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By
ENGR. DR. VICTOR O. OYENUGA
(HND, BSc(Hons), MSc, DIC, PGD(Comp. Sc.), DSc (Honoris Causa), FNSE, FNIStructE, FNICE, MNIOB
Managing Director: Vasons Concept Consultants Ltd (Consulting Engineers and Town Planners)
Construction of Foundations. He
was a member of the Pioneer
Executives of NICE (then Civil
Engineering Division of NSE)
and served the Institution for
10years (1989 to 1999). He
joined NIStructE in 1998 and
became the Honorary Secretary
and Secretary to Council in 1999
till 2002. He was elected Vice
President, Deputy President and
President of the Institution (2009
to 2011). He is currently a
member of NSE Board of
Fellows
and
member
of
Regulation
and
Control
Committee of COREN Board.
Recently, he was appointed a
Member of the 5th Board of
Council for Registered Builders
of Nigeria (CORBON).
Engr. Oyenuga is married with
children and they are members
of the Seventh-Day Adventist
Church in Nigeria.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Design of buildings entails the following:
Architectural Drawings;
Structural Drawings;
Electrical/Mechanical Drawings or Services Drawings and in case of an Estate
Civil Engineering Drawings and External Works.
Each set of drawings is produced by the professional concerned. The objective of this discussion is
to elucidate on the Structural Drawings and Specifications. Structural frame can be of any of the
following materials:
Concrete (reinforced or pre-stressed);
Steel and
Timber.
Aluminum is also used for frames of light weight buildings and for partitioning.
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In this country over 90% of our buildings are of concrete frame while steel frames are restricted to
factories, warehouses, bridges and few residential or public buildings such as: The Sheraton Hotels
and Towers, Lagos and many large auditorium churches. Timber structures are relatively few in
Nigeria, unlike in overseas countries where the use of such, is rather rampant.
In view of limited strength of timber and for the fact that it is a homogeneous material, but ungraded in terms of strength properties, the usage is limited. However, in previous years timber
stairs and suspended floors were common and some still exist. The major advantage of timber, is
in maintainability, the removal of a weak member and replacing it with a new one in most cases is
all that is required to get the entire structure new again.
Steel has great strength and, can be put to immediate use; therefore, it is used for large spans
structures such as roofs to Churches, Factory Buildings, Bridges and Sporting Complexes. Since
steel can be welded together deep girders to carry heavy loads are easily fabricated and this allows
a lot of free space. This is one of the major advantages of using steel structures for large span
buildings.
Concrete Buildings are generally of two forms, the buildings on load bearing walls which are
limited to bungalows and two storey buildings (buildings with rooms on the ground floor and one
upper floor). These buildings depend on the strength of the walls to sustain the loads of the
suspended floor, the walls and the roof. The bearing capacity of the soil for such site, however,
must be of at least 100kN/m2, that is relatively good soil. Buildings of higher load capacity on
poorer soil must be framed. This is the second type of concrete buildings Framed Buildings. In
this category we have buildings in excess of two storey such as multi-storey office complex,
sporting complex buildings, large churches or churches with gallery, mosques etc. This paper
focuses more on Framed buildings or when reinforced concrete plays a dominant role.
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In prestressed members, compressive stresses are introduced into the concrete to reduce tensile
stresses resulting from applied loads including the self weight of the member (dead load). Prestressing steel, such as strands, bars or wires, is used to impart compressive stresses to the concrete.
Pre-tensioning is a method of pre-stressing in which the tendons are tensioned before concrete is
placed and the pre-stressing force is primarily transferred to the concrete through bond. Posttensioning is a method of pre-stressing in which the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has
hardened and the pre-stressing force is primarily transferred to the concrete through the end
anchorages.
3.1 Cement
Prior to year 2000, Cement properties, tests, and characteristics were being controlled by British
Standard 12 (BS 12). BS 12 specifies some tests that govern the quality of cement. They include
fineness test, chemical composition test, setting time test, soundness test, strength test and heat of
hydration test. The details can be obtained from the BS 12. Cement for concrete work should
satisfy, at least, the minimum requirements of BS 12.
In the spirit of globalization, a new standard for cement was developed as EN 197-1:2000. The
Standard Organization of Nigeria adapted from this standard, NIS 444-1:2003 which replaces NIS
439:2000. The NIS 444 defines Cement as Cement is a hydraulic binder, that is, a finely ground
inorganic material which when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means
of hydration reactions and processes and which, after hardening retains its strength and stability
even under water. The Standard continues Cement conforming to this standard, termed CEM
cement, shall, when appropriately batched and mixed with aggregate and water, be capable of
producing concrete or mortar which retains its work ability for a sufficient time and shall after
defined periods attain specified strength levels and also posses long-term volume stability.
The Standard listed twenty-five types of cement broken down into five main groups identified as
CEM I (Portland cement), CEM II (Portland-composite cement), CEM III (Blastfurnace cement),
CEM IV (Pozzolanic cement) and CEM V (Composite cement). Over 90% of the cement used in
the country is the CEM II type. The cement that is commonly used is the general normal setting or
Ordinary Portland Cement (the colour resembles Portland stone, hence, the name). The principal
chemical compounds of Portland cement are, tricalcium silicate (3CaOSiO2), dicalcium silicate
(2CaOSiO2), tricalcium aluminate (3CaOAl2O3), and tetracalcium alumino ferrite (4CaO
Al2O3Fe2O3). The most important of these are the dicalcium and tricalcium silicates.
Low Heat Portland Cement, Super-Sulphate Portland Cement and High Alumina Cement are not
covered by the Standard. Low heat cement is required when massive concreting is to be carried
out such as Dam construction. During the process of hydration of the cement, a large amount of
heat is generated as a result of the chemical reaction. In case of massive concreting, the large heat
can lead to disintegration of the structure, hence, the need for low heat cement. To circumvent this,
the concrete designer specifies the heat of hydration required and an agreement is made with the
cement manufacturer to produce the cement of required heat of hydration. In the same vein, since
the use of sulphate resisting cement are not very common, a discussion can be held with the cement
manufacturer to produce, using appropriate additives, cement that can be used in such aggressive
soils. High Alumina Cement is useful where early strength is required, like in war time. However,
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the development in the cement industry has advanced to a level that a desired high strength cement
can be achieved from the normal cement once the manufacturer is properly briefed. This makes the
production of High Alumina Cement (which is not a Portland cement) more or less obsolete.
In terms of strength the classes are 32.5N, 32.5R, 42.5N, 42.5R, 52.5N and 52.5R. The 32.5
category must have strength between 32.5N/mm2 and 52.5N/mm2, while the 42.5 grade has its
range between 42.5N/mm2 and 62.5N/mm2. The minimum strength of the third category is
52.5N/mm2. These are strength after 28days. The appendage N refers to a class of cement with
ordinary early strength while R refers to those with high early strength.
3.2 Aggregates
These are inert filler in the concrete mixture consisting of between 70-75% by volume of the whole
mixture. Aggregates are categorized as fine aggregates and these include sand and very rarely
quarry dust; and coarse aggregate which are gravel and crushed stone. For effective performances
aggregates must be clean, hard, tough, strong, durable and of proper grading. Other types of
aggregates especially for lightweight concrete include: blast furnace slag, broken bricks, clinker,
pumice, foamed slag, expanded clay, shale and exfoliated vermiculite.
Like cement, aggregates must be tested for quality and the tests include:
(i) Test for durability using freezing-thawing test procedure or alternate soaking in Na2SO4
or Mg SO4 solution and
(ii) Gradation test for purposes of controlling workability of the mixed concrete.
3.3 Water
The quality of the water used in mixing the concrete must be such that the chemical reactions,
which take place during the setting of the concrete, are not impaired. In general, portable water is
suitable for concreting. Thus, the water should be free from impurities such as suspended solids,
organic matters and salts, etc. which may affect the setting of the cement.
3.4 Admixtures
These are substances used in cement mortars and concrete for the purposes of improving or
imparting particular properties. The purpose may be to improve on workability, reduce the
quantity of water required, improve durability, retard or accelerate hardening and improve
resistance to attack e.g. sulphate attacks or impart colour e.g. white cement for terrazzo work. In
general, admixtures reduce the concrete strength.
3.5 Reinforcement
Section 7 of BS 8110:Part 1: 1997, specifies that reinforcements should comply with BS 4449, BS
4461, BS 4462 or BS 4483 and that different types of reinforcement may be used in the same
structural member. Hence, for a beam, the main reinforcement might be high yield bars while mild
steel bars are used for the links. It may be mathematically cumbersome to use two types of
reinforcement as main bars since their strengths are not the same.
Reinforcement should be kept clean by stacking them off the ground. Prior to usage
reinforcements should be free from mud, oil, paint, loose rust, all which weakens the bond with the
concrete. Unless the bars are rigidly fixed in the correct position the reinforcement may be
displaced during concreting, particularly where the concrete is to be vibrated. Special care should
be taken in fixing top tension steel particularly in cantilevers. The correct amount of concrete
cover should be maintained. It is important to ensure the correct placing and fixing of all
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reinforcements before concreting. Should there be any discrepancies between the bending schedule
and the drawings, the design engineer should be contacted.
4.1 Design
The design is based on a Code of Practice which specifies the methodology and the specification of
the materials to be used. In the area of reinforced concrete design, the concrete cube strength (at
28days) is specified based on the quality of performance desired in the structure. The quality is a
function of the type of structure and the following are typical example:
Residential Buildings
Piles
Bridges
Some structure such as prestressed concrete may require very high strength and strength up to
50N/mm2 (Grade 50) is not uncommon. In this country when the quality of the contractor is not
known a lower strength of 20N/mm2 is used. It should be noted that Grade 25 concrete is
internationally the absolute minimum grade required in reinforced concrete works.
In view of the new cement strength requirements as discussed in Section 3.1, strengths that are
much better than those specified above can be achieved. The major advantages of this include
slimmer member sizes and ultimate reduction in cost.
Design of the structure starts from the estimation of the load which is based mainly on the usage of
the structure and the environment (for wind analysis). Several computer programs are now
available for the analysis and design of the structure and this include RCD2000 (developed by the
author and for analysis and design of concrete elements such as slab, beam, column, stair and
foundation), RCC, Strand, SAP and of recent ORION which will analyze, design, detail and
produce the bending schedule for the entire building structure. There are limitations to the use of
these design packages and the engineer must be in a position to design the structure himself so as to
be able to interpret the results. Results from the best suite of computer program is as good as the
data input (garbage in garbage out they say).
An example of a design and the resulting product for Babcock University Stadium completed over
5years ago is attached. Each of the frames is at 5m interval and the roof cantilever is 14m. The
design was fashioned out from Teslim Balogun Stadium for Lagos State Government (both stadia
designed by the author) which has 6.0m centre to centre frames and 23m cantilever roof. However,
because we do not believe in ourselves, the 23m cantilever was propped and today free view is
impossible in the Stadium. Only Nigerians can develop Nigeria, foreigners can only help.
The current trend now is to design structures to Eurocode 2. The need to revise the academic
curriculum of our universities and colleges of technology/polytechnics to reflect this new trend
cannot be over emphasized. Eurocode 2 requires very high strength steel and the fear is the ability
to be able to meet that standard in the country. The onus is, therefore, on the Standard
Organization of Nigeria (SON) to assist in ensuring that this is done. We need to give kudos to the
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Cement Manufacturers in the country that are up to the challenge in the areas of making cement for
concrete of high strength.
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The Code specifies guidelines and precepts for design, detailing and construction in reinforced, precast and
composite concrete with the notable exception of prestressed concrete.
1.4.1.1
1.4.1.2
1.4.1.3
1.4.1.4
1.4.1.5
1.4.2:
1.4.2.1
1.4.2.2
1.4.2.3
1.4.2.4
1.4.2.5
The two quotations from the proposed Code give an idea of the content of the Code and relevant it
may be to the Practice of Reinforced Concrete design in the Country.
Also in the proposed Code we have the expected various concrete cube strength for the various
types of cement based on characteristic strength of 20N/m2.
In order to guide the concrete production manager as to the quantity of materials needed for a
specific concrete mix, Table 2.2 of the proposed Code gives an indication towards this. Thus, for
the local concrete producer the proposed Code has enough information to assist.
In a well coordinated construction the design should specify the required concrete strength and this
is achieved through design mix. That is, various trial mixes are carried out prior to the execution of
the work and the particular mix ratio that certifies the design strength is chosen and used for the
execution of the Works.
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It is instructive to note that this new proposed code may need to be massively revised to reflect the
global practice of Eurocode 2. This is a call on The Nigerian Institution of Structural Engineers to
do just this and liaise with the Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) for guidance
on the possible strength of concrete that can result from the various types of cement produced.
4.5 Construction
Construction of concrete products starts from the formwork (or falsework). There are two types,
sawn formwork and fair-face formwork.. Sawn formwork is used when the surface of the finished
product needs to be treated while fair-face for is employed when the product surfaces will not
receive further treatment such as rendering. In this case it is customary to use large surface
plywood or steel sheets properly oiled to avoid the concrete sticking to the surface. The concrete
during placement must be well vibrated and cured after placement to achieve the desired strength.
Quality control must be ensured during the production and this is generally done through
workability tests: Slump Test or Compacting Factor Test. Cube strength test must be carried out
to ensure that there is no deviation from the control design mix.
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builder, surveyor etc coming from overseas is duly registered by the relevant professional body,
before such a person is allowed to practice. Drawings produced from their country should also be
duly checked and authenticated using the prevailing Code of Practice here and all necessary
corrections duly effected.
6.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion I will like to quote from Man on the Job leaflet published several years ago by the
United Kingdom Cement and Concrete Association which states:
A good concrete job is only good, strong, long lasting, good-looking and economical to build, if
every man on the job shares in making it so.
A good concrete building or road or bridge does not only depend on a good designer or a clever
engineer: it depends on good materials, accurate batching, the right amount of water and thorough
mixing: it depends on well-placed reinforcement, well-made formwork, careful compacting: it
depends on good finish. No stage is unimportant.
One mans carelessness can let down the whole job: every mans care can make it a job to be proud
of.
SO IT REALLY DOES DEPEND ON YOU
References.
1. NIS 444-1:2003. Cement Part 1: Construction, Specification and Conformity criteria for
common cements. Standard Organization of Nigeria, Abuja.
2. Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design by Victor O. Oyenuga, 2nd Edition, Asros Ltd
Lagos.
3. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. European Committee for Standardization.
4. The Structural Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Structures; Proposed Code
of Practice, Not yet published.
Attachments:
Design Detail of Babcock University Stadium, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State.
Semi Finished and Finished Product of the Stadium