boiling
correlations at 11105Pa

Fluid R12 From Hahne et. al. 1989

High level interpolation correlations

-Bjorge, Hall and Rohsenows correlation (1981)
Ref: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.25 No. 6, pp.753-757, 1982

Tsat ,ONB

2
2
) 1
q = (q c ) + (q NCB
Tsat

1/ 2

In high quality region,

e.g, for annular flow
Re 0.9 Prl F ( X tt ) k l
q c =
T sat
F2 D
0 . 32
1
1

F ( X tt ) = 0.15
+ 2.0
X tt
X tt
G (1 x ) D
Re l =
l

5 Prl + 5 ln(1 + 5 Prl ) + 2.5 ln( 0.0031 Re l0.812 )

F2 = 5 Prl + 5 ln 1 + Prl ( 0.0964 Re l0.585 1)

0.707 Pr Re 0.5
l
l

Re l > 1125
50 < Re l < 1125
Re l < 50


q NCB
l ilv

g(l v )

1/ 2

l17 / 8 Cp l19 / 8 v1 / 8
3
= BM
Tsat
7 /8
9/8
5 / 8 1/ 8
l ilv ( l v ) Tsat
kl

1/ 2

BM=1.8910-14(in SI unit) for forced convection boiling of water

BM=4.010-13 for R12(Hahne, Shen & Spindler)

Tsat ,ONB

8Tsat vlv hc
q c
=
, hc =
k l ilv
Tsat

-Steiner and Taboreks correlation, 1992

hTP = h

3
NCB

3 1/ 3
c

+h

hNCB = hNCB 0 FNCB

FNCB

q n f D 0.4 Ra 0.133
=( ) ( ) (
)
F ( M ) FPF ( Pr )
q 0
D0
Ra 0

 0.8 0.1exp(1.75Pr ),
non cryogens
nf =
cryogens
0.7 0.13 exp(1.105Pr ),
F ( M ) = 0.377 + 0.199 ln M + 2.8427 10 5 M 2
1.7
0.45
3.7
FPF ( Pr ) = 2.816 Pr + [3.4 +
P
] r
7
(1 Pr )

hc = hl 0 F

hl0= evaluated by Gnielinski correlation, i.e.

k l ( f 0 / 8)(Re 1000) Prl

hl 0 =
D 1 + 12.7( f 0 / 8)1 / 2 (Prl2 / 3 1)
f 0 = [0.7904 ln(Re) 1.64] 2

10 < M < 187

for 4000<Re<5000000 ; 0.5<Prl<2000/11/10

[(1 x)1.5 + 1.9 x 0.6 ( l / v ) 0.35 ]1.1

if q > q , x < x , 3.75 < / < 5.000
ONB
crit
l
v

F=

1.5
0.6
0.01
0.35 1.1
{[(
1
)
1
.
9
(
1
)
(

)
]

x
x
x

l
v

0.01
0.7
0.67 2 1 / 2
[(
/
)
(
1
8
(
1
)
)(

)
] }
+
+

h
h
x
x
v0
l0
l
v

, 0 x 1, 3.75 < l / v < 1017

if q < q ONB
2Tsat hl 0
=
; rcrit = 0.3 10 6 m
q ONB
rcrit v ilv

x crit = quality at q crit

Correlations choosing the maximum of hNCB and hc

-Shahs correlation
hTP = max(hNCB , hc )
hc = 1.8 0.8 hl
1 x 0.8 v 0.5
( x ) ( ) , vertical tube or horizontal tube with Fr > 0.04
l
=
1 x 0.8 v 0.5
0.38Fr 0.3 (
) ( ) , horizontal tube with Fr < 0.04

x
l
G2
Fr =
= Froude number
l gD
G (1 x) D
hl = 0.023

0.8
0.4
l

Pr

kl
D

hNCB

230 Bo 0.5 hl

0. 5
Bo
(
1
46
)hl
+

=
0.5
0.1
FBo
exp(
2
.
74
)hl

FBo 0.5 exp(2.74 0.15 )hl

14.70
F =
15.43

if Bo > 0.0011
if Bo < 0.0011

if > 1.0, Bo > 0.0003

if > 1.0, Bo < 0.0003
if 1.0 > > 0.1
if < 0.1

q
Bo =
Gilv

CHAPTER5 Critical Heat Flux

q CHF

Individual
bubble
region

Vapor
mushroom
region

q tr

Topics to be discussed
T w T sat
Critical Heat Flux for Pool Boiling
Critical Heat Flux for Flow Boiling
-Dryout: Dryout of the liquid film, theoretical modeling
-DNB: Departure from nucleate boiling, theoretical modeling
Empirical Correlation for Flow Boiling CHF

5.1 Critical Heat Flux for Pool Boiling

Kutateladze (1951) used dimensional analysis to obtain that

= Cilv v1 / 2 [g ( l v )]1 / 4
qCHF
0.16
C=
0.131

Collier
Lienhard

Zubers model
Ref.: N. Zuber, 1958, On the Stability of Boiling Heat Transfer,
Trans. ASME, vol.80, 711
Recall that for the Helmhotz instability to take place,
v l
k
2

(
U

U
)
v
l
v + l (v + l ) 2

k=
=

g
(

)
l
v

1 / 2

g(l v )
=

1/ 2

From the Taylor instability and assume that the bubble is sphere,

Liquid
Vapor

Vapor

(U v U l ) = [ g ( l v ) ]

1/ 2

l + v
lv

Q (U v U l ) 2 (U v ) 2
(U v ) = [ g ( l v ) ]

1/ 2

q CHF
= i lv v
(

l + v
lv

4
1 2

( )3 ( 2 ) =
i lv v
3
4
24

( ) 3 is the bubble
3
4

volume , is the wave

period )

At the critical heat flux point

Uv =

q CHF

l + v 1/ 2

ilv v [
=
] [g ( l v )]1 / 4
l v
24

1/ 2 l + v 1/ 2
ilv v [
=
] [g ( l v )]1 / 4
l
24
= 0.131ilv v

1/ 2

l + v 1/ 2
[
] [g ( l v )]1 / 4
l

Haramura and Kattos model

Ref.: Haramura & Katto, 1983, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer,
vol.26, No.3, pp.389-399

Vapor bubble

c
D

D = The most dangerous wavelength wave length for the Taylor instability

= 31 / 2 2

g
(
)

l
v

1/ 2

c = macrolayer thickness

1
H
4

+ v Av 2 v ilv 2
l
( ) (
)
2
l v Aw
q

At CHF

d q Aw = l c ( Aw Av )ilv

Hovering period for a bubble of volumetric growth rate vl

11
4( + v )
3 1 / 5 16 l
1/ 5
d = ( ) [
]3 / 5 v l
g(l v )
4
m3
vl = q /( v ilv ), ( )
s

(one bubble within 2D )

2
D

Haramura and Katto postulated that CHF appears when the liquid
film evaporates away at the end of the hovering period.

q CHF
v i lv
g ( l v )

2
v

Av

Aw

1/ 4

4
= 11 2
2 3

1 / 16

11 l
3/5
(
+
1
)
16
v
= 0 . 0654
l

(
+ 1)

Av

Aw

5/8

A
1 v
Aw

5 / 16

+ 1)
(

( 11 l + 1) 3 / 5
16
v

5 / 16

1/ 2

Assume q CHF
predicted is the
same as the Zuber ' s model

Behavior of vapor mass above a

High heat flux boiling of water on 10-mm diameter disk observed by
a horizontal 35-mm diameter
Katto and Yokoya(1976) (Interval
copper disk (Katto et al., 1970)
between each frame: 11.3 ms for
No. 1-5 and 8.8 ms for No.5-10)

Void fraction at midplane of a

vertical rectangular plate of contact
angle of 27 deg measured by Liaw
and Dhir (1989)

Existing data and predictions for

initial macrolayer thickness in
water boiling at atm. Pressure.

Comparison of initial macrolayer

thickness measured by Okuyama
et al. (1989) for R-113 boiling with
the prediction of Haramura and
Kattoss equation.

Parameter effect on pool boiling CHF

From El-Wakil, Nuclear Heat Transport, 1978 .


qCHF
(10 6 W / m 2 )

(T ) CHF

Pressure (kPa)
Effect of system pressure on CHF (From Pan & Lin, 1990)

From: J. H. Lienhard, Burnout on Cylinders, J. Heat Transport,

vol.110, pp.1271-1286,1988.


q CHF
(10 6 W / m 2 )

q CHF

= q Zuber
[ 1 + B T sub ]

B = 0 .1(

sub

l
v

0 . 75

Cp
(
i lv

1 + k Ja
=
[ 1 + 0 . 102 Ja

Ja

Ja =

Tsub (K)
(From Pan & Lin, 1990)

10
/

= (

Cp

0 . 75

0 . 75

Ja

T
i lv

sub

Horizontal ribbons oriented horizontal ribbons, one side insulated

vertically
(From: Lienhard, 1981, A Heat Transfer Textbook)

The peak pool boiling heat flux on several heaters

(From: Lienhard, 1981, A Heat Transfer Textbook)

From: Lienhard, A Heat Transfer Textbook Prentice-Hall 1981

CHF
(MW/m2)

11

l

+ 1
16 v
Av
n
= C
l
Aw

+1
v

C = 0.00179 ; n = 2

3/ 5

1/ 2

Contact Angle
Effect of surface wettability on the critical heat flux:
comparison between model prediction and experimental data
(From Pan & Lin, 1990)

5.2 Dryout Modeling (Dryout heat flux)

Following (1)Isbin and his co-workers (2)Whalley
Ref.: J.Weisman, 1985 Theoretically Based Predictions of Critical
Heat Flux in Rod Bundles
The liquid film flow (in a round tube) is determined by a balance
between entrainment,evaporation and deposition.

Wl + DDd dz =
dWl
[Wl +
dz] +
dz
q
EDdz + Ddz
ilv

dz

Wl = liquid film flow rate(kg / s)

D = tube diameter(m)

Wf

Deposition
Entrainment
evaporation

Dd = deposition rate of droplets onto the film(kg / m 2 s )

E = entrainment rate of droplets from the film(kg / m 2 s )
Wl = inflow rate

DDd dz = deposition rate

dWl
dz ] = outflow rate
[Wl +
dz
EDdz = entraiment rate
q
Ddz = evaporation rate
ilv
dWl
q
= D[ Dd E ]
dz
ilv

Deposition

dz

Similarly, the entrained liquid flow

rate satisfy the following eq. dWE
= D[ E Dd ] Wf
dz

Entrainment
evaporation

Deposition rate

Dd = C
K = The depositionor mass transfer coefficient(m / s)
2

= 87u[ l ]1/ 2 ; u = i / v (empirical equation proposed by Hewitt)

Dk

C = Droplet concentration
= WE /[(WE / l ) + (Wv / v )) (kg / m3 )
Wv = Mass flow rate of vapor
= x( z)W
4 z
x( z) =
q( z)dz

ilvGD z s

Entrainment rate
-Based on the observation that, under equilibrium conditions during
adiabatic operation, the entrainment and deposition rates equal.
Dd=CE=E
Where CE is droplet concentration under equilibrium conditions
It is assumed that the same relationship holds away from equilibrium.
CE can be correlated as a function of i/

C E (kg / m 3 )

i /
Correlation of equilibrium entrained droplet concentration
(Hutchinson and Whalley) Form Collier, 1981

To determine i and , the triangular relationship may be used.

[Relations between Wl, dP/dz, & ]
Initial condition:
Given Wl , WE & Wv
So that the above set of ODE can now be solved.
E.g. using an explicit scheme.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Evaluate (Dp/dz) & at z = 0

Evaluate & i
Evaluate C & CE
Evaluate Dd & DE
Evaluate Wl , WE and Wv at z =z+dz
Repeat the process

CHF occurs while Wl =0

Summary
Conservation of liquid film mass

dWl
q
= D[ Dd E ]
dz
ilv
Conservation of entrainment mass

dWE
= D[ E Dd ]
dz
Deposition mass flux

i
Dd = kC = 87
v

l2
WE
D l WE Wv
+
l
v

C is droplet concentration

Entrainment flux

D E = kC E = 87C E

i
v

D l
2
l

Equilibrium entrainment droplet concentration

C E = f n ( i / )
( R ) dP
i =
[
v g]
2
dz
dP
= f n (Wl + WE ,Wv ) , see, e.g., Martinelli correlation
dz
, see, e.g., Martinelli
D
= f n (Wl + W E , WG ), = (1 ) correlation
2
dWG q D
=
dz
ilv

Ishii & Mishima model of Droplet Entrainment Correlation in

Annular Two-Phase Flow
Ref.: Ishii & Mishima, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.32, No.10,
pp.1835-1846, 1989
-Inception criterion
(For Rel >2 for vertical downflow and Rel >160 for vertical up
or horizontal flow for Nu1/15 )

l jv v 1 / 2
1 / 3
0.8
( ) 11.78 N Re l
for Re l < 1635
l
N 0.8

for Re l 1635

N = Viscosity number = l / l ( / g ( l v ))
l jl D
Re l =
l

1/ 2 1/ 2

-For fully developed entrainment (equilibrium entrainment)

El ( Fraction of liquid flux flowing as droplet , jle / jl )

= tanh(7.25 10 7 We1.25 Re l0.25 )
v jv2 D l v 1 / 3
We =
(
)

v
Govan et al. (1988) model for droplet deposition and entrainment in
annular two-phase flow (From: Collier & Thom, 1994)

 v D 1/ 2
)
k(

Dd = kC
if C < 0.3 v
v D 1/ 2
) = 0.18

if C > 0.3 v
k(

v D 1/ 2
k(
) = 0.083(C / v ) 0.65

Deposition correlation of Govan et al. (1988).

-Equilibrium rate of entrainment

E
Gv

D
= 5.75 10 5 (GlF Gl ,crit ) 2 ( 2l )
v

E / Gv
0.316

Gl ,crit corresponding to Re l ,crit

Re l ,crit = exp 5.8504 + 0.4249 v ( l )1 / 2
l v

Rel,crit : critical liquid film

Re No. for the onset of entrainment
(GlF Gl ,crit ) 2

D l
v2

Correlation of equilibrium entrainment

rate (Govan et al. 1988).

Lopezde Bertodano et al.s (1997) Model for entrainment rate

0.925

v 1/ 2

ED
) (Re lf Re l ,crit )
( v ) 0.26
= C Wev ( l
l
v
l

l j f D
Re lf =
= Reynolds number for liquid film flow
l
v jv D
Wev =

C = 4.47 10 7 (Tai may use 4.47 10 5 )

2

The Goven et al.s model for Rel,crit is adopted.

Tais model (2000) for droplet deposition rate

Dd = KC
K=

v D
v 0.422 C 0.65
= 0.036( )
( )

l
v

(From: Tai, 2000)

(From: Tai,2000)

(From: Tai,2000)

5.3 DNB (Departure from Nucleate Boling)

For CHF under subcooled conditions or at low void fractions.
Possible CHF mechanism: bubble crowding and vapor blanketing
near the wall inhibiting enthalpy transport to the fluid core.
Model of Pei and Weisman, 1983
R

Assumption:
m& 3
(1)Under subcooled and low quality
conditions, CHF is caused by the
limited enthalpy transport between
m& 4
the bubbly layer and core. CHF is
a local phenomenon.
(2)At the CHF location, the bubbly
layer is assumed to be at the
maximum thickness that the turbulent
eddy size is insufficient
to transport the bubbles radically.

m2
x2

m 1 , x1

(3) The volume fraction of steam

in the bubbly layer is
determined by a balance the
outward flow of vapor
and inward flow of liquid at the
bubbly layer-core interface.
(4) CHF is reached when x2=x2,critical
The quality corresponds to the
maximum void fraction, which is
possible in a bubblylayer of
independent bubbles just prior to
agglomeration. For elliptically
shaped bubbleswith a length to
diameter ratio of 1/3. (=0.82)

m& 3

m& 4

m2
x2

m1 , x1

x 2 , crit

1
1
=
=
(1 crit )
1 0 . 82
1+ ( l )
1+ v (
)
S
0 . 82
v
crit
l

Where S=1 is assumed, which is valid for

high mass flow rates, G3.5106kg/m2h

q b
= x 2 , crit x 1
i lv G 3
q b = boiling

heat

flux = q CHF

i id
il i d

i=local liquid enthalpy

id=liquid enthalpy at the point of bubble detachment (from Levys model)
il=saturated liquid enthalpy
G3=the mass flow rate from core to the bubbly layer
=corresponding to the fluctuating radial velocity component at the
bubbly layer-core interface

G 3 = G ib
=

v11
1 v11 2 1 v11
exp[ ( ) ] ( )erfc(
)
2 v
2 v
2
2 v
1

v11 = radial velocity produced by vapor generation

qb
=
v ilv

v = standard

deviation

G
= ( )ib

1
= v = [ v l + v lv x ave ]

of radial velocity

fluctuatio n

x ave

1
=
GAi lv

Z CHF

Zd

PH q b
]dz
[
PH q cond
1+

l (i l i )
=
v ilv

q cond

ilv A

(
) < > ( T sub )
H0
=
v lv PH
0

for i i d
for i < i d

ib = turbulent intensity at the bubble layer core interface

= 0.790 (Re)

0 .1

(l v )
(
) [1 + a
]
D
v
Dp

0 .6

0.135

a=
G
0.2
0
.
135
(
)

9.7 10 6

if G 9.7 10 6 kg / m 2 h
if G > 9.7 10 6 kg / m 2 h

39 < ave >

GD
Re =
, ave = l exp[2.55 < ave > /(1
)]
ave
64
ave

1
=
v 1 x ave
1+ ( )
l
x ave

To evaluate average quality (xave ) and liquid enthalpy(i),

an iteration procedure is required.
lRange of application (for round tubes)
P=20-205bar, G=3.510649106 kg/m2h
Tube length = 0.35360cm, D=0.1153.75cm
CHF 0.6

Macrolayer dryout model-Kattos model

Ref.: Kattlo, Y., 1990, A Physical Approach to Critical Heat Flux
of Subcooled Flow Boiling in Round Tubes, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, vol.33 pp.611-620; and Katto, 1992, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, vol.35, pp.1115-1123.

0 =
v v ilv 2
(0.0584 ) v 0.4
( ) (1 +
)
(
)
2
l
l v q b
q b = q hl 0 (Tw Tl )
= q (1 0.00435 Bo 0.5 )
( 230 Bo 0.5 1)Tsub
hl 0
230 Bo 0.5

(Katto,1990)

-Bubble length in the axial direction

2 ( v + l )
Lb =
v lU b2
-Bubble velocity
U b = ku
y+

+
u = 5.0 + 5.0 ln( y+ / 5)
5.5 + 2.5 ln( y + )

0 < y+ 5
5 < y+ 30
30 < y+

u + = u / u ; u = w / ; y + = 0 u / v

1 G2
w = f
8

1 xt
x
= t +
v
l
= v + l (1 )(1 + 2 . 5 )

 242[1 + k1 (0.355 )][1 + k 2 (0.100 )] Re 0.8

[0.0197 + ( v / l ) 0.733 ] [1 + 90.3( v / l ) 3.68 ]

k=
22.4[1 + k 3 (0.355 )] Re 0.8

( v / l )1.28
3.76, if < 0.355
k1 =
0 , if > 0.355

> ( v )b
l
l
v
v
< ( )b
l
l

2.62 , if < 0.100

, k2 =
, if > 0.100
0

1.33 , if < 0.355

,k 3 =
, if > 0.355
0

( v / l ) b is given by
[ 0 .0197 + ( v / l ) b0 .733 ][1 + 90 .3( v / l ) b3 .68 ]
0 .09256
( v / l ) 1b.28
[1 + k 1 ( 0 .355 )][1 + k 2 ( 0 .100 )]
=
1 + k 3 ( 0 .355 )

-Void fraction and true quality

1

=
1+ (

v 1 xt
)(
)
l
xt
xe
1)
xe ,d
x
exp( e 1)
xe ,d

xe x e,d exp(
xt =

1 x e,d

x e = thermodynamic quality =

i il
ilv

xe,d = thermodynamic quality at the bubble departure point

(based on Saha & Zubers model)
x e,d

q DCpl

0.0022 i k
lv l
=
q
154

Gilv

GCpl D
Pe =
kl

, Pe < 70000
, Pe > 70000

-Friction factor
1
f

= 2.0 log10 (Re/

f ) 0.8 ; Re =

GD
l

-Bubble passing time

= Lb / U b
-Critical heat flux: The minimum heat flux to extinguish
a sublayer of initial thickness by evaporation during the period .

= 0 l ilv / = 0 l ilvU b / Lb
qCHF

(Katto, 1990)
<0.7

307

1.012

0.132

USSR
Scientific
Council (1972)

270

1.050

0.105

Thompson/MacBeth,
1964

R-11

37

1.039

0.271

Purcupile et al., 1973

R-12

53

1.064

0.291

Katto/Yokoya, 1982;
Katto/Ashida, 1982

R-113

35

1.494

0.387

Coffield et al., 1969

51

1.165

0.145

Papell et al., 1966

11

1.038

0.179

Katto/Yokoya, 1984

1.147

0.260

Ogata/Sato, 1976

(Katto, 1990b)

<0.7

(mm)

(MPa)

kgm-2s-1

xe

374

307

2.9-19.6

500-5000

0-0.835

270

270

3.4-13.8

37

37

R-12

53

53

1.9-3.4

35010360
13908800
770-5400

0.010-0.493

R-11

7.7211.07
12.47

R-113

35

35

10.2

0.9-2.2

0.005-0.544

51

51

12.80

0.5-1.7

12805600
550-2260

11

11

0.199

35-90

0.021-0.191

1.09

0.194-0.199

79-104

0.034-0.216

1.0-2.5

0.155-0.619
0.004-0.264

0.042-0.477

5.4 Some Well-known Correlations (for a uniform heat flux distribution)

Ref.: Collier & Thome, Ch.8 & Ch.9

) min (qCHF
) (qCHF
) max
(qCHF
For a uniform heat flux

(Tsub ) i
) min =
( qCHF
, (i.e. Tw = Tsat )
( 4 z / GCp l D ) + (1 / hl 0 )
q
Recall that Tw ( z ) =
+ Tl ( z )
hl 0
z
1
2
and (G D )Cp l [Tl ( z ) Tl ,i ] = q Ddz = q Dz
0
4
4q Dz
4q z
Tl ( z ) = Tl ,i +
= Tl ,i +
2
GCp l D
GD Cp l

q
4q z
1
4z

=q [
+
] + Tli
Tw ( z ) =
+ Tl ,i +
hl 0
GCp l D
hl 0 GCp l D
Tw ( z ) Tsat
q [

4z
1
+
] + Tl ,i Tsat
GCp l D hl 0

Tsat Tl ,i
) min
q
= (q crit
4z
1
+
GCp l D hl 0
) max
(q crit

GDilv
Cpl (Tsub ) i
=
[1 +
], (i.e. x = 1)
4z
ilv

Recall that
z
1
2
,maxDz
(G D )[Cpl (Tsat Tl ,i ) + xilv ] = q Ddz = qCHF
0
4

 ,max .Thus,
Note that x = 1 for qCHF
) max
( qCHF

GDilv
Cpl ( Tsub ) i
=
[1 +
]
4z
ilv

= f n (G , (Tsub ) i , P, D, z )
qCHF

GCp l D
slope =
4z

Possible area for

CHF condition

4z
1
slope =
+

hl0
GCp l D

( T sub ) i , inlet

subcooling

From: Collier & Thome, 1994

q DL
i ii =
m&
i il
xe =
ilv

From: Collier & Thome, 1994

The effect of tube length on critical heat flux at fixed exit conditions.
(From: Collier & Thome, 1994)

From: Tong

Development of correlation
-Barnett and Macbeth approach

= A + B(isub ) i ( Note that isub = (Tsub )Cpl )

qcrit
and recall that

4q z
x ( z )ilv + (isub ) i =
( for uniform heat flux)
DG
4q z
(i sub ) i =
x ( z )ilv
DG

q CHF

z
4 q CHF
x ( z )ilv ]
= A + B[
DG

qCHF

A Bx( z )ilv
=
4 Bz
1
DG

The above equation can be written as:

= M + Nx( z ) & M , N = f n (G , P, D)
q CHF
Bilv
A
M =
or N =
4 Bz
4 Bz
1
1
DG
DG
N
M
,B =
Thus, A =
1 ( 4 Nz / DGilv )
ilv 4 Nz / DG

Recall that

= A + B (i sub ) i
qCHF
( N )(i sub ) i
Milv
=
+
ilv 4 Nz / DG ilv 4 Nz / DG
DGilv
M(
) + DG (i sub ) i / 4
4N
=
DGilv
+z
4N


qCHF

A + DG (i sub ) i / 4
=
C + z

Bowrings correlation

DGilv
A = 2.317[
]F1 /[1.0 + 0.0143F2 D 1 / 2 G ]
4
C = 0.077 F3 DG /[1.0 + 0.347 F4 (G / 1356) n ]
n = 2.0 0.00725 P

: W / m 2 , (i sub ) i : J / kg , z : m
qCHF
D : m, G : kg / m 2 s, ilv : J / kg , P : bar

Data parameters ranger: (for water)

Pressure(P): 2190 bar ;Tube diameter (D): 0.0020.045m
Tube length(z): 0.153.7m ;Mass velocity (G): 136-18600kg/m2s
The RMS error: 7%

From Collier & Thome, 1994

-Biasi correlation (in Cogs units)

1.883 10 3 f ( P )
=
qCHF
[ 1 / 6 x( z )] for the low quality region
n 1/ 6
D G
G
3.78 10 3 h( P )
2
=
qCHF
[
1

x
(
z
)]
for
the
high
quality
region
(
G
<
30
g
/
cm
)
0.6
n
D G
where n = 0.4 for D 1cm
n = 0.6 for D < 1cm
f ( P) = 0.7249 + 0.099 P exp( 0.032 P )
8.99 P
h( P ) = 1.159 + 0.149 P exp( 0.019 P ) +
10 + P 2
in W / cm 2 and P in bar
where qCHF

Range of parameters for the data bank

0.3cm < D < 3.75cm
20cm < z < 600cm
2.7bar< P <140bar
10g/cm2s< G <600g/cm2s
RMS error for over 4500 data points 7.26 %

-The General Electric Co. design equation for predicting

CHF based on the lower envelop of its data is (Janssen & Levy, 1962)
For 1000 Psia

qCHF
G
= 0.705 + 0.237 6
for x < x1
6
10
10

qCHF
G
= 1.634 0.270 6 4.710 x
for x1 < x < x1
6
10
10

qCHF
G
= 0.605 + 0.164 6 0.653x
for x 2 < x
6
10
10
x1 = 0.197 0.108G / 10 6 ,
in Btu / hrft 2
q CHF

x 2 = 0.254 0.026G / 10 6

G in lbm / hrft 2

For other pressures

(at P ) = q CHF
(at 1000 Psia ) + 440(1000 P )
q CHF

Range of application
P=600 to 1450 Psia
G=0.4106 to 6.0106 lbm/hrft2
x=negative to 0.45
De=0.245 to 1.25 in
L=29 to 108 inches
In 1971 Slifer and Hench reported the General Electric lower
envelop correlation
For low-mass-velocity CHF at pressures less than 1000 Psia.
For G<0.5106 lbm/hrft2
For 0.5106G0.75106 lb/hrft2

qCHF
= 0.84 x
6
10

qCHF
= 0.80 x
6
10

(From L.S. Tong, 1972 Boiling Crisis and Critical Heat Flux TID25887 NTIS.)

-W-3 correlation
For uniform heat flux dist.

qCHF
= {(2.002 0.0004302P ) + (0.1722 0.0000984P )
6
10
exp[(18.177 0.004129P ) x]}
[(0.1484 1.596 x + 0.1729 x x )(G / 10 6 ) + 1.037]
(1.157 0.869 x)
[0.2664 + 0.8357 exp(3.15De)]
[0.8258 + 0.000794( H sat H in )]
in Btu / hrft 2
qCHF

P=1000 to 2300 Psia

G=1.0106 to 5.0106 lbm/hrft2
Xloc=0.25 to 0.15
De=0.2 to 0.7 in
L=10 to 144 inches

Heated perimeter
= 0.88 to 1.00
Wetted perimeter
Geometries = circular tube, rectangular channel and bare rod bundle.
For nonuniform heat flux

, NU = qCHF
, EU / Fc
qCHF
C

Fc =

lcrit

(1 exp(Cl crit , EU )) q ( z ) exp(C (l crit , NU z ))dz

qlocal
0

(1 xcrit ) 4.31
1
C = 0.15
in
(G / 10 6 ) 0.478
(1 xcrit ) 7.9
1
C = 0.44
in
( From : Collier & Thome, 1994)
6 1.72
(G / 10 )

q(z)c Local critical heat flux(103Btu/hft2)

<x(z)> Local quality

Heat flux versus quality at location at BT, Freon-114 annulus data, D1=0.563in

D2=0.875in., 6- and 12-ft heated length, various axial profiles, P=123 psia,
G=0.54106lb/hft2(Shiralkar, 1972) (From: Lahey & Moody, p100)

Explanation for Fc

h
Liquid core

dz

VH

VH

d ( VH
+
dz

dz

Bubble layer

Energy Balance:
d ( VH )
1
q Pdz + VHSP = H
dz ]SP
( H H b ) Pdz + [ VH +
Cp
dz
d (H H b )
Cpq

+ C(H H b ) = C
dz
h
h
C=
VSCp

For a uniform heat flux

Cpq H
(1 exp(Cz ))
H ( z) H b =
h

For a nonuniform heat flux

Cp
q ( z ) exp(C ( z z ))dz
H ( z) H b = C

h
By assuming that CHF occurs at a limiting value of
superheat in the liquid sublayer,

[ H ( z ) H b ]crit ,U = [ H ( z ) H b ]crit , NU
, EU
q crit

C
=
1 exp(Cl crit , EU )

lcrit , NU

q ( z ) exp(C (l
0

crit , NU

z ))dz

-EPRI-1 correlation
Ref.: Parametric study of CHF Data Volume 2 : A Generalized
Sub-channel CHF Correlation for PWR and BWR Fuel
Assemblies, EPRI-NP-2609.
Primary objective: To develop a generalized subchannel CHF correlation
based on the local fluid conditions obtained with the
COBRA-IIIC thermal hydraulic subchannel code and
covering PWR and BWR normal operating conditions
as well as hypothetical loss-of-coolant accident
(LOCA) conditions.
CHF-correlation
3607 CHF data points
65 test sections simulating PWR and BWR fuel assemblies.
Pressure: 200 to 2450 Psia
Mass flux: 0.2 to 4.1 Mlbs/hrft2
Quality: -0.25 to 0.75
The correlation predicated the source data with an RMS error of 7.2%
and average ratio of 0.995.

-cold wall effect

-grid spacers effect
-non-uniform axial heat flux(evaluated using 933 CHF data points
from 23 test section with eight types of axial heat flux profiles.)
The correlation predicated the non-uniform axial heat flux data with
an RMS error of 8.6% and average ratio of 1.00
The present correlation represents significant improvement in
predicating CHF over wide range of conditions.
Correlation

qCHF

A xin
=
xl xin
C+(
)
ql

 = Critical heat flux in MBtu / hrft 2

qCHF
ql = Local heat flux in MBtu / hrft 2
xin = Inlet quality
xl = local quality
A, C = f n ( pressure & mass flux)
A = P1 PrP2 G ( P5 + P7 PR )
C = P3 PrP4 G ( P6 + P8 PR )
Pr =

, G in Mlbm / hrft 2

Pcritical
P1=0.5328, P2=0.1212, P3=1.6151, P4=1.4066, P5=0.3040, P6=0.4843
P7=0.3285, P5=2.0749
Using 3607 CHF data points from 65 fuel assembly test sections
including 33, 44 & 55.

Data covering range

Mass flux (G):0.2 to 4.1 Mlbm/hrft2
Pressure 200 to 2450 Psia
xl 0.25 to 0.75
xin 1.10 to 0.0
Length 30 to 168 in
Hyd. dia. 0.35 to 0.55 in
Rod dia. 0.38 to 0.63 in
Average ratio
N

Rave = ( Ri ) / N
i =1

RMS error
N

RMS = [( ( Ri 1) 2 ) / N ]1 / 2
i =1

Standard deviation
N

STD = [( ( Ri Rave ) ) / N ]
2

i =1

1/ 2

Predicted CHF
Ri =
Experimental CHF

Precision of correlation in predicting the source data

NPTS = 3607
Rave=0.995
RMS=7.20%
STD=7.20%
Correction for nonuniform heat flux effect
q =

A xin
x xin
CC nu + [ l
]

qlocal

C nu = 1 +

(Y 1)
1+ G

1 L
Y = q z / qldz
L 0
ql is location being considered

CHAPTER 6 Post Dryout Heat Transfer

Vapor
Liquid droplets
Liquid
q

Vapor
flow
Liquid deficient region
Film boiling (inverted annular flow)
Topics to be discussed
-Film boiling heat transfer (Inverted annular flow)
-Heat transfer in the liquid deficient region
(High void fraction film boiling)
-Minimum film boiling temperature
-Transition boiling heat transfer

6.1 Film Boiling with Inverted Annular Flow Pattern

Film boiling on vertical surface
Brmoleys model
Ref.: Chemical Engineering Progress, vol.46, No.5, p.221-227
G.E. for vapor flow

d 2u
v 2 = g(l v )
dy
Boundary conditions

q Vapor

1.at y = 0 , u = 0
du
=0

2.at y = , dy y =
u = 0

Liquid

case ( a )
case ( b )

x
y

Solution for u(y)

g
1
1 2
u( y ) = ( l v )[ C y y ]
v
2
2
2
C=
1

case ( a )
case ( b )

x+dx
q

-Heat transfer
It is assumed that heat travels
x
through vapor film by conduction. Thus

dw
T
ilv
dx = k v
dx

dx

dw
dx
dx
d
( x) +
dx
dx
w( x ) +

w( x )
( x)

T=Tsat

( x )+ ddx dx

( x)
dw

w( x) +
dx w( x) = v u ( y )dy u ( y )dy
dx
0
0

( x )

g
1
1
1
( l v ) [ C 3 3 ]
v
2
2
3

u( y )dy =
0

( x )+

d
dx
dx

u( y )dy =
0

g
1 C
d
1
d
( l v ) [ ( + dx )3 ( + dx )3 ]
v
2 2
dx
3
dx
g
1 C
d
d
( l v ) [ ( 3 + 2
dx + 2 2
dx LL )
v
2 2
dx
dx
1
d
d
( 3 + 3 2
dx + 2 2
dx LL ) ]
3
dx
dx

( x )+

d
dx
dx

u ( y ) dy

( x )

u ( y ) dy =
0

g
1 C 1
d
( l v ) [
] 3 2
dx
v
2 2 3
dx

dw
g
1 C 1
d
= v ( l v ) [
] 3 2
dx
v
2 2 3
dx
ilv v

g
3 C 1
d
T sat
( l v ) [
]2
= kv
v
2 2 3
dx

d =

k v T sat v
3 C 1
v ilv g ( l v ) [
]
2 2 3

dx

Boundary condition:
=0 at x=0

8k v Tsat v x
( x) =

1
C
3[ ]ilv g v ( l v )

2 3

1/ 4

Thus, the local heat transfer coefficient is:

C 1
3( 2 3 )
kv
h( x ) =
=

( x)
8

1/ 4

ilv g v ( l v )k

x
sat v

3
v

1/ 4

The average heat transfer coefficient over the vertical plate is:
ilv g v ( l v )kv3
1 L
h = 0 h( x )dx = C1

L
T
L

sat v

1/ 4

C 1
3( )
4 2 3
C1 =

3
8

For case a C=2 C1=0.943 (Zero stress at film surface)

case b C=1 C1=0.666 (Zero velocity at film surface)
Considering the sensible heat of vapor:
ilv = is replaced by ilv = ilv [1 + 0.34

C p v T
]
ilv

vapor properties evaluated at film temperature(Tf=(Tw+Tsat)/2)

1/ 4

-Film boiling heat transfer from a horizontal surface

Berensons model
Ref.: J. Heat Transfer, vol.83, pp.351-358,1961

Actual shape of liquid-vapor interface

Liquid

Vapor

Solid

r1

z
P

Vv

Physical model of film boiling from a horizontal surface

h=

k vf

k vf

=
2.35[

vf k vf Tsat
ilv vf g ( l v )

]1 / 4
g(l v )

k
i

g
(

)
vf lv vf
l
v

= 0.425

vf Tsat

g ( l v )

Where the subscript vf stands for vapor properties evaluated at

Tf=(Tw+Tsat)/2
Analysis in Berensons model
l gH

H
P1

r2

Vapor film
P2

1/ 4

-Momentum equation in the vapor film

dP
d 2u
= vf
dr
dz 2
Boundary condition
z = 0

at
z =

du
Consider
dz

u=0
u = 0
du = 0
dz
= 0 first as an example,
z =

d 2u
1 dP
2 =
A
vf dr
dz

du
1 dP
=
z + C1 = Az + C1
dz vf dr

1
u ( z ) = Az 2 + C1 z + C 2
2

u ( z = 0) = 0 C 2 = 0
du
dz

= 0 C1 = A
z =

u( z) =

A 2
z A z
2

for

du
dz

=0
z =a

So the average velocity

A 2
1
U = u ( z )dz = (1)
0
3

du
w = vf
dz

z =0

A 2 3
3U
= vf ( A ) = vf A = vf (
) = vf
3

The force balance requires that

dP 1
= w ( In fact , this is approximat ely correct only )
dr
3U
= vf 2

Similarly, for u(z=)=0,

12U
dP
= vf 2
dr

From the energy balance

q (r22 r 2 ) = 2r vf U (r )ilv

dP
P+
dr
dr

r + dr

and assuming that heat transfer through the film is by conduction

(i.e. the flow is laminar)
q = k vf

T sat

2
2

k vf T sat 2
U(r )=

vf ilv 2 2 r

r
k vf T sat 2
dP

= vf 2

vf ilv 2 2 r
dr

where r22 =

1 2

3
=
12

du
=0
dz z =
for u ( z = ) = 0
for

 = 2 3

g(l v )

U(r)

r
r2
r2
kvf Tsat
dP
2

dr = v 2
(
)dr
2
vf ilv r1
2 r
r1 dr
2

Db
= 2.35
r1 =
2
g ( l v )
2
r =
2
2
2

8 vf k vf Tsat
P2 P1 =
4 vf ilv g ( l v )

Assume H Db

H = 3.2
g(l v )

r2

Noting that

P2 P0 = H l g
2
P1 P0 = H v g +
R
2
P2 P1 = H ( l v ) g
R
1
( R = Db )
2

1.09 vf k vf Tsat
=
vf g ( l v )ilv

g ( l v )

1.09 vf k vf Tsat
= 1.4
vf g ( l v )ilv

1/ 4

g ( l v )

1/ 4

where1.4is to account for the ratio of total area /the area between bubble

2.6
vf k vf Tsat
= or
1.9 vf g ( l v )ilv

g ( l v )

depending on value of

1/ 4

The experimental data suggest that

vf kvf Tsat
= 2.35
vf g ( l v )ilv

g ( l v )

1/ 4

3
k vf
k vf i lv vf g ( l v )

h=
= 0 . 45

vf T sat
g( l v )

Cp v T sat
]
i lv = i lv [1 + 0 . 50
i lv

1/ 4

-Film boiling on horizontal cylinders

Following similar procedure to that for a vertical surface, Bromley
obtained the following equation for film boiling heat transfer
coefficient on horizontal cylinders.
h = C1 [

ilv g vf ( l vf )k vf3

0.724
C1 =
0.512

Tsat vf D

]1 / 4

zero shear stress at the vapor liquid interface

zero velocity at the vapor liquid interface

Breen & Westwater correlation (1962)

h = [ 0.59 + 0.069 T / D ][

T = 2
g ( l v )

ilv gvf ( l vf )k vf3

Tsat vf T

]1/ 4

(Breen & Westwaater, 1962)

-Film boiling on spheres

Dhir & Lienhard

3
h = hcond + hr
4
qr
SB ( Tw2 + Tsat2 )( Tw + Tsat )
hr =
=
Tw Tsat
1 / w + 1 / l 1
-Film boiling heat transfer considering thermal radiation

h = 0.67[

ilv g vf ( l vf )k vf3
Tsat vf D

1/ 4

Application of boundary layer theory for inverted

annular flow film boiling
Ref: Sakurai et al., 1990, A General Correlation for Pool Film
Boiling Heat Transfer From a Horizontal cylinder to subcooled
liquid Part I & Part II. J. Heat Transfer, vol. 112 pp.430-450.

Governing Equations

( k uk ) + ( k vk ) = 0
x
y

k = v, l

Tk
Tk
2Tk
( Cp) k (u k
+ vk
) = kk
x
y
y 2

k = v, l

u k
u k
2uk
k uk
+ k vk
= g x ( k k ) + k
x
y
y 2
g x = g sin( x / R ) vertical surface
gx = g
horizontal cylinder
Boundary Conditions
At y=0

uv = vv = 0, Tv = Tw

k = v, l

At y=

At y=

uv = ul
ul 0 , Tl T
uv
ul
v
= l
y
y
Tv = Tl = Tsat
Tv
Tl
"
kv
+ qr = k l
+ Gi ilv
y
y
Where Gi is the interfacial mass transfer rate,
d

Gi = v uv
vv = l ul
vl
dx

dx

qr" ( ) = qrp" ( ) /
( ) = sin /
1

1
( ) = 4 sin 3 ' d '
o

sb
4
4
q =
(Tw Tsat )
1/ w + 1/ l 1
"
rp

1
= ( ) d = 0.6122
o

Similarity Transform
Sakura et al. defined the following similarity variables.

k
f k ( k ) =
, k = l, v
M k ( )
Tv Tsat
Tl T
v (v ) =
, l (l ) =
Tw Tsat
Tsat T
( ) y k
k = N k
dy , k = l, v

o
r
ks
where
ks k
ks k
uk =
; vk =
,
k y
k x

M k = v vs g ( l ks )r /(v ks )

N k = M k / vvs

2
ks

k = l, v

k = l, v
k = l, v

Thus,
'

( k ) k '
Cp k
'

+
3
Pr
f

k
ks
k k = 0

Cp ks
( k ) ks
'

( ) k "
'
f

2
f
k
k

( ) ks

( )

k = l, v

( l k ) / k
+ 3 fk f +
=0
( l ks ) / ks
"
k

At v = 0
f v ( ) = f v' ( ) = 0,

v ( ) = 1

At l

f l' = l' = 0
and interfacial conditions. Numerical solutions is required.

k = l, v

Sakurai et al., 1990

Approximate solutions
-Neglect convective terms in
all the conservation equation
-Vapor flow is driven by
buoyancy force
-Liquid flow is driven by
vapor flow.

g ( l v ) 2 g ( l v )
uv =
y +
2 v
2v

+ 2

l
+ y
v

l / v
g ( l v )
g ( l v ) 2 ( l / v )( / )
ul =
z+
2 l
l / v + /
2 l
l / v + /
Tv = Tw ( y / ) (Tw Tsat )
Tl = Tsat ( z / ) (Tsat T )

Consider energy balance at the interface

d
kv (Tw Tsat ) kl (Tsat T )
ilv ' vuv dy =

dx o

k l (Tsat T )
d
Cpl o l ul (Tl T ) dz =
dx

Thus,
d 3
Cl
( ml ) =

dx

d 3
Cv1 Cv 2
( mv ) =

dx

Where

mv = ( f + 4 ) /( f + ),

ml = f /( f + )
2

Cv1 = 12 v kv (Tw Tsat ) /[i g v ( l v )]

'
lv

Cv 2 = 12 v kv (Tsat Tw ) /[i g v ( l v )]
'
lv

C l = 6 l k l /[ gCp l v ( l v )]
f = l / v

= /

-Integration of above two equations yields

4 4C l ( f + o )
=
x
3 f o3

4 4( f + o ) (C v1 o C v 2 )
=
x
3( f + 4 o ) o

Combined above two equations and solve for 0

o = U + V + C v 2 /(3C vl )
Where

U = W1 + W2

V = W1 W2

W1 = [C v 2 (3C v )] + 2Cv 2 C1 /(3 fC ) + Cl /(2C v1 )

3

2
v1

W2 = [4C v22 /( 27 fC v1 ) + 2C v 2 / 3 64C l /( 27 f 2 )]

[C l /( fC )] + [C l /(2C v1 )] + (C l / C v1 )[C v 2 /(3C v1 )]

2

3
v1

Thus,

4Cl ( f + o ) x
=

3
3
f

The heat flux distribution is given by:

q " = k v

(Tw Tsat )
( x)

Thus, the average heat flux can be obtained as

1 L "
4 k v (Tw Tsat )
"
q ave = q x dx =
( L)
L o
3
The average Nusselt number for vertical surfaces can then be obtained as:

NuvL

[
q
=

"
ave

1
(Tw Tsat ) L
4L
4 34 3
f
4
=
= L
=
M
0
.
793
L

kv
3 ( L) 3 4 Cl ( f + o )
3
o

For a horizontal cylinder

3

Nu vD

4
hcon D 3 14
1
D
=
= 4 0.728 Nu vL = 0.612M 4
kv
4
L

Where

{
M = {Gr

} {E [1 + E (Sp Pr )]} (R Pr Sp )
)]} {E [1 + E (Sp Pr )]} (R Pr Sp )

M L = GrvL Prv il' v [Cp v (Tw Tsat )]

vD

[Cp v (Tw Tsat

'
v lv

Pr i

E = A+C B

) + (A C B )
1

+ (1 3) Sc

A = (1 27) Sc3 + (1 3)R 2 Sp Prl Sc + (1 4)R 2 Sp 2 Prl2

B = ( 4 27 )Sc 2 + (2 3)Sp Prl Sc (32 27 )Sp Prl R 2
+ (1 4 )Sp 2 Prl2 + (2 27 )Sc 3 / R 2

C = (1 2 )R 2 Sp Prl

il' v = ilv [1 + 0.5Cp v (Tw Tsat ) ilv ]

Sc = Cp l (Tsat T ) ilv '

Sp = Cp l (Tw Tsat ) (ilv ' Prv )

R = [v v ( l l )] 2
1

GrvL = g ( l v ) L3 ( v vv )
2

GrvD = g ( l v ) D ( v vv )
3

Note that

GrVD Prv ilv '

g v ( l v ) il v ' D 3
=
Cp v (Tw Tsat )
v k v (Tw Tsat )
GrvL Prv ilv '
g v ( l v ) ilv ' L3
=
Cp v (Tw Tsat )
v k v (Tw Tsat )

Thus, for a vertical surface

hcon L

g v ( l v ) i l v ' k v

v (Tw Tsat ) L

and for a horizontal cylinder

hcon D

g v ( l v ) i lv ' k v

v (Tw Tsat ) D

These expressions are same as those derived by the

simplied model of Bromley.

6.2 Heat Transfer in the Liquid Deficient Region

From: M.Andreani & G. Yadiaroglu Prediction Methods for Dispersed

Flow Film Boiling Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol.20 suppl. Pp.1-51, 1994.

Thermal nonequilibrium vapor is superheated

q
Vapor
flow

Liquid deficient region

Major heat transfer mechanisms
Heat transfer from the surface to liquid droplet by either wet
)
collisions or dry collision (q wd
)
Convective heat transfer from the surface to the bulk vapor (q wv
Convective heat transfer from the bulk vapor to suspended droplets
)
in the vapor core (q vd

Bounding surface temperatures

-Upper bound: complete departure from equilibrium all the heat added
to fluid goes intosuperheating the vapor (toward this situation at low
pressures and low velocity)
-Lower bound: compete thermodynamic equilibrium all the heat added
to fluid goes to evaporate the liquid droplets and Tg=Tsat. Surface
temperature decreases as a result of increasing the vapor flow due to
evaporation. Toward this situation at high pressure approaching the
critical condition and high flow rates (>3000 kg/m2s)

From: Collier, 1981

Thermodynamic quality vs. actual quality (for uniform heat flux)

-Thermodynamic quality (equilibrium quality) xe
xe xd

q 4( z z d 0 )
=
Gilv
D

-Actual quality (for vapor superheat of Tv-Tsat present)

x a x d =

q 4( z z d 0 ) C pv (Tv Tsat )

Gilv
D
ilv

C pv (Tv Tsat )
xe x a =
ilv

-relation between xd0 and zd0

xd 0

dryout

q 4 z d 0 i sub,i
=
+
ilv
Gilv D

isub ,i

subcooling enthalpy at tube inlet

zd0
xd0

Semi-theoretical model of Bennett et al (Ref. :Collier, 1981)

=0
-Assume q wd
-Assume the droplet number flow rate (N) is constant along the
tube that is no drop breakup or coalescence occurs. But rd may
be changed due to evaporation.
-Mass balance gives

dx a
N l d 4 3
[ rd ]
= ( 1)
dz
G dz 3
N l 4 2 drd
rd
=
G
dz
-Energy balance equation

G (1 x d 0 )
N=
4 3
rd 0 l
3
rd : radius of the droplet

dTv
dxa
AGxa Cpv
= q D AGilv
dz
dz

-Momentum eq.
For liquid droplets
dud
v
1.16
ud
= [kl (uv u d ) g (1 )]
dz
l
v0.84 v0.16
kl = 20.25
1.84

(
2
)
r
l d

kl (uv u d )1.16 : drag force

v
) : bouyancy force
l
uv: vapor velocity ;ud: droplet velocity
g (1

-Evaporation of droplets (Ryleys model)

drd 1 drd2 1
=
( Note dz = u d dt )

dz 2rd dt u d
k v = self diflusion coef .in the vapor
2
drd
= Mk v ( 1) / v R
= (1)k v F (Tv Tsat ) / l ilv
dt

F = ventilation factor

M: molecular weight
R: universal gas constant

v (u v u d ) v 1 / 3
d ( l / v )
= 1 + 0.276
(
)
= (1)

v
dP

kv v

at saturation the state

-Using the Runge-Kutta method to solve this problem

P=69bar, vertical tube, L=5.8m, i.d=12.6mm 2rd=0.3mm(rd is an assumed

value) (From: Collier, 1981)

Empirical correlations for liquid deficient film boiling heat transfer

-Dougall & Rohsenow Correlation
k v 0.8 0.4
h = 0.023 Re 2 Prv
D
where
GD

Re 2 =
[ xe + v (1 xe )]
v
l
see more correlations in Groeneveld & Snoek, 1986.
6.3 The minimum film boiling temperature
Ref. A. Sakurai, Film Boiling Heat Transfer, Proc. of 9th Int.
Heat Transfer Conference, vol.1, pp.157-186.

Tmin = (1 + Ra)TI RaTsat

= TI + Ra(TI Tsat )

k l l Cpl
Ra =

Cp
s s s

1/ 2

20( P / Pcr ) T : contact interface

I
TI = 0.92Tcr 1 0.26 exp
temperature
;Pcr in kPa
(1 + 1700 / Pcr )

It is expected that the minimum film boiling temperature on a solid

surface with any thermal physical properties in ay liquid can be
evaluated by above eq.(Sakurrai, 1990)

Minimum temperature vs. system

pressure for cylinders of 1.2 and 3.0
mm diameters in Freon-11

Minimum temperature vs. system

pressure for platinum and gold cylinders
of 2.0 and 3.0 mm diameters in water.

6.4 Transition boiling

q
Nucleate boiling

Transition
boiling

qCHF

q min

Tw Tsat

Film boiling

Typical surface temperature history Typical local surface temperature

history for a liquid-solid contact.
From: Lee, (J.C.) Chen and Nelson.

Model of Pan et al (1989)

Ref.: Pan et al, The Mechanism of Heat Transfer in Transition Boiling
, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.32 No.7 pp.1337-1349, 1989.

(a) bubble departing (b) transient conduction

(d) macrolayer evaporation

(c) boiling incipience

and heat transfer

(e) vapour covering

Vapor bubble

Vapor bubble

V
Uv

Ul

c
Liquid film Vapor stem
Heated surface
(macrolayer)
vapor structure near heated
surface at high heat fluxes

Liquid film
Pool boiling at high fluxes on a
horizontal flat plate

: vapor bubble hovering time.

tme: time interval of macrolayer evaporation.
<tme: nucleate boiling.
=tme: critical heat flux.(Haramura & Kattos model, 1983)
>tme: transition boiling / film boiling.

= q me
F + q r (1 F )
qtot

From M.Shoji, 1992

From: Katto, 1992

-Wall temperature during transient contact conduction

n

n
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
Tw T

TI = T +
erfc
b2 (1 + b1 )

( t )
n = 0 (1 + b )(1 + b )
(1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
1
2
c

(n + 1)
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
+ b2 (1 b1 )
erfc

n =0 (1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
( c t )

b1 = [(kCp) c (kCp) h ]

b2 = [(kCp) c (kCp) l ] 2
1

--Effective liquid thermal conductivity

k eff = k l + k t = k l + ( Cp ) l t
3/ 4

T
T
(

1/ 2
w
b
t = C ( g )

3/ 2
g
(
)

T
l
v

w
C = 1.00 empirical cons tan t

--Incipience criterion

Tl ( y = rc , t ) Tv = Tsat

2 Tsat vlv
+
rc ilv

x
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
Tw T
n

Tl ( y, t ) = T +
erfc
+
b2 (1 + b1 )

(1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
n = 0 (1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
c t

2 lt

n
x
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
(n + 1)

+ b2 (1 b1 )
+

erfc

(
1
+
b
)(
1
+
b
)
2

t
n =0
1
2
l
c

-Macrolayer evaporation heat flux

= q nb
q me

q
Cpl [TI (t = t cd ) Tsat ]
= C sf
1.7
ilv Prl
l ilv
"
nb

g(l v )

0.33

-Macrolayer evaporation time

tme = o lilv / q

"
me

me: from Haramura & Kattas theory

-Vapor hovering period

3

1
3 4( l + v )
5
V
=
l
4 g ( l v )
1

11
16

The average volumetric growth rate of the bubble in the

period of macrolayer evaporation and vapour covering is given by
"
Vl = 2D qave
/ ( vilv )

where D is the most dangerous Taylor wavelength

D = 3 2 [ g ( l v )]
1

In above equation, it is assumed that the unit heater area participating

in the growth of one vapour bubble is 2
D

The average heat flux within these two periods is given as

"
qave

"
qme
tme + ( tme ) qv"
=

t v = t me

-Liquid contact time fraction

tl
t cd + t me
F =
=
t l + t v t cd + t me + t v
-Transition boiling heat flux

t cd + q me
t me + qvt v
qcd
q =
t cd + t me + t v

From: Shoji, 1992

From: Shoji, 1992

From: Pan er al., 1989

From: Shoji, 1992

Empirical Correlation for Transition Boiling (for low quality)

-Aurachers correlation
Ref.: Int. Froid 1988., vol.11, pp.329-335
Nucleate boiling during liquid contact is the major mode of heat transfer.

h
= C ( P )(q / q0)1.3
h0.3
q
Tsat 1/(1 n )
)
, n = 1.3
=(

qCHF
Tsat ,CHF
h0.3: reference heat transfer
coefficient at reduced pressure
of 0.3

From: Auracher, 1988

From: Auracher, 1988

CHPATER7 Basic Equation for Two-Phase Flow

Ref.: Delhaye 1981 & Ishii, 1975.
z

7.1 Basic Mathematical Rules

-Leibniz rule

d
f
v v
fdV =
dV + fv A n dA

t
dt V ( t )
V (t )
A( t )
-Gauss Theorems

v v
v
B ndA = BdV

A(t )

V (t )

v
n Mda = MdV

A( t )

V (t )

y
x

7.2 Review of Basic Equation for Single-Phase Flow

Integral balance in a fixed control volume
v v
d
v
dV = (V n )dA + dV n J dA

dt V
A
V
Conservation
of
Mass
Momentum
Energy

v
V
e

T
v
v
q T V

v
g
v v
g V

( )dV + ( V )dV + JdV dV = 0

V t
V
V
V
v

[ ( ) + ( V ) + J ]dV = 0
V t
Since the control volume is arbitrarily selected,
v

( ) + ( V ) + J = 0
t
v
-Conservation of mass: = V , J = 0, = 0

+ ( V ) = 0
t

-Conservation of momentum: = vv, J = T , = gv

v
vv

v
( V ) + ( V V ) T g = 0
t

v
v
v
V
v
+ V V g + P = 0

t
v
v
v v
-Conservation of energy: = e, J = q T V , = g V

v
v

v v
v
( e) + ( eV ) g V (T V ) + q = 0
t
above equation also be expressed in terms of temperature as:

T v
P v
Cp[
+ V T ] = kT + T [
+ V P ] +
t
t

7.3 Local Instaneous Conservation Equation for Two-Phase Flow

z
y
x

Consider the conservation of some physical quantity

(mass, momentum or energy)

v
d
k k d = k (Vk nk ) dA

k (t )
Ak ( t )
k = l , v dt
k = l,v

k = l, v

k (t )

k k d

k = l, v

Ak ( t )

w
nk J k dA

where k , k , J k represents different

physical quantity as show in the following table
Conservation
of
Mass
Momentum
Energy

k
1

Jk

v
Vk

T k

v
g

ek

v
v"
qk T k Vk

v v
g Vk

Based on the Leibniz rule,

d
k k d =

(
t
)

dt k

v v

k (t ) t ( k k )d + Ak (t ) ( k k )VA nk dA

Ai ( t )

v v
k k Vi n k dA

k = l, v

thus,

v v
d

k k d =
( k k )d + Ai (t ) k kVi nk dA

(
t
)

(
t
)
k
t
dt k
Similarly, based on the Gauss theorem,
v v
v
k k Vk nk dA = ( k k k )d
Ak ( t )

Ak ( t )

nk J k dA =

k (t )

k (t )

Ai ( t )

J k d

Ai ( t )

k = l, v

v v
k k (Vk nk )dA

nk J k dA

Substituting above two equations into the integral conservation equation

yields,
v

(
)
(
)

V
+

k k
k k k
k k d

k ( t ) t

k =l,v
v v

k k (Vk Vi ) n k + nk J k dA = 0
Ai ( t )

k = l,v

Since the control volume is arbitrarily selected, the integrand for both
integrals must be equation to zero.

( k k ) + ( k kVk ) + J k kk = 0
t

(Vv Vv ) nv + nv J k = 0

k
k
i
k
k

k = l, v

k = l, v

k = l, v

-Conservation of mass: k = 1 k = J k = 0

v
k
+ ( kVk ) = 0
t

k = l, v
v
v
-Conservation of momentum: k = g k = Vk J k = T k
,

v
v v

v
( kVk ) + ( kVkVk ) T k k g = 0
t

k = l, v

v
v
v
V k
v
k
+ k Vk V k k g + Pk k = 0
k = l, v
,
t
where k stands for the viscous stresses for the k-phase.

v v
v
v
-Conservation of energy: k = k J k = q" T k V k = g Vk
k
k
v
v

v v

( k ek ) + ( k ekVk ) k g Vk T k Vk + qvk" = 0

k = l, v

The above equation can also expressed in terms of enthalpy or

temperature as:

v
ik
v " Pk v
k
+ kVk ik + qk =
+ Vk Pk + k
, k = l, v
t
t
Tk v

Pk v

k Cp k
+ Vk Tk = k k Tk + k Tk
+ Vk Pk + k
t

-Interfacial jump conditions:

-For mass equation:

v v
v v
l (Vl Vi ) nl + v (Vv Vi ) nv = 0

m& l + m& v = 0
v v
& k k (Vk Vi ) nk
where m
or

k = l, v

k = l, v

-For momentum equation:

v
v
m& lVl + m& vVv nl T l nv T v = 0
v v
m& l (Vl Vv ) nl T l nv T v = 0

If there is no interfacial mass transfer

Pl + nn,l = Pv + nn,v

ns , l = ns , v

If surface tension is considered,

Pl + nn ,l + = Pv + nn ,v ns , l
-For energy equation:

+
= ns , v
s

v
v
v"
v"
m& l el + m& v ev + nl ql + nv qv nl (T l Vl ) nv (T v Vv ) = 0
v
v
v"
v"
m& l el + n l q l n l (T l Vl ) = m& l ev + n l q v n l (T v Vv )

7.4 Local Time-Averaged Conservation Equations 3D Equations

-Limiting from of Leibnitz rule

v
1
f k

f kVi nk
v
T t dt = t T f k dt
k
Tk Vi n
k
k
if f k = 1

v
Vi

Tk = v
t
Tk Vi

n k
n k

or

v
Vi n k
1

k = v
Ts Tk Vi n k
t

-Limiting form of Gauss theorem,

v
v
v
1
n k Bk
v
T Bk dt = T Bk dt +
k
disc Vi n
k
k
1
M k n k
v
T M k dt = T M k dt +
disc V n
k
i
k

if M k = U = unit tensor
n k
1
k = (1) v
T disc Vi n k
-Void fraction vs. liquid fraction

Tv
Tv
v
=
Tl + Tv Ts

Tl
Tl
l = 1v =
=
Tl + Tv Ts

Where Tl and Tv are the sum of time intervals for a local point
occupied by liquid or vapor, respectively, in the time period Ts.
- Derivation of local time-averaged equation
Operate on the local instaneous equation of k-phase by
yields,

1
dt

Ts

1
Ts

1
Ts t ( k k ) dt + Ts

Ts

v
( k k Vk ) dt

1
1
+ J k dt k k dt = 0 ,
k = l, v
T
T
Ts s
Ts s
Based on the limiting form of the Leibnitz rule, the first term of the above
equation can be expressed as:

1
Ts

1
Ts t ( k k ) dt = Ts

Tk

( k k ) dt
t

v
v
1 d
Vi nk
(
(
k k ) dt v
k k ) Vi nk
=

k
Ts dt Tk
Ts Ts Vi n

d Tk
=
dt Ts

Tk

( )
Tk

1
( k k ) Vi n k
dt v
Ts Ts Vi n k

v
Vi n k
d
= k k k v
k k
dt
k
Ts Ts Vi n

where,

1
k k
Tk

Tk

k k dt

Similarly, based on the limiting form of Gauss theorem, the 2nd and 3rd
terms can be expressed as:
1
Ts

v
1
Ts ( k kVk ) dt = Ts

Tk

v
( k k Vk ) dt

v
v
Tk 1
nk ( k kVk )

= ( k kVk )dt +
v
T
Ts Tk k
Ts Ts Vi nk
v
v
nk ( k kVk )
= k k kVk +
v
Ts Vi nk
Ts

1
1
J k dt = J k dt

Ts Ts
Ts Tk

Tk
=
Ts

Tk

nk J k
J k dt + v
Ts Ts Vi nk

Tk

nk J k

= k J k + v

Ts Ts Vi nk
The 4-th term can be rewritten as:

1
Ts

1
Ts kk dt = Ts

Tk

kk dt = Tk 1
Ts Tk

Tk

k k dt = k k k

Thus,

k k k + k k kVk + k J k k kk
t

v
v
V n k
Vk n k
n k J k
= v
k k v
k k v
T T V n
T T V n
T T V n
k
k
k
s
i
s
i
i
s

is the Reynolds stress and

v
M k = ( 1)
Ts

1
v
Ts Vi nk

vd
m& Vv T k n = Vv + P + M
k
k ki
ki
k
k k

is the volumetric interfacial momentum transfer rate.

If surface tension is neglected,

v
v
Ml + Mv = 0

Time-averaged energy equation

)
v
= [ (q

k k ek + k k V k ek
t

)]

k k i k + k k i kVk =
t
v

v
vT
k q k + qk + k P k + Vk ( k P )
t

v
v T
+ qk k Pk V k

v v
nk J k
(V Vk ) nk k k
=
v
v
k
Ts Vi nk
Ts
Ts T Vi n

1
m& k k + J k n k
= (1) v
k
Ts Ts Vi n

k = l, v

Time-averaged conservation of mass

v
1

m& k
k k + k k Vk = (1) v
t
k
Ts Ts Vi n

k = l, v

Timeaveraged conservation of momentum

v
v v

v
k k Vk + k k Vk Vk k T k k k g
t
1
= (1) v
k
Ts Ts Vi n

m& Vv T k
k k

k = l, v

Time-averaged conservation of energy

v
v

v
v v
k k ek + k k ekVk + k q" k Tk Vk k k g Vk
t

v
1
v
v
= (1)
m& k ek T k Vk n k + q"n k k = l, v
k )
T Ts (Vi n
s

Time-averaged properties
-- Density for each phase can be considered as constant in Tk where

k = k

k = l, v

--For other properties,

fk = fk + fk '
1
fk =
Tk

Tk

f k dt

f k ' is the fluctuation and f k ' = 0

f k f k = ( f k + f k ' )( f k + f k ' ) = f k f k + f k ' f k '

Similarly,

fk gk = fk gk + fk ' gk '
Time-averaged mass equations,
v

k k + k k Vk = k
t

k = l, v

k = ( 1)
Ts

1
m& k
v
Ts Vi nk

is the volumetric interfacial mass transfer rate, and

l + v = 0
Time averaged momentum equation

v
v v

k k Vk + k k Vk Vk
t

Where k

[ (

= k P k + k k + k

v v
= k V k 'V k '

)]

v v
+ k k g + M k

k = l, v

T
T
v
v

V k k k + k k + k : V k + ik

Where IC is the volumetric interfacial energy transfer rate and can

be expressed as:

v
v
v
v"

d
ik = k iki + ai q ki Pki k + V k k + M k Vki V k + WkiT
t

7-5 One-Dimensional Two-Fluid Model

-Definitions

1
< f > f dA
A A
where A is the cross section area

< k fk >
<< f k >>
< k >

-Limiting forms of Gauss theorems (Delhaye, 1981)

v v
A F dA = z A Fz dA + C w n F dc

A M dA = z A n z M dA + Cn M dc
w

where Fz is the axial component

v of F, Cw is the contour on the wall
surrounding the wall and n the unit normal outward vector on Cw
-1-D mass conservation equation
1
operate on the time-averaged mass conservation equation by dA
AA

v
1

dA k k + k k Vk = k

A A t

where

1
1

=
(
k k ) dA =
k k dA = k < k >

A A t
t A A
t

v
v
1
1
( k k wk ) dA + C n ( k kVk ) dc
= a k kVk dA =

A
A
z A
w

=
k < k > << wk >>
z
1
= A k dA =< k >
1-D mass conservation equation

k < k > + k < k > << wk >>=< k >

t
z

1-D momentum equation

1
Operate on time-averaged momentum equation by dA as:
AA

v
v v
1

dA ( k k Vk ) + k k Vk Vk

A A t

1
v v
T
= dA ( k p k ) + k k + k + k k g + M k
A A

where

= k k Vk dA = k < k > << wk >>

t
A a
t

v v
v v
v v
1
1

= k k Vk Vk dA = n z ( k k Vk Vk ) dA + n ( k k Vk Vk ) dc
Cw
A A
A z A

1
{
=
k k uk wk + k k vk wk + k k wk wk } dA

z A A

1
1
1

=
k k uk wk + k vk wk + k wk wk dA
z A A
A A
A A

=
k k wk wk dA = cwk k < k > << wk >> 2
z
A A
z
Where C wk

< k wk wk >

< k > << wk >> << wk >>

1
1

= A A ( k Pk ) dA = z A A k Pk dA = z < k > << Pk >>

1
k + k T dA = 1 n k + k T dA

k
k
k

A A
z A A
1
T
+ nk k k + k dc

A Cw

Ps
1
T
T
T
=
k k xz + z yz + k zz + k xz + k yz + k zz dA
kw kw

A
z A
A
4
kw kw
D
1
v
= A k k gdA = k < k > g z
A
v
1
d
=
M
dA
=<

>
<<
W
>>
+
<
P

>
+
<
M
A A k
k
ki
ki
k
kz >
v
v
vd
1
1
1
< M k >= k Vki dA + P ki k dA + M k dA
A a
A a
A A

1-D momentum equation

k < k > << wk >> + C wk k < k > << wk >> 2

t
z

4
= < k > << p k >> kw kw + < k > k g z
D
z
+ < k > << wki >> + < Pki k > + < M kzd >

-1-D energy equation

v
1
v" v"T

dA ( k k ik ) + ( k k i k Vk ) = k q k + q k

A A t

v"
+ ( k P k ) + V k ( k P k ) + k i ki + a i q ki + k
t

where

= t < k > k << ik >>

= z C ik < k > k << wk >> << ik >>

PH
PH

"
"
"
"
= < k > << qkz + qkz >> + kw qkw kw qkw
z
A
A
T

= t < k ><< Pk >> + wk z < k ><< Pk >>

~ < k > << iki >>

v"
=< ai q ki z >
=< k >

Thus, 1-D energy equation can be expressed as:

< k > k << ik >> + C ik < k > k << wk >> << i k >>
t
z
PH

"
= kw q kw + < k ><< Pk >> + << wk >> < k ><< Pk >>
A
t
z
+ < k > << iki >> + < ai q ki" > + < k >

< k i k wk >
1
where C ik
< k ><< ik >><< wk >>
The one-dimensional six-equation model can also be expressed in the
following vector form:

v
v
v u
v u
v
A (u )
+ B (u )
+ C (u ) = 0
t
z

 v

P
v
v wl
v
v
v
Where u = and A (u ), B (u ), C (u ) are tensor depending uon
wv
il

iv
The characteristics of the set of equations can be evaluated by the
homogeneous part, i.e.,

v
v
v v
i
v u
v u
A (u )
+ B (u )
= 0 Let u = u (o) e
t
z
v
v v
i ( z t )

Thus, i A(u ) B (u ) u (o) e

=0

The characteristic equation is hence given by:

( z t )

v
v
A(u ) B (u ) = 0
The eigenvalue can then be determined. If is a complex number,
the system is unstable and the problem is ill-posed.
7.6 One-Dimensional Homogeneous Flow Model
The homogeneous flow model assumes that both phase have same
velocity and temperature.
-Quality vs. void fraction

v Av << wv >>
Wv
< x >=
=
Wv + Wl v Av << wv >> + l Al << wl >>
v < v > A << wv >>
v < v > A << wv >> + l (1 < v >) A << wl >>
1
=
l (1 < v >) << wl >>
1+
v < v > << wv >>
=

Based on the homogeneous assumption,

1
1 < x > < x >
=
+
m
l
v
The mixture momentum equation can also be obtained by combining
the two phasic momentum equations with Cwl=Cwv=1

4
2
m wm + m wm = P ( lw lw + vw vw ) + m g z
t
z
z
D
or

1 1
2
m wm + m wm = P f 2
m wm2 + m g z
t
z
z
De 2
Similarly the mixture energy equation can be obtained by combining
the phasic energy equation as:

PH "

m im + m wm im = q w + P + wm P + m
t
z
A
t
z
where

im=

mixture enthalpy

1
=
[ l l << il >> + l v << iv >>]
m
= (1 < x > ) << i l >> + < x > << i v >>

In, summary the three conservation equations for 1-D homogeneous

flow model are

m + m wm = 0
t
z

1 1

P
2
m wm + m wm =
f 2
m wm2 + m g z
t
z
z
De 2

PH " P

P
+ wm
+ m
m im + m wm im =
qw +
t
z
A
t
z

7.7 1-D Drift Flux Model

Ref.: Zuber, N. and Findlay, J.A. , 1965, Average Volumetric
Concentration in Two-Phase Flow System, J. of Heat Transfer, pp.453-468.

-Define the vapor drift velocity as the difference between vapor velocity
(in the axial direction) and mixture superficial velocity.

wvj = wv j
-Gas phase velocity:

< v wv >
<< wv >>=
< v >

< v j > < v wvj >

<< wv >>=
+
< v >
< v >

Thus,

= Co < j > + << wvj >>

where C0 is called the distribution parameter and is defined as:

< v j >
C o=
< v >< j >

C0 is a function of void and velocity distributions and, therefore,

is a function of flow pattern
C0=1 for uniform void distribution and for high void fraction flow,
such as annular flow,
C0<1 for void near the wall.
For fully developed bubbly flow, Ishiis(1977) correlation gives:

Co = 1.2 0.2 v / l
The drift velocity is also a function of flow pattern:
For bubbly and churn flow,
g ( l v )
<< wvj >>= 1.53

2
l

For slug flow

g ( l v )D
<< wvj >>= 0.35

The drift flux model is a four-equations homogeneous flow model:

mixture mass conservation equation

m + m wm = 0
t
z
The void fraction is determined by the
gas phase mass conservation equation:

v < v > + v < v ><< wv >>=< v >

t
z
where

v < v ><< wv >>=

< v > (1 < v >) l v
v < v ><< wm >> +
(<< wv >> << wl >>)
m
and the relative velocity between two phases can be expressed as:

1
<< wv >> << wl >>=
(Co 1) < j > + << wvj >>
1 < v >

Thus,

v < v > + v < v ><< wm >>

t
z

< v > l v
(C o 1) < j > + << wvj >>
=< v >
m
z

Similarly, the mixture momentum equation can be expressed as

P
1 1
2
2
m w m + m wm =
f 2
m wm + m g z
t
z
De 2
z
< v > l v
2

(C o 1) < j > + << wvj >>
z 1 < v > m

the mixture energy equation is :

m im + m wm im =
+ wm P +
t
z
t
z

q " PH
A

< v > v l
(<< iv >> << il >> ) [(Co 1) < j > + << wvj >> ]

z
m

Based on the homogenous assumption, << wl >> = << wv >> , thus,

1
< x >=
l (1 < v >)
1+
v < v >
-Mass conservation equation
Combine the vapor and liquid mass conservation equation yields.

[ l < l > + v < v >] + [ l < l ><< wl >> + v < v ><< wv >>] = 0
t
z

or

m + m wm = 0
t
z
where

m = mixture density

= l < l > + v < v >

wm = l < l ><< wl >> + v < v ><< wv >> / m

=<< wl >>=<< wv >>

CHAPTER 8 CLOSURE ISSUES OF TWO-PHASE FLOW MODELS

Topics to be discussed
(1) Interfacial transfer
-Interfacial area density
-Interfacial mass transfer
-Interfacial momentum transfer
-Interfacial energy transfer
(2) Interactions between each phase and wall
(3) Turbulent model in two-phase flow
8.1 Interfacial Area Density
Recall that the time-averaged 3-D phasic equation includes the
following interfacial term

1
1 Interfacial area
v v = =

L mixture volume
Ts Ts Vi n k
= Interfacial area density = ai

Ishii proposed that volumetric interfacial transfer rate=ai driving force

Ishii and Mishima correlation

-For bubbly or dispersed droplet flow

d
3 d
3 d
ai =
Ai =
=
Vd
3Vd / Ai
rsm
where Vd is the volume of a bubble or droplet,
Ai is the surface area of a bubble or droplet
rsm is the Sauter mean radius . For a spherical bubble or droplet, rsm=r
-Cross sectionally area averaged ai of bubbly, slug or churn-turbulent flow:

4.5 < > gs 3 gs 1 < >

ai =
+
D 1 gs
rsm 1 gs

for < > > gs

is caused by the large slug or churn flow bubbles.

is due to small bubbles in the liquid slug section.

<>=averaged overall void fraction

gs=averaged void fraction in the liquid slug region
D =hydraulic diameter
-Cross-sectionally area-averaged ai for annular or annular mist flow

4C an < > < > 3 ld

ai =
+
D 1 ld 1 ld rsm

=due to wavy interface

=due to entrained droplets
Note that for pure annular flow without interfacial waves and droplets,
2
i
2

R
=
R

2Ri dz 2 Ri 2 R 4
and ai =
= 2 =
=
2
2
D
R dz
R
R

where
<>=average overall void fraction
Can=roughness parameter due to waves in the film
ld=liquid-droplet fraction in the gas core

jl
jle
jle jl
=
=
=E
jv
jv
jl j v
jle
E=
= entrainment fraction
jl

= tanh(7.25 10 7 We1.25 Re l0.25 )

v j v2 D l v 1 / 3
We =
(
) = entaiment Weber No.

l
rsm = 0.00394

2
v v

Re

2/3
v

v 1 / 3 v 2 / 3
( ) ( )
l
l

l jl D
v jv D
Re l =
; Re v =
l
v

8.2 Interfacial Mass Transfer Rate

-Area-average mass transfer rate
--For saturate boiling

q PH dz =< v > ilv Adz

q PH
4q
< v >=
=
ilv A ilv De

dz

--For subcooled boiling

Lahey and Moodys model
v (il ild )
H0 < >
q PH
< v >=
[il (Tsat ) il ]

A (il (Tsat ) ild ){ v ilv + l [il (Tsat ) il ]}

vlv Cpl

for water, H0=0.075 /s

-Local mass transfer rate

v = ai m& v

for bubbly flow regime

hli (Tl Ti )
m& v =
ilv
where hli is the heat transfer coefficient between liquid and bubble.
Wolfert et al.s model

2 vr
hli = l Cpl [
Rb

l Cpl 1 / 2
]
t
kl
k l [1 + ]
kl

For dispersed flow, i.e., liquid droplet flowing in superheated vapor

hvd (Tv Tsat )

m& =
ilv
v v r Dd
kv
1/ 2
1/ 3
hvd =
[ 2 + 0.74 Re d Prv ], Re d =
Dd
v

8.3 Interfacial Momentum Transfer Rate

Recall that

v
v
vd
M k = k Vki + Pki k + M k
vd
M k = M kD + M kv + M kL + M kw

M = Interfacial drag force due to relative velocity

M = Virtual mass force due to relative acceleration
M = Interfacial lift force due to velocity gradient
M =Wall force near the wall (still subject to discussion)
D
k
v
k
L
k
w
k

-Interfacial drag force

Ishii shows that the interfacial
v vdrag force may be expressed as:
C D 4 Ad c Vr Vr
D
M k = a i [
(
)
]
4 Ai
2
CD is the drag coefficient.
Ad is the projected area in the moving direction of the particle.
Ai is the surface area of the particle..

Table Local drag coefficients in multiparticle system

(From: Ishii and mishima)

-Interfacial lift force

D
k

v
v
v
= C L C d (VC Vd ) VC

CL=lift coefficient

The theoretical value for CL from ideal fluid flow analysis is 0.25,
Wang et al. show that CL=0.02 for bubbly flow.

The present mixture viscosity model compared to existing models for solid particle system.(From: Zuber&Ishii)

-Virtual mass force

Theoretical result from ideal fluid flow analysis,

v
vv
d
dV r
c
Fd =
2
dt

Ishii and Mishimas model gives:

--For bubbly flow

v
v v
v
Vr v
1 1 + 2 d
v
M d = d
+ Vd Vr Vr VC ]
c [
2
1d
t

--For standard slug flow

v
v v
v
Lb Db
Vr v
v
M d = 5[0.66 d + 0.27(
)] c [
+ Vd Vr Vr VC ]
L
t

8.4 Interactions Energy Transfer Rate

Recall that

ik k i ki + ai q ki = ai ( m& k i ki + q ki )
k and q ki have been discussed previously in the
models for mass transfer.
8.5 Interfacial between Each Phase and Wall
-Heat transfer between wall and each phase
For single-phase liquid flow or for nucleate boiling region, i.e.,
, Tw TCHF the surface is all or mostly covered by liquid.
q q CHF
Thus,
PH
lw
q
lw = 0
A
Conversely, for film boiling region the surface is mostly covered by
vapor. Thus,
P

lw 0 ;

vw =

For transition boiling, TCHF<T<Tmin , the surface is intermittently

covered by liquid or vapor. Thus,

< lw >= lw

PH

qlw
A

< vw >= vw

PH

q vw
A

-Frictional force from channel wall to each phase.

It can be shown that, by considering force balance in a control
volume inside the channel,
lw
< l > z 2
P
2
f l l << wl >>
< M lw >=
( ) 2 , f
2
< l >
< v > + < l > z z
2
z =
vw
< v >
2
P
f v v << wv >>
( ) 2 , f
< M vw >=
2
< v >
< v > + < l > z z

P
is the two-phase frictional pressure drop, which will

z 2 , f be discussed in the next chapter.

8.6 Turbulent Model in Two-Phase Flow

Recall that

T
k

v v
= k VkV k

Following the treatment in the single-phase flow,

may be expressed as:

T
k

T
k

v
= k v Vk
t
k

where v t is the turbulent diffusivity. For two-phase bubbly flow,

k
it may be evaluated by a modified k- model as following:
2
k
v kt = C k + v ktb

k
tb

where v k is the turbulent diffusivity due to bubble agitation,

and may be evaluated by the model of Sato et al.(1981)

v
v = 1.2 Rb Vr
tb
l

kk and k are the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate

and may be evaluated by a modified two-equation model for
two-phase flow with dilute concentration of dispersed phase.

Chapter 9 TWO-PHASE FLOW PRESSURE DROP

9.1 Two-Phase Flow Pressure Drop Based on Homogeneous Flow Model

From the steady state momentum equation

dP d G 2
1 1 G2
+ f 2
+ m gz

=
dz dz m
D 2 m
dP
= Frictional pressure gradient
dz F
1 1 G2
1 1 2
G (v l + x vlv )
= f 2
= f 2
D2
D 2 m
dP
= Accelerational pressure gradient
dz A d G 2
dx
2 d
2

dvv dP
= G
(vl + x vlv ) = G vlv + x
=
dz m
dz
dP dz
dz
Where the liquid phase is assumed to be incompressible.

dP
= Gravitational pressure gradient
dz G
g

= m g z =

v l + x v lv

The frictional pressure gradient can also be expressed as( f 2 = f l 0 ):

v lv
1 1 2
dP
= f lo
G vl 1 + x
D2
vl
dz

Let

2
lo

v lv
dP

= 1 + x
vl
dz F ,lo

be the two-phase frictional multiplier defined as:

dP

v lv
dz F
= 1+ x

= 1+ x
vl
dP

dz F ,lo

vv

1
vl

At low pressures vv >> vl , l0 can be as high as several hundreds.

2
For example, for saturated water at 1 atm, vv/vl =1603, l0=17.0 for
x=0.01,for l2 =61.2, for x=0.1 l2 =802,for x=0.5, l2 =802, for x=0.5
2

Combining the three pressure gradients together yields,

f 2 1 2
v lv
G vl 1 + x
vl
D 2

dP

=
dz

dvv
<< 1
In general, G x
dP
2

gz
dx
2
+ G vlv
+
dz

v lv

vl 1 + x
vl

2 dvv
1+ G x
dP

Considering a boiling channel with a uniform heat flux distribution.

Thus, the vapor quality is increased linearly from x1, to x2 . The quality
gradient in the channel can then be evaluated by the following equation:

dx x 2 x1
=
dz z 2 z1

z 2 z1
dx
or dz =
x2 x1
dv
Further assuming that G 2 x v << 1 , f 2 = f lo ,integration of
dP

the pressure gradient equation gives:

f lo 1 2
G vl (z 2 z1 )
P = P1 P2 =
D 2

1
v lv
1 + (x 2 + x1 )
vl
2

v lv

1 + x2
vl
g z z 2 z1
2
ln
+ G v lv (x 2 x1 ) +
v lv
vlv x 2 x1
1 + x1
vl

9.2 Two-Phase Flow Pressure Drop Based on Two-Fluid Model

Recall the steady-state momentum equations for liquid and vapor
phase, respectively:
Liquid-phase momentum equation

d
d
4
2
l l wl = l Pl lw lw l l g z
dz
dz
D

Vapor-phase momentum equation

d
d
4
2
v v wv = v Pv vw vw v v g z
dz
dz
D
Assume Pl = Pv = P and combing above two equations yields.

4
dP d
2
2

=
l l wl + v v wv + ( lw lw + vw vw )
dz dz
D

+ ( l l + v v ) g z

using the following fundamental relationships with v =

wl =

G vl (1 x)
1

wv =

G vv x

The above equation can be expressed as:

2
2

(
1

x
)
v
x
vv f lo 1 2
dP
d
2
2
l

=G
G
v
+
+

l
lo
dz 1
dz
D 2

+ [(1 ) l + v ] g z

: Acceleratial pressure gradient

: Frictional pressure gradient
: Gravitational pressure gradient
The accelerational pressure gradient can also be expressed as:
2
2

xv
x
v
x
v
x
v v
2
2
(
1
)
(
1
)

dx

dP

2
l
l
l

+
2
=G

dz
1 x p (1 x)

dz A

2
2
2

(
1
)
dv

x
v
x
v v dP
x

2
l
v
+G
+
2

2
dz
dP P x (1 )

 dP

=
dz

2
2

1 1 2 2
2
2
(
1
)

(
1
x
)
v
x
dx
xv

2
v
l
f lo
G lo + G

vl +
2 vv

2
1

D2
dz
x p (1 )

x 2 dvv (1 x) 2
x 2vv
1+ G
v 2
+

2 l

dP P x (1 )
2

[(1 ) l + v ]g z

2
2
2

x
vv
dv

(
1
)
x
x

2
v
1+ G
vl 2
+

2

dP P x (1 )
In general,

x 2
G

2

x 2 v v
dvv (1 x ) 2
v 2 << 1

+

2 l

dP P x (1 )

Again, for a boiling channel with a constant heat flux distribution,

the pressure drop can be obtained by integrating above equation as:

f lo G v l z 2 z1
P = P1 P2 =
D 2 x 2 x1
2

x2

x1

2
lo

dx

2
2
2
2

(
1
)
(
1
)

x
x
v

x
x

2
2
2
1
1 vv
v
+ G vl
+
+

2 vl 1 1
1 vl
1 2

z2 z1 x 2
+ gz
[
v + l (1 )] dx

x2 x1 x1

Lockhart & Martinelli (1949) found that l0 can be correlated as a

function of the Martinelli parameter, defined as:

dP

dz F ,l
2
X =
dP

dz F ,v

If both phases are flowing as turbulent flow

, it can be shown that:

frictional pressure drop of liquid phase alone in the same channel

=
frictional pressure drop of vapor phase alone in the same channel

0.2

1 x v l
X =

x l v
P
P
( )F
( )F
c
1
2
z

2
l =
= 1 + + 2 v2 = z
=
+
+
cX
X
1
P
X X
P
( ) F ,l
( ) F ,v
z
z
1.8

2
tt

Liquid

Vapor

Turbulent

Turbulent

20

Laminar

Turbulent

12

Turbulent

Laminar

10

where c is given by the following table Laminar

Laminar

1 =

X
1 + cX + X 2

Lockhart & Martinelli, 1949

If both phase are turbulent, l0 and l is related by the following equation:

2

l2o = l2 (1 x)1.8
= (1 x)

1.8

l
+ 20 x (1 x)
v
0.9

Martinelli & Nelson, 1949

0.9

0.5

0.1

l
+ x
v
1.8

Martinelli & Nelson, 1948

0.2

Martinelli & Nelson, 1948

Martinelli & Nelson, 1948

-Chisholms (1973) correlation for two-phase frictional multiplier

l2o ( x) = 1 + ( I 2 1) Bx ( 2n ) (1 x) ( 2n ) / 2 + x 2n
0.5
l v
v l
Where I =

0.5
l
,
v

n/2

, smooth tube n = 0.2

rough tube

B is given in the following table

I
< 9 .5

9 . 5 I 28

>28

G ( kg / m 2 s )
500
500 < G < 1900
1900

600

>

600

B
4 . 8
2400
55

/ G
/ G

0 . 5

520 /( IG
21 / I
1500

/( I 2 G

0 .5

0 .5

-Friedels (1979) model for two-phase frictional multiplier

2
lo

3.24 A2 A3
= A1 + 0.045 0.035
Fr2 We 2

f vo l

A1 = (1 x) + x
f lo v
0.78
0.224
A2 = x (1 x)
2

0 .91

0 .19

l v

A3 =
v l
G2
2
(vl + xvlv )
Fr2 =
gD

0 .7

l v

l
G2D
(vl + xvlv )
We2 =

9.3 Secondary Two-Phase Pressure Drop

-Pressure change through a sudden expansion
Considering force balance in the control volume shown in fig.:

P1 A2 P2 A2 = Wv ( wv 2 wv1 ) + Wl ( wl 2 wl1 )
Using the following basic equations:

G1 A1 x
G1 x
wv1 =
=
v A1 1 v 1
G1 A1 (1 x )
G1 (1 x ) A1

wl 2 =
=
l A2 (1 2 ) l (1 2 ) A2

G1 A1 (1 x)
G1 (1 x)
wl1 =
=
l A1 (1 1 ) l (1 1 )
G1 A1 x
G1 x A1

=
wv 2 =
v A2 2 v 2 A2

The pressure change through the sudden expansion can be expressed as:
2
2
2
2

A
v
A
v
(
1

x
)
(
1

x
)
x
x

2
v
v
1
1

+
P2 P1 = G1 v l
+

A
1

A
(
1

)
v

2
1
2
l

l 1 2
If the void fraction is unchanged through the expansion,

A1
P2 P1 = G1 vl
A2
2

A1 (1 x) 2 vv x 2
1

+

A2 1
vl

-Pressure change through a sudden contraction

Considering force balance for the control volume shown in Fig.

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
P1 P2 = l wl 2 + v wv 2 l wl1 v wv1
2
2
2
2
2

1 G2 (1 x)
1 G2 x
1 A2 G2 (1 x)
1 A2 G2 x

= l
+ v
l
v
2 l (1 2 )
2 v 2
2 A1 l (1 1 )
2 A1 v 1

vv x 2 (1 x ) vv
1 2 (1 x) 2
x2
= G2 vl
+

2
2
2
2
2
v
(
A
)
(
1

)
v
(
1

)
l 2
1
l ( A12 ) 1
12
2

If the void fraction is unchanged, the above equation can be simplied as:

1 (1 x) 2 vv x 2
1 2
P1 P2 = G2 vl 1
+ 2
2
2
2
vl
( A12 ) (1 )

where A12 = A1 / A2

CHAPTER 10 Steady-State Two-Phase Pipe Flows

Topics to be discussed
l Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based
on the 1-D drift flux model
l Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based
on the 1-D two-fluid model
l Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based
on the multi-dimensional two-fluid model
l Adiabatic two-phase bubbly pipe flow

10.1 Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based

on the 1-D drift flux model
Saha & Zubers model for bubble departure point

isub , d =

Zsc
q" Cpl D
0.0022
Pe < 70,000 i = il (Tsat )
kl

q"
154
Pe > 70,000
G
Where Pe = GDCpl / k
i sub ,d and is the liquid
l
subcooling at the bubble departure point. From the
energy balance the bubble departure point can Zd
be determined as:

zd =

GA(isub ,in i sub,d )

q" PH

GD
=
(i sub,in isub ,d )
4q"

ZONB

i = ild

Conservation of mass for vapor phase

d
( v wv ) = v
dz

Conservation of mass for liquid phase

d
[(1 ) l wl ] = v
dz

Assume both liquid and vapor densities are constant, the above
two equations can be expressed as:

d
( wv ) = v vv
dz

d
(
(1 ) wl ) = v v l
dz

Combined the above two equations yields,

d
[wv + (1 )wl ] = v (vv vl ) = v vlv
dz
Thus,

d
j = v vlv
dz

For the saturated boiling region,

v = sat

4q"
=
i lv D

For the subcooled boiling region, the vapor generation rate may
be approximated by the following equation:

z zd
v =
sat , z d z z sc
z sc z d

where

z sc =

GDi sub ,in

4q"

z zd
sat vlv z d z z sc
dj
z

z
sc
d
=
dz
z z sc
sat v lv

Integration of the above equation gives:

j (z ) =

sat vlv ( z z d ) 2
z d z < z sc
win +
2 ( z sc z d )
1
win + sat vlv ( z sc z d ) + sat v lv ( z z sc ) z z sc
2

The vapor velocity can then be determined based on the drift flux model:

wv ( z ) = C o j ( z ) + wvj
Thus, the vapor phase velocity can be expressed as:

wv (z ) =

(z zd )2
1
C o win + sat vlv
+ wvj
2
( z sc z d )

z d z < z sc

C o win + sat vlv ( z sc z d ) + sat vlv ( z z sc ) + wvj z > z sc

2

Integration of mass conservation equation for the vapor phase gives,

(z zd )2
1
sat v v
z d z < z sc
2
( z sc z d )
( z ) wv ( z ) ( z d ) wv ( z d ) =
1
sat vv ( z sc z d ) + sat vv ( z z sc ) z z sc
2
Assume ( z d ) = 0 leads to the following equation for void fraction
distribution in the channel:
1
2

(z ) =

( z zd ) 2
sat v ( z sc z d )

( z zd ) 2
sat lv ( z sc z d )

C o [ win + 12 v

] + wvj

z d z < z sc

sat vv ( z sc z d ) + sat vv ( z z sc )
z z sc
1
C o [ win + 2 sat vlv ( z sc z d ) + sat vlv ( z z sc )] + wvj
1
2

With the information of void fraction, the liquid phase velocity can be
obtained by the integration of mass conservation equation for the liquid phase.

0 z < zd
win
win
(z zd ) 2
1
1
z d z < z sc

sat v l
wl (z ) =
1 ( z) 1 ( z) 2
z sc z d
win
1
1
z>z

sat v l ( z sc z d ) + sat v l ( z z sc )
sc

1 ( z) 1 (z) 2

The above set of equation can also be nondimenalized as follows:

wv+ (z + ) =

+ 1 + 1 +
C o 1 + N pch z z sc z d + wvj+ z d+ z + < z sc+
2
2

1
( z + z d+ ) 2
+
C o 1 + N pch +
+
w
vj
+
2
(
)
z

z
sc
d

z sc+ z +

1 N pch Rvl ( z + z d+ ) 2
2 Rvl 1 ( z sc+ z d+ )
+
+
+
z

z
d
sc
1
( z + z d+ ) 2
+
C o 1 + N pch +
+
w
vj
+
( z sc z d )
2
N pch Rvl + 1 + 1 +
z 2 z sc 2 z d )
(
R vl 1
+
+
z
<
z
d
+
+
1 +
1 +
C o 1 + N pch ( z 2 z sc 2 z d + wvj

(z + ) =

z sc+ z +

N pch ( z + z d+ ) 2

1
1
1
wl (z + ) =
+
+
+
1 ( z ) 2 Rvl 1 ( z sc z d )
1 N pch + 1 + 1 +
z z sc z d
1
+
2
2
1 ( z ) 2 R vl 1
1

1
1
+
[N sub N sub,d ] z sc =
z =
N sub
N pch
N pch
+
d

0.0022 PeN pch Rhs

Pe < 70,000

154 N pch Rhs

Pe > 70,000

N sub ,d =

N pch

q" PH L vlv
=
= phase change number
GA ilv vl

isub,in vlv
N sub =
= subcooling number
ilv vl
GDCpl
Pe =
= Peclet number
kl
A
vv
R hs =
Rvl =
PH L
vl

NPCH=5.2 Nsub=2.3 Rvl=20 Pe=95600 Rhs=2.510-2

10.2 Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based on 1-D

two-fluid model
Ref.: Hu & Pan, 1995
Mass conservation equation for vapor phase:

d
( v wv ) = v
dz
Mass conservation equation for liquid phase:

d
[(1 ) l wl ] = v
dz
Mixture momentum equation:

dwv
dwl
v wv
+ (1 ) l wl
dz
dz
dP
= v ( wl wv )
[ v + (1 ) l ]g M wl
dz

Equation by eliminating pressure gradient in two momentum equations

dwv
dwl
Av
+ Al
= v [wi wl (1 ) wv ] M iD
dz
dz
+ (1 ) ( l v ) g + M wl

Av = [(1 ) v ]wv Al = [(1 ) l ]wl

Liquid phase energy equation

Ph q"
d
[( 1 ) l wl il ] =
v iv
dz
A

10.3 Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based on

multidimensional two-phase flow model
Ref.: Kurul & Podowski, 1990, 1991; Lai & Farouk, 1993
Conservation of mass

( k k ) + ( k k Vk ) = k
t

k = l, v

Conservation of momentum

[ (

v
v v
v

t
( k kVk ) + ( k kVkVk ) = ( k P ) + k k + k Vk + k k gv
t

vD
vv
v
+ Mk + Mk + Mk

k = l, v

Conservation of energy
v

( k k ik ) + ( k k ikVk )
t

[ (

k Pk v
Akw + k
= k k k + k / Cpk ik + ki + q kw
+ Vk Pk
t
t
k

k = l, v

Some closure equations

vD
vD 1
v v
v v
M l = M v = l C D ai (Vv V L ) Vv V L
8
v
v
v v
v
vV
vV 1
Vv Vl v
+ (Vv Vv Vl Vl )

M l = M v = v l
t
2
t

v
v
v
1
3

q
=

D
= q q vw

q lw
M l = lVki = lVv
vw
b , d v i lv f b N v
6

10.4 Adiabatic two-phase bubbly two-phase flow

Ref.: Lahey and his coworkers

(b)
Steady-state mass conservation equation

v
k k Vk = 0 k = l, v

Steady-state momentum equation

T
v v

k k Vk Vk = ( k Pk ) + k k + k

Where

v v

+ k k g + M k

k = l, v

v' v'
v
t
k = Re yonlds stress = k V k V k = l V
v
vD
vV
vL
vW
vp
Ml = Ml + Ml + Ml + Ml + Ml
T

v
Vr

Rb
M = 0.1 + 0.147 v l
n w
y
Rb

W
l

p
l

= Pli l

v
v
M v = M l

v
Pli = Pl C p v l Vr

v
v
kl
+ 0.6 Db Vv Vl
= C
l
t
l

l and kl are given by the k- model:

v
lVl k l = l v lt k l + (Gl l )

v
vlt

l Gl
l2

lVl l = l
l + l C 1
C 2

k
k
l
l

Where Gl is the turbulence generation rate defined as:

v
vT
v
G l = v V l + V l : Vl
t
l

CHAPTER 11 TWO-PHASE FLOW INSTABILITY

Ref.1 Lahey & Moody, 1977, The Thermal Hydraulics of a Boiling
Water Nuclear Reactor, ANS.
2. Lahey & Podowski, On the Analysis of Various Instability in
Two-Phase Flow, in Hewitt, Delhaye, Zuber, Multiphase
Science and Technology, Vol.4 Hemisphse publishing.
Two-phase flow instability
-Interfacial instability: 1.Taylor instability
2. Helmhotz instability
-Channel or system instability :1.Ledinegg instability
2.Density-wave oscillation
3.Nuclear-coupled Density wave
oscillation
4.etc

11.1 Classification of instability

Static instabilities - can be explained in terms of steady-state laws.
Dynamic instabilities - require a consideration of the transient
conservation equations.
Examples of static instabilities:
1.Excursive (Ledinegg) instabilities
2.Flow regime relaxation instabilities
3.Nucleation instabilities
Examples of Dynamic instabilities
1.Density-wave oscillations
2.Pressure-drop oscillations
3.Nuclear-coupled density wave instability.

11.2 Excursive Instability (Ledinegg instability)

-Nonperiodic flow transients
-Plagued early low-pressure fossil boilers due to burnout
of the boiling tubes.
Transient momentum equation
N

Li
I =
i Ai
dw
I
= Ppump Ploop
dt
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1) Loop inertia
(2) Pump pressure head
(3) Loop pressure drop
Li :duct length, Ai :flow area , i : i-th section.

Considering a small flow perturbation about the steady state

w(t ) = w0 + w(t )
Ploop
d (w) Ppump
w
=

I
dt
w w
w w0
0
Ppump
d (w) Ploop
w = 0
I

dt
w w
w w0
0
P
Ppump t
loop

w(t ) = w(0) exp

w w I
w w0
0

The system is said to be stable if

lim w(t ) = 0
t

Ploop
w

>
w0

Ploop
w

<
w0

Ppump
w

stable
w0

Ppump
w

unstable
w0

Note that the excursive instabilities can be predicted through the use of
the steady-state head-flow curves of the loop and the pump.

6.9

Lahey & Podowski

Case 1 & 4 : stable

Case 2 & 3 : unstable

Excursive instability(From: Lahey & Moody, 1977)

11.2 Density-wave Oscillations

-Caused by the lag introduced into the thermal-hydraulic system
by the finite speed of propagation of density perturbations.
-Occurred in a parallel channel

P = P1 P 2 = constant
P2

Boiling boundary

P1

= P1 + P1

Natural circulation loop or other close loop of two-phase flow

Pressure is continuous: totalP=0

Methods of analysis
1. Frequency domain: Linear analysis assuming small perturbation
able to determine stability boundary but unable to determine the
properties after instability occur.
2. Time domain: Nonlinear analysis, no assumption of small
perturbation, able to determine the stability boundary & the
properties after instability occurs.

Case 1 In-phase (0 lag) Ttr=0

Stable but unrealistic

Case 2 out-of-phase (45 lag) Ttr>0

Stable

Case 3 out-of-phase (180 lag)

Ttr=1/2fr
Unstabble
From: Lahey & Podowski

11.3 Linear system stability analysis

~
vext

G(s)
Forward Loop

~
vext
G
1 + GH

H(s)
Feedback Loop
Schematic of a linear negative feedback system (form Lahey & Moody,1977)

Linear system instability occurs when the system becomes self excited
Where G(s)H(s) is the open loop
v~ext [G ( s ) H ( s )] = v~ext
v~ext [1 + G ( s ) H ( s )] = 0 transfer function
v~ext 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0

G ( s)
close loop transfer function =
, becomes if 1+G(s)H(s)=0
1 + G ( s) H ( s )

Nyquist Theorem:A necessary condition for a linear system to be unstable

is that the complex locus of the open-loop transfer
function (G(s)H(s)) passes through or encircles
(in a clockwise fashion) the unity point on the
negative real axis.

I m [G( j ) H ( j )]

D-partition method-determine
the stability boundary directly.
Solving for Re[G ( j ) H ( j )] = 1
stable

-1

unstable

Im[G ( j ) H ( j )] = 0

Re[G( j ) H ( j )]

Frequency domain approach

Procedure: (1) Write down the appropriate conservation equations.
(2) Obtain the steady-state solution
(3) Linearized the governing equation by assuming small
perturbation about the steady-state condition.
(4) Determine the Laplace-transformed single-phase pressure
drop perturbation & two-phase pressure drop perturbation.
(5) Deriving the transfer equation from the condition that

~
~
~
(P ) = 0 = (P1 ) + (P2 )
(6) Using the Nyquist theorem to determine whether an
operating point is stable or unstable; a stability map can
then be determined.

(Saha et al., 1976, set-I and Wang et al., 1994)

11.4 Nonlinear stability analysis

Solve the time-domain conservation equation by a numerical
approach with or without mathematical techniques.